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II. Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1665-1675), Dutch seller of clothes & buttons in spare time, he was first to
describe living single cells; results were checked and confirmed by Hooke
A. Saw animalcules in pond water using the scopes of remarkable quality that he made
B. Described various forms of bacteria from tooth scrapings & water in which pepper was soaked
C. Eventually, became celebrity visited by Russia's Peter the Great & the queen of England
III. Cells possess genetic program & the means to use it (a blueprint); encoded in collection of genes
A. Blueprint for constructing cellular structures & ultimately organisms
B. Directions for running cell activities
C. Program for making more cells
IV. Cells are capable of producing more of themselves - mitosis and meiosis
A. Contents of mother cell distributed to 2 daughter cells
B. Before division, genetic material is faithfully copied; each daughter cell gets complete & equal share of genetic
information
C. Usually, daughter cells have roughly equal volume; during egg production, one cell gets most of cytoplasm &
half of genetic material
V. Cells acquire & utilize energy to develop & maintain complexity - photosynthesis & respiration
A. Virtually all energy needed by life arrives from sun
B. This energy is trapped by light-absorbing pigments in photosynthetic cells
C. Light energy turned to chemical energy by photosynthesis; stored in energy-rich carbohydrates
D. Animals get energy prepackaged usually in form of glucose
E. Once in cell, glucose disassembled; most energy is stored as ATP & used to run cell activities
VI. Cells carry out many chemical reactions - sum total of chemical reactions in cells (metabolism); to do this, cells
require enzymes (molecules that greatly increase rate of chemical reactions)
VII. Cells engage in numerous mechanical activities based on dynamic, mechanical changes in cell:
A. Material moved from place to place
B. Structures assembled and disassembled
C. Cells move from place to place
VIII. Cells able to respond to stimuli whether cells are uni- or multicellular - have receptors that sense environment &
initiate responses (move away from object in path or toward nutrient source)
A. Most cells covered with receptors that interact in specific ways with substances in environment
1. Receptors bind to hormones, growth factors, extracellular materials, surfaces of other cells
2. Allow ways for external agents to evoke specific responses in target cells
B. Cells may respond to specific stimuli by:
1. Altering metabolic activities
2. Preparing for cell division
3. Moving from one place to another, or
4. Even committing suicide
D. Cytoplasmic structures - eukaryotes have many; prokaryotes mostly devoid of such structures (except for
infolded bacterial mesosomes & cyanobacteria photosynthetic membranes)
1. Intracytoplasmic communication smaller issue in prokaryotes due to size (diffusion works); in eukaryotes,
interconnected channels/vesicles transport stuff around cell & out of cell
2. Eukaryotes have cytoskeletal elements generally lacking in prokaryotes cell contractility, movement,
support
3. Ribosomes of prokaryotes smaller than those of eukaryotes (essentially same function)
4. Both eukaryotes & prokaryotes may be surrounded by rigid, nonliving cell wall that protects,
but their chemical composition is very different
5. Eukaryotes have more complex locomotor mechanisms prokaryotes have rotating flagella; eukaryotes
have more complex flagella with different mechanism (also cilia & pseudopodia)
E. No mitosis or meiosis in prokaryotes (binary fission instead); prokaryotes proliferate faster (double in 20 - 40
minutes; exchange genetic information via conjugation)
1. In eukaryotes, chromosomes are compacted & separated by mitotic spindle which allows each daughter
cell to get equal genetic material
2. In prokaryotes, no chromosome compaction & no spindle; DNA copies separated by growth of intervening
cell membrane
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3. In conjugation, recipient almost never gets whole chromosome from donor; cell soon reverts to single
chromosome
F. Examples of some eukaryotic organelles and their functions divide the cytoplasm into compartments within
which specialized activities take place
1. Mitochondria (plants & animals) make chemical energy available to fuel cell activities
2. Endoplasmic reticulum (plants & animals) where many cell lipids & proteins are made
3. Golgi complexes (plants & animals) sorts, modifies, transports stuff to specific locations
4. Variety of simple membrane-bound vesicles of varying dimensions plants & animals)
5. Chloroplasts (plants) sites of photosynthesis
6. Single large vacuole (plants) occupies most of cell volume
IV. Prokaryotes not inferior - metabolically very sophisticated & highly evolved
A. Have remained on Earth more than 3 billion years
B. They live on and in eukaryotic organisms, including humans
C. Make almost everything they need; need only simple carbon (only 1 or 2 low MW organic compounds), nitrogen
source(s) & some inorganic ions; some live on only inorganic substances
1. One species found in wells >1000 m below Earth's surface; live on basalt rock & H2 made by inorganic
reactions
2. Even most versatile cells in human require a variety of organic compounds (vitamins, etc.)
D. Bacteria in our large intestine even make some essential dietary ingredients for us
II. ARCHAEA (archaeons or archaebacteria) - groups of primitive bacteria (related DNA sequences); closest relatives of
first cells; live in extremely inhospitable environments (extremophiles)
A. Methanogens - capable of converting CO2 & H2 gases into methane (CH4) gas
B. Halophiles - live in extremely salty environments (Dead Sea & Great Salt Lake)
C. Acidophiles acid-loving prokaryotes that live at pHs as low as 0
D. Thermophiles - live at very high temperatures
1. Hyperthermophiles (ex.: Pyrolobus fumaril) - live in hydrothermal vents of ocean floor; reproduce at
temperatures above 109C & won't grow below 90C
A. To study prokaryotic diversity, cells can be concentrated, their DNA extracted & DNA sequences analyzed
1. All organisms share certain genes (genes for rRNAs or some metabolic pathway enzymes)
2. Sequences of these genes vary species to species
3. Carefully analyze variety of sequences for particular gene in habitat -> tells you the number of species living
in the habitat
B. By carefully analyzing sequences in extracted DNA & comparing sequences to those in known organisms, one
can learn about phylogenetic relationships of these organisms
1. Prokaryotes living in single Yellowstone National Park pool 30% of sequences were from bacteria that could
not be grouped into any of the 14 known divisions in the domain Bacteria
2. Based on such differences, the previously unidentified bacteria were put in 12 new divisions
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Types of Eukaryotic Cells
I. Unicellularity vs. multicellularity - most complex eukaryotic cells are among single-celled protists
A. Protists - must do everything an organism must do to survive; one evolutionary pathway
B. Multicellular organisms exhibit differentiation - different activities conducted by different types of specialized
cells
II. Example of multicellularity & differentiation - cellular slime mold Dictyostelium shows advantages provided by
division of labor among cells
A. During most of life, they are independent amoebas, each a complete, self-sufficient organism
B. If food scarce, stream toward each other & form sluglike aggregate (pseudoplasmodium or slug)
1. Slug migrates slowly over substratum leaving slime trail
2. Previously single organisms now small part of larger, multicellular individual
D. Soon, slug stops moving, rounds up on substratum & extends upward into air
1. Forms elongated fruiting body (sporangium)
2. Sporangium has slender stalk supporting rounded mass of dormant, encapsulated spores
3. Stalk (from prestalk cells) supports spore mass (from prespore cells) above substratum
4. Spores scatter and give rise to next generation of amoebas
III. Differentiation process by which a relatively unspecialized cell becomes highly specialized
A. Fertilized egg develops into many cell types (hundreds) in mature organism
1. Cells specialized for varied functions, have distinctive appearance, carry unique materials
2. Cells have similar organelles but their number, appearance & location may differ & correlate with cell act.
B. Differentiation of each eukaryotic cell depends primarily on signals received from environment
1. Signals, in turn, depend on position of cell within embryo
2. As a result, different cell types acquire distinctive appearance & contain unique materials
C. Despite differences, various cells of multicellular plant or animal are made of similar organelles
1. Mitochondria are found in all cell types, but they may change shape (rounded or highly elongated &
threadlike)
2. Brown adipose cell (main function is generation of heat from chemical energy stored in fat); has numerous
fat droplets & lots of mitochondria where energy conversion occurs
3. Plasma cell specialized for antibody production have relatively small number of mitochondria but
extensive rough endoplasmic where protein synthesis occurs
4. Number, appearance & location of organelles can be correlated with activities of particular cell type
IV. Cell & molecular biology research focuses on small number of representative or model organisms
A. Saccharomycese cerevisiae, a budding yeast
B. Arabadopsis thaliana a mustard plant
C. Caenorhabditis elegans a nematode
D. Drosophila melanogaster a fruit fly
E. Mus musculus a mouse
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C. As cell gets larger, takes too long for diffusion to move substances in and out of active cell
1. Time required for diffusion is proportional to the square of the distance traversed
2. O2 required 100 sec to diffuse 1 m, but 106 times as long to diffuse 1 mm
3. As cell becomes larger, distance from surface to interior gets larger; diffusion time to move things in & out
of metabolically active cell becomes prohibitively long
IV. How do large cells get around the surface area/volume problems? - examples
A. Ostrich egg & others - little living protoplasm spread over top of lots of inert yolk nutrient
B. Giraffe (and other large animal) nerve cells - very long but very small diameter
C. Plant cell interior filled with large fluid-filled vacuole; needs no support, unlike cytoplasm
D. Intestinal epithelium specialized for absorption with microvilli to increase surface area
Viruses
I. Pathogens smaller and, presumably, simpler than smallest bacteria; called viruses
A. Late 1800s - thought infectious diseases caused by bacteria but other agent soon found
1. Sap from sick tobacco plant found to infect other plants while containing no bacteria
2. Sap still infective if forced through filter with pores smaller than smallest known bacteria
3. Infectious agent could not be grown in culture unless living plant cells also present
B. Wendell Stanley, Rockefeller Institute (1935) - tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), a rod-shaped particle was
crystallized & found to be infective; thought to be protein
1. Now know it is a single RNA molecule surrounded by helical shell of protein subunits
C. Viruses responsible for many human diseases, some cancers - come in different shapes, sizes & constructions
AIDS, polio, influenza, cold sores, measles, a few types of cancers
II. Common virus properties - not considered living since need host to reproduce, metabolize, etc.
A. All are obligatory intracellular parasites (must reproduce in host cell [plant, animal, bacteria])
1. Alone, they are unable to reproduce, metabolize or carry on other life-associated activities
2. Thus, they are not considered to be organisms & not considered to be alive
3. Once it has attached & passed through membrane, it can alter host cell activities
C. Has genetic material (single/double stranded DNA or RNA); 3 or 4 genes up to several 100
1. The fewer the genes, the more it relies on enzymes & other proteins encoded by host genes
D. Genetic material surrounded by protein capsule (capsid) usually made up of a specific number of subunits;
efficient (need only a few genes to make capsid)
1. Capsid subunits often organized into polyhedron with planar faces (ex.: 20-sided icosahedron) like adenovirus
which causes mammalian respiratory infections
E. Many animal viruses have capsid surrounded by lipid-containing outer envelope derived from modified host cell
membrane as virus buds from host cell surface (ex.: HIV)
F. Bacterial viruses (bacteriophages) are among most complex T bacteriophages polyhedral head (contains
DNA), cylindrical stalk (injects DNA) & tail fibers (attach to bacteria)
1. Used in key experiments that revealed genetic material structure & properties
G. Viruses have surface proteins that bind to particular host cell surface component (specificity)
1. HIV - glycoprotein of 120,000 dalton MW (gp120) interacts with specific protein (CD4) on surface of certain
white blood cells facilitating virus entry into host cell
2. Viral & host protein interaction determines virus specificity, the hosts it can enter & infect
H. Most viruses have relatively narrow host range (certain cells of certain host like human cold & influenza viruses,
which are only able to infect human respiratory epithelium cells
1. But some can have wide host range, infecting cells from a variety of organs or species - rabies infects variety
of mammalian host species (bats, dogs, humans)
2. Host cell specificity change can have dramatic effect 1918 influenza epidemic killed >20 million people;
flu strain may have been so virulent because it infected many cell types
IV. Effects of integrated provirus depend on type of virus & host cell - up to 1% of human DNA is DNA from proviruses
that infected our ancestors (now just genetic garbage transmitted passively)
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A. Bacterial cells with provirus behave normally until exposed to some stimulus (e. g. UV radiation) that activates
dormant viral DNA
1. Then cells make new virions & lyse releasing viral progeny - bacterial lambda () virus
B. Animal cells with provirus may make new viruses by cell surface budding without lysis HIV
1. Infected cell may stay alive for a period acting as a factory for production of new virions
C. Animal cells with provirus may lose growth & division control -> malignant (tumor viruses)
V. Viral origin
A. Unlikely that viruses present before hosts since they need hosts for reproduction, etc.
B. Since have same genetic language as hosts, they could not have arisen independently as primitive form after
other cells had evolved
C. Probably a degenerate form derived from more complex cellular organism - maybe evolved from small cell
chromosome fragments able to maintain a type of autonomous existence in cell
D. Over time, these autonomous genetic elements acquired protein coat, became infective agents
E. Different viruses likely arose independently from various organisms (genes similar to host genes)
1. Corroboration genes present in each group of viruses are different from those of other groups but similar to
genes within host cells they infect
2. Difficult to find drugs not harmful to human host since viruses use host enzymes
VI. Viruses have virtues - research tool to study host DNA replication/gene expression, insect-killing viruses (pest
control), used to introduce foreign genes into human cells as treatment (gene therapy)
Viroids
I. T. O. Diener, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture (1971) - discovered an agent causing potato spindle-tuber disease; potatoes
get gnarled, cracked
A. Infectious agent was small circular RNA lacking protein coat (viroids)
B. Viroid traits
1. RNAs range from about 240 to 600 nucleotides (10% size of smaller viruses)
2. No evidence that RNA codes for proteins; viroids use host enzymes & proteins completely; ex.: duplication of
viroid RNA in infected cell uses host RNA polymerase II
C. May cause disease by interfering with cell's normal path of gene expression (e. g. monopolize RNA polymerase II
to duplicate viroid RNA)
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