INTRODUCTION OF BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION

1.0 Introduction

1.1 History of Bridge Development

Bridge building can be traced back several thousand years. In primitive times, man
used fallen trees, arches made of a rock fall and suspension bridges made of vines and
creepers to cross streams and ravines. These are the three natural forms of bridging
methods, namely, the beam, the arch and the suspension structure. Despite the
technological advances of the recent past, these three forms, either singularly or in
combination, remain the basis of all bridge construction.

1.2 Introduction to the Different Types of Bridges

Even though bridges have different styles and designs, they all are constructed to
support their own weight (dead weight) and the weight of the traffic that must go
across them. Bridge designers must also consider other factors such as the weather,
strong winds when designing bridges. The engineers decide which type of bridge to
build based on the weight or load that the bridge must support the distance the bridge
has to span, and the forces of nature that the bridge will have to endure.

There are many types of brides. Mainly bridge can be divided into three types.

Beam bridge.
Arch bridge.
Suspension bridge.

1.2.1 Beam Bridge

A beam bridge is basically a rigid horizontal structure that rest on two piers, one
located at each end of the bridge. A simple beam bridge is flat across and supported
by two ends or abutments. The beam bridges can be made longer by placing piers or
towers in the middle of the bridge to support the beam structure and extending the
support into the solid substrata below the surface.
They are applicable to small span bridges as well as large spans of around 150m in
pre-stressed pre-cast concrete and spans of around 200m in steel box girder form.

Beam Bridge
1.2.2 Arch bridge.

Arches are a curved structure with a high resistance to bending forces. As opposed to
girder and truss bridges, both ends of an arch are fixed in the horizontal direction (no
horizontal movement is allowed in the bearing). Thus when a load is placed on the
bridge (e.g. a car passes over it) horizontal forces occur in the bearings of the arch.
These horizontal forces are unique to the arch and as a result arches can only be used
where the ground or foundation is solid and stable.
In the past, the most of arch bridges were built with stone masonry and a few were
also built of iron. Modern arch bridges are built with reinforced concrete.
The arch bridge can span up to 600 m. A large number of concrete arch bridges have
been constructed in the 20th century in both in-situ reinforced concrete and pre-cast
concrete.
Arches are well suited to crossing valleys and rivers and are one of the more beautiful
kinds of bridges.

Arch Bridge

1.2.3 Suspension bridge.

Suspension bridges are used to form exceptionally large Spans. They are a highly
specialized form of construction and far more expensive than beam bridges. Their use
is therefore limited to a very small number of applications where their ability to span
large distances is paramount. whereas a suspension bridge can span up to 2000m

The basic structural system consists of flexible main cables from which are suspended
girders or trusses that carry the deck framing. The weight of the bridge is supported
by the cables which are acting in tension. The cables pull on the anchorages and the
towers which are in compression.

Suspension bridges and cable-stayed bridges are alike, however they are different. In
suspension bridges, the cables ride freely across the towers, transmitting the load to
the anchorages at either end. In cable-stayed bridges, the cables are attached to the
towers, which alone bear the load.

Suspension Bridge
2.0 Basic concept of bridge designing

2.1 Factors in Bridge Construction and Design

Before an engineer or bridge designer can adequately begin working on the design for
a bridge, a substantial amount of information is needed.

(1) A plan of the site is needed in order for the engineer to see all of the
obstacles that has to be bridged, such as rivers, streets, contour lines of valleys and the
desired alignment of the new traffic route.

(2) The requirements of the bridge itself such as the width of the bridge, including the
width of the lanes, safety rails, medians and walkways.

(3) Weather and environmental conditions such as length of flood periods, high and
low tide levels, length of flood or drought periods.

(4) The topography of the environment.

(5) The soil and substrata conditions of the planned site based on the results from the
data collected from borings and the soil mechanics data.

(6) Local conditions like the accessibility for the transport of equipment, materials
and structural elements that must be used for construction.

(7) The environmental requirements regarding the aesthetic quality of the bridge
which is about to be built.

(8) Construction effects on people and on the natural environment. It may even be
necessary to overcome opposition to the construction, from a variety of objectors.

2.2 Forces on bridge structures

Bridges may be classified by how the four forces of tension, compression, bending
and shear are distributed through their structure. Most bridges will employ all of the
principal forces to some degree, but only a few will predominate. The separation of
forces may be quite clear. In a suspension or cable-stayed span, the elements in
tension are distinct in shape and placement. In other cases the forces may be
distributed among a large number of members, as in a truss, or not clearly discernible
to a casual observer as in a box beam. Bridges can also be classified by their lineage,
which is shown as the vertical axis on the diagram to the right.
2.2.1 Forces on beam bridge
When something pushes down on the beam, the beam bends. Its top edge is pushed
together, and its bottom edge is pulled apart.

2.2.2 Forces on arch bridge

The arch is squeezed together, and this squeezing force is carried outward along the
curve to the supports at each end. The supports, called abutments, push back on the
arch and prevent the ends of the arch from spreading apart.

2.2.3 Forces on suspension bridge

In all suspension bridges, the roadway hangs from massive steel cables, which are
draped over two towers and secured into solid concrete blocks, called anchorages, on
both ends of the bridge. The cars push down on the roadway, but because the roadway
is suspended, the cables transfer the load into compression in the two towers. The two
towers support most of the bridge's weight.
3.0 Bridge Foundations

Whether the bridge will be for recreation or highway use it is important to pay
attention to the foundation. Without the proper foundation the bridge may not perform
properly or, more importantly, fail.

Bridge foundations must be matched to the site, the bridge superstructure and the
installers capabilities with site and soil information provided. Most bridges will be
compatible with multiple foundations types. The site conditions and bridge
requirements are reviewed to recommend an appropriate solution.

Soft soils often require deep foundations. Driven piling works well for these
applications. If solid ground is found near the surface a spread footing can be built.
For areas with good access, poured-in-place concrete works well. In remote locations
spread footings can be built with treated timber.

It is important to review the installer's access and equipment capabilities to ensure the
chosen foundation can be built without excessive expense. Often the design can be
tailored around tough site conditions.

3.1 Pile foundation

Normally, pile foundations consist of pile cap and a group of piles. The pile cap
distributes the applied load to the individual piles which, in turn, transfer the load to
the bearing ground. The individual piles are spaced and connected to the pile cap or
tie beams and trimmed in order to connect the pile to the structure at cut-off level, and
depending on the type of structure and eccentricity of the load, they can be arranged
in different patter
ns. The Figure illustrates the three basic formations of pile groups.
4.0 Construction of cofferdam

“A cofferdam is a temporary structure designed to keep water and/or soil out of the
excavation in which a bridge pier or other structure is built.”

Cofferdams are temporary enclosures to keep out water and soil so as to permit
dewatering and construction of the permanent facility (structure) in the dry.
The loads imposed on the cofferdam structure by construction equipment and
operations must be considered, both during installation of the cofferdam and during
construction of the structure itself.
Removal of the cofferdam must be planned and executed with the same degree of care
as its installation, on a stage-by-stage basis. The effect of the removal on the
permanent structure must also be considered. For this reason, sheet piles extending
below the permanent structure are often cut off and left in place, since their removal
may damage the foundation soils adjacent to the structure.
In cofferdam construction, safety is a paramount concern, since workers will be
exposed to the hazard of flooding and collapse.

Types of Cofferdams
o Braced
o Earth-Type
o Timber Crib
o Double-Walled Sheet Pile
o Cellular

Braced Cofferdams
• Formed from a single wall of sheet piling
• Driven into the ground to form a box around the excavation site
• The “box” is then braced on the inside
• Interior is dewatered
• Primarily used for bridge piers in shallow water (30 - 35 ft depth)

Advantages of Cofferdams
• Allow excavation and construction of structures in otherwise poor environment
• Provides safe environment to work
• Contractors typically have design responsibility
• Steel sheet piles are easily installed and removed
• Materials can typically be reused on other projects

Disadvantages of Cofferdams
• Special equipment required
• Relatively expensive
• Typically very time consuming & tedious
• If rushed, sheets can be driven out of locks or out of plumb
• When in flowing water “log jams” may occur creating added

Items needed for installation

• Pile driving hammer – Vibratory or Impact

• Crane of sufficient size
• Steel sheet piles are typically used
• H-piles and/or wide-flange beams for Wales and stringers
• Barges may be required
5.0 Pre-cast concrete beams

Compared to conventional concrete constructions, pre-cast concrete is a better option

which is more cost-effective for production, transport, and erection when columns and
beams can be fabricated independently. Along with pre-cast concrete constructions,
the joining of pre-cast concrete element depends on innovative connection systems
that can save labor and speed production.

Pre-stressed concrete is an ideal material for beam bridge construction; the concrete
withstands the forces of compression well and the steel rods imbedded within resist
the forces of tension. Pre-stressed concrete also tends to be one of the least expensive
materials in construction. But even the best materials can't compensate for the beam
bridge's biggest limitation: its length.

Pre-cast segmental construction is widely used for the construction of long bridges
and viaducts with medium to long spans. In this form of construction, segments are
manufactured in a casting yard near the site and then transported to their final position
for assembly. During the early stages of development of segmental pre-cast
construction, the joints between the segments were wet poured grout or dry mortar
pack. These type of joints enabled the segments to be adjusted ensure that the bridge
follows the correct alignment.

5.1 Pre-tensioning and post-tensioning beams

Pre-cast concrete beams can be divided into pre-tension beams and post tension
beams.

5.1.1 Pre-tension beams

The wire or wire strands are stressed before concrete placed. After the concrete has
attained desired strength, the stress is transferred to the member.

5.1.2 Post-tensioning beams

Applying pre-stress is by tensioning steel wires, strands, cables or rods after the
concrete has attained its strength.
5.1.2 Pre-tensioning and post-tensioning comparison

In case of pre-tensioning very heavy moulds or abutments are required to serve as

temporary anchorages. It is, therefore best suited for the mass production of pre-cast
members. A single pair of end anchorages can be used for a line of members several
meters long.
From the consideration of transporting and handling, the size of pre-cast members is
limited. Large sizes are cast-in-situ or near the site and generally post- tensioned. The
other advantage gained by post tensioning is that ‘stage pre-stressing’ can be adopted
which is suited for bridge construction.
5.2 Method of pre-stressed concrete beam casting

1. It all begins at the pre-stressed

concrete plant. 2. This is called a pre-stressing strand.
Beam launching Made of high strength steel, it will soon be
embedded in concrete.

4. Special trucks bring the concrete to

the casting bed where the pouring
begins.
3. The prestressing strand is stretched
across the casting bed. About 30,000
pounds of tension will be applied to the
cable before it's surrounded by concrete.

5. Once the pouring is complete, a tarp is

placed over the form and heat is applied to
cure the cement.
6. The pre-stressing strands are
cut and the concrete form is
removed from the casting bed.
7. The ends are cleaned and the pre-stressing
strands are sealed with a protective coating.

5.3 Method of post-tension beam casting

This method is called Freyssinet method. High tensile steel wires of 5mm dia in units
of 8, 10, 12 and18 and 7mm dia arranged in 12 wire units are used in this system. The
wire units, also known as cables are encased in flexible tube or sheathing. They are
provided with an anchorage consisting of reinforced female cone and male cone. The
cables are placed in the form in the similar manner as reinforcement. The members
are then concreted and after the concrete has attained desired strength the wires are
tensioned by means of Freyssinet jack. All the wire in a cable are tensioned
simultaneously. When the desired tension is applied the pressure is released and the
wires are locked in position. The grout is then pumped through the annular hole in the
mail cone.

6.0 The elements and terms in bridge construction

There are several elements that all bridges have in common

Abutment: Part of a structure which supports the end of a span or accepts the thrust of
an arch; often supports and retains the approach embankment.

Pier: A vertical structure which supports the ends of a multi-span superstructure at a

location between abutments

Deck: The top surface of a bridge which carries the traffic.

Wing walls: Extensions of a retaining wall as part of an abutment; used to contain the
fill of an approach embankment.

Capping beam:

Tie rods: Used to connect all the beams together.

Curtain wall: A thin wall. A partition wall that carries no superimposed load.

Baluster wall: A small wall which is constructed on abutment between beams and
bridge approach. Expansion joint is fixed between baluster wall and
deck edge.

End pilasters: Small concrete structures constructing at corner of bridge along the
handrails for safety of persons and vehicles

Expansion joint: A meeting point between two parts of a structure which is designed
to allow for movement of the parts due to thermal or moisture factors
while protecting the parts from damage. Commonly visible on a
bridge deck as a hinged or movable connection.

Bearing: A device at the ends of beams which is placed on top of a pier or abutment.
The ends of the beam rest on the bearing.

Pile: A long column driven deep into the ground to form part of a foundation or
substructure.

Pile cap: A reinforce concrete structure constructing to connect each pile together and
it will distributes the applied load to the individual piles which is transfer the
load to the bearing ground

Span: The horizontal space between two supports of a structure. Also refers to the
structure itself.
The clear span is the space between the inside surfaces of piers or other
vertical supports. The effective span is the distance between the centers of two
supports.
If the span of structure is less than 5m is called culvert and more than 5m is
called bridges.

Substructure: The portion of a bridge structure including abutments and piers which
supports the superstructure.

Superstructure: The portion of a bridge structure which carries the traffic load and
passes that load to the substructure.