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Geological Society, London, Special Publications

Tethyan rifting in the Levant Region and its role in Early

Mesozoic crustal evolution
Michael A. Gardosh, Zvi Garfunkel, Yehezkel Druckman and
Binyamin Buchbinder

Geological Society, London, Special Publications 2010, v.341;

p9-36.
doi: 10.1144/SP341.2

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Tethyan rifting in the Levant Region and its role in Early

Mesozoic crustal evolution
MICHAEL A. GARDOSH1, ZVI GARFUNKEL2*, YEHEZKEL DRUCKMAN3 &
BINYAMIN BUCHBINDER3
1
The Geophysical Institute of Israel, P.O. Box 182, Lod, 71100, Israel
2
Institute of Earth Sciences, Hebrew University, JerusPlealem, Israel, 91904
3
Geological Survey of Israel, 30 Malkhe Israel St. Jerusalem, 95501
*Corresponding author (e-mail: zvi.garfunkel@huji.ac.il)

Abstract: At the time of the opening of the Tethys Ocean the northern edge of Gondwana
was affected by several rifting events. In this study, we used data from deep exploration wells,
seismic profiles, and seismic depth maps to reconstruct the pattern of Tethyan rifting in the
Levant region and to investigate its effects on the evolution of the Levant crust.
The results show a several hundred kilometre wide deformation zone, comprised of graben and
horst structures that extend from the inner part of the Levant to the marine basin offshore Israel. The
structures are dominated by sets of NE SW and NNE SSW oriented normal faults with vertical
offsets in the range of 18 km. Rifting was associated with a NWSE direction of extension,
approximately perpendicular to the present-day Mediterranean coast. Faulting activity progressed
over a period of 120 Ma and took place in three main pulses: Late Palaeozoic (Carboniferous to
Permian); Middle to Late Triassic; and Early to Middle Jurassic. The last, and the most intense,
tectonic phase post-dates the activity in other rifted margins of northern Gondwana.
Rifting was associated with the modification and stretching of the Levant crust. Our results
demonstrate an extension discrepancy between the brittle deformation in the upper crust and the
amount of total crustal thinning. Seismic reflection data shows that the Levant Basin lacks the
characteristics of typical rifted margins, either volcanic or non-volcanic. The evolution of the
basin may be explained by depth-dependant stretching, associated with the upwelling of divergent
mantle flow and removal of lower crustal layers by decoupling along deep detachment faults.

The separation of Gondwana and Eurasia and the
development of the Tethys Ocean during the Late
Palaeozoic to Early Mesozoic period were accom-
panied by continental breakup, rifting and drifting
of various micro-continental blocks (Sengor &
Yilmaz 1981; Robertson & Dixon 1984; Robertson
1998; Garfunkel 1998, 2002; Robertson 2007). This
fragmentation of northern Gondwana, referred to
here as Tethyan rifting, resulted in the formation
of several marine basins and extensional margins
in the Eastern Mediterranean region. Some of the
basins were later consumed during the Cenozoic
closure of the Tethys Ocean; the Levant continental
margin and basin (Fig. 1) remained however, rela-
tively intact and the Tethyan extensional structure
in this area were therefore preserved (Garfunkel
1998; Gardosh & Druckman 2006).
Structures that are associated with Tethyan
rifting are recognized throughout the Levant
onshore, from the Palmyra area in central Syria to
the Egyptian Western Desert (Fig. 1) (Freund
et al. 1975; Druckman 1984; Garfunkel & Derin
1984; Druckman et al. 1995; Garfunkel 1998;
Guiraud & Bosworth 1999; Brew et al. 2001;
Sawaf et al. 2001). Tethyan structures are character-
ized by thickness variations, faulting and magma-
tism spanning the Palaeozoic to Early Mesozoic
succession. This sedimentary section is typically
found at great depth and, therefore, provides limited
amount of geological information. Indeed, the study
of Tethyan structures in the Levant region was so
far based on rather small number of deep boreholes
and partial coverage by land seismic data. Several
deep exploration wells that were recently drilled in
Israel and particularly, a new set of two-dimensional
(2D), marine seismic reflection lines (Fig. 2)
(Gardosh & Druckman 2006; Gardosh et al. 2006,
2008) add more details on some of the known
Tethyan structures and reveal new structures that
were previously unknown.
Tethyan tectonic activity have been studied in
various regions, located along the northern mar-
gins of the ancient super-continent of Gondwana.
Robertson & Mountrakis (2006) and Robertson
(2006, 2007) recently discussed the confusion
in geological literature regarding the Tethyan
nomenclature. Two terms are commonly used:
Palaeo-tethys and Neotethys. The former refers

From: Homberg, C. & Bachmann, M. (eds) Evolution of the Levant Margin and Western Arabia Platform since the
Mesozoic. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 341, 9 36.
DOI: 10.1144/SP341.2 0305-8719/10/$15.00 # The Geological Society of London 2010.
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at University of St Andrews on January 16, 2014

10 M. A. GARDOSH ET AL.

Fig. 1. Main tectonic elements of the Eastern Mediterranean region shown on the background of satellite imagery.
The Levant Basin is located on the northeastern edge of the African plate, south of the Cyprian Arc plate boundary
(marked by thick white lines). The area of study includes the central part of the basin and its margin onshore and offshore
Israel. The outline of a new, seismic reflection survey offshore Israel is marked by dashed blue line. The insert shows a
regional imagery of the Eastern Mediterranean and Red Sea (discussed in the text).

to oceanic basins of the Late Palaeozoic to Early misused by researchers that apply the same names
Mesozoic age and the later is generally used for an to different marine basins (Robertson & Mountrakis
Early Mesozoic, primarily Late Triassic to Early 2006). Following Robertson (2007), we apply the
Jurassic ocean. However, these terms are often more generalized term Tethyan rifting for all the
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TETHYAN RIFTING IN THE LEVANT BASIN AND MARGIN 11

Fig. 2. The Tethyan rift system of the Levant. The map in (a) depicts inferred, Triassic to Early Jurassic faults and
structural highs and lows that were formed during Tethyan rifting activity; (b) is a seismic depth map of the top of the
crystalline basement taken from Gardosh & Druckman (2006); and (c) is a Bouguer gravity map of the Levant from
Rybakov & Al-Zoubi (2005). The gravity map (c) shows the transition from light, continental crust inland (negative
values), to heavier crust (positive values) in the Mediterranean Sea. The faults and structures in (a) are compiled from
various sources: the map in (b), and data published by Roberts & Peace (2007) and by Aal et al. (2000) for the
offshore area, seismic and well data (Figs 3 6) and seismic depth maps of Gelbermann (1995) for central Israel, data
published by Moustafa & Khalil (1990) for Northern Sinai and by Walley (1998) for Lebanon. The location of the
Palmyra Trough in (a) is restored to its position prior to the c. 100 km of sinistral motion along the Dead Sea Transform.
The outlines of magnetic anomalies that are associated with Early Mesozoic magmatic activity in (a) are adopted from
Rybakov et al. (1997). A list of well names is in Table 1. Abbreviations for structural elements in (b) and (c) are: ER,
Eratosthenes High; JU, Judea Graben; PL, Pleshet Basin; NS, North Sinai Basin; JN, Jonah High; LV, Leviathan High;
YM, Yam High.

Late Palaeozoic to Early Mesozoic structures of the
Levant, with no reference to a specific ocean system.
The main goal of this paper is to present an over-
view of Tethyan structures and rifting activity in the
Levant region based on the integration of old and
new well and seismic data. The regional structural
pattern is used to reconstruct the style, direction
and timing of continental breakup. As one of the
notable results of Tethyan rifting activity is the
modification of the Levant crust, an additional
goal of this study is to examine the relations
between faulting and crustal thinning as compared
to other continental margins and extensional
basins worldwide. The relatively large amount of
geological and geophysical data makes the Levant
margin a unique location for testing concepts of
continental margin evolution.
The main tectonic events that shaped the
Levant region
The crust of the Levant was stabilized in the
Late Precambrian by the Pan-African orogeny
c. 1000 550 Ma (Eyal et al. 1991; Stern 1994;
Alsharhan & Nairn 1997). During the Early to
Middle Palaeozoic period, the Levant area formed
a wide continental platform of the northern part
of Gondwana. Thick sections of predominantly
siliciclastic sediments of fluvio-deltaic to shallow-
marine origin were deposited on this platform
south of the Tethys Ocean (Klitzsch 1981; Wolfart
1981; Weissbrod 1981, 2005; Beydoun 1988;
Alsharhan & Nairn 1997; Garfunkel 2002).
The Palaeozoic succession of northern Gond-
wana were affected by regional epiorogenical
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at University of St Andrews on January 16, 2014
12 M. A. GARDOSH ET AL.
movements that produced broad swells and
depressions, several hundred kilometres in diameter
(Garfunkel & Derin 1984; Gvirtzman & Weissbrod
1984; Alsharhan & Nairn 1997; Garfunkel 2002,
2004). The swells were partly eroded, resulting
in significant stratigraphic gaps. Gvirtzman &
Weissbrod (1984) and Weissbrod (2005) inferred
the formation of a regional swell in the Levant
area, which they called the Geanticline of Helez.
These authors suggested two phases of uplift: at the
beginning of the Carboniferous and in the Early
Permian. The Carboniferous erosion presumably
produced a concentric outcrop pattern of the older
Palaeozoic units, centred on the crest of the Helez
Geanticline in the southern Israeli coastal plain
(Gvirtzman & Weissbrod 1984; Weissbrod 2005).
Garfunkel & Derin (1984) and Garfunkel (1998)
found a more complex pattern of vertical motions
with a structural high extending from Jordan to the
Israeli coast. They further stressed the role of the
mid-Palaeozoic erosion phase, which is supported
by fission track dating (Kohn et al. 1992).
Some authors attributed the Palaeozoic epeiro-
genic movements to compression of the Arabian
plate that was associated with collision and subduc-
tion in the northern margin of Gondwana (Hercy-
nian Orogeny) (Boote et al. 1998; Guiraud &
Bosworth 1999; Weissbrod 2005). Others
(Garfunkel 1998, 2004) think that during the Palaeo-
zoic period most of the northern Gondwanian
margin, including the Levant, was affected by
extension rather than subduction, and this allowed
the detachment of Gondwanian terrains that were
incorporated in the Hercynian orogenic edifice in
Europe.
A profound change in the pattern of vertical
motions and sediment distribution that took place
during the latest Palaeozoic to Early Mesozoic
period reflects a new tectonic regime (Garfunkel
1998). The Permian, Triassic and Lower Jurassic
rock section of the Levant is dominated by shallow-
marine, mostly carbonates and less common silici-
clastic rocks. Considerable localized thickness and
facies variations in these strata were identified in
outcrop, well and seismic data from southern and
central Israel (Goldberg & Friedman 1974; Druck-
man 1974, 1977; Freund et al. 1975; Druckman
1984; Garfunkel & Derin 1984; Gelbermann &
Kemmis 1987; Bruner 1991; Druckman et al.
1995; Gelbermann 1995; Garfunkel 1998; Gardosh
& Druckman 2006). Thickness variations are also
documented in the Palmyrides and other parts of
Syria (Al-Youssef & Ayed 1992; Brew et al.
2001; Sawaf et al. 2001) and in northern Sinai
(Alsharhan & Salah 1996; Hirsch et al. 1998).
These widely spread phenomena indicate
repeated differential motions and extension on the
edge of the Gondwanian plate during the latest
Palaeozoic to Early Mesozoic period (Freund et al.
1975; Garfunkel & Derin 1984; Druckman et al.
1995; Garfunkel 1998; Gardosh & Druckman
2006). The extensional pulses that were accom-
panied by magmatic activity resulted in the separ-
ation of the Tauride, Eratosthenes, and probably
other small continental blocks from the Afro-
Arabian craton (Biju-Duval & Dercourt 1980;
Sengor & Yilmaz 1981; Robertson & Dixon 1984;
Le Pichon et al. 1988; Robertson et al. 1996;
Garfunkel 1998), and led to the opening of an
ocean north and west of the Levant margin.
The Early Mesozoic rifting activity was fol-
lowed by subsidence and the formation of the deep
marine Levant Basin in the eastern Mediterranean
area (Garfunkel & Derin 1984; ten Brink 1987;
Garfunkel 1988). Starting from the Middle Jurassic,
a continental shelf and slope developed along the
eastern margin of the basin (Fig. 1). This continental
margin slope, originally identified in deep wells
near the present-day Israeli coastline (Gvirtzman
& Klang 1972; Bein & Gvirtzman 1977; Garfunkel
1988), formed a narrow transition zone, termed by
Bein & Gvirtzman (1977) as the hinge-line. It sep-
arated the Jurassic and Cretaceous shallow-marine
shelf on the east from the deep marine basin on
the west. The Mesozoic shelf-edge is identified
near the modern Mediterranean coastline from
northern Egypt to western Lebanon (Harms &
Wray 1990; Jenkins 1990; Walley 1998, 2001;
Garfunkel 1998).
Late Cretaceous convergence of the Eurasian
and Afro-Arabian plates resulted in the formation
of a northward-dipping subduction zone at the
present-day areas of Cyprus and southern Turkey
(Fig. 1) (Le Pichon et al. 1988; Robertson 1998).
Far-field stresses related to this subduction caused
contraction of the Levant margin and generated
the development of anticlines and synclines
throughout the Levant region known as the Syrian
Arc (Krenkel 1924) fold belt. The contractional
activity continued in the Levant area through the
Cenozoic period (Eyal & Reches 1983; Walley
1998; Gardosh & Druckman 2006). Well and
seismic data suggest that the Syrian Arc defor-
mation is associated in many places with inversion
of Late Palaeozoic to Early Mesozoic normal
faults that were reactivated in a reverse motion
(Freund et al. 1975; Druckman et al. 1995),
although in some structures these relations are not
clearly observed (Druckman 1981).
The last, major tectonic event that affected the
Levant area was the breakup of the African
Arabian Craton and the formation of the Dead Sea
fault zone (Fig. 1) (Freund et al. 1970; Garfunkel
1981, 1997). This new plate boundary is, in fact, a
transform fault that connects the spreading centre
of the Red Sea with a collision zone in the Taurus
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at University of St Andrews on January 16, 2014
TETHYAN RIFTING IN THE LEVANT BASIN AND MARGIN
Mountains of southeastern Turkey (Fig. 1). The
Dead Sea transform offset some of the older
Tethyan structures. The sinistral, strike slip
motion along this fault system amounts to about
100 km (Freund et al. 1970; Garfunkel 1981).
Data sources
The distribution of Tethyan rift structures in the
subsurface of the Levant (Fig. 2a) is compiled
from the following sources: data from deep
boreholes that penetrated the Palaeozoic to Lower
Jurassic section in Israel (Table 1); seismic inter-
pretation maps of the Levant offshore (Gardosh &
Druckman 2006; Gardosh et al. 2006, 2008);
seismic interpretation maps of central and southern
Israel (Gelbermann 1995), outcrop and well studies
by Freund et al. (1975), Garfunkel & Derin (1984),
Druckman et al. (1995) and Garfunkel (1998).
The seismic mapping of Gardosh et al. (2006,
2008) was based on the interpretation of a high-
quality set of 2D seismic reflection lines acquired
in 2001 (Figs 1 & 2b). These regional marine lines
extend from the coastal area of Israel to a distance
of 150 200 km offshore and penetrate the subsur-
face down to the top of the crystalline basement
at depth of 10 15 km below mean sea level
(MSL). The excellent coverage allows the interpret-
ation and mapping of the deep part of the Levant
Basin that was not imaged in older seismic datasets.
Two important seismic markers were used to map
Tethyan rift structures: (a) top of the crystalline
basement (Fig. 2b) and (b) Middle Jurassic uncon-
formity of an assumed Bathonian age (Gardosh
et al. 2006, 2008).
Three regional, geological cross-sections (Fig. 3)
were constructed from the seismic depth maps
(Levant Basin and central Israel) and results of 18
deep exploration boreholes located onshore and off-
shore Israel (Table 1). The structure in the northern
part of section 3 (Fig. 3c) is considered somewhat
speculative because the area of northern Israel is
not sufficiently covered by seismic lines. The main
chronostratigraphic boundaries in the wells
(Table 1) follow Derin et al. (1980), Fleischer &
Varsahvsky (2002), Zion Oil and Gas Inc. (2005)
and Gardosh et al. (2008).
Rifting structures in the subsurface of the
Levant Basin and margin
The Tethyan extensional structures of the Levant
area were divided here into four zones of defor-
mation, distributed, more or less, parallel to the
Mediterranean coast (Fig. 2). These are from east
to west: (a) the inner basins; (b) the highs along
the Mediterranean coastline; (c) the offshore highs
13
and lows; and (d) the Eratosthenes High. These
zones include symmetric and asymmetric grabens,
horsts, and down-stepping blocks, all controlled by
sets of normal faults generally trending NE SW.
The inner basins
The central part of Israel is occupied by the Judea
Graben (Figs 2a & 3) (Freund et al. 1975). This
c. 150 km long and c. 30 50 km wide basin
formed as a Triassic and Early Jurassic depocentre,
bounded by elevated horst blocks (Fig. 2a). The axis
of the Judea Graben is marked by the thick Triassic
sections of the Ramallah-1 (1700 m, base not
reached) (Derin et al. 1980) and Devora-2A wells
(2600 m, base not reached) (Derin & Gerry 1979).
The Palmyra Trough is a similar depocentre
filled by more than 2 km of Triassic sediments that
is identified by well and seismic data in southern
Syria (Garfunkel 1998; Brew et al. 2001; Sawaf
et al. 2001). Restoring the sinistral motion along
the Dead Sea transform shifts the Palmyra Trough
100 km southward (Fig. 2a). In this position, it cor-
relates to the northeastern part of the Judea Graben,
suggesting a link between these two structures in
Triassic time (Garfunkel 1998; Flexer et al. 2005).
The Judea Graben changes direction and
widens towards the north, but its structure north of
latitude 318500 (Fig. 2a) is poorly constrained
by the available subsurface data. Important evi-
dence to the structural pattern in northern Israel is
the c. 2.5 km thick, latest Triassic and earliest
Jurassic series of the Asher volcanics that were
penetrated by Atlit-1 Deep (Fig. 2a, Table 1) and
several other wells in northern Israel (Derin et al.
1982; Gvirtzman & Steinitz 1983; Kohn et al.
1993). Stratigraphic analysis of theses wells shows
that the Asher extrusive volcanics are overlain by
a continuous and relatively flat, shallow-marine,
Middle Liassic section, indicating that the volcanic
rocks accumulated in an active, fault controlled
depression (Fig. 3c) (Garfunkel & Derin 1984;
Garfunkel 1989). This depression is termed here
the Asher Basin.
The Asher Basin is reconstructed as a several
tens of kilometre long graben that extends from
the Haifa Bay on the northern coast of Israel
towards the SE (Fig. 2a). Owing to the limited
amount of seismic and well data, this postulated
graben is largely based on the shape of the magnetic
field in the area. The magnetic map shows a conspic-
uous, positive anomaly centred NE of the Atlit-1
Deep well that is interpreted to be caused by the
deeply buried, Asher basalt flows (Rybakov et al.
1997, 2000). The elongated, NWSE oriented mag-
netic anomaly is assumed to reflect the shape of a
fault bounded depression that was filled with the
Jurassic extrusive rocks (Garfunkel & Derin 1984;
 14
Table 1. Summary of well data used in this study. The depth intervals of chronostratigraphic units (in meters from KB) are taken, for most of the wells, from Fleischer

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& Varsahvsky (2002). Data for well 9 is taken from Derin et al. (1980); for well 11 from Zion Oil and Gas Inc. (2005); and for the Liassic to Bathonian section in
wells 18 and 19 from Gardosh et al. (2008). The Cretaceous depth interval in wells 17, 18 and 19 includes the Tithonian succession

Well no. Well name Depth and thickness (in metres) of stratigraphic units
Precambrian Palaeozoic Triassic Jurassic (Liassic Jurassic Cretaceous
Basement (Permian) Bathonian) (Callovian (Neocomian
Kimmeridgian) Turonian)
Depth Thick. Depth Thick. Depth Thick. Depth Thick. Depth Thick. Depth Thick.

1 Atlit-1 Deep 6531 5390 1141 5390 1865 3525 1865 1446 418 1447 60 1367

M. A. GARDOSH ET AL.
2 Ashqelon-2 4076 3915 161 3915 2249 666
3 Betarim-1 3239 1790 1449 1790 1241 549 1241 10 1231
4 Bessor-1 4567 4465 102 4465 4230 235 4230 4165 65 4165 2403 1762 2403 2060 343 2060 628 1432
5 David-1 5998 5455 543 5455 3810 1645 3810 2270 1540 2270 1956 314 1956 279 1377
6 Deborah-2 5647 3062 2585 3062 1480 1582 1480 646 834 646 23 623
7 Gaash-2 5508 4595 913 4595 2981 1614 2981 2506 475 2506 803 1703
8 Gevim-1 4620 4588 32 4588 4078 510 4078 3870 208 3870 2306 1564 2306 1876 430 1876 567 1309
9 Halal-1 4314 3629 685 3629 815 2814 815 457 358 457 0 457
10 Helez Deep-1 6093 5978 115 5978 5726 252 5726 4800 926 4800 1970 2830 1970 1858 112 1858 455 1403
11 Maanit-1 Deep 4697 3278 1419 3278 2341 937 2341 1856 485 1856 3 1853
12 Meged-2 5200 3601 1599 3601 2119 1482 2119 1770 349 1770 10 1760
13 Nevatim-1 2194 1760 434 1760 1340 420 1340 24 1316
14 Pleshet-1 5344 5315 29 5315 4788 527 4788 4200 588 4200 2605 1595 2605 2131 474 2131 615 1516
15 Ramallah-1 Deep 6361 4672 1689 4672 1510 3162 1510 901 609 901 4 897
16 Talme Yafe-4 4204 2711 1493 2711 1199 1512
17 Yam-2 5377 5235 142 5235 4765 470 4765 2730 2035
18 Yam West-1 5250 4900 350 4900 4400 500 4400 2874 1526
19 Yam Yafo-1 5787 5350 437 5350 4410 940 4410 2380 2030
20 Yinnon-1 2980 2616 364 2616 2210 406 2210 394 1816

Base of unit was not penetrated.

Unit is missing.
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at University of St Andrews on January 16, 2014
TETHYAN RIFTING IN THE LEVANT BASIN AND MARGIN
Fig. 3. Geological cross-sections showing the main stratigraphic successions, faults and structural blocks on the Levant Basin and margin. Thickness variations in the Palaeozoic,
Triassic and Lower Jurassic (Liassic to Bathonian) reflect syn-tectonic deposition, related to the development of an extensive graben and horst system during Tethyan rifting activity.
The location of the sections is shown in Figure 2a.

15
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at University of St Andrews on January 16, 2014
16 M. A. GARDOSH ET AL.
Garfunkel 1989). The reduced thickness of the
Asher volcanics in Devora-2A (Garfunkel 1989)
may indicate the existence of a large, normal fault
west of the well that formed the northeastern limit
of this depression (Fig. 3c). The Asher Basin
seems to form a north west extension of the
Tethyan, Judea Graben (Fig. 2a). It was later modi-
fied by the c. 1 km vertical offset of the Carmel Fault
that is associated with the Cenozoic activity along
the Dead Sea plate boundary (Fig. 3c).
In Early to Middle Jurassic time, the Judea
Graben may have also extended northward, as indi-
cated by a relatively thick Bathonian section
(600 m) found in outcrops at the Hermon area
(Hirsch et al. 1998; Hirsch 2005). The postulated
Hermon Basin (Fig. 2a) was probably limited in
size and did not extend eastwards to the Palmyra
Trough where the Jurassic section is only 100 m
thick (Mouty 1997; Hirsch 2005).
A set of NESW oriented faults found in the
southern part of the Judea Graben (Figs 2a & 3b)
formed intra-graben fault blocks. These were later
inverted during the Syrian Arc contractional defor-
mation of the northern Negev (Freund et al. 1975;
Gelbermann 1995; Druckman et al. 1995). The
Judea Graben is delimited in the SE by a series of
small, positive structures, that is, the Massada and
Heimar Highs, located on the western margin of
the Dead Sea (Fig. 2a) (Goldberg & Friedman
1974; Druckman 1974; Freund et al. 1975). The
Ramon High, located near the Ramon fold (Druck-
man 1977; Buchbinder & Le Roux 1993), delimits
the graben further to the south (Fig. 2a).
The Judea Graben extends from the central
Negev westward into northern Sinai. A Triassic
tectonic depression in this area, termed here North
Sinai Basin (Fig. 2a), is indicated by a relatively
thick Carnian section at the bottom of the Halal-1
well (Fig. 2a, Table 1) (Garfunkel & Derin 1984;
Derin & Gerry 1986a). Subsidence of the North
Sinai Basin continued during the Early to Middle
Jurassic. This activity is reflected by the thick
Liassic to Bathonian interval found in outcrops at
Gebel Maghara (1700 m) (Alsharan & Salah 1996;
Hirsch et al. 1998) and penetrated in the Halal-1
well (2600 m) (Derin et al. 1976).
The shape and internal structure of the North
Sinai Basin are not well delineated owing to insuffi-
cient seismic and well data. It was most likely
formed by down-to-the-north sets of fault blocks,
oriented to the NESW and east west (Fig. 2a).
This trend is inferred from the direction of Syrian
Arc folds that are interpreted as inverted Early
Mesozoic structures (Moustafa & Khalil 1990;
Alsharhan & Salah 1996). Small intra-basin blocks
and localized highs and lows, such as those found
within the Judea Graben, may have also existed in
this area.
The highs along the Mediterranean coastline
A series of structural highs along the Mediterranean
coastline forms the western boundary of the Judea
Graben. The most prominent structure is the NE
SW trending Gevim High (Figs 2a, 3b, 4 & 5).
This narrow structure was penetrated by the
Gevim-1 and the Bessor-1 wells (Figs 3c & 4).
Both wells reached Precambrian rocks in depth of
4460 m and 4293 m below sea level, respectively,
thus indicating that the Gevim High is the highest
basement block in central Israel.
The Gevim High is bounded by two sets of
faults: the Helez Fault on the NW and the Pleshet
Fault on the SE (Fig. 4). The stratigraphic relations
in the Gevim-1 and the Helez Deep-1 wells, located
respectively on the footwall and hanging wall of the
Helez Fault, indicate 1740 m of vertical offset
during the Triassic and Early to Middle Jurassic
(Gardosh & Druckman 2006). The stratigraphy of
the Pleshet-1 well (Derin et al. 1985), located on
the downthrown side of the Pleshet Fault, indicates
about 700 m of vertical offset on an Upper Permian
level that can be attributed to the same tectonic
activity.
Further evidence for the activity on the Helez
Fault is found in Helez Deep-1. The well penetrated
c. 300 m thick section of coarse-grained, polymictic
conglomerate, within the Triassic succession
[the Erez Conglomerate of Druckman (1984), or
the Or Haner Conglomerate of Derin (1979) and
Garfunkel & Derin 1984]. This clastic unit was
interpreted as an alluvial fan that accumulated at
the foot of the Helez Fault escarpment (Fig. 4)
(Druckman 1984; Garfunkel & Derin 1984).
In the central and northern part of Israel the
Gaash-Meged and Maanit structures (Figs 2a, 3a, c
& 6) delineate the western boundary of the Judea
Graben and probably also of its NW extension, the
Asher Basin. The two highs are inferred from the
reduced thickness of the Jurassic and Triassic sec-
tions in the wells that penetrated these structures
(Table 1). The Liassic to Bathonian interval reaches
1614 m in Gaash-2 (Derin et al. 1981; Gvirtzman
et al. 1984), 1482 m in Meged-2 (Givot Olam Oil
Ltd 1995), and 937 m in Maanit-1 Deep (Zion Oil
and Gas Inc. 2005) (Fig. 3a, c, Table 1). The same
stratigraphic interval is more then 3000 m thick in
the Ramallah-1 well within the Judea Graben
(Fig. 3a, Table 1) (Derin et al. 1980; Fleischer &
Varsahvsky 2002). A similar trend is observed in
the Triassic section. In Gaash-2, the Scythian to
Carnian interval is only 913 m thick (Derin et al.
1981), whereas in Ramallah-1, within the Judea
Graben it reaches 1700 m (Fig. 3a, Table 1) (Derin
et al. 1980).
Seismic data indicate that the axis of the coastal
highs changes its direction from southern Israel
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TETHYAN RIFTING IN THE LEVANT BASIN AND MARGIN 17

Fig. 4. Interpreted, seismic profile DS-512 (time migrated), across the Gevim High and the western edge of the Judea
Graben. The structure is bounded by two fault zones (Helez and Pleshet) that were intermittently active from Late
Palaeozoic to Middle Upper Jurassic time. The Middle Triassic Erez conglomerate (a) is an alluvial fan that
accumulated at the foot of the Helez fault escar/minent. The Helez and Pleshet faults were re-activated in a reverse
motion during the Late Cretaceous to Cenozoic Syrian Arc folding phase. Note the location of the Upper Jurassic to
Middle Cretaceous, rimmed shelf-edge that developed on the western edge of the Gevim High. The ages of the
formation tops are: Basement, Precambrian; Gevim, Permo-Triassic; Arkov, Permian; Erez, Anizian; Saharonim,
Anizian to Carnian; Mohila, Carnian; Qeren, Aalenian; Shederot, Bathonian; Zohar, Callovian; Beer Sheva, Oxfordian;
Yagur, Albian. Abbreviations for chronostratigraphic ages are: L., Lower; M., Middle; U., Upper. Double arrows refer
to reactivation of older, normal faults in a reverse motion. The location of the profile is shown in Figure 2a.

northward. The normal faults that bound the Gevim
High trend NE SW whereas in the area of the
Gaash High the main faults trend north south
(Fig. 2) (Gelbermann 1995). A northsouth to
NNWSSE direction is inferred also for the axis
of the Maanit High further to the north, although
the seismic coverage of this structure is limited.
The northward shift of the structural grain appears
to be a fundamental characteristic of the central
Levant area and is reflected also by the direction
of two younger geological elements: the Jurassic
Cretaceous shelf edge and the Syrian Arc fold belt.
The offshore highs and lows
Palaeozoic to Early Mesozoic structures in the
Levant offshore are revealed by the interpretation
and mapping of two regional seismic markers: (a)
the top of the crystalline basement and (b) the
Middle Jurassic unconformity (Figs 710)
(Gardosh & Druckman 2006; Gardosh et al. 2006,
2008). The top of the crystalline basement is
identified by significant change in seismic character
from reflection-free zones below to parallel, con-
tinuous reflection series above (Fig. 8). This tran-
sition is assumed to reflect the contact of
magmatic and metamorphic rocks with the overlay-
ing Palaeozoic to Mesozoic sedimentary section.
Similar characteristics of the top basement reflec-
tor were interpreted by Vidal et al. (2000) in the
northern part of the Levant Basin.
In seismic profiles, the Middle Jurassic uncon-
formity (Fig. 8) marks a change in seismic character,
from high amplitude and continuous reflections
below, to low amplitude and discontinuous reflec-
tions above. In the offshore Yam West-1 well, this
marker is correlated to the top of the Bathonian,
Shederot Formation (Fig. 8) (Gardosh et al. 2006,
2008). The change in seismic character is inter-
preted to reflect a transition from Lower Jurassic,
shallow-marine carbonates to MiddleUpper Juras-
sic deepwater strata (Gardosh & Druckman 2006;
Gardosh et al. 2006, 2008). Thickness changes,
dipping reflections, and discontinuity of seismic
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18 M. A. GARDOSH ET AL.

Fig. 5. Interpreted, seismic profile DS-3589 (time migrated), showing a Palaeozoic basin in the northeastern edge of the
Gevim High. Onlapping of the Permian, Triassic and Lower Jurassic strata (marked by open arrows) is associated
with subsidence and faulting. Correlation of seismic reflections to the Gevim-1 well suggests that this activity may have
started prior to the deposition of the Permian Arkov Formation. The ages of the formation tops are in Figure 4.
Abbreviations for chronostratigraphic ages are: L., Lower; M., Middle; U., Upper. The location of the profile is shown
in Figure 2a.

events found throughout the offshore, between the A large structure, revealed by the depth of the
top of the crystalline basement and the Middle Jur- crystalline basement and the increased thickness
assic seismic markers, were interpreted to reflect of the Palaeozoic to Middle Jurassic interval, is
syn-tectonic rifting activity (Figs 7 10). the Pleshet Basin (Figs 79). This structure is a

Fig. 6. Interpreted seismic profile DS-559 (time migrated) across the Gaash-Meged High. Discontinuity of seismic
reflections within the Triassic and Permian intervals indicates vertical motions during these times, depicted by the
normal faults at the eastern part of the profile. The Gassh-Meged High was an elevated structure between the
Pleshet Basin to the west (not shown on this profile) and the Judea Graben to the east. An apparent tilt of the Gaash
area in the western part of the profile is a pull-down effect, created by the low-velocity Cenozoic cover (compare
to section 1 in Figure 3a). The ages of formation tops are: Zafir, Scythian; Mohila, Carnian; Shefayim, Norian; Lower
Haifa, Bajocian; Upper Haifa, Oxfordian. Abbreviations for chronostratigraphic ages are: L.-Lower, M.-Middle,
U.-Upper. The location of the profile is shown in Figure 2.
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TETHYAN RIFTING IN THE LEVANT BASIN AND MARGIN 19

c. 150 km long and c. 50 km wide graben that
extends along the southeastern part of the Levant
Basin. The Pleshet depocentre is found about
50 km west of the coastline, opposite the Gaash
Meged High (Figs 2a, b & 3a). The existence of a
deep Mesozoic basin in this area was first suggested
by Cohen et al. (1988) based on potential field data
that indicates a magnetic basement at great depth
(Domzhalski 1986). The interpretation of the new
seismic data show a structural low that more or
less coincides with the area of the Pleshet Basin as
outlined by Cohen et al. (1988) (Fig. 2b). This
basin structure is interpreted as a Tethyan Graben,
similar in size and shape to the Judea Graben
further to the east (Figs 2a & 3a, b).
The Pleshet Basin is bounded on the SE by a 5
10 km wide horst, oriented in a NESW direction,
termed here the Yam High (Figs 2, 3 & 8). A
set of normal, down-to-the-west step faults displace
the top of the crystalline basement marker west of
the Yam High. The normal faulting is associated
with a significant increase of thickness and onlap-
ping of the Palaeozoic to Middle Jurassic section
(Fig. 8). Some of the faults, such as west of the
Yam West-1 well (Fig. 8), were later reactivated
as high-angle thrust faults. The Yam High probably
extended further to the NE converged with the
Gaash High near the coastline. The structural con-
figuration of this area near the Yam Yafo-1 well
is, however, highly complex and difficult to inter-
pret owing to the younger contractional deformation
(Fig. 3a).
The Pleshet Basin is delimited to the NW by the
Jonah High (Figs 2 & 3a). This feature, which was
first identified by Folkman & Ben Gai (2004), is a
conspicuous basement high, about 80 km long and
10 20 km wide, controlled by NESW oriented
sets of normal faults (Figs 2b, 7 & 9) (Gardosh &
Druckman 2006; Gardosh et al. 2006, 2008). The
Jonah High is likely underlain by a large magmatic
intrusion (Fig. 10). A magnetic anomaly that is
located on this narrow horst (Fig. 2a) may be associ-
ated with an extrusive volcanic body of Early Meso-
zoic age (Fig. 7) (Gardosh et al. 2006, 2008).
A conspicuous asymmetric graben is observed
NW of the Jonah High. It is characterized by south-
easterly dipping seismic events and increased thick-
ness of the Palaeozoic to Middle Jurassic interval
(Figs 9 & 10). The western limit of this graben is
a large basement structure, about 100 km long and
20 40 km wide, termed here the Leviathan High
(Figs 2, 3a & 9). This wide and flat horst is
controlled by several sets of normal faults. It may
also be associated with a magmatic intrusion in

Fig. 7. Interpreted, composite marine seismic profile (time migrated) showing Tethyan extensional structures in the
Levant Basin, offshore. Thickness variations in the Palaeozoic to Middle Jurassic intervals were controlled by normal
faulting and reflect syn-tectonic deposition. Most, but not all of the normal faults were reactivated in a reverse motion
during the Syrian Arc contractional phase. The Jonah High is a fault controlled basement structure that bounds the
Pleshet Basin on the east, and a smaller asymmetric graben on the west. The Jonah High may have been the loci of Early
Mesozoic, extrusive volcanic activity (a) (Gardosh et al. 2008). Abbreviations for chronostratigraphical ages are: L.,
Lower; M., Middle; U., Upper. Double arrows refer to reactivation of older, normal faults in a reverse motion. The
location of the profile is shown in Figure 2b.
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20 M. A. GARDOSH ET AL.

Fig. 8. Interpreted marine seismic profile (time migrated), showing the southeastern edge of the Pleshet Basin. This
fault-controlled, rift basin is characterized by a high-amplitude, divergent reflection package that onlaps the Yam High.
The base of the syn-rift sequence is correlated to the contact between chaotic and well-layered seismic packages,
interpreted as the top of the crystalline basement. The top of the sequence is a continuous reflection that is correlated to
the Bathonian, Shederot Formation in the Yam West-1 well. The continuous, sub-parallel, high-amplitude seismic
reflections within the Pleshet Basin are interpreted as continental to shallow-marine strata. The maximal thickness of the
basin-fill in this profile is 4 5 km (calculated with interval velocity 6000 m s21). Some, but not all of the Tethyan
normal faults were reactivated as high-angle thrusts during Syrian Arc folding, observed at the edges of the profile.
Abbreviations for chronostratigraphic ages are: L., Lower; M., Middle; U., Upper. Double arrows refer to reactivation of
older, normal faults in a reverse motion. The location of this profile (an enlarged part of Fig. 7) is shown in Figure 2.

depth. The conspicuous, positive Bouguer gravity
anomaly found in the Leviathan area (Fig. 2c),
suggest the existence of such an intrusive body
(Gardosh et al. 2006, 2008). Several, small base-
ment highs, about 10 km wide and 20 km long
were identified south of the Jonah and Leviathan
horsts (Fig. 2a, b).
The belt of deep-seated highs and lows that is
identified offshore Israel extends further to the NE
and SW parts of the Levant Basin. Seismic and
gravity data indicate the existence of Early Meso-
zoic structures below the Cenozoic, Nile Delta
cone (Fig. 2c) (Aal et al. 2000; Bentham et al.
2007). The Rosetta fault that extends from the
Nile Delta to the eastern side of the Eratosthenes
high (Fig. 2a) (Aal et al. 2000) is oriented in NE
SW direction, similar to the direction of the
Leviathan and Jonah horsts. Triassic and Jurassic
highs that were recently identified on seismic reflec-
tion profiles offshore Lebanon (Fig. 2a) (Roberts &
Peace 2007) fit well to the regional structural
pattern.
The Eratosthenes High
The Eratosthenes seamount is a large structure,
located at the NW of the Levant Basin (Figs 1 &
2). It is characterized by distinct geophysical and
geological properties. The seamount overlies a
positive magnetic anomaly that is interpreted to
be associated with a voluminous igneous body
in depth (Fig. 2a) (Ben-Avraham et al. 1976;
Garfunkel & Derin 1984). Wide-angle seismic
refraction tests show that the Eratosthenes area is
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TETHYAN RIFTING IN THE LEVANT BASIN AND MARGIN 21

Fig. 9. Interpreted, composite marine seismic profile (time migrated), showing Tethyan extensional structures in
the Levant Basin, offshore. Three structural highs: Jonah, Leviathan and Eratosthenes, are underlain by elevated
basement blocks that display a chaotic seismic character and may comprise magmatic intrusions. These fault-controlled
structures bound three rift basins that are characterized by continuous, divergent seismic reflection packages. The
Pleshet Basin on the right-hand side of the profile is bounded by the Gaash-Meged High, located east of the profile.
Abbreviations for chronostratigraphic ages are: L., Lower; M., Middle; U., Upper. Double arrows refer to reactivation of
older, normal faults in a reverse motion. The location of the profile is shown in Figure 2b.

Fig. 10. Interpreted marine seismic profile (time migrated), showing the Jonah High and the asymmetric graben on
its western flank This Tethyan, fault-controlled rift basin is characterized by a high-amplitude, divergent reflection
package that thickens towards the Jonah structure. The base of the syn-rift sequence is correlated to the contact between
chaotic to well-layered seismic packages, interpreted as the top of the crystalline basement. Its top is a high-amplitude
reflection that is correlated to the Middle Jurassic unconformity. The maximal thickness of the syn-rift sequence in this
profile is 7 8 km (calculated with interval velocity 6000 m s). Abbreviations for chronostratigraphic ages are: L.,
Lower; M., Middle; U., Upper. The location of this profile (an enlarged part of Fig. 8) is shown in Figure 2b.
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at University of St Andrews on January 16, 2014
22 M. A. GARDOSH ET AL.
underlain by a low velocity crystalline crust
(Vp 6 km/s) that is interpreted as a continental
or intermediate type (Makris et al. 1983; Ben-
Avraham et al. 2002). A borehole drilled on the
northern slope of the seamount penetrated Lower
Cretaceous, shallow-marine limestones similar to
Cretaceous rocks found in the Levant margin
(Mart & Robertson 1998). Based on these lines of
evidence, the Eratosthenes is interpreted by most
authors as a continental block that was detached
and drifted from the nearby Afro-Arabian plate
during the Early Mesozoic break-up of Gondwana
(Garfunkel & Derin 1984; Kempler 1998; Mart &
Robertson 1998).
This interpretation is generally supported by the
new, offshore, seismic profiles that show a basement
high and a series of fault blocks of an assumed
Mesozoic age SE of the seamount (Figs 2b & 9).
This structure probably represents part of the
larger Eratosthenes high that is delimited on the
east by the NE SW trending Qattara Eratosthenes
(Rosetta) fault zone (Fig. 2a) (Aal et al. 2000). The
Cretaceous limestones found on the seamount sup-
ports the assumption that during Late Mesozoic
times this area was part of an elevated, shallow-
marine shelf located at the northwestern side of
the deep-marine Levant Basin (Gardosh & Druck-
man 2006). The Eratosthenes high was further
uplifted by reactivation of the Mesozoic faults
during the Cenozoic convergence of the Afro-
Arabian and Eurasian plates (Robertson 2000).
Zverev & Ilinsky (2000, 2005) recently studied
the deep structure of the Eratosthenes by a new set
of seismic refraction profiles. They found a
complex pattern of high and low velocity layers at
the upper crust, below the seamount. The different
velocities were attributed to alternating layers of
lavas, volcanic sediments and basic magmatic
rocks. Based on these findings, Zverev & Ilinsky
(2000, 2005) suggested that the Eratosthenes sea-
mount is a long-lived volcanic edifice associated
with pre-Cretaceous magmatic activity, possibly
similar to Early Jurassic volcanic rocks found in
northern Israel. These authors further suggested
that the crust underneath the Eratosthenes is
similar to the crust of the adjacent Levant Basin.
Although it is not clear whether the Eratosthenes
seamount overlies a drifted continental block
(Garfunkel 1989) or an Early Mesozoic volcano
edifice (Zverev & Ilinsky 2000, 2005), in either
case its formation appears to be the result of
Tethyan rifting activity.
Timing of the rifting activity
The structures found in the deep subsurface of the
Levant region, onshore and offshore, appear to
have been active during several pulses of extension
and faulting, followed by periods of relative tectonic
quiescence. Parts of these rift structures were active
in varying intensity during different times. Well
data indicate three main phases of activity: Late
Palaeozoic, Middle to Late Triassic and Early to
Middle Jurassic.
Late Palaeozoic
Direct evidence for Late Palaeozoic continental
breakup is found in the Palmyrides area of central
Syria (Fig. 1). Well and seismic data show up to
1 km thick Permian succession in a fault-controlled
trough that is interpreted as an intra-continental
Permian rift (Garfunkel 1998; Brew et al. 2001;
Sawaf et al. 2001). More evidence for this tectonic
phase is found near the Mediterranean coastline.
In the Gevim High (Fig. 2a), the Gevim-1
and Bessor-1 wells record a reduced Permian
section of several tens to a few hundred metres,
overlaying the Precambrian basement (Fig. 3c).
These stratigraphic relations indicates at least two
major tectonic events: a pre-Permian, possibly Car-
boniferous or earlier uplift that resulted with erosion
of the entire Early to Middle Palaeozoic section, and
an uplift that resulted with deposition of a thin
Permian section.
Palaeozoic vertical motions in the area of the
Gevim High are evident also on the seismic profile
in Figure 5, which shows significant thickness
increase and onlapping of Palaeozoic strata on the
northeastern flank of the structure. Correlation of
seismic reflections to the Gevim-1 well (Fig. 5)
suggests that the subsidence may have started
during pre-Permian time. Permian tectonic event
in this area is supported by facies change of the
Saad and Arkov Formations. In the Gevim-1 well
(Salhov 1996), these rock units are predominantly
siliciclastic and sand rich, whereas in the David-1
well (Derin 1995), located about 40 km north of
the Gevim High (Fig. 3b), they are comprised of
shallow-marine carbonate.
In the offshore, the Pleshet Basin, and the
a-symmetric graben located between the Jonah
and the Leviathan highs contain 4 8 km thick, pre-
Middle Jurassic section (Fig. 3a, c) (Gardosh &
Druckman 2006). The maximal thickness of the
Triassic to Middle Jurassic section in the onshore
Deborah-2 and Ramallah-1 wells is 4 to 5 km
respectively. It is, therefore, possible that part of
the excessive thickness in the offshore basins is
associated with greater Triassic and Palaeozoic sub-
sidence. This scenario may be supported by the
similarity of the onlapping pattern observed on
seismic profiles at the edge of the Pleshet Basin
(Fig. 8) and north of the Gevim High (Fig. 5). Con-
sidering the examples described above, it is evident
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TETHYAN RIFTING IN THE LEVANT BASIN AND MARGIN
that extension and rifting already took place in the
Levant region during the latest Palaeozoic period,
although the dimension and configuration of this
tectonic event are not well constrained.
Middle to Late Triassic
The Early part of the Triassic was a period of rela-
tive tectonic quiescence (Garfunkel 1998). Evi-
dence for Middle Triassic faulting and vertical
motions is found in several locations. An uplift of
the Gevim High is interpreted from the Gevim-1
and Bessor-1 wells that penetrated a thin section
of the Ladinian (UpperMiddle Triassic) Saharo-
nim Formation overlying the Permian (Fig. 3c).
Middle Triassic faulting event is interpreted from
the Erez (Or Haner) fault breccias of an assumed
Anisian age (Druckman 1984; Garfunkel & Derin
1984). Further evidence for this phase is inferred
from thickness changes of the Anisian, Gevanim
Formation in the northern and central Negev
(Druckman 1974).
A second, Middle to Upper Triassic faulting
event is observed in the Judea Graben. The
Deborah-2 and Ramalah-1 wells (Fig. 2) (Derin &
Gerry 1979, 1986b) penetrated a c. 1 km of the
Carnian, Mohilla Formation, which is only several
tens of meters thick in other parts of the country.
The evaporitic facies of the Mohilla Formation is
recorded by wells and outcrops in the northern
Negev (Druckman 1974). This facies is associated
with restricted water circulation and the develop-
ment of evaporitic conditions in tectonically active
depressions (Druckman 1974) at the southeastern
part of the Judea Graben. Upper Triassic subsidence
also took place within the North Sinai basin as indi-
cated by the relatively thick Carnian section at the
bottom of the Halal-1 well (Garfunkel & Derin
1984; Derin & Gerry 1986a).
The accumulation of a thick sedimentary section
in the Pleshet Basin and in the graben NE of the
Jonah High (Fig. 3a, b) may be partly attributed to
Triassic tectonic activity although no well control is
available to confirm this hypothesis. It is further
unknown whether the Levant Basin was a deep
marine basin during Triassic time. Pelagic Triassic
strata is found in outcrops at Antalya (southern
Turkey) and in the Mammonia blocks (Cyprus)
(Druckman et al. 1982; Robertson 2000; Robertson
& Xonophontos 1993), suggesting the development
of deep-marine conditions north of the Levant (Gar-
funkel 1998; Robertson 1998, 2007). On the other
hand, the Triassic section of the Levant onshore is
characterized by shallow-marine to continental
environments. The continuous, high-amplitude
reflections that characterize the Palaeozoic to
Middle Jurassic interval on offshore seismic profiles
(Figs 710) may be interpreted as shallow-marine,
23
shelf deposits. It is, therefore, likely that the Triassic
Tethyan rifting did not result with the development
of a deep-water oceanic realm in the studied area.
Early to Middle Jurassic
Activation of Tethyan rift structures during the
Early to Middle Jurassic took place throughout the
Levant region. More than 3 km of Liassic strata
were deposited at the central part of the Judea
Graben near the Ramallah-1 well (Figs 2a & 3a).
Further to the NW the Asher Basin (Figs 2a & 3c)
accumulated c. 2.5 km thick section of Liassic
basalts and pyroclasts (Asher volcanics). The
Deborah-2 well, located on the edge of the Asher
Basin (Figs 2a & 3c), penetrated c. 200 m of the
Asher volcanics and only c. 1 km thick Liassic to
Bathonian section. Whereas, increased thickness
of the Bajocian and Bathonian strata is found in out-
crops at Mount Hermon (Goldberg et al. 1981;
Hirsch et al. 1998). These thickness variations
suggest segmented subsidence at the northern part
of the Judea Graben (Fig. 2a) during Early to
Middle Jurassic time.
Reduced thickness of the Liassic to Bathonian
sections in the Maanit, Gaash-Meged and Gevim
highs (Fig. 3) indicates uplifting of the coastal
area. The vertical offset on the Helez Fault, at the
northwestern edge of the Gevim High amounts to
1.2 km (Figs 3b & 4) (Gardosh & Druckman
2006). In the southern edge of the Judea Graben,
thickness changes of the Ardon and Inmar forma-
tions (Goldberg & Friedman 1974; Druckman
1977; Buchbinder & le Roux 1993) are associated
with EarlyMiddle Jurassic tectonic activity.
Further to the SW, in the North Sinai Basin the
Liassic to Bathonian section is more then 2000 m
thick (Halal-1 well and the Gebel Magahra outcrops;
Druckman 1977; Derin & Gerry 1986a; Alsharhan &
Salah 1996; Hirch et al. 1998), indicating significant
subsidence during the Early to Middle Jurassic
period. The thick sedimentary section in
the Pleshet Basin and in the graben NE of the
Jonah High (Figs 2a & 3a, b) may be partly attribu-
ted to this faulting phase.
Similar to the Triassic conditions it is unknown
whether the Levant Basin was a deep-marine basin
during Early Jurassic time. The lithology of the
Middle Jurassic Shederot Formation in the Yam
West-1 well offshore indicates shallow marine
conditions (Gardosh et al. 2006, 2008). Likewise,
shallow-marine to fluvio-deltaic depositional
environments characterize the Lower to Middle
Jurassic section throughout the Levant onshore.
Continuous, high-amplitude seismic reflections
found below the Middle Jurassic unconformity in
offshore seismic profiles are interpreted as shelf
carbonate (Fig. 8). This raises the possibility that
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at University of St Andrews on January 16, 2014
24 M. A. GARDOSH ET AL.
the Jurassic rift structures of the Levant area devel-
oped on a continental to shallow-marine platform.
Deeper-marine conditions may have locally
prevailed in parts of the Pleshet Basin and in other
offshore structural lows, accompanied by growth
of carbonate buildups on the adjacent Jonah,
Leviathan and Eratosthenes highs.
The Early Jurassic rifting phase was associated
with extensive magmatic activity. Extrusive
magmatic rocks were penetrated by wells in the
Asher Basin at northern Israel (Asher Volcanics)
(Dvorkin & Kohn 1989; Kohn et al. 1993). Mag-
netic anomalies that are interpreted to be associated
with Early Jurassic volcanism are found in the
Eratosthenes and Jonah highs offshore (Fig. 2)
(Zverev & Ilinsky 2000, 2005; Gardosh et al.
2006, 2008). A large magnetic anomaly found
within the Judea Graben in central Israel (Fig. 2a)
is also interpreted to be associated with Early Juras-
sic magmatic activity, probably of a more intrusive
nature (Garfunkel 1989; Rybakov et al. 1995).
The activity of the Levant rift system ceased
during the Middle to Upper Jurassic period.
The Oxfordian Cimmerian and the younger,
Cretaceous section in the inner part of the Levant
show minor thickness variations indicating tectonic
quiescence. At this time conspicuous, carbonate
shelf-edge developed on the eastern part of the
Levant Basin, along the present-day Mediterranean
coast, and large volumes of deepwater siliciclastics
and carbonates were deposited on the slope further
to the west (Cohen 1976; Bein & Gvirtzman 1977;
Gardosh 2002). This accumulation of deepwater
sediments within the Levant basin is associated
with post-rift subsidence, caused by cooling of
newly formed crustal units (Garfunkel & Derin
1984; ten Brink 1987; Gardosh 2002).
Tectonic reconstruction
The Tethyan tectonic reconstruction of the Levant
region is controversial. Some important aspects,
such as the timing and location of rifting, are still
under debate (Robertson & Mountrakis 2006).
Several models have been proposed for the rifting
direction and structural style (Fig. 11). Dewey
et al. (1973), Bein & Gvirtzman (1977), Robertson
& Dixon (1984), Stampfli & Borel (2002), and
others, suggested a NE SW opening in the Levant
Basin that was accommodated by a major north
south oriented transform fault along the eastern
Mediterranean coast (eastern transform margins)
(Fig. 11a). According to Robertson (1998), the
Levant margin represents either an orthogonally
rifted or a transform margin. Garfunkel & Derin
(1984) proposed rifting and extension in a NW
SE direction that resulted in separation of the Era-
tosthenes and Tauride blocks from the Gondwanian
Craton and was accommodated by a transform fault
along the Sinai coast (southern transform margin)
(Fig. 11b). Hirsch et al. (1995) described a north
south oriented extension on a Gondwanian shallow
shelf with no reference to a specific fault pattern.
According to the present analysis, the dominant
direction of the normal faults offshore and onshore
Israel and in northern Sinai is NE SW to ENE
WSW (Fig. 2a). This direction indicates extension
that is perpendicular to the strike of the normal
faults, in a NW SE and NNWSSE direction
as proposed by Garfunkel & Derin (1984) and
Garfunkel (1998) (Fig. 11d). The NW SE direction
of the extension in the Levant Basin implies an
accommodating transform fault somewhere along
its southern margin. It is unlikely that such a fault
extended along northern Sinai, as this area appears
to have been dominated by a NWSE extension
(Fig. 2a). Alternatively, a southern transform fault
may have been located along the African coast
west of the Nile Delta (Fig. 11d), as shown by
Bentham et al. (2007). Minor, transfer fault zones
may also have existed within the Levant Basin
(Bentham et al. 2007). An apparent, left-stepping
offset in the northern edge of the Jonah ridge
(Fig. 2b) can be explained by such a fault.
The existence of eastern transform margin,
which requires north south direction of extension
in the Levant Basin and a strike-slip fault along
the Levant coast (Fig. 11a) (Dewey et al. 1973;
Stampfli & Borel 2002), is not consistent with the
structures and fault directions that are identified
within the Levant Basin. Furthermore, this model
can not explain the formation of the coastal highs
and the interior basins of the Levant that are
located east of the presumed Levant transform fault.
An additional important aspect of the tectonic
reconstruction is the timing of activity of Tethyan
structures. Previous views advocated a time span
ranging from Carboniferous to Permo-Triassic
(Stampfli et al. 2001), Late Permian to Late Triassic
(Robertson 1998), Triassic to Liassic (Garfunkel
1998) and Triassic and Late Jurassic to Early
Cretaceous (Hirsch et al. 1995). The present analy-
sis indicates three main phases of activity. Vertical
motions started in several locations during the
Late Palaeozoic, either in the Permian or the Car-
boniferous (Fig. 11c), continued during the Middle
and Late Triassic, and climaxed in the Early Jurassic
(Fig. 11d) when most of the structures were active
and magmatic activity was widespread. Although
the intensity of the faulting significantly decreased
towards the Middle Jurassic it appears that some
activity continued through the Bathonian and poss-
ibly later, till the early Late Jurassic. According to
the time frame described above, Tethyan rifting in
the Levant was pulsated, and extended over a
period of more then 120 Ma. Its initiation may
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TETHYAN RIFTING IN THE LEVANT BASIN AND MARGIN 25

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Fig. 11. Several, alternative tectonic reconstructions of Tethyan rifting in the Levant region. Two, previously proposed
models are: (a) after Dewey et al. (1973) and Stampfli & Borel (2002), showing north south extension with eastern
transform margin and (b) after Garfunkel & Derin (1984) and Garfunkel (1998), showing NWSE extension with
southern transform margin. The reconstructions in (c) and (d) are based on the present study. Tethyan rifting activity on
the northern edge of Gondwana was pulsed and progressed from the Late Palaeozoic (c) to Early Jurassic (d). The
southeastern part of the Mediterranean region was not affected by sea-floor spreading during rifting. Oceanic lithosphere
was formed further to the north and NW, between the Eratosthenes block and the Taurid micro-continent, as indicated by
ophiolitic complexes found in Antalya, Mamonia and Baer-Bassit. ER, Eratosthenes block; AN, Antalya; MA,
Mamonia; PA, Palmyra; BB, Baer-Bassit.

have been contemporaneous with the time of
opening of the Palaeotethys whereas its most
active phase took place during the development of
the Neotethys ocean (Robertson 2007).
The available well and seismic data suggest that
break-up took place in an intra-continental setting.
There is no evidence for the development of a deep-
marine basin in the Levant region throughout the
Late Palaeozoic to Middle Jurassic. Deep marine
conditions were established within the Levant
Basin in the Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous, a
period considered by most authors to be associated
with post-rift cooling and subsidence (Garfunkel
& Derin 1984; ten Brink 1987; Gardosh 2002). On
the other hand, north of the study area (Cyprus,
NW Syria and southern Turkey), there is a record
of deep-marine conditions already in the Triassic
(Robertson 1998; Garfunkel 1998). Available data
do not allow assessing the nature of the transition
from these areas to the Levant.
Perhaps the most problematic aspect of the
Tethyan tectonic reconstruction is the effect of rift-
ing processes on the shaping of the Levant crust.
This subject is discussed in the following chapter.
Shaping of the Levant crust during rifting
The deep structure of the Levant
continental margin
The deep structure of the Levant was investigated by
several wide-angle seismic refraction tests, shot
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26 M. A. GARDOSH ET AL.

onshore (Ginzburg & Folkman 1980; Weber et al.
2004) and offshore Israel (Makris et al. 1983;
Ben-Avraham et al. 2002; Netzeband et al. 2006).
Although differing in some details, their results
provide a consistent picture of the crustal properties,
summarized in Figure 12. The refraction profiles
show that the depth to the Moho decreases from
about 30 35 km underneath southern Israel to
about 2022 km in the central part of the Levant
Basin offshore (Fig. 12) (Makris et al. 1983;
Ben-Avraham et al. 2002; Netzeband et al. 2006).
A corresponding change was observed in the
seismic velocities and thickness of the crust below
the sedimentary cover. In southern Israel the crust
is 25 35 km thick and is separated to an upper
(Vp 6.26.4 km/s) and a lower (Vp 6.7 km/s)
layer (Fig. 10) (Makris et al. 1983; Ben-Avraham
et al. 2002; Weber et al. 2004), whereas in the
Levant Basin it is only 8 10 km thick. Makris
et al. (1983) and Ben-Avraham et al. (2002)
interpreted one crustal unit in the Levant Basin
with seismic velocity of 6.7 km/s. Netzeband
et al. (2006) recently interpreted a thin (23 km)
upper (Vp 6.06.3 km/s) and a lower
(Vp 6.56.8 km/s) layers (Fig. 12).
A change in crustal properties is observed further
to the west. In the Eratosthenes area, the depth to the
Moho increases to 2628 km and its thickness to
23 km (Fig. 12) (Makris et al. 1983; Ben-Avraham
et al. 2002; Netzeband et al. 2006). Makris et al.
(1983) interpreted an upper (Vp 6.0 km/s) and
lower (Vp 6.7 km/s) layers underneath the sea-
mount (Fig. 12), whereas Zverev & Ilinsky (2000,
2005) suggest a more complex layering pattern of
high and low velocity layers ranging from 5.3 to
7.7 km/s.
In the Galilee area of northern Israel, Ben-
Avraham & Ginzburg (1990) interpreted a
20 25 km thick crust below the sedimentary
cover. The relatively thinner crust of this area, in
comparison to southern Israel, is associated with
a uniform seismic velocity of 6.16.5 km/s
(Ginzburg & Folkman 1980).
The change in the crustal properties is indicated
also by gravity data. The regional Bouguer gravity
map (Fig. 2c) shows negative anomaly associated
with a lighter, continental type crust south and east
of the Mediterranean coastline and a positive
anomaly associated with a denser crust in the Levant
Basin (Rybakov et al. 1997; Rybakov & Al-
Zoubi 2005). A similar, although less pronounced,
change is observed from southern Israel northward
(Fig. 2c).
It is reasonable to assume that the variations in
thickness and velocity of the Levant crust are
related to the Tethyan break-up and rifting activity.

NW Eratosthenes Levant Levant coastline Negev SE

Seamount Basin Slope
0 0
Pliocene
Messinian Jur.-Cret.
Cenozoic
6.26.4 km/s
10 6 km/s Precambrian 10
Plz.-Tr. Jur.
6.06.3 km/s
Jur. Volcanic(?) Intruded upper crust Upper continental crust
Depth (km)

6.56.8 km/s
20 6.7 km/s 20
7.88 km/s Lower continental crust

Mantle 6.7 km/s

30 30

0 50 km 7.9 km/s
40 40

Fig. 12. Crustal scale section across the Levant Basin and margin, from southern Israel (SE) to the Erathosthenes
seamount (NW); adapted from Garfunkel (1998). Structure and stratigraphy in the upper crust are taken from
sections a and b in Figure 3 of this study; crustal thickness and seismic velocities are based on wide-angle seismic
refraction tests (see details in text). The total crustal thinning along this section is considerably larger than the
extension produced by the high-angle faults in the upper crust, indicating an extension discrepancy (see details in text).
Depth-dependant-stretching derived by upwelling, divergent mantle flow (schematically shown by curved arrows) is
associated with mobilization of the lower crust and part of the upper crust, along low-angle detachment surfaces (thick
dashed line). The thinned crust in the centre of the Levant Basin is interpreted as the remaining, attenuated Upper
continental crust that is heavily intruded by mantle material. In the Eratosthenes seamount, relatively thick crust with
low seismic velocity and conspicuous magnetic anomaly may be explained by the existence of a large volcanic edifice of
Early Mesozoic age. See location of the cross-section in Figure 2c.
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TETHYAN RIFTING IN THE LEVANT BASIN AND MARGIN 27

Crustal thinning, subsidence, and accumulation of basement (Figs 7 & 9). With this new information,
thick sedimentary wedges that are observed in the it is possible to estimate the amount of extension
Levant area, characterize rifted, continental that was produced by brittle deformation during
margin settings. It is, therefore, useful to discuss Tethyan rifting activity.
the evolution of the Levant margin with regards to The amount of extension is estimated from the
other margins worldwide. geometry of the faults that displace the Palaeozoic
and Mesozoic strata along the regional cross-section
shown in Figure 12. There are 26 main fault zones
A global perspective on passive continental in the area extending from southern Israel to the
margin formation eastern edge of the Eratosthenes block (Fig. 12).
These fault zones are comprised of normal faults
It is generally accepted that passive continental
that bound Tethyan grabens and horsts and reverse
margins are created as a result of rifting causing
faults that are assumed to be reactivated Tethyan
extension and often also magmatism that leads
rift structures. By using the amount of apparent
to breakup of continents and separation of their frag-
dip slip on these faults we estimate the cumulative
ments, followed by the formation of deep marine
lateral displacement to be in the range of 67 km.
basins and an oceanic crust along the margins
The length of the section is 360 km (Fig. 12); there-
of the separating continental fragments. Rifted
fore, the amount of extension is about 2%. On the
continental margins form transition zones between
same section the crystalline crust thins from
thick, relatively undisturbed continental crust and
southern Israel to the centre of the Levant Basin
a newly formed, thin oceanic crust outboard.
by 75% (Fig. 12). Clearly, the overall crustal thin-
Based largely on the study of the central and north-
ning largely exceeds an extension produced by
ern Atlantic, two margin types were distinguished:
brittle deformation.
volcanic and non-volcanic (Robertson 2007).
It should be noted that our 2D estimation of fault
Volcanic margins contain large volumes of intrusive
related extension is highly simplified and it is
and/or extrusive igneous rocks and are character-
reasonable to assume that more faults actually
ized by seaward-dipping seismic reflectors (SDR).
exist. However, even increasing the amount of
The Greenland and the Norwegian margins of the
faults and their vertical displacement by a factor
north Atlantic are good examples (Planke et al.
of 23 would not fundamentally change the above
2000). Non-volcanic margins generally lack
relations. It is, therefore, concluded that, similar to
extrusive igneous rocks, contain exhumed Upper
many other margins worldwide, the Levant conti-
mantle material, and are characterized by large
nental margin displays an extension discrepancy.
rotated fault blocks. A typical example is the
Extension discrepancy at continental margins
Iberian margin of the eastern Atlantic (Montadert
may be explained by partitioning of extension
et al. 1979). Breakup and separation of continental
with depth, also termed depth-dependent-stretching
fragments, which move at large angles to the trend
(DDS) (Driscoll & Karner 1998; Reston 2007).
of the initial rift, provide a suitable tectonic setting
Davis & Kusznir (2004) and Kusznir & Karner
for thinning of the lithosphere along newly formed
(2007) proposed that the mechanism that produces
continental margins of these two types.
DDS is upwelling and divergence of continental
Recent studies of many rifted continental
lithosphere and asthenosphere. These authors
margins, both volcanic and non-volcanic, reveal
applied a fluid-flow model for deformation of con-
an important characteristic; a so-called extension
tinental lithosphere and based on their modelling
discrepancy (Reston 2007). Studies from
results concluded that an upwelling, divergent
the Newfoundland and Iberia margins of the north
flow may cause thinning, followed by breakup,
Atlantic (Reston 2007), the northwestern Australian
rifting and sea-floor spreading. Variations in the
margin (Driscoll & Karner 1998), the Norwegian
form and velocity of the divergent flow may lead
margin (Kusznir et al. 2004), and other areas,
to diversity of a rifted continental margin structure
show that the extension and thinning of the whole
(Kusznir & Karner 2007).
crust and lithosphere greatly exceeds that of the
Can the DDS model be used to explain the exten-
upper crust.
sion discrepancy of the Levant continental margin?
To further discuss this issue two regions are distin-
Extension discrepancy in the Levant margin guished. The first region is the present-day coastal
area and nearby slope (Fig. 12). There, the crystal-
The variations in thickness of the Levant crust are line crust resembles the crust further inland in its
well documented by wide-angle refraction profiles, two-fold seismic-velocity structure, although the
as described above (Fig. 12). The new, offshore upper and lower crustal units become notably
seismic reflection data allow imaging the entire thinner in this area compared with the normal conti-
Levant basin-fill down to the top of the crystalline nental crust farther inland. The second region is
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at University of St Andrews on January 16, 2014
28 M. A. GARDOSH ET AL.
the basin outboard the base of the continental slope
(Fig. 12). There, the crystalline crust is thin and
its average Vp is higher than the Vp of a typical
continental crust, although in a relatively thin
layer at its top the Vp may resemble that of an
upper continental crust (Netzeband et al. 2006).
The coastal area and nearby slope
Here the crust is thinned by a factor of 1.21.3. If
thinning was the result of uniform stretching of the
entire crust, then this should have been expressed
by fault structures in its brittle upper part. Seismic
reflection data reveal faulting (i.e. the coastal
highs and the Pleshet Basin) but as noted previously
the extension that it produces is quite inadequate to
account for the observed thinning. As the uppermost
crust was hardly stretched, one should look for
processes at greater depth.
Igneous activity is a likely process. Early Meso-
zoic volcanic rocks were found in several wells
close to the Levant margin and offshore magnetic
anomalies are probably caused by coeval volcanic
activity that is widespread in the Eastern Mediterra-
nean region. An important indication for the nature
of this activity is provided by the Gevim quartz-
porphyry in the Helez Deep-1well (Fig. 4). This is
c. 200 m thick, fine-grained volcanic unit of Permo-
Triassic age (Segev 2005). The significant feature
of these rocks is their high initial 87Sr/86Sr.
Steinitz (1980) found I 0.7100 + 0.029 (age
244 + 44 Ma); Segev and Eshet (2003) reinter-
preted these data (rejecting one of the results)
and proposed I 0.7075 + 0.0034 (age 275+
47 Ma). These values show that the volcanics were
formed by heating and melting of older mid-crustal
rocks by a large intrusion of basic magma. Magma
ascent was probably arrested below the cold low-
density upper crust. Although the size of this pre-
sumed igneous body cannot be determined, it
seems unlikely to have been an isolated feature,
because magma formation is expected, by its
nature, to occur in a region of substantial size.
These considerations raise the possibility that
hidden igneous intrusions are present in other
places along the Levant margin. Their distribution
can not be inferred from the known extent of vol-
canism. Neither can it be revealed by seismic reflec-
tion or refraction data. Deep intrusions are expected
to heat and thus weaken the lower crust and
underlying mantle.
The existence of magma intrusions on the Levant
margin supports the upwelling mantle flow model of
Kusznir & Karner (2007). The weakened lower
crust may have been stretched and thinned beneath
the little deformed, cold uppermost crust resulting
with DDS (Fig. 12). Reston (2007) noted that
explaining the extension discrepancy by DDS
requires that the lower crust has somehow been dis-
placed away. Such displacement may be produced
by shear along low-angle detachment (Reston
1993; Driscoll & Karner 1998) or by necking or
boudinage of the lower crust (Reston 2007). Decou-
pling of the crust by shear has been inferred from
seismic reflection data in the North Sea (Reston
1993). The existence of deep shear zones on the
Levant margin is postulated (Fig. 12), though it
can not be proved or disproved owing to insufficient
seismic data.
The basinal domain
The main features of this domain, at the central part
of the Levant Basin (Fig. 12) are the small thickness
of the underlying crystalline crust and its high
seismic velocity compared with normal continental
crust. Shaping of this crust by uniform stretching
is not compatible with either the minor brittle
deformation observed in its upper part or with its
high average Vp.
Here also, crustal thinning may be explained by
upwelling of a divergent mantle flow, as suggested
by the DDS model (Fig. 12). Kusznir & Karner
(2007) showed that a thinned upper crust lying
directly on the mantle, as observed in the centre of
the Levant Basin, is predicted by their upwelling
divergent flow model, and can occur with pausing
of the flow field prior to its reaching the surface.
Similar to the coastal area, the complete displace-
ment of the lower crust within the basin may have
been produced by various types of decoupling
mechanisms (Fig. 12) (Reston 2007). The higher
velocity of the crust in this area is an expected
result of the addition of basic intrusions from
the postulated upwelling mantle, since their Vp is
higher than that of normal lower continental crust.
The Red Sea analogue
The processes that shaped the present-day northern
Red Sea (Fig. 1) may provide modern analogues
for the formation of the Levant basin. The Red
Sea is an active rift system that formed by
break-up of the continental lithosphere beginning
in the Late Oligocene, leading to sea-floor spreading
by about 5 Ma (Cochran 2005; Cochran & Karner
2007; and references therein). Two parts of this
rift system are distinguished: (a) the southern Red
Sea, where an oceanic sea-floor spreading centre
that produces new crust with oceanic magnetic
anomalies has developed, and (b) the northern Red
Sea where organized sea-floor spreading is not
observed (Gaulier et al. 1988; Martinez &
Cochran 1988).
Seismic refraction data show that the northern
Red Sea is characterized by a thin crust (78 km)
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at University of St Andrews on January 16, 2014
TETHYAN RIFTING IN THE LEVANT BASIN AND MARGIN
with low, continental type seismic velocities
(Vp 6.26.3 km/s), that overlies the mantle
(Gaulier et al. 1988). Large-amplitude, linear
gravity highs and lows observed in the northern
Red Sea are interpreted as series of crustal-scale
fault blocks that are oriented sub-parallel to the
trend of the rift. Small, scattered magnetic anomalies
are interpreted as axial volcanoes (Martinez &
Cochran 1988; Cochran & Karner 2007).
The physical characteristics of the Levant Basin
are similar to those of the northern Red Sea, except
for the somewhat higher velocity of the crust. It is,
therefore, possible that the two basins were
formed in a similar manner. Martinez & Cochran
(1988) suggest that extension of the northern Red
Sea is accommodated by block rotation at the
upper crust and ductile flow within the lithosphere
but no explanation for the complete removal of the
lower crust, as observed by refraction data
(Gaulier et al. 1988) is presented. Given the large
separation between the two sides of the northern
Red Sea rift that amounts to 130 150 km and the
small number of fault blocks (Martinez & Cochran
1988; Cochran & Karner 2007), it is most likely
that extension discrepancy occurs in this basin.
An alternative model for the evolution of the
northern Red Sea may be DDS, associated with
some brittle deformation in the upper crust and
removal of the lower crust by an upwelling mantle
flow. Upwelling of magma in the basin is supported
by the existence of small magnetic anomalies that
are interpreted as extrusive igneous rocks,
exposures of young basalts along segments of the
basin axis, and by the very high-heat flow
(Cochran & Karner 2007).
It is worthwhile discussing the relations between
the north and south parts of the Red Sea. Martinez &
Cochran (1988) and Cochran (2005) proposed that
the two parts of the rift represent different stages
of evolution and with continued extension and
magmatism, organized sea-floor spreading will
eventually take place in the northern Red Sea. An
alternative model suggested by Cocharan &
Karner (2007) postulates that the two regions
develop differently owing to differences in litho-
sphere rheology and it is possible that an oceanic
spreading centre will not develop in the northern
part. The two models reflect on the regional
context of the analogous Levant Basin. Similarly,
this basin may have developed differently than
other rifted Tethyan domains owing to an inhomo-
geneous lithosphere.
Discussion and conclusions
Rift structures of the Palaeozoic to Early Mesozoic
age were previously recognized in well and seismic
29
data in the inland part of the Levant region. New, 2D
seismic reflection profiles reveal similar structures
in the Levant Basin offshore Israel. Integration of
the onshore and offshore data allows reconstructing
the pattern of this important rifting phase. Several
fault belts that are generally oriented in a NESW
direction, more or less parallel to the present-
day coastline, are identified (Fig. 2a): (a) the inner
basins, (b) the highs along the Mediterranean coast-
line, (c) the offshore highs and lows and (d) the
Eratosthenes high.
The fault belts comprise a broad zone of exten-
sion and rifting, more than 400 km wide, from
southern Israel to the far offshore (Fig. 2a).
Seismic and gravity data indicate that this zone
extends further to the SW and north, below the
Nile Delta and northern Egypt (Aal et al. 2000;
Bentham et al. 2007) as well as onshore and off-
shore Lebanon (Walley 1998; Roberts & Peace
2007). The extensional structures of the Levant
form part of a series of rifted margins that developed
on the northern edge of Gondwana and are found
today in a wide region extending from North
Africa to northern India (Robertson 2007).
The distribution of structures within the Tethyan
rift belt of the Levant suggests an extension in a
NW SE direction. This extension was probably
accommodated by the transform-rifted margin in
western Egypt and North Africa (Garfunken &
Derin 1984; Bentham et al. 2007). An alternative
model of north south oriented extension and
transform-rifted margin along the Levant coast
(Dewey et al. 1973; Robertson & Dixon 1984;
Stampfli & Borel 2002) is not compatible with the
direction and style of deformation observed
throughout the Levant.
Tethyan rifting in the Levant was pulsated and
accentuated during three periods: Late Palaeozoic,
Triassic and Early Jurassic (Garfunkel & Derin
1984; Garfunkel 1998). Evidence for Permian
differential motions is found in well and seismic
data from the Palmyra Trough (Sawaf et al. 2001)
and the Gevim High near the Mediterranean coast
(Figs 2a, 4 & 5). A small basin found NE of the
Gevim structure (Fig. 5) may have formed prior to
the deposition of the Upper Permian Arqov For-
mation, possibly implying Carboniferous to Early
Permian time of activity. The great thickness of
the sedimentary fill in the Pleshet Basin and other
Tethyan lows offshore may be better explained
by initiation of subsidence during the Late Palaeo-
zoic period.
In other parts of northern Gondwana, evidence
for Permian breakup and rifting that was followed
by the creation of oceanic crust is found in Oman
and North India (Robertson 2007). Robertson
(2006) recently identified deepwater, siliciclastic
turbidites of MidLate Carboniferous to Early
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at University of St Andrews on January 16, 2014
30 M. A. GARDOSH ET AL.
Permian age in western Sicily and Crete and
suggested that a deep-marine rift opened along the
northern margin of Gondwana during this time. In
summary, Late Palaeozoic rifting in the Levant
area may have been more extensive and started
earlier then previously considered. This rifting
pulse produced vertical motions and some exten-
sion, but there is no evidence for significant
magmatic activity and the formation of an oceanic
crust as suggested by Stampfli et al. (2001).
A second rifting pulse took place in the Triassic,
activating the inner basins, the coastal highs, and the
offshore highs and lows (Figs 2a & 3). Well data
indicates two faulting episodes: during the Anizian
(i.e. the syn-tectonic Erez Conglomerate in Helez
Deep-1 well) and the Carnian (i.e. the Mohilla
Evaporites). Although, these may reflect one pulse
that gradually intensified towards the end of the
Triassic. Minor magmatic activity is indicated by
Triassic volcanic rocks found in wells at the
Negev and Palmyrides areas (Segev 2005).
In other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean,
Triassic deep-water sediments and extensive vol-
canism, in places of mid-ocean range (MOR) type
were found in the Baer Bassit ophiolitic section
of northern Syria, in the Antalya Complex of SW
Turkey and in the Mamonia Complex of western
Cyprus (Fig. 11) (Robertson 1998, 2007). These
indicate the formation of well developed rifted con-
tinental margins and deep-marine basins. The
BaerBassit section was located on the northern
Gondwana margin whereas the Antalya and
Mamonia Complexes formed the southern margin
of the Tauride micro-continental block, at the oppo-
site side of the Southern Tethys Ocean
(Fig. 11) (Robertson 2007). In the Levant area,
there is no indication for MOR type volcanism and
the existence of a deep-marine basin during the
Triassic. The lack of continental margin character-
istics suggests that a deep Tethyan ocean did not
extend as far south as the Levant.
The most significant rifting pulse took place in
the Levant during the Early Jurassic. Evidence for
large-scale vertical motions and alkaline volcanism
(i.e. Asher volcanics) are found throughout
the Levant rift belt (Figs 2, 3 & 11d ), except for
the Palmyra Trough that was not active during this
time. The Early Jurassic tectonic pulse appears to
be particularly significant in the Levant region.
Other rifted margins of northern Gondwana
that were formed in the Permo-Triassic (i.e.
BaerBassit, Antalya, Mamonia) continued to
subside, although rift-related activity and volcanism
generally ceased (Robertson 2007).
The time and style of rifting activity in the
Levant are relatively well constrained by outcrop,
well and seismic data. The effects of this activity
on the shaping of the Levant crust are less well
understood and still being argued. The Levant
Basin and adjacent coastal area are described by
many authors as Mesozoic, passive continental
margin (Bein & Gvirtzman 1977; Makris et al.
1983; Garfunkel & Derin 1984; ten Brink 1987;
Ben-Avraham et al. 2002; Gardosh 2002). There
are two main lines of evidence: (a) the marked
westward thinning of the crust (Fig. 12) and (b)
the formation of a shelf-edge and the accumulation
of deepwater section within the Levant Basin during
the Late Jurassic to Middle Cretaceous. Breakup and
rifting that was followed by post-rift subsidence
provides a tectonic framework to explain the for-
mation of the Levant continental margins. In this
framework two alternative models may be conside-
red: (a) riftingdrifting and (b) DDS.
The riftingdrifting model postulates breakup
and separation between the African craton and the
Eratosthenes seamount, which is assumed to be
rooted in a continental crust. This separation was
presumably followed by formation of a new crust
with oceanic affinities in the centre of the Levant
Basin. The rifting drifting model raises several dif-
ficulties. There is no convincing geophysical evi-
dence for the existence of an oceanic crust in the
basin centre. The seismic velocity of the thin crust
within the Levant Basin is not typically oceanic
and in its upper part the velocity is similar to that
of an upper continental crust (Fig. 12) (Netzeband
et al. 2006). Linear magnetic anomalies that
are characteristic of sea-floor spreading in other
oceans are not observed. On the other hand, seismic
reflection data show that Tethyan rift structures are
preserved and the seismic characteristics of an
oceanic crust are missing (Gardosh & Druckman
2006). Additionally, the coastal and slope area
lack features that are found in other rifted continen-
tal margin such as: seaward-dipping-reflections
(volcanic margin) or rotated continental blocks
(non-volcanic margin). Finally, a comparison of
the amount of brittle deformation in the upper
crust to the overall crustal thinning reveals a
considerable extension discrepancy that is not
explained by the riftingdrifting model.
An alternative model for the evolution of the
Levant margin may be DDS, derived by an upwel-
ling, divergent mantle flow (Fig. 12) (Kuzsnir &
Karner 2007). Mantle flow may explain thinning
by removal of the lower crust and part of the
upper crust (Hirsch et al. 1995). However, it
also requires decoupling and shearing between the
displaced crustal units (Reston 2007). Some brittle
deformation in the remaining upper crust is compa-
tible with the DDS model, assuming a pause of the
flow field prior to its reaching the surface (Kuzsnir
& Karner 2007). Intrusions from the mantle flow
may explain the higher velocity at the lower part
of the crust in the centre of the basin. Early
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at University of St Andrews on January 16, 2014
TETHYAN RIFTING IN THE LEVANT BASIN AND MARGIN
Mesozoic intrusive and extrusive rocks found in
wells along the Levant margin further indicate
upwelling of mantle material.
A modern analogue for the Mesozoic Levant
Basin is the northern part of the Red Sea. In this
rift basin, the DDS model may be similarly
applied to explain crustal thinning in the absence
of sea-floor spreading. Cochran & Karner (2007)
speculated that, unlike the southern Red Sea, an
oceanic spreading centre may not develop in its
northern part. Similarly, in the Levant Basin,
rifting activity stopped at an early magmatic stage
(Gardosh & Druckman 2006). It is unclear why sea-
floor spreading that took place further to the north
and west (Robertson 1998, 2007) did not occur in
the Levant area. Possibly, it is related to variations
in lithospheric properties or in the pattern of deep
mantle convection. In any case, given the above
considerations, the Mesozoic Levant Basin may be
considered as a failed breakup basin (Kusznir &
Karner 2007) somewhat similar to the aborted rift
system proposed by Hirsch et al. (1995).
Application of the DDS model implies that the
amount of drifting in the Levant Basin was
limited. In this framework, breakup from the
Gondwanian craton and northward motion of the
Eratosthenes block is not required. The seamount
may constitute a Mesozoic volcanic edifice rooted
within the same modified continental crust that is
found in other parts of the basin (Zverev & Ilinsky
2005).
The DDS model may be applied also to the areas
of the Galilee and southern Lebanon. The reduced
thickness (c. 14 16 km) and high velocity of the
crystalline crust and the higher Bouguer gravity
anomaly in this area (Fig. 2c) bear similarity to the
Levant Basin. The modification of the northern
Levant crust during Tethyan rifting (Asher and
Hermon basins) is an alternative model to accretion
of oceanic terranes that is related to the closure of
the Palaeo-Tethys, as proposed by Ben-Avraham &
Ginzburg (1990).
Well data from southern and central Israel show
that during the Late Palaeozoic, Triassic and Early
Jurassic rifting phases the Levant region was
dominated by continental to shallow-marine
environments. The seismic character of the marine
reflection lines and the lithology of the Middle
Jurassic strata in the offshore Yam West-1 well
suggest that shallow marine conditions prevailed
also during rifting in the area of the Levant Basin.
On the other hand, the attenuation and thinning of
the crust within the basin, either by riftingdrifting
or DDS, should have resulted with subsidence and
increase in water depth. At the present state of
knowledge, this apparent disagreement is not
resolved and requires further analysis of the basins
subsidence history.
31
Finally, Robertson (2007) noted that none of the
Tethyan-rifted margins that developed in northern
Gondwana show the ideal margin characteristics
that are observed in the modern oceans. The deep
structure of the Levant area and its complex evol-
ution further demonstrates the diversity of margin
forming processes that remain to be studied in
both recent and ancient examples.
The authors are grateful to Y. Mimran and A. Honigstein
from the Israeli Petroleum Commissioner office for allow-
ing the use the offshore seismic data and for supporting this
study. The comments and suggestions of P. Bentham,
D. Frizon de Lamotte, and an ammoniums reviewer are
greatly appreciated. The authors thank M. Rybakov for
his contribution to this study.
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