Fragblast 10

Pradeep K. Singh
Amalendu Sinha
Editors

Rock Fragmentation by Blasting contains the papers presented at the 10th

International Symposium on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting (New Delhi, India,
26-29 November 2012), and represents the most advanced forum on blasting
science and technology. The contributions cover all major recent advancements in
blasting and fragmentation, from realistic treatment of the target rock; modelling,
measurement and prediction of blast results; control of blast-induced damage,
to special blast designs applicable to civil construction and demolition projects.
The latest developments on environmental issues associated with blasting
operations such as vibrations, flyrock, and dust are also included.

Rock Fragmentation by Blasting provides the state-of-the-art in explosives

and blasting engineering, and will be a valuable source of information for
researchers and practitioners involved in these areas.

Pradeep K. Singh
Amalendu Sinha
Editors

Fragblast symposium DEF SPINE.indd 1 05-10-2012 15:03:39

 ROCK FRAGMENTATION BY BLASTING

Fragblast10_FM.indd i 10/10/2012 12:17:58 PM

This page intentionally left blank
 PROCEEDINGS OF THE 10TH INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON ROCK FRAGMENTATION BY
BLASTING, NEW DELHI, INDIA, 2629 NOVEMBER 2012

Rock Fragmentation by Blasting

Fragblast 10

Editors
Pradeep K. Singh & Amalendu Sinha
CSIR Central Institute of Mining & Fuel Research, Dhanbad, India

Fragblast10_FM.indd iii 10/10/2012 12:17:59 PM

CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
2013 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Version Date: 20130321

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-203-38767-2 (eBook - PDF)

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been
made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the valid-
ity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright
holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this
form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may
rectify in any future reprint.

Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or uti-
lized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopy-
ing, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the
publishers.

For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http://
www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923,
978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For
organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged.

Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for
identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at
http://www.taylorandfrancis.com
and the CRC Press Web site at
http://www.crcpress.com
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Table of contents

Foreword xi
Organising Institution xiii
Committees xv
Sponsors xvii

Section 1 - Keynotes
Lessons from single-hole blasting in mortar, concrete and rocks 3
F. Ouchterlony & P. Moser
Frontiers and challenges in numerical simulation of the blasting process using the combined
finite discrete element method 15
A. Munjiza, V. Divic & B. Mohanty
Innovations in blast measurement: Reinventing the past 23
A.T. Spathis
Status of characterization of strength and fracture properties of rocks under
dynamic loading 41
K. Xia

Section 2 - Rock Mass Characterisation and Fragmentation

Crack formation in rocks due to action of cemented carbide bits 55
C. Nariseti, B. Mohanty & M. Keskiniva
On the branching-merging mechanism during dynamic crack growth as a major source
of fines in rock blasting 65
F. Ouchterlony & P. Moser
Applied method integrating rock mass in blast design 77
A.C. Sauvage
Limits blast design: Controlling vibration, gas pressure & fragmentation 85
C.K. McKenzie
Blast optimisation through computer modelling of fragmentation, heave and damage 95
P.C. Dare-Bryan, S. Mansfield & J. Schoeman
Use radar reflectivity as possibility for measurements of fragmentation during the blasting 105
C. Drebenstedt & J. Ortuta
Influence of initiation point position on fragmentation by blasting in iron ore 111
Y. Long, M.S. Zhong, Q.M. Xie, X.H. Li, K.J. Song & K. Liao
Fragmentation in production rounds and mill through-put in the Aitik copper mine, a summary
of development projects 20022009 117
F. Ouchterlony, P. Bergman & U. Nyberg
Drilling and blasting technics by underground magnesite mining at Slovakia 129
V. Bauer

Fragblast10_FM.indd v 10/10/2012 12:17:59 PM

 A new tool for homogenization of jointed rock masses using wave propagation analysis 137
H. Gasmi, S. Yahyaoui & E. Hamdi
SPH procedures for failure analysis of circular rock disk under distributed arc loading 145
D. Deb & R. Pramanik

Section 3 - Blast Design

Quantification of the effect of inaccurate drilling on the risk of poor fragmentation
and increased blast hazard 153
E. Sellers, M. Kotze & M. Mthalane
Ultra-high intensity blasting for improved ore comminution 163
G.F. Brent, M.D. Rothery, P.C. Dare-Bryan, S.J. Hawke, R. Gomez & I. Humeres
Development of engineering blasting techniques in China 171
X.G. Wang
Investigation of blast design parameters to optimize fragmentation 181
S.P. Singh & H. Abdul
Causes of toe formation at dragline bench and its remedial measures 187
P.K. Singh, M.P. Roy, A. Sinha, B. Singh & V.K. Singh
Rockbursts provoked by destress blasting in hard coal longwall mining 193
P. Konicek, K. Soucek, L. Stas & A. Przeczek
Burden and spacing influence in ground vibration attenuation at coal overburden blast 203
V.L. Rosenhaim, J.F. Feij, E. Munaretti & J.F. Koppe
The effects of delay time sequence and charge per delay on ground vibration: A case study 207
U. Ozer, A. Karadogan, U. Kalayci, Z. Guclucan & M. Akgul
Numerical simulation for the influence of delay time on the rock fragmentation 213
C. Yi, D. Johansson, U. Nyberg & J. Sjberg
Effect of production blasts on waste dump stability 221
P.K. Singh, M.P. Roy, R.K. Paswan, V.K. Singh, A. Sinha, V.K. Singh, P.K. Sinha & C.P. Singh
Blast optimization at Sindesar Khurd underground mine to improve productivity with
reduced level of vibration 231
A.K. Lal, M. Daripa, A. Kumar, V. Chittora, M.P. Roy & P.K. Singh
ECOFRO, an eco comparison tool for methods of rock fragmentation 241
J.-F. Couvrat, J.-R. Dernoncourt & F. Martareche
Controlling vibrations caused by underground blasts in LKAB Malmberget mine 249
Z.X. Zhang

Section 4 - Blast Modelling

Application of stochastic approach to predict blast movement 257
W.D. Rogers & S.S. Kanchibotla
Modelling the extent of damage from fully coupled explosive charges 267
I. Onederra, J.K. Furtney & E. Sellers
Simple models for the complex process of rock blasting 275
J.K. Furtney, E. Sellers & I. Onederra
Computer modelling of cast blasting to calculate the variability of swell in a muckpile 283
P.C. Dare-Bryan, B. Pugnale & R. Brown
A study of the effect of rock bridges on blast-induced wave propagation in jointed media 295
A. Mortazavi & M. Sharafisafa

vi

Fragblast10_FM.indd vi 10/10/2012 12:17:59 PM

 Piston models for airblast due to the bulk movement of ground 301
D.P. Blair
Modification of the RHT model for enhanced tensile response predictions of geologic materials 309
A.S. Tawadrous, D.S. Preece & J.P. Glenville
A statistical model of fragmentation 325
J. Zimmerling & R. Alkins
Definition of quality of materials fragmented by blast with use of the computer program 335
N.N. Kazakov & A.V. Shlyapin

Section 5 - Blast Monitoring & Instrumentation

A method to determine 3-D dynamic strain tensor based on displacement gradients
from blast vibration and field test results 341
R. Yang & K. Ray
Measurement errors in vibrations from blasting 349
P. Segarra, J.A. Sanchidrin, L.M. Lpez & A. Llamas
The dynamics and fragmentation of blasted ore slices in scaled sublevel caving
and slab models followed by accuracy analysis of the Volume weight method
used for determination of ore content at loading 357
A. Rustan
Burden movement in confined drift wall blasting tests studied at the LKAB Kiruna SLC mine 373
M. Wimmer, A. Nordqvist, F. Ouchterlony, U. Nyberg & J.K. Furtney
Investigation of the relationship between blasting pile density and loader productivity 385
A. Tosun, G. Konak, D. Karakus, A.H. Onur & T. Toprak
Advanced understanding of the mechanism of air-deck blasting: A numerical approach 391
M.A. Abdalla, P. Hagan & D. Chalmers
A design of remote real-time calibration and vibration measurement platform based on the grid 397
Y. Gao, X. Wang, G. Yang & G. Qu
Improving blasting operations using data management and analysis 403
C.P. Parihar & S. Bhandari
The monitoring and analysis of vibrations generated by blasting in Fangmayu Iron Mine 411
T.J. Tao, G.Q. Zhang & X.G. Wang

Section 6 - Blast Vibrations

The development of a trivariate statistical blast vibration model that seeks to respect
both the difference between types of seismic waves and their attenuation rates 417
W.J. Birch & T.J. White
Phasethe forgotten problem of blast vibration prediction 425
W.J. Birch, L. Bermingham, S. Hosein, T.J. White & R. Farnfield
A comprehensive assessment of ground vibrations and structural damage caused by blasting 433
P. Pal Roy
Measurement and analysis of vibration interrelated collapse process in directional
blasting demolition of a high-rise frame-shear structure building 443
X.Q. Xie, Y.S. Jia, C.W. Han, H.G. Wang & C.B. Liu
Study of blasting vibration effects based on energy input 449
C. En-an, Z. Ming-sheng, H. Tie-zhu & W. Dan-dan
Concept of effective explosive weight per delay for prediction of vibration in open-pit blasting 457
M.P. Roy, P.K. Singh, V.K. Singh, G. Senapati, A.K. Mishra & M. Jawed

vii

Fragblast10_FM.indd vii 10/10/2012 12:17:59 PM

 Comparison of two near-field blast vibration estimation models: A theoretical study 465
S. Arora, P. Murmu & K. Dey
An equivalent simulation method for whole time-history blasting vibration 473
J.H. Yang, W.B. Lu, M. Chen, P. Yan & P. Li
Evaluation of the effect of ground vibration due to blasting on adjacent structures
in dam construction projects 483
H.B. Amnieh & A. Siamaki
Analysis of peak particle velocity recorded at underground mine roof generated
by nearby surface blasting: A case study 489
A.K. Singh & A.K. Jha
ANN approach for blast vibration control in limestone quarry 495
S.S. Rathore, S.C. Jain & S. Parik

Section 7 - Health, Safety & Environment

Toxicity of blasting fumes as a function of time after blasting 503
P.D. Katsabanis & K. Taylor
Fines and dust generation and control in rock fragmentation by blasting 511
S. Bhandari
Techniques for the control of environmental blast impacts 521
A.B. Richards & A.J. Moore
Parameters of dust-gas cloud spread resulting from a caving-in explosion 529
K.N. Trubetskoy, S.D. Victorov, V.M. Zakalinsky, A.N. Kochanov & M.B. Etkin
Validation of underwater blast emissions modelling in relation to the protection
of marine fauna 533
R.A. Godson, A. Parker & S.C. Brown
Safety analysis of blasting near natural gas pipeline 541
Y. Jinjie, L. Wanyou, W. Guizhu & C. Minhui
Theoretical considerations and control measures for dust reduction during building
demolition by blasting 545
Z.J. Li & B.X. Zheng
Quantification of the levels of risk of flyrock 549
A. Blanchier
Analysis of blasting related accidents with emphasis on flyrock and its mitigation
in surface mines 555
A.K. Mishra & D.K. Mallick
Spatial distribution of flyrock using EDA: An insight from concrete model tests 563
A.K. Raina, A.K. Soni & V.M.S.R. Murthy

Section 8 - Innovative Blasting Technologies

Shock initiation and malfunction of commercial explosives and accessories: An approach
using the critical energy fluence 571
P.D. Katsabanis
Evaluation of ANFO performance with cylinder test 579
L.M. Lpez, J.A. Sanchidrin, P. Segarra & M.F. Ortega
Research on performance of aluminum-fiber explosives 587
M. Hong-hao, S. Zhao-wu & L. Xue-yan
Experimental research on bubble pulsation parameters in underwater explosion
at unsteady pressure 593
Z. Li, X. Su, H. Lin & L. Xue-jiao

viii

Fragblast10_FM.indd viii 10/10/2012 12:17:59 PM

 Measurement of borehole pressure during blasting 599
G. Teowee & B. Papillon
Blasting using permitted P5 category explosive having higher air gap sensitivity
with spacers for higher output 605
M.O. Sarathy, N. Vidyasagar, S.K. Roy & R.R. Singh
Assessment of explosive charge factors in surface blasting using rebound hardness
values of rocks 615
C. Sawmliana, P. Pal Roy & R.K. Singh
Application of innovative techniques in blast design at RAM meeting its production targets 621
R. Shrimali, P.K. Rajmeny, L.S. Shekhawat & A. Joshi
Intelligent mine blasting and its components 627
C.P. Wu, B. Yu & X.C. Yang
Analysis and calculation of the reliability of complex logical initiating network system 631
S. Qi, X. Fang, T. Guo, T. Liu & D. Li

Section 9 - Demolition Blasting

Protection control technology adopted by demolition blasting 639
W. Hao
Time constrained demolition of brick and mortar constructed rail-bridge 645
S.K. Mandal, C. Sawmliana, R.K. Singh & P. Pal Roy
Numerical simulation of explosive demolition of a shear wall structure apartment 651
H.-S. Kim, S.-H. Cho, H. Park & C.-G. Suk
Controlled blasting demolition of 7 joint buildings at the same time in urban area 655
Y.S. Jia, C.W. Han, H.G. Wang & C.B. Liu
Fine demolition blasting for a concrete cofferdam on a concrete dam spill surface 663
X. Cheng-guang
Blasting demolition of single tower cable-stayed unsafe bridge totaling 163 m in length 669
X. Jun, Q. Jinfen, Z. Mingan & C. Bin
Blasting of a reinforced concrete chimney in a high position and in a complex environment 673
L. Guojun & L. Rui
Suggested tamping materials for short length blast holes in explosive demolition operations 677
H.-M. Kang, M.-Y. Shin, S.-K. Kim, S.-H. Cho, H. Park & C.-G. Suk

Section 10 - Rock Damage & Wall Control

Estimation of blast-induced damage through cross-hole seismometry in single-hole
blasting experiments 685
L.F. Trivino & B. Mohanty
Reflections on the functionality of pre-split blasting for wall control in surface mining 697
W.R. Adamson
A numerical analysis of the presplitting controlled blasting method 707
M. Sharafisafa & A. Mortazavi
Wall control by blasting optimization at Las Cruces open pit copper mine (Spain) 715
M. Rocha, I. Carrasco, J. Castilla, S. Cooper & M.D. Rodrguez
Assessment of blast-induced damaged zone and its control 725
C.H. Ryu, B.H. Choi & J.H. Jeong
Pre-split blasting for final wall control in a nuclear power project 731
G. Gopinath, H.S. Venkatesh, R. Balachander & A.I. Theresraj

ix

Fragblast10_FM.indd ix 10/10/2012 12:17:59 PM

 The division of damage area under blasting vibration in rock mass slopes 741
H. Fei, J. Tian, G. Wang & Y. Xia
A case study on wall stability at Rampura Agucha Mine using electronic blasting systems 747
V.P. Joshi, A. Tripathi, R. Konidina & V. Misra
Blasting vibration control based on whole time-history response prediction of high rock slope 753
P. Li, W.B. Lu, J.H. Yang, M. Chen & P. Yan
Investigation into effect of blasting on slope stability in opencast coal mines 763
N.R. Thote & Ch. Venkat Ramana

Section 11 - Blasting for Civil Construction Projects

Vibration modeling of three eDev tunnel rounds in the Citybanan tunnel in Stockholm 771
A.T. Spathis & M. Wheatley
Monitoring ground vibrations for predicting overbreak threshold levels in underground drivages 787
K. Dey & V.M.S.R. Murthy
Controlled blasting for a metro rail project in an urban environment 793
H.S. Venkatesh, G. Gopinath, R. Balachander, A.I. Theresraj & K. Vamshidhar
A preliminary empirical model for prediction of response spectra of blast vibrations
at construction sites 803
I.D. Gupta & G.R. Tripathy

Section 12 - Case Studies

A specialised blasting technique to maintain better safety and productivity in limestone mines
of JK Cement Works 817
P.C. Dhariwal
Investigation of borehole aqua stemming blasting 823
W. Yunmin, L. Weizhou, Z. Xiliang & Pengli
A scientific perspective of blasting in hot holes and reactive ground 827
S.St.J. Tose
Experimental research on the mechanism of reinforcing soft clay ground by blasting 833
Z.Y. Zhang, Y.S. Ye, H.L. Meng, N.H. Yang, Z.Y. Deng & J.K. Li
Closed accurate delay blasting on the structure of the influence spectrum analysis 839
J. Yang, S.B. Li, J. Liu & W.X. Gao
Safe blasting practice near pump house structures: A case study 845
P.K. Satpathy & P. Kumar

Author index 851

Fragblast10_FM.indd x 10/10/2012 12:17:59 PM

 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Foreword

The FRAGBLAST (International Symposium on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting) symposia represent

the worldwide gatherings of researchers and practitioners involved with the advancement in the subject
of fracture and fragmentation of rock through the use of explosives and related high-velocity impact
processes. Since inception in 1983, these symposia have provided ideal forum for sharing the latest state of
scientific and technical knowledge on all aspects of rock fragmentation and blasting.
FRAGBLAST 10, the tenth in this series, follows the high tradition set by its predecessors (the first
one was held in Sweden, followed at 34 year intervals, in USA, Austria, Australia, Canada, South
Africa, China, Chile and Spain) and aspires to set a new benchmark. It highlights the latest findings by
researchers from around the world, and seeks to identify the challenges ahead in our understanding of
the blasting process, and its control for improved economics and safety. The topics covered in this edition
are wide-ranging, from detonation physics, fragmentation and blast-induced damage and their control,
blast design, initiation systems, demolition projects, to environmental issues such as vibration, noise and
fly rock hazard. The topics covered also include special blast designs in both open pit and underground
operations, pitfalls in blasting vibration analysis, case histories involving demolition blasting and special
blasting operations.
This symposium also collates some key papers on numerical modelling of fragmentation and heave
processes; rock mass characterization and strength properties under high strain rate and the need to
measure them under confinement; up-to-date review of small-scale experimental studies, considered
essential for understanding of rock fragmentation on a large scale; and instrumentation, tools, and
procedures employed in studying explosive behavior and blasting performance.
The outreach of the symposium is further augmented by four workshops, preceding the main event,
on Explosive Performance, Blasting Practice, Fragmentation Analysis, and Tunnelling by Drilling and
Blasting. The aim of these workshops is to apprise practitioners and operators in the field about the basics
of explosives science and technology and field practice under varying conditions, and just as importantly,
share their varied experiences. We hope that the message to be conveyed from this FRAGBLAST is that
significant progress has been made since the last Fragblast held in Spain. It is still believed that true
control and prediction of fracture and fragmentation behaviour needs further probing and validation in
laboratory and field with state-of-the-art blasting practices.
We would be remiss in our duty if we do not acknowledge the help and co-operation we received not
only from all the members of our National Organizing Committee but also from the members of the
Fragblast International Organizing Committee (FIOC). The members of FIOC as well as researchers
at large helped by critically reviewing all the submissions, without which we would not have been able to
maintain the high standard of publication that is now expected of all FRAGBLAST Proceedings. Lastly,
organizing an event of this size and scope would not have been possible without the generous financial
support by our sponsors, to whom we owe a debt of gratitude.
We wish the FRAGBLAST community gathered at New Delhi a fruitful and memorable conference.

November, 2012 Pradeep K. Singh

New Delhi Amalendu Sinha

xi

Fragblast10_FM.indd xi 10/10/2012 12:17:59 PM

This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Organising Institution

xiii

Fragblast10_FM.indd xiii 10/10/2012 12:17:59 PM

This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Committees

PATRONS

Prof. Samir K. Brahmachari, Director General, CSIR and Secretary, DSIR, New Delhi
Mr. Partho S. Bhattacharyya, Chairman, CSIR-CIMFR, Research Council, Dhanbad
Mr. Satish Puri, Director General of Mines Safety, DGMS, Dhanbad
Mr. S. Narsing Rao, Chairman-cum-Managing Director, Coal India Limited, Kolkata

CHAIRMAN ORGANISING COMMITTEE

Dr. Amalendu Sinha, Director, CSIR-CIMFR, Dhanbad

ORGANISING SECRETARY & CONVENOR

Dr. Pradeep K. Singh, Senior Principal Scientist, CSIR-CIMFR, Dhanbad

INTERNATIONAL ORGANISING COMMITTEE

Prof. W.L. Fourney University of Maryland, USA

Prof. Jos A. Sanchidrin
Docent Agne Rustan
Prof. Hans Peter Rossmanith
Prof. Sushil Bhandari
Dr. Cameron K. McKenzie
Prof. Bibhu Mohanty
Prof. Xuguang Wang
Mr. R. Frank Chiappetta
Mr. Carlos P. Orlandi
Prof. Finn Ouchterlony
Prof. Kunihisa Katsuyama
Dr. William Robert Adamson
Prof. Panagiotis D. Katsabanis
Prof. Peter Moser
Dr. Ken Qian Liu
Dr. Ewan Sellers
Dr. A.T. Spathis
Dr. Dale S. Preece
Universidad Politecnica de Madrid, Spain
Retired from Lule University of Technology, Sweden
Technical University, Vienna, Austria
Earth Resource Technology Consultants, India
Blastechnology, Australia
University of Toronto, Canada
Beijing General Research Institute of Mining & Metallurgy, China
Blasting Analysis International, USA
Enaex Servicios S.A., Chile
Montanuniversitaet Leoben, Austria
(Retired from) Ehime University, Japan
Davey Bickford, Chile
Queens University, Canada
Montanuniversitaet Leoben, Austria
Xstrata Nickel, Canada
African Explosives, South Africa
Orica, Australia
Orica Mining Services, USA

REVIEW COMMITTEE

Prof. W.L. Fourney University of Maryland, USA

Prof. Jos A. Sanchidrin Universidad Politecnica de Madrid, Spain
Docent Agne Rustan Retired from Lule University of Technology, Sweden
Prof. Sushil Bhandari Earth Resource Technology Consultants, India

xv

Fragblast10_FM.indd xv 10/10/2012 12:18:00 PM

 Dr. Cameron K. McKenzie
Prof. Bibhu Mohanty
Prof. Xuguang Wang
Mr. R. Frank Chiappetta
Mr. Carlos P. Orlandi
Prof. Finn Ouchterlony
Dr. William Robert Adamson
Prof. Panagiotis D. Katsabanis
Prof. Peter Moser
Dr. Ken Qian Liu
Dr. Ewan Sellers
Dr. A.T. Spathis
Dr. Dale S. Preece
Dr. Pradeep K. Singh
Dr. Amalendu Sinha
Dr. Alastair Torrance
Dr. Alexander Hennig
Prof. Ali Mortazavi
Prof. Ajoy K. Ghose
Mr. Akhilesh Joshi
Mr. Ashok Kumar Singh
Dr. AymanTawadrous
Prof. C. Niemann-Delius
Prof. Carsten Drebenstedt
Dr. Catherine T. Aimone-Martin
Prof. Charles H. Dowding
Prof. Claude Cunningham
Dr. Essaieb Hamdi
Dr. Geoff F. Brent
Dr. Italo Andres Onederra
Prof. John Kemeny
Dr. Lina M. Lpez
Dr. Michael Noy
Dr. Pablo Segarra
Dr. Pijush Pal Roy
Prof. R.N. Gupta
Dr. Roger Holmberg
Dr. Ruilin Yang
Prof. S.P. Singh
Prof. Stanley Vitton
Mr. Vinay Kumar Singh
Dr. William Birch
Fragblast10_FM.indd xvi
Blastechnology, Australia
University of Toronto, Canada
Beijing General Research Institute of Mining & Metallurgy, China
Blasting Analysis International, USA
EnaexServicios S.A., Chile
Montanuniversitaet Leoben, Austria
Davey Bickford, Chile
Queens University, Canada
Montanuniversitaet Leoben, Austria
Xstrata Nickel, Canada
African Explosives, South Africa
Orica, Australia
Orica Mining Services, USA
CSIR-Central Institute of Mining & Fuel Research, India
CSIR-Central Institute of Mining & Fuel Research, India
Kilmorie Consulting, Australia
RWTH Aachen University, Germany
Amirkabir University of Technology, Iran
Formerly, Indian School of Mines, India
Hindustan Zinc Ltd, India
Central Mine Planning & Design Institute, India
Orica Mining Services, USA
RWTH Aachen University, Germany
Technical University, Freiberg, Germany
New Mexico Tech, USA
Northwestern University, USA
Blasting Investigations and Consultancy, South Africa
Ecole Nationale DIngnieurs, Tunisia
Orica Research and Development, Australia
CRC Mining The University of Queensland, Australia
University of Arizona, USA
Universidad Politcnica de Madrid E.T.S.I. Minas, Spain
Orica, Australia
Universidad Politcnica de Madrid E.T.S.I. Minas, Spain
CSIR-Central Institute of Mining & Fuel Research, India
Consultant in Geotechnical/Rock Engineering, India
Secretary General, EFEE, Malta
Orica USA Inc, USA
School of Engineering, Laurentian University, Canada
Michigan Technological University, USA
Northern Coalfields Limited, India
Blastlog Ltd, United Kingdom
xvi
10/10/2012 12:18:01 PM
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Sponsors

Diamond Sponsor
Coal India Limited

Platinum Sponsors
Solar Industries India Limited

Orica

Deepak Fertilisers & Petrochemicals

Corporation Ltd

Hindustan Zinc Limited

(Vedanta Group Company)

Tata Steel

xvii

Fragblast10_FM.indd xvii 10/10/2012 12:18:01 PM

 Gold Sponsors
Singareni Collieries Company Limited

Jindal Steel & Power Limited

Silver Sponsors
NMDC Ltd.

Essel Mining & Industries Limited

National Aluminium Company Limited

Jaiprakash Industries Limited

Manganese Ore (India) Limited

Uranium Corporation of India Limited

EMTA Group of Companies

Sarda Mines Pvt. Ltd.

xviii

Fragblast10_FM.indd xviii 10/10/2012 12:18:01 PM

 Bronze Sponsors
Gujarat Mineral
Development Corporation

IDL Explosives Limited

J.K. Cement

Hutti Gold Mines Limited

V.V. Mineral (VVM)

Navbharat Group of Companies

JSW Bengal Steel Ltd

Neyveli Lignite Corporation Limited

Lunch Sponsor
Ganesh Explosive Pvt. Ltd

xix

Fragblast10_FM.indd xix 10/10/2012 12:18:03 PM

This page intentionally left blank
 Section 1 - Keynotes

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 1 10/3/2012 8:23:39 PM

This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Lessons from single-hole blasting in mortar, concrete and rocks

F. Ouchterlony & P. Moser

Dept Min. Res. & Petr. Engng, Montanuniversitaet Leoben, Austria

ABSTRACT: Due to the complexity of multi-hole blasting rounds, single-hole blasting has often been
used in order to understand the fragmentation mechanisms. This paper reviews and reanalyzes single-hole
blasting, in and rock like materials in small- to full-scale primarily from the point of view of dynamic
breakage observations, breakage geometry and fragmentation. The paper ends with a list of common
observations and an attempt to link breakage level in blasting to responsible crack types and character of
the sieving curve.

1 INTRODUCTION

A bench blasting round (Fig. 1) is by definition

built up of a sequence of blast holes fired within a
short overall time, often within 0,5 s.
An image of a blasting round gives an idea of
the physical process, Figure 2. With a trained eye
you can see the swelling of the burden volume, the
extensive cracking of the bench face, blast fumes
of different color and thus chemical composition
shooting through the burden at isolated points, the
uneven stemming ejections again with differently
colored fumes, a confined toe movement giving an
impression of quasi-static bending of the burden
and the lateral bending of the face caused by each
blast-hole. Some gases shooting out from the face
may even get pulled back by the under pressure
inside the round.
Figure 1. Geometry of bench blast (Olofsson 1991).
Figure 2. Single row blast with electronic detonators.
How do blast-holes in a row and between rows
interact or interfere with each other, construc-
tively and destructively, in the breakage? If delay
times are too long cracks have time to propagate
and rigid body movement has time to develop so
that shearing and tearing of neighboring unfired
holes could occur etc. These holes will function
improperly, fragmentation becomes coarser and
the breakage irregular.
Many tests in various scales have been made
to define the delay where fragmentation in bench
blasting is finest and the recommended delays
vary widely; inter-hole (in-row) 330 ms/m of bur-
den and inter-row 770 ms/m, see e.g. Bhandari
(1997).
Numerical simulations based on first principles
are still far from being able to model the
fragmentation processes so well that the effect
of timing could be studied. Thus model scale
testing is still attractive, see recent work on speci-
mens with 23 rows of holes. The effects of short
in-row delays in the range 02.1 ms/m of spacing,
where shock-wave interactions were expected to
enhance fragmentation, have e.g. been studied
(Johansson & Ouchterlony 2012, Petropoulos

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 3 10/3/2012 8:23:39 PM

 et al. 2012). Schimek et al. (2012) made a com-
parison of the fragmentation when using either
the 2 ms/m delays or infinite delays, i.e. shooting
the rows hole by hole. The observed effects have
in both cases been rather smaller than expected so
studying the long delay region is still of interest.
In order to obtain a better basis for interpret-
ing future blasting tests and numerical simulations
an extensive literature survey is being made of the
simplest possible blast geometry; a single hole under
bench like conditions. This paper reports parts of it.
2 SINGLE-HOLE BLASTING TESTS
Thousands of single-hole tests have been made
in small- to full-scale. They may roughly be
divided into the following geometries or cases, see
Figure 3:
1. With toe, with or without subdrilling (3D)
2. No toe, a) though-going hole (2D) or b) not
(3D)
3. Asymmetric face, no toe, though-going hole
(3D)
4. Small blocks or cylinders
a) with asymmetric hole (2D3D)
b) with symmetric hole (1D2D).
Thus 1D to 3D indicates the geometrical
complexity.
It is clear that case 1 (Fig. 3) simulates only
the opening hole in a new row in the bench blast
whereas case 3 (Fig. 4) is more representative of all
the side holes that follow in the blast and hence of
a bench blast itself. Relatively few tests have been
made with this geometry.
Case 2, i.e. case 1 without subgrade, represents
slab blasting in which a horizontal joint has relieved
the toe confinement. It models the more easily bro-
ken column part of a blast-hole in the bench.
Figure 3. Case 1, half of model with toe and subdrilling.
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 4
Figure 4. Case 3, bench with stepped face, breakage
angle 2.
Case 4b with a symmetric, often through-going
hole in specimens with cylindrical or square cross
section differs from the other cases in several ways.
Firstly the hole is surrounded by free faces, which
facilitates the breakage, unlike case 1 (1 free face)
or case 3 (2 free faces). Secondly, the breakage
geometry normally equals the whole specimen
geometry.
Extensive testing with such specimens of case 4b
has been reported by Reichholf (2004), Grasedieck
(2006) and Johansson (2008) e.g. Ouchterlony &
Moser (2006) compared such model blasting tests
with full-scale bench blasts in the same rock mate-
rial and found many similarities. Case 4b lies out-
side the scope of the present manuscript.
We can divide the remaining tests into three
groups, those that measure;
breakage geometry and fragmentation post
blast,
this + blast damage/cracking behind the hole or
mainly the dynamics of the breakage.
The last group focuses on understanding the
mechanisms of breakage. The former focus on the
results and how they change with an input variable;
burden, hole diameter, charge size Q, explosive etc.,
parameters that enter into normal blast design.
The most common result parameters are
Bcrit = critical burden (m) or
Qcrit = critical charge (kg)
Mh = total broken (breakage) mass (kg)
2 = breakage angle for opening hole ()
2 = breakage angle for side-hole ()
Wb = breakage width on bench face (m)
Vb = breakage volume of single hole (m3)
x50 = median fragment size (mm) including com-
plete sieving curves.
The severity of the blasting is often expressed
in terms of the specific charge q (kg/m3). In bench
blasting where the breakage volume is more or less
determined by the design, there Vb B S H, the
nominal specific charge. Then qnom = Q/Vb has the
character of a governing input parameter.
In single-hole blasting Vb is however a result
parameter that like 2 varies widely. Thus
qbroken = Q/Vb is a mixed input-result parameter
and not directly comparable with qnom. In some
cases x50 = f(qbroken) is determined with the hope of
10/3/2012 8:23:40 PM
 achieving a prediction equation like the Kuz-Ram
eqn (Cunningham 1983). It is not however because
qbroken is not an independent input parameter.
Things get even more confused when qnom and
qbroken are used side by side as equivalent blast
descriptors, as happens.
Small-scale the models may be made of mortar,
concrete or rock. The material being either virgin
or artificially jointed. In half- and full-scale rock
inhomogeneity, schistosity, natural jointing, blast
damage cracks and geometrical imperfections
complicate the breakage and our interpretations.
Even without the latter complications there
are so many parameters to choose; material, H,
B, subdrilling, hole diameter, explosive etc. that
a comparison of different model tests is difficult
and a scaling to full-scale conditions is well-nigh
impossible. Yet the small- and full-scale results
have much in common.
2.1 Dynamic breakage observations
Field & Ladegaard-Pedersen (1971) report single-
shot tests in 60 60 85 mm blocks of PMMA
with 30 mm deep, 1.5-mm bore-hole with a 4 mm
bottom charge and a 15 mm burden, see Figure 5.
The burden of B = 15 mm was chosen so that it
would yield a conical boulder loosening from the
face.
Three types of special tests were made and com-
pared with free, straight face shots:
1. Spall plates of PMMA or steel were added to
the bench face to swallow the reflected stress
waves.
2. The bench face was shaped to either concentrate
or disperse the reflected stress waves (Fig. 5).
3. The model was immersed in a liquid with the
same impedance as PMMA, effectively moving
the free faces of the block to large distances.
The presence of 3-mm spall plates suppressed
crack growth towards the front face and no boul-
ders were formed. The face shaping of (a) a double
triangle bulge or (b) a concave circular 3-mm deep
Figure 5. Blocks used by Field & Ladegaard-Pedersen
(1971).
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 5
dent reflects waves away from the hole and led to
no break out. The convex bulge (c) concentrates
the reflected waves towards the blast-hole and
more damage and break-out occurred than for the
straight face. Depending on the face geometry the
radial crack pattern around the blast-hole looked
different.
Field & Ladegaard-Pedersen (1971) conclude
that: All the experiments described in this section
give further support to the view that the reflected
stress wave is instrumental in determining the pat-
tern of fracture. At last they drive an argument
about the difference in break-out angle between
a concentrated (bottom) charge and an extended
(column) one and conclude that The break-out
angle would tend to be at its largest for shots with
a large burden and charge length. The anticipated
effect of increasing burden is contradicted by most
testing.
Wilson & Holloway (1987) did a thorough
study of single-hole breakage in 8 concrete blocks
of either 0,125 or 1 m3 in size. Two blocks with
two holes, #9 and #10, were also shot, i.e. they
reported 10 tests. Test #10 was special in that
momentum traps with the same purpose as the
spall plates were used on all sides but the burden
face, see Figure 6.
The bore-holes were = 6.4 mm (except test #7)
and 1020 cm deep. The holes were filled with
1.55 g of fully coupled, bottom detonated PETN
under a stemming of clay and sand of about 1/3
of the hole length. Wilson & Holloway (1987)
used strain gauges, accelerometers, crack gauges
and high speed photography (35 000 frames/sec)
to observe the dynamic breakage. The bench face
was covered with a 1 1 grid of lines and the
top surface with a set of concentric circles at a 1
radial distance, centered at the bore-holes to help
the image interpretation. Figures 7 and 8 show two
frames.
Figure 6. Test #10, Wilson & Holloway (1987) figure 1.
10/3/2012 8:23:40 PM

Figure 7. Top (lower) and face (upper) of test #8, 1421 s
after detonation. Wilson & Holloway (1987) figure 4C.
Figure 8. Face of test #3, after 764 s with crack network
initiated at the face. Wilson & Holloway (1987) figure 5C.
The following is an excerpt from Wilson & Hol-
loways (1987) summary:
a. The fractures formed early in the event play a
very important part in the fragmentation. These
are first the radial cracks emanating from the
blast-holes (Fig. 7) and second the crack net-
work formed on the bench face by the tensile
tangential stress formed from wave reflection at
the face (Fig. 8).
b. If the loading is intense enough spall fractures
will form below the surface, roughly orthogonal
to the radial fractures.
c. The fractures propagating inward from the
bench face provide the first relief for the bur-
den. Meanwhile those outwardly propagating
radial fractures that are favorably oriented with
respect to the front of the reflected wave will
dominate and define the breakage angle.
d. From here on the energy to create additional
fracture surface comes from the gas pressure
remaining in the blast-hole and penetrating into
the cracks. Few new cracks are formed during
this period.
e. The burden in these specimens of virgin mate-
rial forms a slab like element that is supported
at the ends till the radial cracks reach the bench
face. At mid-span it is broken or weakened by
the crack network. This network is responsible
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 6
for many of the finer fragments from the break-
age volume.
f. When the radial cracks reach the bench face and
relieve the slabs, a release wave propagates back
to the middle of the slab and the stresses oscil-
late strongly.
g. At the bottom of the blast-hole the fixation
causes the cracks emanating from the bottom
to angle down toward the face.
h. The cracks near the top of the blast-hole grow
faster and reach the face first. The circumfer-
ential, cratering cracks on the face but near the
bottom were caused when the slower cracks
from bottom region reached the face. These
cracks would only grow as long as there is suf-
ficient gas pressure to drive them.
Winzer et al. (1983) summarize similar work by
Winzer et al. (1979) in large limestone blocks with
bedding planes and closed fractures. They agree on
the time line of the fragmentation process given
above and add:
i. The fracture pattern on the free face is well
developed before the expected time of arrival of
radial cracks from the blast-hole.
j. Gas venting occurs through already open cracks
relatively late in the process, indicating that the
majority of fractures observed on the bench
face are not gas pressurized.
k. In blasted faces from production-scale shots,
fractures are observed to have initiated at, and
propagating from joints and bedding planes.
With these observations we have a good descrip-
tion of the sequence of events during the fragmen-
tation process from single blast holes and focus on
the blast results reports.
2.2 The breakage angle and breakage mass
The breakage geometry for cases 12 is reasonably
triangular with a couple of modifications. Breakage
in cases 1 and 2b usually leaves a socket near the
toe. The flanks of the breakage arent completely
straight either, Figures 1 and 7. Nevertheless the
breakage angle 2 between the flanks gives a good
idea about the breakage geometry.
Table 1 gives a set of data using a constant
charge size Q with the range values arranged
in order of increasing burden B. In some cases
an equivalent breakage angle was computed
from the weighed breakage masses, assuming
straight flanks, i.e. 2mass = 2 atan[Mh/(B2H)]
and in one case from the breakage width,
2width = 2 atan(0.5 Wb/B). A typical curve of
2(B) looks like in Figure 9.
The breakage in Figure 9 up to B = 43 mm
consists of a full crater with two flank cracks
10/3/2012 8:23:41 PM
 Table 1. Data for breakage angle vs. burden, B (m) in
linear fit.

Case B 2 range 2 linear fit

(no) (mm/m) () () Reference

1 20451 158133m 151117B Bhandari

(1975a,b)
w
1 2045 147135 14439B Bhandari
(1975a,b)
2a 1565 160120m 160620B Vutukuri &
Rustan
(1983)
2a 543 151128 151490B Nie (1988)
2b 180430 153110 Neg slope Bilgin et al.
(1999)
2a 0.10.92 150180 151+24B Persson et al.
(1969)
1 1.04.2 159140m 1667B Nie (1988) Figure 10. Breakage angle data, Misterhult granite,
1 3.05.1 153113 20718B Bilgin (1991) (Persson et al. 1969).
1 1.43.0 148115 18022B Bilgin et al.
(1993)
1 0.92.8 137101 17553B Pham (2011)

Notes 1: mm, 2: m, m: mass based, w: breakage width based.

Figure 11. Misterhult crater. Persson et al. 1969,

figure 1c.

Instead of doing repeated tests with holes that

Figure 9. Breakage angle data, Storugns limestone, Nie
(1988).
breaking out. For larger burdens only one crack
flank breaks out. One column in Table 1 gives
linear fits to angle data when the breakage is
acceptable (two flanks). The slope is negative, if
not always significantly so, in all cases except the
tests of Persson et al. (1969) in Misterhult granite.
See Figures 10 and 11.
The Misterhult craters are concave (bowl-
shaped) with very flat flank angles near the blast
hole. A breakage angle calculation based on break-
age mass or width would obviously have given
smaller values. A comparison of the Bhandari data
in Table 1 indicates a certain concavity in his cra-
ters too.
are parallel to the free face but have different bur-
dens Wimmer (2007) drilled angled holes into small
mortar blocks and in drift walls in a mine with the
aim of finding the critical burden or blastability
of the rock/mortar. The holes were bottom initi-
ated and the ensuing craters were measured with
stereophotogrammetry. He found that as the bur-
den gets progressively deeper the sections of cra-
ters go from flat and bowl shaped via triangular to
funnel shaped (convex), see Figure 12.
Wimmer (2007) also defines a shape factor
SF = 2 section area of breakage/(Wb B) 1 to
describe this change in shape. For small burdens the
crater is shaped like an isosceles trapezoid (SF > 0)
and near the critical burden it becomes triangular
(SF = 0) or even funnel-shaped (SF < 0).
In Nies (1988) model tests (case 2a) the craters
are quite triangular shaped and the breakage mass
Mh increases B1.75 as long as both flanks break
out, i.e. till B = 43 mm, and then Mh drops suddenly
to almost half when B = 45 m, see Figure 13.
The B-exponent of 1.75 < 2.0 expresses that the
breakage angle decreases with increasing burden.
The full-scale shots in Storugns limestone follow
a similar trend, Mh B1.5 until B = 4.2 m and then
Mh drops to zero when B = 5.0 m.
The maximum in the Mh(B) curve is not as dis-
tinct in other cases. For Bhandaris (1975a,b) tests

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 7 10/3/2012 8:23:43 PM

 Figure 12. Progression of crater flank shapes with
increasing burden. Wimmer et al. (2008), figure 1.
Figure 13. Breakage mass, Storugns limestone, Nie
(1988).
in mortar models with a toe (case 1) Mh peaks at
B = 40 mm. It is still a substantial fraction of the
maximum though when B = 45 or 50 mm, 2/3 or
more. Bilgin (1991) also found a smoother maxi-
mum when blasting in 9-m benches with iron ore,
see Figure 14. The breakage volume (Vb = Mh/)
peaked when B = 4.0 m and was still 2/3 of that
when B = 5.6 m.
One may speculate that it is the influence of the
confined toe (case 1) that causes this behavior. The
full-scale shots at Storugns (case 1) may be more
like case 2 because of the existence of a closely
spaced sub-horizontal jointing that frees the toe
breakage.
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 8
Figure 14. Breakage volume, Dirge mine, Bilgin (1991).
2.3 Fragmentation
The Swebrec distribution (Ouchterlony 2005,
2009) often does an excellent job in fitting the siev-
ing curves from blasting tests at all scales. Here an
extension of the basic version with 4 parameters
is used.
P(x) = A/{1 + [ln(xmax/x)/ln(xmax/x50)]b}
with A 1 or 100% and x xmax. (1)
When A = 100%, x50 denotes the median frag-
ment size, P(x50) = 50%. When A < 100%, x50 cor-
responds to P(x50) = (A/2)%. If A > 50% the real
median could easily be calculated but not when
A < 50%. xmax denotes the max fragment size and
b is a curvature exponent to be determined by the
fitting.
Fitting P(x) to the single-hole subset of
Bhandaris (1975a,b) case 1 test data for mortar
and granite where B = 2050 mm one obtains a
tendency illustrated by the sequence of curve fits
in Figures 15 to 17.
The critical burden is around Bcrit 55 mm. For
burdens B < 0.5 Bcrit the whole data set is excel-
lently reproduced by the basic Swebrec function
(A = 100%). The coefficient of determination is
frequently r2 0.995. This is called curve type 1 or
regular breakage or fragmentation, see Figure 15.
When B > 0.5 Bcrit the fits with A = 100%
become progressively worse and the fragmenta-
tion becomes one of dust and boulders, i.e. some
large discrete blocks (boulders) and a tail of finer
material (dust). This is called curve type d + b or
marginal breakage. If one or more data for the
10/3/2012 8:23:43 PM

Figure 15. Test #12, 6.4 mm, B = 25 mm, Bhandari
(1975a,b).
Figure 16. Test #14, 6.4 mm, B = 35 mm, Bhandari
(1975a,b).
Figure 17. Test #15, 6.4 mm, B = 40 mm, Bhandari
(1975a,b).
larger mesh sizes are removed so that only the
tail remains, the Swebrec function with A < 100%
gives a remarkably good fit, see Figures 16 and 17
for which B = 35 mm, A = 100% and r2 = 0.9997
and B = 40 mm, A = 25.9% and r2 = 0.9985
respectively.
CH001_Paper 206.indd 9
Figure 18. B = 5.5 mm, A = 100%, r2 = 0.9976. Nie
(1988).
Figure 19. B = 30.2 mm, A = 63.8%, r2 = 1.0000. Nie
(1988).
Figure 20. B = 42.9 mm, A = 2.0%, r2 = 0.9921. Nie
(1988).
Nies (1988) case 2 test data for Storugns
limestone where B = 5.455 mm show the same
behavior, see Figures 18 to 20.
So do the extensive case 2 test data of Vutukuri &
Rustan (1983), see Table 2. The Swebrec function
with A < 100% fits the dust tails of the d + b cases
quite well.
This excellent fit of the Swebrec function to the
dust tails occurs for numerous other test data:
Rustan et al. (1984), case 2 mortar tests with
stemmed holes.
10/3/2012 8:35:06 PM
 Table 2. Character of breakage (regular = 1, d + b or PB) for case 2a test results from Vutukuri & Rustan (1983).

B, mm 16 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 65 70

Aerated concrete 1 1 1 1 1 1 d+b d+b d+b 69.02

Magnetic mortar 1 1 1 d+b d+b d+b PB 49.8
Kallax gabbro 1 1 d+b d+b 36,7
jebyn granite 1 1 d+b d+b PB PB 47.7
Henry quartzite 1 1 d+b d+b d+b 41.5
Loussav. magnetite 1 1, d + b d+b d+b PB 40.6

Notes 1: not tested, 2: Bcrit in mm, PB: partial breakage.

Yang & Rustan (1983), case 2 mortar slab tests

with jointing.
Wimmer (2007), case 4a mortar block shots with
partial breakage.
Micklautsch (2002), case 4b, mortar block sur-
rounded by eight intact blocks.
Johansson & Ouchterlony (2012), five-hole row
shots in mortar with a confined face, etc.
An important point is brought home by the
test data of Efremov et al. (1980). They made
smaller blocks of sand-cement; either 50 50 50,
50 50 100, 60 60 100 or 100 100 100 mm in
size. These sub-units were then assembled into a slab
model of size 300 300 100 mm, see Figure 21, to
simulate the effect of open joints in a rock mass.
Efremov et al. (1980) made two tests series with
this set-up; 1) slabs 15 blasted with a constant
charge but sub-units of various sizes and 2) slabs
610 with 72 50 50 50 mm sub-units were
blasted with charges of different sizes. Figure 21. 300 300 mm frame, 100 mm deep filled
For all slabs there are sub-unit blocks that are with 50 50 50 or 50 50 100 mm blocks. Open
intact after blasting. These are clear cut cases of joints. Shaded blocks were crushed by blast of model 6,
dust and boulders. The entry fines tail in Table 3 2 36 = 72 blocks.
refers to the relative number of fragmented blocks.
The intact sub-units are always boulders, some-
times moderately fragmented sub-units would also tail is in all ten cases except slab #2 less than 50%.
be boulders. Hence (except for slab 2) x50 doesnt react at all to
The column with A-values refers to the the changes made in the testing! It is follows that
values obtained from the fitting. In most cases x50 is not an especially representative descriptor of
the A-values pick up the independent fines tail a dust and boulders fragmentation. The same may
calculations reasonably well and the r2-values are in be concluded for Micklautschs (2002) test results.
most cases quite high. This substantiates the previ- To compare Nies (1988) model-scale fragmenta-
ous interpretation of diagrams like Figures 1617 tion data with other blasting data one may define
and 1920 as consisting of a Swebrec like fines tail qequiv = Q/(H B2), an equivalent specific charge, to
(dust) and larger individual blocks (boulders). avoid the contradictions in using qbroken = Q/Vb.
For a given charge size (slabs 15) the smaller This corresponds to a breakage angle of 2 = 90
the sub-unit blocks, generally the larger the number for the opening hole (case 2b) or S = B for the side
of intact ones after blasting. Thus the open joints holes (case 3). It would be possible to calculate a
attenuate the waves and the smaller blocks may qnom based on a constant average breakage angle
also be stronger than the larger ones (Efremov (opening hole) or a nominal spacing value S = 1,3B
et al. 1980). e.g. for side holes. This would however only shift the
For a given size of building block (slabs 68) a data by a constant in the log-log diagram below.
quadrupling of the charge increases the number Figure 22 is a plot of x50 vs. qequiv. It shows
of broken blocks by a factor two or less. The fines that, except for two unexplained data given by

10

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 10 10/3/2012 8:23:45 PM

 Table 3. Swebrec curve fits to fines from Efremov et al. (1980).

Slab# Sub-unit blocks Fines tail, A,

expl. (mm) No. of blocks Intact after % % r2

13 g 100 100 100 9 5 43.1 43.1 0.978

23 g 50 50 100 36 14 61.5 25.6 0.999
33 g 60 60 100 25 16 36.4 50.2 0.997
44 g 50 50 50 72 52 28.0 27.7 0.993
53 g Mixed sizes 39 30 25.5 89.7 0.994
15 ave Mixed sizes 181 117 38.9 39.2 0.996
61 g 50 50 50 72 62 14.3 16.6 0.994
72 g 50 50 50 72 60 16.8 10.6 0.996
84 g 50 50 50 72 52 28.0 27.5 0.993
92 g 50 50 50 72 54 25.0 25.4 0.998
104 g 50 50 50 72 43 39.6 30.4 0.997

Note: Slabs 910 had 2 holes each with 1 or 2 g of PETN in.

Figure 23. Extreme dust and boulders breakage, Nie

(1988).

Figure 22. Plot of fragment size vs. spec charge.

the open circles, there is a fair range 2 < qequiv< 30

where the median fragment size is well described
by x50(mm) = 200/qequiv1.4, a straight line in the
log-log diagram. The straight line continues
into the region where the d + b behavior starts,
qequiv 3.3 kg/m3 (B 30,2 mm). When qequiv
1.9 kg/m3 (B 39,7 mm) the d + b is quite pro-
nounced with fines tails less than 20% and x50 Figure 24. Swebrec fit to single-hole blast fragmenta-
doesnt react at all to changes in qequiv. tion data from Storugns when B = 4,2 m. Nie (1988).
The size of Nies (1988) case 2 models was
100 100 300 mm. The height H 100 mm
and Bcrit 55 mm set an upper limit to x50 and and an upper limit defined by x50 < 70 mm. In these
xmax. See the shot in Figure 23 with B = 42,9 mm case 1 tests H = 76 mm and B crit 55 mm.
(qequiv = 1.6 kg/m3) and the A = 2% fines tail in A similar behavior was found (Johansson et al.
Figure 20. (2007, Fig. 16) when shooting 140 280 mm
An analysis of Bhandaris (1975a,b) single-hole mortar cylinders with a through-going symmet-
shots in mortar yields a curve like Figure 22 but ric hole (case 4b). The upper x50-limit of 70 mm
with more scatter. There is a nearly straight por- coincides with splitting the cylinder in 4 pieces by
tion given approximately by x50(mm) = 400/qequiv1,5 radial cracking.

11

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 11 10/3/2012 8:23:46 PM

 Table 4. Levels of breakage.
Breakage Responsible Type of
level crack types sieving curves
Marginal Radial cracks with Dust and boulders
branching-merging (d + b) with
Swebrec fines tail
Regular +surface network Whole Swebrec
function
Intense +spalling More Rosin-
Rammler like
This dust and boulders fragmentation behavior
has not been encountered for the relatively few cases
full-scale bench blasts where we have sieving data
(Ouchterlony & Moser 2006, Ouchterlony 2009,
Ouchterlony et al. 2006, 2011). It doesnt occur
either for Nies (1988) full-scale single-hole shots in
Storugns limestone. Not even for B = 4,2 m when
critical value lies in the range Bcrit = 45 m.
One could speculate that a) the irregularity of
the pervasive jointing and blast damage in full-scale
benches would blur a sharp transition from regular
to marginal (d + b) breakage and that b) the specific
charge in a production blast mostly is chosen so as
to avoid boulders. An armor stone blast or an open
pit blast with long stem plugs would on the other
hand probably yield d + b breakage, visible also in
a full-scale fragmentation curve. Whether the larg-
est rock mass blocks are smaller or larger than the
pattern B S would have an influence too.
It would surely be unwise to draw conclusions
about regular full-scale blast fragmentation from
small-scale tests with dust and boulders behavior. If
the model-scale blasting gives a fragmentation that
is well described by the Swebrec distribution (with
A = 100%) we can at least say that the fragmentation
behaviors in small- and full-scale are similar and
then such conclusions would have more validity.
3 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
A limited selection of fragmentation results from
single-hole blasts have been reviewed and reanalyzed
in this paper. The complicated subject of influence
of jointing has been largely avoided and will be pur-
sued in the ongoing review from which the material
in this paper has been taken. Some of the conclu-
sions below follow from the references given but
have not been explicitly discussed in the paper.
We summarize that, in single-hole blasting:
1. One should not use the specific charge q = Q/
Vb (kg/m3) as an independent input param-
eter because the breakage volume Vb is a blast
result.
12
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 12
2. It is better to use an equivalent specific charge,
qequiv = Q/(H B2) or a nominal one e.g.
3. The reflected stress wave at the bench face is
important for the breakage and the reflection
conditions are influenced by factors like face
shape, blast damage cracks and confinement.
4. A network of cracks forms on the bench face
after radial cracks around the blast-hole form
but before these radial cracks reach the sur-
face, if the load level is sufficient.
5. Blasting gases do not penetrate the surface
crack network and the radial cracks only
partially.
6. Old joints and fractures are sources of new
cracks but act also as crack stoppers.
7. Blast damage from previous rows improves
the fragmentation and may help to decrease
the scatter in the results as well, see Johansson
et al. (2012).
8. Single holes behind a stepped bench face sim-
ulate a bench blast better than a hole behind
a straight face. The latter corresponds to the
opening hole in a row, the former to the side
holes.
9. The breakage angle 2 for an opening hole lies
in the range 110180 irrespective of geom-
etry and scale and it normally decreases with
increasing burden B.
10. The breakage volume or crater is roughly
triangular in 2D cases, more bowl-shaped in
3D and may go through a shape change from
bowl- to funnel-shaped with increasing burden
when an angled hole is drilled into a face.
11. Concentrated bottom charges tend to give
smaller breakage angles than extended, col-
umn charges.
12. During breakage in small blocks, the crack
flanks that determine the crater tend to turn
away from the free face when they get too close
to the corners of the model.
13. The breakage mass Mb (or volume Vb) for
2D cases has a pronounced peak and drops
quickly as the burden increases beyond this
point. In 3D cases the peak is smoother and
the drop not as pronounced.
14. In model-scale for 2D and 3D cases:
the breakage is regular when B < 0.5 Bcrit,
meaning that the sieving curve follows the
basic Swebrec distribution quite well and
when B > 0.5 Bcrit the breakage gets to be of
dust and boulder character (marginal break-
age) and the dust tail is well described by the
Swebrec distribution down to fines amounts
as low as 2%.
15. The fines tail is probably mainly attributable to
the branching-merging mechanism active at the
tips of running radial cracks (Ouchterlony &
Moser 2012).
10/3/2012 8:23:46 PM
 16. When the breakage is marginal x50 ceases to
be good descriptor of the fragmentation and
model-scale results with marginal breakage
should not be compared with regular fragmen-
tation in full-scale.
17. In full-scale the division between regular and
marginal breakage is blurred by the presence
of joints and blast damage where new cracks
may initiate and growing cracks stop.
As one conclusion and in analogy with this sum-
mary it is tempting to define the following levels
of breakage during blasting of rock, mortar and
concrete in small-scale:
In conclusion, there are very important lessons
to learn from single-hole blasting in mortar, con-
crete and rock; and the summary above is only
a partial list of insights to be gained from these
studies.
REFERENCES
Bhandari, S. 1997. Engineering Rock Blasting Operations.
Rotterdam: Balkema.
Bhandari, S. 1975a. Studies on fragmentation in rock
blasting. PhD thesis. Sydney: Univ NSW.
Bhandari, S. 1975b. Burden and spacing relationship in
the design of blasting patterns. 16th US Symp Rock
Mechs: 333343. Minneapolis: Univ Minn.
Bilgin, H.A. 1991. Single hole test blasting at an open pit
mine in full scale: A case study. Int. J. of Surface Min-
ing and Reclamation 5: 191194.
Bilgin, H.A., Pasamehmetoglu, A.G. & zkharaman, H.T.
1993. Optimum burden determination and
fragmentation evaluation by full scale slab blasting.
In H-P Rossmanith (ed.) Fragblast 4, Proc. 4th Int.
Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting: 337344.
Rotterdam: Balkema.
Bilgin, H.A., Kilic, M., Yesil, N. & Esen, S. 1999.
Investigation of selected blast design parameters
by model scale tests. Unpubl. man. in English from
Dept of Mining Engng. Ankara: Middle East Techn
Univ.
Cunningham, C.V.B. 1983. In R. Holmberg & A. Rustan
(eds) Proc. 1st Int. Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by
Blasting 2: 439453. Lule: Lule Univ. Techn.
Efremov, E.I., Komir, V.M., Myachina, N.I.,
Nikoforeva, V.A., Rodak, S.N. & Shelenok, V.V.
1980. Influence of the structure of a medium on
fragment-size composition in blasting. Soviet Min-
ing Sciences (1): 2328.
Field, J.E. & Laadegaard-Pedersen, A. 1971. The impor-
tance of the reflected stress wave in rock blasting. Int.
J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 8: 213226.
Grasedieck, A. 2006. The natural breakage characteristics
(NBC) of rocks in blasting. PhD thesis, 217 pp. Leoben,
Austria: Montanuniv., Dep. of Mining Engng &
Mineral Economics.
Johansson, D. 2008. Fragmentation and waste rock com-
paction in small-scale confined blasting. Licentiate
thesis 2008:30. Lule: Lule Univ. Techn.
13
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 13
Johansson, D. 2011. Effect of confinement and initiation
delay on fragmentation and waste rock compaction;
Results from small-scale tests. PhD thesis, Div. Min. &
Geotech. Engng. Lule: Lule Univ. Techn.
Johansson, D., Ouchterlony, F. & Nyberg, U.2007. Blast-
ing against aggregate confinement, fragmentation and
swelling in model scale. In P. Moser et al. (eds), Proc
4th EFEE World Conf. on Expl. and Blasting: 1326.
UK:EFEE.
Johansson, D. & Ouchterlony, F. 2012. Shock wave inter-
actions in rock blastingthe use of short delays to
improve fragmentation in model-scale. Man. accepted
for publ. in Rock Mechs & Rock Engng. See also
Johansson (2011).
Miklautsch, A. 2002. Experimental investigation of the
blast fragmentation behaviour of rock and concrete.
Dipl. work: 161 pp. Leoben, Austria: Montanuniv.,
Dep. of Mining Engng & Mineral Economics.
Nie, S. 1988. New hard rock fragmentation formulas
based on model and full-scale tests. Licentiate thesis
1988:02 L. Lule: Lule Univ. Techn. See also.
Nie, S. & Rustan, A. 1987. Techniques and procedures
in analysing fragmentation after blasting by photo-
graphic method. In W. Fourney & R.A. Dick (eds),
Proc. 2nd Int. Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by Blast-
ing: 102113. Solon, OH: SEM.
Olofsson, S.O. 1991. Applied explosives technology for
construction and miming. rla, Sweden: Applex.
Ouchterlony, F. 2005. The Swebrec function, linking
fragmentation by blasting and crushing. Mining Tech-
nology (Trans. Inst. Min. Metal A) 114: A29A44.
Ouchterlony, F. 2009. Fragmentation characterization;
the Swebrec function and its use in blast engineer-
ing. In J. Sanchidrin (ed), Proc. Fragblast 9, Proc 9th
Int. Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting: 322.
London: Taylor & Francis Group.
Ouchterlony, F. & Moser, P. 2006. Likenesses and
differences in the fragmentation of full-scale and
model-scale blasts. Proc. Fragblast 8, 8th Int. Symp.
on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting: 207220. Chile:
Editec S.A.
Ouchterlony, F. & Moser, P. 2012. On the branching-
merging mechanism during dynamic crack growth as
a major source of fines in rock blasting. Submitted to
Fragblast 10 conf.
Ouchterlony, F., Olsson, M., Nyberg, U., Andersson, P. &
Gus-tavsson, L. 2006. Constructing the fragment size
distribu-tion of a bench blasting round, using the new
Swebrec func-tion. Proc. Fragblast 8, 8th Int. Symp.
on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting: 332344. Chile:
Editec S.A.
Ouchterlony, F., Nyberg, U., Olsson, M., Vikstrm, K.,
Svedensten, P & Bergsskolan i Filipstad. 2010. Opti-
mal fragmentation in quarries, field tests at Lngsen.
Swebrec rpt 2010:2. Lule: Swedish Blasting Research
Centre at Lule Univ. Techn. In Swedish.
Persson, P.A., Laadegaard-Pedersen, A. & Kihlstrm, B.
1969. The influence of borehole diameter on the rock
blasting capacity of an extended explosive charge. Int.
J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 6: 277284.
Petropoulos, N., Johansson, D. & Ouchterlony, F. 2012.
Fragmentation under different confinement condi-
tions and the burden behavior-small scale tests. Sub-
mitted to Fragblast 10 conf.
10/3/2012 8:23:46 PM
 Pham, V.H. 2011. Research on the determination of suit-
able blasting parameters using for low bench blasting
in the condition of Vietnam. PhD thesis, Fakultt
Geowissen-schaften, Geotechnik & Bergbau, 212 pp.
Freiberg, Germany: TU Bergakademie.
Reichholf, G. 2003. Experimental investigation into the
characteristic of particle size distributions of blasted
material. PhD thesis, 223 pp. Leoben, Austria: Monta-
nuniv., Dep. of Mining Engng & Mineral Economics.
Rustan, A. Vutukuri, V.S. & Naarttijrvi, T. 1983. The
influence from specific charge, geometric scale and
physical properties of homogeneous rock on fragmen-
tation. In R Holmberg & A Rustan (eds), Proc. 1st Int.
Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting 1: 115142.
Lule: Lule Univ. Techn.
Rustan, A., Yang, Z.G., qvist, J. & Bergqvist, S. 1984.
Optimal delay times between decked charges in
blastholes. A theory and model blast study. Res. rpt
TULEA 1984:22, Lule: Lule Univ. Techn.
Schimek, P., Ouchterlony, F. & Moser, P. 2012 Experi-
mental blast fragmentation research in model-scale
bench blasts. Submitted to Fragblast 10 conf.
Vutukuri, V.S. & Rustan, A. 1983. Influence of physical
properties of rock and rock-like material on blastabil-
ity in crater and slab blasting. A literature and model
study. Rpt FG 8221. Kiruna: Swedish Min. Res.
Found, See also Rustan et al. (1983).
14
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 14
Wilson, W.H. & Holloway, D.C. 1987. Fragmentation
studies in instrumented concrete models. In G Herget &
S Vongpaisal (eds), Proc. 6th ISRM Int. Cong. Rock
Mechs 1: 735741. Montreal: ISRM.
Wimmer, M. 2007. An experimental investigation of
blastability. Swebrec rpt 2007:1. Lule: Swedish
Blasting Research Centre at Lule Univ. Techn. See
also Wimmer et al. (2008).
Wimmer, M., Moser, P. & Ouchterlony, F. 2008.
Experimental investigation of blastability. In H. Schun-
nesson & E. Nordlund (eds.). Proc. MassMin2008,
5th Int. Conf. & Exhib. on Mass Mining: 645655.
Rotterdam: Balkema.
Winzer, S.R. 1978. The firing times of of MS delay blast-
ing caps and their effect on blasting performance. NSF
rpt APR 77-05171. Baltimore MD: Martin Marietta
Labs.
Winzer, S.R., Anderson, D.A. & Ritter, A.P. 1983. Rock
fragmentation by explosives. In R Holmberg & A Rustan
(eds), Proc. 1st Int. Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by
Blasting 1: 225249. Lule: Lule Univ. Techn.
Yang, Z.G. & Rustan, A. 1983. The influence of primary
structure on fragmentation. In R Holmberg & A Rustan
(eds), Proc. 1st Int. Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by
Blasting 2: 581603. Lule: Lule Univ. Techn.
10/3/2012 8:23:47 PM
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Frontiers and challenges in numerical simulation of the blasting process

using the combined finite discrete element method

A. Munjiza & V. Divic

University of London, London, UK

B. Mohanty
University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada

ABSTRACT: Although the accurate simulation of all the processes involved in rock blasting satisfies
to some extent all the criteria for a grand challenge computing problem, an incremental progress is being
made on both algorithmic and hardware front. This progress is gradually bringing closer the so called
rational predictive capabilities based on the combined continua discontinua simulation tools. In this
paper, the most promising recent developments in the combined finite discrete element based simulation
of rock blasting are summarized and further challenges on various fronts are explained in some detail.

1 INTRODUCTION address the real nature of a particular problem.

Computational Mechanics and Computational
Physics in general have gone a long way since their
humble beginnings when large scale simula-
tions comprised 16 or 32 degrees of freedom. The
progress is due to many factors including: (a) ever
increasing need for predictive capabilities in vari-
ous branches of science, engineering, and industry;
(b) ever increasing affordability of high perform-
ance computer hardware (in only a couple of dec-
ades a jump from unaffordable single processor
computers to parallel desktop machines costing
hundreds of dollars has been made); (c) ever more
sophisticated computational solvers, methods, and
algorithms being developed. Nevertheless, there
are a large number of problems and processes that
remain outside predictive capabilities of the present
numerical simulation technology. The rock blasting
process (Hopler 1998, Holmberg 1979, Fourney
2006, Blear 2006, Blair 1996, Fleetwood 2009,
Fitzgerald 2011, Thornton 2009, Tordoir 2009) is
to a large extent one of these. In general, there are
several reasons for a particular problem to remain
outside the scope of present predictive simulation
capabilities: (a) no satisfactory numerical solutions
have been developed; (b) existing numerical solu-
tions take a long time to run (the so called grand
challenge problems); (c) numerical solutions are
prohibitively expensive and/or unaffordable.
From the early developments over decades the
researchers have first moved from linear to non-
linear problems. These were followed by introduc-
ing ever greater complexity into the simulations
in order not only to increase accuracy but also to
The ambition was always to model more and more
complex problems and processes. Very often added
complexity of new problems required development
of new computational methods. In the early days
finite difference methods were mostly employed.
The finite difference SHALE code with a Bedded
Crack Model (BCM) was the first serious attempt
at modeling the blasting process (Adams et al,
1983). The BCM model was a microphysical model
in which the material was considered elastic with
embedded flaws. It also had an explosive behav-
ior module that could handle both the stress wave
propagation in rock as well as explosion product
gases. Crater experiments involving both TNT
and ANFO were conducted in oil shale for com-
parison with numerical predictions. The agreement
between predictions and actual measurements
of crater dimensions were reasonably good, and
especially the peak particle velocity on the surface.
However, in terms of actual crater dimensions,
the former predicted much deeper crater depth
than experimentally observed. In a parallel work,
McHugh (1983) carried out enhanced permeability
in volcanic tuff, and compared his numerical pre-
dictions with actual tests in deep boreholes. There
was reasonable agreement between predictions and
observed fracture and permeability enhancement.
The next logical step was the introduction of
finite element methods. These were initially intro-
duced mostly for the reason of better approxima-
tion of boundary conditions. Problems involving
localizations, discontinuities, softening, fracture,
etc. stretched the capabilities of the finite ele-
ment method to its limits. In the process the finite

15

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 15 10/3/2012 8:23:47 PM

 element mesh, which started as a great advantage
of finite element based simulation tools, became
an obstacle in addressing some of these challenges.
Thus, both in solids and fluids a shift towards
Lagrangian formulations, mesh-free approaches,
particle based approaches and similar were devel-
oped. In parallel to the above continuum based
computational methods, discontinuum based
methods such as DDA, DEM, MD were devel-
oped (Shi 1988, Thornton 2000, Perkins 2001,
Roth 2000, Munjiza 2010, 2009, 2011). Initially,
the developments were completely independent
from each other. For instance the DEM commu-
nity was developing algorithms completely inde-
pendently from MD community. DEM was one of
the discontinua based methods that were applied
to rock blasting simulations with reasonable suc-
cess, Preece (1997).
Neither continuum nor discontinuum based
methods were able to capture different aspects of
the blasting process; and there is now a consensus
among the researchers in the field that rational sim-
ulation of blasting processes has to combine both
continua and discontinua together with proper
simulation of gas expansion and flow. Among the
first approaches of this kind is the so called com-
bined finite discrete element method; early work of
Minhinton and Lynch (1997), first at ICI Explo-
sives and then at Orica Explosives included both
FDEM based fragmentation and gas flow. Initially
the work was done in collaboration with Rockfield
Software. The most recent approach in this cate-
gory is the so called Hybrid Stress Blasting Model
(HSBM), first proposed by Guest in his PhD thesis
in 2005. Much like the combined finite discrete ele-
ment model, HSBM has shown excellent ability to
produce experimentally tested results starting with
first principles. Much like the combined finite dis-
crete element model, HSBM involves gas expan-
sion and gas flow. However, it stops short of being
a tool for everyday use for the same reasons as
the combined finite discrete element method, see
Furtney, 2009 Ruest 2006.
In the rest of this paper, we focus on the state
of the art of the combined finite discrete element
method, with special emphasis on the shortcomings
of the model and scope for future developments.
2 THE COMBINED FINITE DISCRETE
ELEMENT METHOD (FDEM)
The combined finite discrete element method
was first proposed by Munjiza as an attempt of
bridging the gap between methods based on the
assumption of continua and methods based on
the assumption of discontinua (Munjiza 2004). As
such, from very early it has been considered as a
16
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 16
natural approach to the so called rational simula-
tion of blasting processes.
Initial developments of the combined finite dis-
crete element method started in 1989 at Tohoku
University in Sendai Japan. Early ideas were con-
ceived in an effort to model rock stability problems
under earthquake load. At that time Munjiza was
working as a visiting engineer under supervision
of Professor Kuranishi. The next important stage
of the development happened in Swansea where
Munjiza was working as a PhD student under ini-
tial supervision of Professor Williams, who subse-
quently moved to MIT. Munjiza soon joined him
at MIT where the power of the first open source
RG code was demonstrated. Professor Owen from
Swansea was the first to realize the commercial
potential of the combined finite discrete element
method; in 1993 he commissioned Munjiza to
implement key solutions from the RG code into his
commercial finite element code called Elfen. Ever
since, Elfen has become the commercial code of
choice for many applications. However, Munjiza
moved to University of London and continued
developing algorithmic solutions. These were
very soon used by Imperial College London, Los
Alamos National Laboratory, and Lawrence Liver-
more National Laboratory. University of Toronto
was the institution to take a serious interest and
develop a group working specifically on the com-
bined finite discrete element method. Other uni-
versities and companies all over the world joined
in including Rio Tinto, University of Birmingham,
Universities in China, Taiwan, Japan, Australia,
Italy, and Germany. As a result there are a number
of centres of excellence spread around the world
working on both fundamental developments and
applications. The worlds leading research estab-
lishments have decided to pursue their own com-
bined finite discrete element method related code
developments. Important work has been done at
MIT, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory,
as well as Imperial College London, University
of Birmingham, University of Toronto and Los
Alamos National Laboratory. One could argue
that Los Alamos National Laboratory is now the
leading player.
In 2004 the key aspects of the combined finite-
discrete element method were published in the
book called The Combined Finite Discrete Ele-
ment method. The book was published by Wiley
and It included key aspects of Y2D and Y3D
codes together with detailed explanations. At that
point Y code became an open source code available
to everybody free of charge. It is available in source
code format and its main objective is very clear: to
help educate the next generation of researchers and
enable them to both exploit the technology and to
further develop it. The name Y stands for why.
10/3/2012 8:23:47 PM
 Figure 1. A chimney stack demolition.

In other words the code is aimed not only to help

students and engineers solve their problems, but also
Figure 2. The failure of a simply supported beam after
to answer their questions and educate them. The the release of the right hand support.
code is written in plain C language and is designed
using the best software design practice that enables
transparency, portability and modularity. Thanks
to its student friendly approach, the Y code has
become an essential complementary teaching tool
for both The Combined Finite Discrete Element
Method book and The Computational Mechanics
of Discontinua book. The basic idea of the com-
bined finite discrete element method is relatively
simple: Each discrete element is discretised into
finite elements. This way there exist many finite
element meshes that represent the geometry and
the mechanical behaviour of each discrete element.
Thus, the discrete elements can move, rotate, trans-
late, deform, fracture, and fragment. At the same
time they can interact with each other in a com-
plex way. This is a relatively simplistic description
of the combined finite discrete element method.
Nevertheless it does contain the essential parts of
the method. Each of these essential parts translates Figure 3. Fracture. propagation for homogeneous
into complicated mathematical formulations and and layered rock inclined at 60.
corresponding algorithmic computational solu-
tions. One of the first simulations run using the
combined finite discrete element method (RG code)
was a chimney stack collapse shown in Figure 1. ment method reproduces the analytical solution
extremely well in many cases; very interesting vali-
dation work (Mahabadi, et al, 2008; Trivino et al,
3 DRY FRACTURE SIMULATION 2009) was done by Mohanty and his PhD stu-
dents involving stress wave propagations including
The combined finite discrete element method is Rayleigh waves. Important work was also done by
able to simulate complex dry fracture processes the group at university of Toronto under profes-
thus, it has been subjected to testing, verification sor Grasselli. Using the combined finite discrete
and validation from the very early days. Among element method homogeneous and layered rock
the early benchmark problems was the inertia samples were considered. Fracture propagation of
beam problem, Figure 2. the homogeneous rock sample obtained using the
The inertia beam is a standard textbook exam- combined finite discrete element method and Y2D
ple of inertia forces at work. As such it has a well code is shown in Figure 3. First cracks initiate at
defined analytical solution. Inertia forces play an the centre of the disc. These cracks then propagate
important role in the failure of the beam. The toward the loading platens; at later stages further
beam breaks at the point of maximum bending cracks appear on the sides of the primary crack.
moment due to the combined self weight and The influence of layer orientation to the fracture
inertia forces. The combined finite discrete ele- pattern is also shown.

17

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 17 10/3/2012 8:23:47 PM

 The University of Toronto group has further
developed and customised the Y code to the extent
that it has become the Y-geo code suitable for
applications of geomechanics. This group has also
put a significant effort into developing the mate-
rial models, friction models and fracture models.
In collaboration with the group from Turin (pro-
fessor Barla), important work was done on fur-
ther benchmarking and validation problems. In
Figure 4 both the very first and the latest related
work on simulation of slope stability problems
are shown side by side, clearly demonstrating the
extent of the advancement in the core simulation
capabilities. In all the examples shown deforma-
tion of individual discrete elements has been taken
into account, interaction among discrete elements
has been resolved at every time instance, transient
dynamics has been considered and finally transi-
tion from continua to discontinua including fail-
ure, fracture and fragmentation have all been
included.
In its current state, the combined finite-dis-
crete element method can also reproduce com-
plex fracture patterns on shell manifolds. In
Figures 5 and 6 a flat glass panel under impact
and a spherical shell under impact are shown Figure 6. Fracture of a spherical shell under impact.
respectively.

Figure 4. An example of FEM/DEM based slope

stability simulation using Y2D code: early developments Figure 7. An example of a fracture process that includes
(top), recent developments (bottom) (courtesy of Piovano, fluid coupling.
Lisjak and Mahabadi, 2008).

4 FLUID DRIVEN FRACTURE

PROCESSES

Figure 7, represent challenges associated with fluid

Figure 5. Fracture of a flat glass panel under impact at
velocity of 3 m/s (top) and 5 m/s (bottom).
coupling and fluid driven fracture process, which
are essential in rock blasting applications (Munjiza
1999).
A 2D simulation of a block caving process
starting with boreholes and explosive initiation,
progressing with rock fracture and fragmentation

18

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 18 10/3/2012 8:23:48 PM

 6 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS

In recent years important 3D developments have

taken place including the real shape particle and
large scale 3D problems (Figs. 10 and 11).
The recent algorithmic breakthroughs such as the
linear contact detection algorithms and discretised
contact interaction algorithms provide an insight
what may be possible on computer hardwares of
tomorrow. The MRCK_3D (MRCK for Munjiza-
Rougier-Carney-Knight) is the most recent ultra
Figure 8. An example of fluid coupling applied to fast contact detection algorithm developed as a part
block caving. of research collaboration between the combined
finite discrete element group at University of Lon-
don and the combined finite discrete element group
at Los Alamos National laboratory. The perform-
ance evaluation of the MRCK_3D is demonstrated
using a cubical hollow raster of particles of general
shapes placed inside a rigid spherical container.
The raster is centered with respect to the spherical
container and each particle is given an initial veloc-
ity pointing to the centre of the sphere. The speed
of each particle is set to 100 m/s. The system is left
to relax, and as a result, a random pattern of col-
lisions takes place between the particles, as shown
in Figure 12. It is worth noting that the total CPU
time is proportional to the number of particles.
Very recently completely new generation of inter-
Figure 9. An example of rock pile formation. action algorithms and fracture algorithms has been

and finishing with rock flow is shown in

Figure 8.
Currently, important developments are in
progress on the fluid coupling front for 3D fluid
driven fracture processes (University of Toronto
under Professor Mohanty).

5 MUCK PILE FORMATION

Muck pile formation simulations were an integral

part of the combined finite discrete element devel- Figure 10. A 3D rock pile simulation should include
opments from the very beginning. Nevertheless, accurate representation of transient motion including
full scale pile formation simulation is still beyond finite rotations and particle shapes.
current capabilities. Early pile formation simula-
tion is shown in Figure 9. The obtained motion
sequence for the muck-pile formation includes
the initially fractured rock forming an unstable
column and individual rock blocks moving hori-
zontally and accelerating downwards under the
gravity (self weight). The bottom of the column
collapses first and this collapse is propagated
toward the upper layers of rock. In the next stage
the lower layers of rock decelerate due to confine-
ment induced through boundaries, which results
in contact interaction between rock fragments and Figure 11. Towards one billion particles problem
intensive energy dissipation. a 3-million degrees of freedom pile of particles.

19

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 19 10/3/2012 8:23:49 PM


Figure 12. Evolution of the collapsing raster together
with specific CPU time as a function of the number of
contactors.
Figure 13. Speedup using MPI parallelizationtotal
number of particles: 0.6 billion.
developed and is being currently tested. Unfortu-
nately, it is not yet in the Y code, but should be
coming with the book to be published in 2013.
7 CONCLUSIONS
Accurate simulation of rock blasting with rock pile
formation simulations would require systems com-
prising over a trillion of particles. Some may even
require a quadrillion of particles. As such, rock
blasting is classed among the so called grand chal-
lenge discontinua simulation problems. There are
at present few options available:
1. use clusters of inexpensive workstations, i.e. dis-
tributed computing option;
2. use the idle computer power over computer net-
work, i.e. grid computing;
3. use massively parallel computers;
4. have hardware tailor-designed to address simu-
lations based on massive gridsprobably using
20
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 20
architectures similar to the Thinking Machine
or GPU units will appear in a 64 billion proces-
sors format.
At the age when both RAM and CPU units are
relatively cheap, many research groups have been
simply using clusters of PCs combined with domain
decomposition to divide the work load among the
available processors. For $10 K it is feasible to have
100 PCs in a cluster. The biggest problem is prob-
ably the limited speed of message passing, i.e. com-
munication overheads. Thus, for many simulations
there may be a limit on how many processors can
be employed because with further increase in the
number of processors, no speed is gained. A typi-
cal performance of MPI is shown in Figure 13; the
speedup is not linear with number of processors.
Grid and cloud computing are another option
available. These can be defined as a massive inte-
gration of computer systems to offer perform-
ance unattainable by any single machine through
the virtualization of computing resources distrib-
uted over a grid. It is evident that such a virtual
machine incorporates massive communication, i.e.
data exchange. It therefore results in a nonlinear
improvement in performance similar to the one
associated with distributed and parallel computing.
Existing parallel, distributed and grid computing
options are able to achieve better CPU and RAM
performance, thus increasing the size of the prob-
lem that can be addressed by one or two orders of
magnitude. However, this appears to be an upper
limit. Further increase in the number of processing
units may not result in significant improvements in
performance. In addition energy (cooling) require-
ments may remain a further obstacle. It may be
that the solution is some form of an automated
customised computer architecture option using
energy efficient chip design (Lloyd 2000).
It is worth noting that serious problems remain
on the algorithmic front. This has been demon-
strated not only by the FDEM based simulation
tools, but also by alternative approaches such as
HSBM. It is encouraging that a concentrated effort
on HSBM has been undertaken by academia,
industry and software companies. A similar effort
on the FDEM front would benefit both FDEM
and HSBM; also, it may be possible to pass experi-
ences between various simulation tools including
various detailed algorithmic solutions.
REFERENCES
Adams T.F., Demuth, R., Margolin, L.C. and
Nichols, B.D., 1983. Simulation of Rock Blasting
with the SHALE code, in Proceedings First Interna-
tional Symp on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting (ed:
Holmbrg R. and Rustan, A.), pp 361374 (Sweden).
10/3/2012 8:23:50 PM
 Blair, D.P. & Minchinton, A. 1996. On the damage zone
surrounding a single blasthole. In B. Mohanty (ed.),
Proc. 5th Int. Symp. on Fragmentation by Blasting
Fragblast 5, Montreal, Canada: 121130. Rotterdam:
Balkema.
Blair, D.P. & Minchinton, A. 2006. Near Field blast
vibration models. In Proc. 8th Int. Symp. on Rock
Fragmentation by BlastingFragblast 8, Santiago,
Chile: 152159.
Cundall, P.A. & Strack, O.D.L. 1979. A Discrete Numer-
ical Model for Granular Assemblies. Geotechnique
29(l): 47.
Fitzgerald, M, York, S, Cooke, D and Thornton, D,
2011. Blast monitoring and blast translationCase
study of a grade improvement project at the Fimis-
ton Pit, Kalgoorlie, Western Australia, in Proceedings
Eighth International Mining Geology Conference 2011,
pp 285298 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy: Melbourne).
Fleetwood, K.G. & Villaescusa, E. & Li, J. 2009. Limi-
tations of using PPV damage models to predict rock
mass damage. In Proc. 35th Ann. Conf. on Explosives
and Blasting Technique, Denver, USA 1: 349363.
ISEE.
Fourney, W.L. & Bihr, S. & Leiste, U. 2006. Borehole
pressures in an air decked situation. Fragblast 10 (1):
4760.
Furtney, J, Cundall, P and Chitombo, G, 2009. Devel-
opments in numerical modeling of blast induced rock
fragmentation: Updates from the HSBM project,
in Proceedings Ninth International Symposium on
Rock Fragmentation by BlastingFragblast 9 (ed:
J.A. Sanchidrian), pp 335342 (Taylor and Francis
Group: London).
Gilbride, L, Taylor, S and Zhang, S, 1995. Blast-induced
rock movement modelling for Nevada gold mines,
Mineral Resources Engineering, 4(2):175193.
Holmberg, R. & Persson, P.A. 1979. Design of tunnel
perimeter blasthole patterns to prevent rock damage.
In M.J. Jones (ed.), Proc. 2nd Int. Symp. on Tunnel-
lingTunnelling 79: 280283. London: Institution of
Mining and Metallurgy.
Hopler, R. (ed.) 1998. Blasters Handbook. 17th ed.
Cleveland: ISEE.
Lloyd, S. 2000. Ultimate physical limits to computation.
Nature 406: 1047105.
Mahabadi, O.K. & Grasselli, G. & Munjiza, A. 2008.
Y-GUI: A Graphical user interface and pre-processor
for the combined finite-discrete element code, Y2D,
incorporating material inhomogeneity. Submitted to
Computers & Geosciences Journal.
McHugh, S.,1983, Computational simulations of
dynamically induced fracture and fragmentation, in
Proceedings First International Symp on Rock Frag-
mentation by Blasting (ed: Holmbrg R. and Rustan, A.),
pp 407418 (Sweden).
Minchinton, A, Lynch, P, 1997. Fragmentation and
heave modelling using a coupled discrete element gas
flow code, Fragblast: International Journal for Blasting
and Fragmentation, 1(1):4157.
Munjiza, A. 2004. The Combined Finite-Discrete Ele-
ment method. Wiley. UK.
Munjiza, A. 2011. Computational Mechanics of
Discontinua. Wiley. UK.
21
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 21
Munjiza, A. & Latham, J.P. & Andrews, K.R.F. 1999a.
Detonation gas model for coupled analysis of explo-
sive induced rock fragmentation. In Proc. 6th Int.
Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by BlastingFragblast
6, Johannesburg, South Africa: 183186.
Munjiza, A. (ed.) 2010. Discrete Element Methods. In
Proc. 5th Int. Conf. on Discrete Element Methods,
London 2010.
Munjiza, A. (ed.) 2009. Aspects of recent developments
in computational mechanics of discontinua, Engi-
neering Computations International Journal, Special
issue, Vol. 26 Number 6 ISSN 0264-4401; ISBN 978-
1-84855-862-5, page 577743.
Nasseri, M.H.B, and Mohanty, B., 2008. Fracture tough-
ness and anisotropy in granitic rocks Handbook. J.
Rock Mech. & Min. Sci.; 45, p. 167193. (since it is not
referred to in the text).
Olsson, M. & Nie, S. & Bergqvist, I. & Ouchterlony, F.
2002. What causes cracks in rock blasting? Fragblast
6 (2): 221233.
Perkins, P. Williams, J.R. 2001. Cgrid: Neighbor searching
for many body simulation. ICADD-4: 427438.
Preece, D.S., J.P. Tidman, and S.H. Chung, 1997
Expanded Rock Blast Modelling Capabilities of
DMC_BLAST, Including Buffer Blasting, in Pro-
ceedings 13th Annual Symposium on Explosives and
Blasting Research International Society of Explosives
Engineers.
Roth, J. & Ghler, F. & Trebin, H.R. 2000. A molecular
dynamics run with 5,180,116,000 particles. Interna-
tional Journal of Modern Physics C 11(2): 317322.
Ruest, M., P. Cundall, A. Guest and G. Chitombo 2006.
Developments Using the Particle Flow Code to Simu-
late Rock Fragmentation by Condensed Phase Explo-
sives. in Proceedings Eighth International Symposium
On Rock Fragmentation By BlastingFragblast 8(ed:
Santiago), pp. 140151.
Shi, G.H. 1988. Discontinuous deformation analysis
a new numerical method for the statics and dynamics
of block system. PhD Thesis, Dept. Civil Engng., Univ.
of California, Berkeley.
Thornton, C. (ed.). 2000. Numerical simulations of dis-
crete particle systems. Powder Technology, Special
Issue 109(13): 1298.
Trivino, L., Mohanty, B. and Munjiza, A., 2009.
Seismic radiation patterns from cylindrical explo-
sive charges by combined analytical and combined
finite-discrete element methods. Proc. 9th Int.
Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting (FRAG-
BLAST9), Sanchidrian J.; Ed.), CRC Press,
p. 415426.
Thornton, D, 2009. The application of electronic monitors
to understand blast movement dynamics and improve
blast designs, in Proceedings Ninth International Sym-
posium on Rock Fragmentation by BlastingFragblast 9
(ed: J.A. Sanchidrian), pp 287300 (Taylor and Francis
Group: London).
Tordoir, A, Weatherley, D, Onederra, I and Bye, A,
2009. A new 3D simulation framework to model
blast induced rock mass displacement using physics
engines, in Proceedings Ninth International Sympo-
sium On Rock Fragmentation By BlastingFragblast 9
(ed: J A Sanchidrian), pp 381388 (Taylor and Francis
Group: London).
10/3/2012 8:23:50 PM
This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Innovations in blast measurement: Reinventing the past

A.T. Spathis
Orica Mining Services Technology Centre, Kurri Kurri, NSW, Australia

ABSTRACT: A blast is a dynamic violent event generated over a few seconds and involves detonation
waves, shock waves, and gas expansion that interact to produce the rock fragmentation, rock movement,
environmental effects, and rock damage to the remaining rock. The blast outputs influence the overall
productivity of mining, quarrying and construction projects. This paper reviews measurement systems
and transducers that help us understand the blasting process. The geology, geometry, and the explosive
and initiation systems are the inputs used to target desired blast outcomes. Careful measurement of these
inputs and the resultant outputs provide a rich data set whose careful analysis and interpretation enables
better and smarter blasts. Measurement systems range from informed visual observation combined with
sophisticated instrumentation of high dynamic range and fast data sample rates. Some of the measurement
systems described are relatively newmost are evolutions of prior approaches.

1 INTRODUCTION

Blasting is a complex process that involves the

interaction between three dominant aspects:
the geology of the rock mass; the geometry of the
exposed surfaces and the boreholes; and the explo-
sives and initiation sequence. The rapid release of
energy is used to fragment and move rock from its
geological setting and make the broken rock avail-
able for excavation, transport and further, usually,
mechanical comminution. The chemical energy of
the explosives used in blasting does not all do use-
ful worksome of it is converted to seismic energy
(ground vibrations), acoustic energy (noise or
airblast), and heat. A blast produces fine material
of limited utility, unwanted gasses and air-borne
dust. At some level all of the results of a blast have
Figure 1. Explosives-rock mass interaction (after Little
an economic effect to the mining, quarrying or and van Rooyen 1988).
construction project.
Little and van Rooyen (1988) produced a use-
ful summary of a blast which they describe as the of their design. The primary blast outputs (Fig. 1)
explosives-rock mass interaction. Figure 1 shows may be identified visually by a casual observer
the three areas: blast geometry, loading and tim- located in safe position. These are fragmented rock,
ing or blast design; rock mass characteristics; and, the disposition and location of that fragmented
explosive characteristics. The rock mass inputs are a rock, environmental outputs including ground
function of the geological setting of the orebody. The vibration and airblast or noise, fume and dust.
explosives characteristics are chosen by the blasting A less obvious outcome that may be observed after
engineer based on the rock mass properties and the careful inspection is the damage of the remaining
desired blasting objective. The blast design imple- rock mass as evidenced by cracks that are near the
ments the explosives and initiation sequence given perimeter of the blast. While such observations
the geology and the available geometry (blasthole are needed and important in the feedback to the
diameter, blasthole length, number of decks etc) to blaster for each blast, it is essential to have quanti-
focus the available energy on the blasting objective. tative information to ensure that a rigorous proc-
As with any engineering discipline, a blasting ess of blast control and improvement occurs. The
engineer needs to have confidence in the outcome challenge is formidable given the violent release of

23

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 23 10/3/2012 8:23:50 PM

 energy in a blast and the engineering properties of
the rock being broken and moved.
Harries (1988) gives a non-exhaustive list of
over fifty variables involved in managing a blast
and opines that while some of the variables may
be controlled this leaves an uncomfortably large
number of variables whose effect on blasting
and subsequent operations has to be assessed.
Cunningham (1990) offered a broad template
for the types of measurements that would help
strengthen the decision-making for a blast designer.
It complements the items identified in Figure 1 and
is given in Figure 2.
The blast measurements discussed in the present
paper relate to the pre-blast inputs, the during-
blast or in-blast factors, and the post-blast outputs
of fragmented muck, and local damage. Limited
discussion is given on some of the other inputs and
outputs such as the geology, the ground vibration
and airblast, dust and fume. It is beyond the scope
of the paper to cover the effect of the blast on
downstream processes such as excavation, hauling
and subsequent processes. That would be another
paper in its own right.
The coverage of the blast measurements is in
the chronological sequence of a typical blast and
covers essentially the time in setting up the blast,
the few seconds of the blast itself, and the time
before excavation ceases. Sporadic examples are
Figure 2. Blast monitoring zones (after Cunningham
1990).
24
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 24
given of past measurement techniques to contrast
and compare with modern ones. The coverage is
non-exhaustive, and while not exclusive to them,
uses two primary sources: the International
Symposia on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting
and the United States Bureau of Mines Reports
of Investigation. The latter give a good idea of
where blast measurement technology was in the
early 1950s to the early 1990s, while the former
gives an idea of how things have developed from
the 1980s to the present time. Unfortunately, this
means that at times some important and relevant
work is missed and the author offers his apologies
for such omissions. In this paper reference is made
to various types of equipment for the purpose of
illustration and does not imply endorsement of
any kind.
2 PRE-BLAST MEASUREMENTS
2.1 General
Pre-blast measurements relate to the geology, geom-
etry, explosives and initiation systems (Fig. 2). It is
assumed that the explosives and initiation systems
are fit for purpose and are deployed correctly and
no further discussion on them is included here
except in a later section on measurements during
the blast phase.
The geology of the orebody affects the blast-
ing in a complex manner. Unlike some engineer-
ing materials, rock mass properties can vary at all
scales of interest from grains to faults and joints
and there is often some level of inhomogeneity
and anisotropy. The dynamic loads applied by the
blasting process generate extreme temperatures
and pressures experienced by the rock close to the
blastholes, and these loads involve stress waves and
gas pressures over brief time scales. Discontinuities
in the rock mass can have a significant influence on
the fragmentation, heave, environmental outcomes,
and damage to the remaining rock. The inherited
geological properties of the orebody have been
shaped by long-term processes in the earths crust
and the mining induces exposure of geological
structures at free surfaces that may influence the
blasting outcomes (Little 2011). In applied geology,
perhaps the most important impacts on blasting
are economic and engineering geology. More spe-
cifically, structural geology mapping focuses on the
variations in rock mass properties and the discus-
sion here is restricted to two methods of assessing
the geology on a scale that is relevant to typical
mining and construction operations.
The geometry of a blast refers to the location of
free surfaces and in both underground and surface
mining these include surfaces where blastholes are
10/3/2012 8:23:51 PM
 drilled as well as surfaces that bound void space
into which the broken rock may move. In tunnel
blasts this will include empty void holes drilled in
the cut region of the dead-end face. The location
and presence of such free surfaces are integral to
the blast and in many cases are taken for granted.
The other critical part of the geometry is the loca-
tion and disposition of the blastholes themselves.
The important parameters are the number of
blastholes, the blasthole collar locations, the
blasthole diameter and the blasthole depth. The
free surfaces and the blastholes provide the blast
designer the three dimensional volume of rock that
is to be blasted and the distribution of explosives
used to fragment and move it.
2.2 Geology
In many cases the blast design has been effective
in the given geology for some time and few, if any,
alterations are made to it. In new projects the geol-
ogy is examined in a limited way and perhaps more
carefully. So geology is either ignored or given
brief acknowledgement. It is suggested that this
occurs due to the complexity of actually using the
data obtained in a geological study. Nevertheless,
progress has been made and needs to continue in
the interest of better blast outcomes.
Pugliese (1972) and Dick et al. (1983) suggest
the important geological factors that influence
blasting are the jointing, bedding, and relatively
incompetent and weak zones such as voids, mud
seams, and faults. They urge the use of a geolo-
gist to map each joint set and its direction, extent,
and spacing. Bedding plane strike and dip should
also be documented and note made of the location
of the zones of weakness and the presence of any
cavities, either formed by prior mining activity or
by solution processes such as occurs in limestone.
Apart from these features that are variously dis-
continuous, inhomogeneous or anisotropic, the
intact rock properties such as density, elastic mod-
uli and strength and hardness parameters should
be obtained from representative samples. The geol-
ogist collects data from surface exposures and can
use interpretation methods to infer sub-surface
geological structure (Lisle 2004).
Dick et al. (1983) recommend working closely
with the driller and local site blaster when preparing
a blast. The driller obtains some unique informa-
tion while creating the blastholesthe drill pen-
etration rate, the production of drill cuttings, drill
torque, drill down-force, and the vibration of the
drill string itself all help provide complex data that
give information on the rock hardness, the presence
of voids and water, and zones of soft and hard rock.
Such information is available across the whole blast
from an observant drilling and blasting crew.
25
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 25
The geologist and the driller have been using their
observations to assist the blasting process for some
time. No doubt their skills will remain important.
But how have innovative methods been used to
obtain further quantitative data concerning the
geology? Three particular techniques are discussed
briefly here: laser scanners or photogrammetric
measurements that provide high-density terrain
maps that may be interpreted to obtain joint set
data; instrumented drills that obtain Measurement
While Drilling (MWD) information that can be
used to identify soft/hard zones; and, borehole log-
ging that provides rock strata information based
on a range of geophysical methods.
Automated techniques to obtain structural
geological information and joint sets in particu-
lar are of interest in geotechnical and blasting
applications. Both 3D laser scanning (sometimes
called LIDAR) and digital photogrammetry are
used to collect the raw point cloud data that is
transformed into polygons to define the surfaces
including planar ones that are interpreted as joint
planes (Poropat 2006). The application in sur-
face mining has been growing as the availability
of suitable scanning technology has become
available (Cheung et al. 1996, Kemeny et al. 2006).
A blasting example where the information may be
used to determine in situ block sizes is described by
Hamdi et al. (2006). Figure 3 (Kemeny et al. 2006)
shows the data processing steps for the point cloud
data obtained using LIDARphotogrammetry
will produce similar data.
Figure 4 shows an idealized case of a few joints
from approximately orthogonal sets intersecting a
block of rock. If the block is to be blasted, one
would expect the in situ joints to provide some of
the post blast surfaces of the fragmented rock. The
location of the blastholes within the (surface) tes-
sellation formed by the joints in each of the three
axes directions will participate in the resulting
fragmentation. In this case most of the blocks will
contain blastholes but in some areas the blocks
will not and these will be less likely to be broken
well during the blasting process. Latham et al.
(1999) review aspects of the creation of an in situ
block size distribution based on measured discon-
tinuity data. Hamdi et al. (2002) demonstrate the
benefit of using a specific surface index (ratio of
surface area of discontinuities to volume) rather
than a characteristic size from a Weibull distri-
bution to characterize the potential effect of the
geology on the fragmentation size distribution pro-
duced by blasting.
Borehole surveys provide another means of
determining rock mass characteristics. An obvious
starting point is to use the drill as a source of infor-
mation on the sub-surface geologyMeasurement
While Drilling (MWD). Wagner and Moser (1996)
10/3/2012 8:23:51 PM

Figure 3. Point cloud process for estimating joint set
data (a) original point cloud rendered with grayscale
(b) meshed point cloud to produce polygons (c) planar
features identified as joint planes (d) joint sets interpreted
(used by permission, Kemeny et al. 2006).
26
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 26
Figure 4. Schematic of joints intersecting a blast block.
provide an example in tunnel blasting. Drilling data
such as percussive frequency of the hammer, the
energy of the hammer blow, and the rotation speed
are correlated to various rock property parameters
including ultimate compressive strength, density
and so on. A challenge in this approach is how
well the correlations persist across different rock
types and various drilling parameters and that
this may affect the interpretation of the rock mass
parameters. They also show how in some locations
the MWD parameters can delineate different
rock hardness both from blasthole to blasthole
and within any given blasthole. The information
may be used to load the different zones with dif-
ferent strength explosives or modify the initiation
sequence to produce better blast results.
The geophysical exploration industry has
developed a number of techniques that determine
various rock formation properties by using wireline
logging (see, for example, Ellis and Singer 2011). Log-
ging While Drilling (LWD) is not part of the drilling
machine but a tool designed to traverse the borehole
and take measurements of interest. An example is
the use of natural gamma logging to identify the
location and thickness of coal seams to support
blasting operations in coal mines with single and
multiple seams. The natural emission of gamma rays
is recorded with depth along the blasthole. In many
cases the coal seam is relatively free of radioactive
isotopes of elements or their daughter elements that
emit gamma rays (potassium, thorium or uranium)
and a dip in the log indicates the location of the
coal seam. An example is shown in Figure 5. When
charging the blastholes, the blaster can ensure that
the coal is not damaged by placing inert material in
the coal-bearing zone (Goswami et al. 2008).
The simple method of viewing, photographing
or filming the interior of a blasthole to ascertain
pertinent geological features should not be ignored
(Williams and Johnson 2004). Figure 6 shows an
10/3/2012 8:23:51 PM

Figure 5. Natural gamma log for a blasthole in a coal
seam formation.
Figure 6. Borehole viewer image of unwrapped bore-
hole wall. Left-hand side is a photographic image and the
right-hand side is an acoustic image (Layne Christensen,
Colog).
unwrapped photographic image of an empty blast-
hole and an acoustic image of the same hole when
it was fluid-filled.
2.3 Geometry
Surveying provides the basic 3D data for a blast.
The data includes the coordinates of various
points of interest and full point clouds of the
terrain of various features such as the top of the
bench and the free faces in surface mines, and
similar features in underground workings con-
taining stopes and tunnels. The blasthole collar
locations are of utmost importance in blasting
and their location with respect to each other and
to the free faces are critical for a successful blast.
A simplified analysis demonstrates quite signifi-
cant variations in effective powder factors (mass
27
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 27
of explosives per unit volume of rock) by poor
collar locations (Spathis 2006).
Often the blasthole diameter is assumed to be
equal to the nominal size of the drill bit. A small
change in the actual blasthole diameter can cause
a significant change in the volume of explosive
used and modify its effective placement along the
blasthole. The diameter change may be caused by
a worn drill bit or by some of the blasthole wall
falling off. Hutchings (1990) describes a wire-
line logging system that uses three calipers at
120 degrees to each other to measure the diameter
of blastholes. His results were for large diameter
holes (270311 mm nominal) and in hard rock the
diameters were generally larger than nominal by
310 mm, whereas for softer materials relatively
severe deviations from nominal were observed with
both increases and decreases in diameter.
The depth of blastholes is usually measured by
hand using a flexible tape measure with a weight on
the end. The blaster is able to detect the depth to
the bottom of the hole and also the horizon of any
water/mud in it. The presence of water is important
as some explosives are unable to perform well, if at
all, if placed in water. The drill rig may be used to
determine the length of the blasthole at the time of
drilling, but the drill cuttings or the sides of weak
blastholes may slough into the hole and modify its
effective depth. Various methods based on laser or
ultrasonic methods of measuring from the collar of
a blasthole are fraught with difficulty, particularly
in defining the depth if any water is present.
The trajectory of a blasthole can modify the
effective location of the explosives energy released
at different depths along the blasthole. Killeen and
Elliot (1997) describe the basic approaches for track-
ing a borehole. Figure 7 shows a borehole track-
ing system that uses oriented rods that maintain
a bearing and is suitable for use in holes near
vertical. Paley (1993) shows how laser alignment of
Figure 7. Example of a borehole tracking tool used in
blasting (www.mdl.com).
10/3/2012 8:23:52 PM
 blastholes in ring blasting underground can reduce
poor burden control at the toe of the blastholes.
He observed a reduction in boulder counts in
two stopes where the method was used. Liu and
Tran (1999) advocate accurate blasthole collaring
and managing the hole deviation from design
as important measures for inverse drop raises in
underground mines. Ouchterlony (2002) provides
an informative analysis of drill hole deviations
with reference to perimeter holes drilled for a road
cutting. Lui (2009) describes a geometric analysis
of the visibility of a light source to estimate drill
hole deviation.
The advent of automated laser scanning equip-
ment and digital photogrammetric systems has
delivered unprecedented 3D data of exposed sur-
faces in mining. Application of such methods in
civil tunnels has been used for some time and the
technology has found its way into mine develop-
ment in underground mines (Wetherwelt and
Williams 2006, Spathis et al. 2006). Figure 8 shows
a typical 3D survey of a mine development head-
ing. It is usual to have parts of the tunnel surface
in shadow zones depending on the location of the
laser surveying instrument or of the cameras used
in a photogrammetric analysisthese constraints
are often safety-related to avoid a person being in
regions of unsupported ground. Such blind spots
are healed in software using assumptions of the reg-
ularity of the surrounding surface. Wimmer et al.
(2009) describe a challenging application behind
rings in a sublevel caving operation. The data pro-
vides the pre-blast geometry of free surfaces.
Digital terrain models are used regularly in min-
ing and recent work has involved relatively new
equipment based on well established principles of
photogrammetry (Moser et al. 2006, Gaich et al.
2009, and Wimmer et al. 2009). These provide data
for geometric information as well as the geologi-
cal data described earlier. Face surveys can yield
the burden distances to a free face that a blaster
may use to modify the charging of the holes to
minimize the incidence of face bursting, airblast
Figure 8. Survey of a blasted round in a mine develop-
ment tunnel.
28
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 28
and flyrock. Control of pit walls can be assisted
and factors such as crest damage can be quantified
using the 3D data.
3 DURING BLAST MEASUREMENTS
3.1 General
During blast measurements occur in the period
of a few seconds from the initiation of the first
detonator until the fragmentation and movement
of the rock mass is complete. The end point of
this period is when the blaster gives the all clear
and people and equipment can re-enter the region
of the blast. Apart from direct visual inspection
of a blast event from a safe location, other
measurements are made including the Velocity of
Detonation (VOD), the timing sequence between
decks and/or individual blastholes, high-speed
cinematography, pressure, strain, crack opening,
vibration and airblast, and motion of the rock
face and sub-surface displacements. Many of
these measurements rely on specialised equipment
and therefore the data is often for specific projects
rather than for routine monitoring of a normal
blast. The role of the measurements are diagnos-
tic such as when issues arise in a given project or
they are of a research nature as blasting engineers
seek to understand the mechanisms of the blasting
process. They may also be used when a significant
change in the blast design is planned. However, we
can anticipate routine use as these measurement
systems develop and become easier and cheaper
to deploy.
3.2 Velocity of detonation (VOD)
and initiation timing
The measurement of the VOD in columns of explo-
sives placed in the ground or in various cylindrical
containers (cardboard, PVC, steel) rely mainly on
estimating the time it takes for the detonation wave
to propagate a given distance. The transducers that
detect the detonation front rely on various physi-
cal mechanisms such as the light produced at or
near the detonation front, the pressure that causes
a discontinuity in the impedance of a sensing cable
or some form of electrical continuity or disruption
produced by the propagating front. Such meas-
urements provide a distance versus time plot with
data obtained at discrete locations or (essentially)
a continuous record. A somewhat different meas-
urement technique relies on the transducer form-
ing part of a resonant circuit (Hopkins et al. 1988,
Armstrong and Moxon 1990).
A number of methods for the measurement of
VOD are listed in Table 1 (Spathis et al. 2007).
10/3/2012 8:23:52 PM
 Table 1. VOD measurement systems (after Spathis et al. 2007).

Method Measurement Typical

Method type principle Limitations resolution

1 Discrete diode Discrete diode Sample rate to identify Distance between

string voltage steps diodes (100 mm)
2 Discrete resistor Discrete resistor Maximum current Distance between
string down a blasthole resistors (100 mm)
3 Continuous resistor Continuous Cable length 50 mm, depending
resistance wire on resistivity of wire
4 Electrical make/ Standard Cable resistance Distance between
break targets cable loop different cable lengths
5 Optical detector Fibre optic Light loss Distance between different
cable cable lengths (50 mm)
6 Electrical resonance Coaxial cable 60 m to 120 m (due to 50 mm
quarter wavelength limit)
7 Electrical time domain Coaxial cable Cable length (<600 m) 100 mm
reflectometer

Notes: 1. The generic VOD measurement methods described in Table 1 are those known to have been implemented.
2. The limitations and resolution are estimates only and will vary with the actual implementation. In particular, the
charge length and the number of blastholes to be monitored often dictate the type of transducer and system used.
3. Over the past several years there have been a number of commercial systems, usually based around Method 3, 4, 5
and 7.

Gibson et al. (1962) describe the use of a resist-

ance wire transducer for continuous VOD meas-
urements. Schultz (1987) presents some VOD data
obtained using a number of discrete fibre optic
cables located at known spacing along the explo-
sive charges. Kristiansen et al. (1990) describe the
use of both optical fibre and electrical make point
methods on small samples of explosive in cubic
concrete blocks. One of the more successful meth-
ods for measuring both VOD and timing data is
the Time-Domain Reflectometer (TDR) that uses
a coaxial cable as the transducer (Ouchterlony
et al. 1996). This method is suitable for measuring
the VOD in multiple holes within a blast provided
due care is taken with respect to both the initiation
sequence and the possibility of cut-offs that may
disrupt the coaxial cable. Figure 9 shows a typical
VOD trace from multiple holes.
The initiation times of some blastholes in a blast
may be obtained by using event detection at each
detonator/primer location. That is, timing events
for each detonator/primer location are recorded by
the disruption of a continuous transducer such as
the coaxial cable of a TDR VOD instrument or the Figure 9. (a) VOD traces measured in six holes (b) a single
resistance wire also commonly in coaxial cable for- VOD trace. The VODs were measured using the TDR
mat. The time between these events gives the true technique with a coaxial cable transducer.
delay between the firing of the respective decks or
blastholes. Discrete event detectors may also be
used. and coiled at the top of the blasthole. The flash of
One technique for getting timing information is light is captured on high-speed film and the timing
to use so-called tell-tales whereby a length of shock of each flash may be determined. An alternative
tube or possibly detonating cord is connected to the approach is to use an infra-red detector to record
detonator/primer with the end of the tube visible the event (Blair and Little 1993). A method that

29

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 29 10/3/2012 8:23:53 PM

 has not found wide application is the emission of
electromagnetic pulses observed in quarry blasts
and variously attributed to piezoelectric effects
where rocks contain (say) quartz (OKeefe and
Thiel 1990).
A common approach for obtaining timing infor-
mation is to record the vibration close to the blast
and use the arrival time of the first onset of the
individual waveforms from each hole. If a trigger is
used with any given detonator, then the subsequent
first arrival times may be referenced to that detona-
tor as a nominal zero time. Figure 10 shows vibra-
tions from the early firing holes in a tunnel blast.
Later arrivals overlap or in other cases may have
broadened and the method is inadequate there.

3.3 Rock movement

The movement of rock during the blast can be cap-
tured by cinematography. There can be no doubt of
the power and energy of explosives when viewing
a slow-motion film of a blast. Early use of high-
speed cinematography of surface blasts established
some of the important parameters in blasting (Blair
1959, Petkof et al. 1960). These include the forward
velocity of the rock fragments projected from the
near-vertical front face or from the bench surface
in the case of crater blasting, and the time to first
movement of the face. Figure 11 shows an early
high-speed camera (Blair 1959). Currently, modern
cameras with similar capabilities can be had as a
Figure 10. Vertical particle velocity vibrations from the
early firing holes in a tunnel round in hard rock. Clear
separation between the vibrations from the cut holes is
seen whereas in the later vibrations we see overlap that
makes accurate timing measurements impossible.
Figure 11. Early high-speed camera used for filming
blasts (Blair 1959).
consumer item with purpose-built cameras provid-
ing enhanced features. The use of multiple cameras
enables different views of the blast (Chiappetta
and Vandenberg 1990) and when deployed in pairs,
dynamic digital photogrammetry may be used to
interpret the stereo images.
Chiappetta and Borg (1983) discuss the benefits
of using high-speed photography as a diagnostic
tool with emphasis on field controls of the blast
implementation. The importance of four different
time periods during a crater blast were identified in
Chiappetta and Mammele (1987) after analyzing
the high-speed films of their blasts: detona-
tion, stress wave interaction with surfaces, a gas
expansion phase and acceleration, and finally
further gas expansion and material ejection.
Misfires, poor loading practices, effectiveness of
delay sequences for adequate burden relief, flyrock,
location of massive ground movement and stem-
ming effectiveness and ejection can all be assessed
at some level. Interpretation of the forward veloc-
ity of the rock mass can be linked to the type of
explosive and the timing sequence. Sometimes tar-
gets are placed in front of a face to improve the
visibility of known points as they move with the
rock (Cameron and Grouhel 1990). The method
is limited by effects such as gas venting, dust
and smoke that obscure a clear view of the rock
motion as the blast proceeds. Empirical equations
based on fits to measured data can be derived for
the expected face velocity versus a normalized

30

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 30 10/3/2012 8:23:53 PM

 ratio of burden to available explosive energy. Such
equations do not account explicitly for timing and
with the advent of electronic delay detonators, the
measured throw of the rock has increased without
recourse to different explosives energy alone.
The high-speed cinematography analysis for
face velocity relies on tracking a number of known
targets and in that sense it provides a set of dis-
crete velocities for the targets used. Some alterna-
tives for estimating face velocities for surface blasts
have been tested successfully for both discrete tar-
gets and in a distribution sense. Discrete measure-
ments have used an electromagnetic velocity gauge
that produces an output proportional to the veloc-
ity of a magnet passing through a coila direct
use of Faradays law (Young et al. 1983). The use
of the Doppler shift of microwaves has also been
used (Felice et al. 1991, Spathis 1993) and this
method provides a distribution of velocities over
time as the rock moves and until the scene becomes
opaque to the microwaves. Figure 12 shows one of
the original designs of the Doppler radar unit used
for measuring the face velocity distribution.
The discussion in this section has been on rock
movement of visible surfaces. It is important to
consider the movement within the rock mass as
well. For example, it may aid in the understanding
of the mechanics of the dynamic rock displace-
ment which can be used to improve blast models.
An example is the opening or creation of cracks
or dilation by rock movement. Such behavior has
been inferred from the negative dynamic air pres-
sures measured in sealed sections of witness holes
behind a blast (Brent and Smith 1996).
3.4 Strain and pressure
Blasting produces strain and pressure in rock and
it is natural to measure these as they are associated
with failure criteria. Dynamic fracture, as opposed
to quasi-static fracture has some unique features:
a limiting velocity of the propagating cracks
(typically the Rayleigh wave velocity), crack
branching that seeks to reduce the energy in the
material, and rate-dependency of the fracture
processes (Meyers 1994).
Figure 12. Original style of Doppler radar unit for
measuring face velocity distributions.
31
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 31
Early approaches for measuring the dynamic
strain during a blast (Obert and Duvall 1949,
Duvall and Aitchison 1956) acknowledged the
importance of correct coupling of the strain
gauges to the rock mass. The strain gauges were
bonded to a segment of diamond drilled rock core
taken from the same hole in which the measure-
ment was to be made. The core with the strain
gauges attached was placed in the borehole and
bonded to the rock using a high strength cement.
Results from one set of experiments in a gran-
ite rock are shown in Figure 13 (Aitchison and
Tournay 1959) and these are reproduced here as
such data is scant.
The strains levels are quite distinct for the two dif-
ferent explosives with the liquid explosive (nitrogen
tetroxide and kerosene) producing generally higher
strains than the semigelatin dynamite. The meas-
urements are no closer than about a metre from
the charge for these data. Brinkman (1990) meas-
ured strains close to lined and un-lined blastholes
in radial and tangential directions.
Other work using a six-component strain-
gauged cube gave the complete strain tensor that
showed more complex behaviour including the
presence of shear strains and strains attributed to
different wave types and to reflections (Winzer et al.
1983, Stagg and Rholl 1987, Anderson et al.
1984). A limited number of strains measured in
an underground coal mine roadway during blast-
ing was compared to that inferred from vibration
measurements assuming a simple plane wave model
(Lewandowski et al. 1999). The result of that work
Figure 13. Peak radial strain levels measured in
granite from two different explosives (after Aitchison
and Tournay 1959). The solid lines are least squares fits
derived by linearising the data using log-log transforms
of the original data.
10/3/2012 8:23:54 PM
 indicated the need for more data as there were
some significant differences between the measured
and calculated data.
The measurement of pressures in a blast
is not common and like the measurement of
dynamic strain demand care and suitable trans-
ducers coupled to the rock mass. Data obtained
from dynamic pressure measurements may be
used to study the potential for desensitisation of
explosives or sympathetic detonation (Mohanty
2009). Figure 14 shows a summary of the types
of high pressure transducers used and the pres-
sures for which they are useful. These include
piezoeresistive gauges such as carbon resistors
and manganin gauges, and piezoelectric gauges
based on quartz, Polyvinylidene Fluoride (PVDF)
or other materials. The dynamic pressures from
explosives are large and their risetimes are short,
so that the gauges tend to be small and the data
acquisition system is specialised (see, for example,
Decker et al. 1972, Menaccci and Chavez 2005).
Manganin gauges tend to handle a higher pressure
range than carbon resistor gauges but while both
demand good calibration it appears that manganin
gauges have some specific challenges (Braithwaite
et al. 2009, Rosenberg et al. 2009). The resistance
of manganin gauges increases with applied pres-
sure while that of carbon resistors decreases with
applied pressure.
Carbon resistor gauges are used to measure
dynamic pressures in blasts close to detonating
charges because they have a satisfactory dynamic
range, frequency response and are inexpensive.
Liu (2002) presents some results obtained in an
underground mine in granite. Figure 15 shows the
data measured at distances of 196 to 406 mm or
approximately between 12 to 25 blasthole radii to
a single exploding charge. Onederra et al. (2011)
discuss pressure measurement using a carbon resis-
tor gauge and also the use of a photo diode for
Figure 14. Gauge selection chart for measurements of
pressure near an explosive (see www.dynasen.com).
32
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 32
Figure 15. Peak dynamic pressure versus spacing meas-
ured from a short explosive charge using carbon resistor
gauges (after Liu 2002). The solid line is a power law fit
to the data.
temperature measurement in a 270 mm diameter
blasthole loaded with heavy ANFO.
3.5 Vibration and airblast
Perhaps the most common measurements taken
during a blast are of the ground vibration and/
or airblast. It is beyond the scope of the present
paper to cover the topic in detail and the reader is
referred to a recent review of vibration measure-
ment, modelling and mitigation from blasting by
Spathis (2009). Such data are often required for a
mine, quarry or construction project to meet their
licencing authority requirements but they may also
be used as a diagnostic tool for checking the blast
design and the effectiveness of different explosives.
For example, the proportion of energy that occurs
as radiated seismic energy appears to be differ-
ent for different explosives. It appears that the
seismic energy is approximately between 5% and
15% of the available chemical energy for a range
of explosive types and method of coupling the
explosive to the rock mass (Fogelson et al. 1959,
Spathis 1999).
Near-field vibration measurements are some-
times used to determine the extent of dam-
age (Bogdanoff 1996). The work highlights the
importance of using appropriate transducers and
recording systems to match the dynamic range
and frequencies produced by the blast at close
distances. Airblast measurements may also be used
as a diagnostic tool to assess blasting effectiveness.
For example, airblast measurements were a good
choice to evaluate the effectiveness of stemming
10/3/2012 8:23:54 PM
 cones to contain stemming material and reduce
peak airblast levels (Little and Murray 1996).
4 POST-BLAST MEASUREMENTS
4.1 General
A blast transitions a solid volume of rock into a
displaced pile of fragments: the geometry changes
with altered shape and disposition, fragmentation
occurs and some damage to the remaining rock mass
is evident. Post-blast measurements are discussed
in this context and downstream measurements
involving the excavation, diggability and mineral
processing are not covered here. Most of the post-
blast measurements are not time-dependent.
4.2 Geometry
As with pre-blast measurements of geometry, laser
surveying and photogrammetry are used to obtain
post-blast data concerning the shape and location
of the blasted rock. For surface blasting, Carter
(1990) proposed the use of the moments of a sta-
tistical distribution as objectives ways to describe
the shape and location of the muckpile. He showed
results for the centre of gravity, radius of gyration,
skewness, flatness and rotation angle of the muck-
pile formed in front of a blast where the floor was
relatively flat. However, in other circumstances
where the complexity of the geometry, say in throw
blasting with different available void space, we may
require other figures of merit that account for spe-
cific situations (Brent and Noy 2006).
Reference has already been made to the genera-
tion of pre-blast 3D point cloud data for tunnels
(Wetherelt and Williams 2006, Spathis et al. 2006).
Post-blast geometry measurements of volume,
surface area or cross-sectional area are used to
assess blast results in tunnels. The data are inter-
preted as overbreak and underbreak and are used
to improve the blast design (Hustrulid and Iverson
2009, Kim and Bruland 2009). The measurement
of the number and length of half-barrels on the
perimeter of a blast are also used for this purpose
although the presence of half-barrels does not nec-
essarily mean limited damage into the rock mass
(Niklasson and Keisu 1993, Rustan 1996, Fjell-
borg and Olsson 1996).
The geometry obtained by surveying the surfaces
of a blasted area do not provide any detail on the
extent of movement within the rock mass. Tracking
the sub-surface movement within a given blast can
assist in understanding the mechanics of blasting.
A significant economic benefit comes from the
tracking of ore-waste boundaries in order to not
lose valuable ore or process waste unnecessarily.
Such measurements are challenging (Taylor et al.
1996). A recent development has proven success-
ful and uses sub-surface radio beacons to track
ore-waste boundaries (Thornton 2009). Figure 16
shows the difference in surface movement com-
pared to sub-surface movement measured using
the radio beacon method. Separate technology
uses RFID tags for material transport through the
mining and milling process (Wortley et al. 2011).
4.3 Cracking
There is a strong link between the blasting process
and the geomechanical response of the rock mass.
At the very least, the blast alters the geometry so
that the in situ stress is redistributed following
the release of the broken from the intact rock.
Geotechnical measurements may be made over time
after a blast as the rock mass gradually responds to
the stress regime changes. The nucleation, extension
and movement of cracks, joints and faults may be
measured by various transducers. For example,
displacement gauges were used in a project that
excavated a diversion tunnel in an underground
power station (Zhu et al. 2002). Acoustic emission
is a useful post-blast measurement that can locate
the zone where a rock mass is responding to a blast-
induced stress change. A laboratory study shows
the common observed effects including the Kaiser
effect whereby the number of acoustic emissions
increase after the stress is beyond a previous
threshold (Seto et al. 1996).
Figure 16. Diagram showing the difference in measured
surface and sub-surface displacements for a blast. The
surface displacement is determined by the movement of
the witness hole collar while the sub-surface movement
is detected using a radio beacon. (used by permission,
Thornton 2009).

33

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 33 10/3/2012 8:23:55 PM

 Visual inspection and photographic records
remain useful and important in measuring the
extent of cracking as a measure of damage to the
remaining rock mass after a blast. It is wise to
repeat such observations and photograph the areas
particularly in underground situations where the
stress regime may cause time-dependent changes
after a blast. Figures 17 and 18 show the crack-
ing behind a surface blast and the half-barrels
identified in a panoramic image of a tunnel round,
respectively.
The choice of representative image samples
is critical and because most methods rely on
analysis of multiple 2D images, it is important
to take images normal to the angle of repose of
the muckpile surface. Photogrammetric methods
that access the missing third dimension have been
developed with the prospect of using them across
various parts of the mining process including
immediately at the excavation area (Noy 2006).

4.4 Fragmentation
The size distribution of the fragmented rock post-
blast has received much attention, particularly
with the advent of computer-based image analysis
techniques. It is beyond the scope of the present
paper to cover the topic in detail but Franklin and
Katsabanis (1996) describe various systems and
analysis techniques and Spathis (2009) describes
prediction methods for the various features of
the size distribution. It is recognised that optical
methods do not replace full screening of the muck-
pile but the aim is to obtain useful and meaningful
data that will help the design of better blasts. The
optical methods are typically passive although one
novel method used a light stripe across a conveyor
belt (Yeung et al. 1990).

Figure 19. Cubic-inch wireless sensor nodes (motes)

constructed using off-the-shelf technology. (a) a radio-
frequency mote with temperature and light sensors.
(b) a laser mote with temperature, light, humidity, and bar-
ometric pressure sensors (Fig. 1 from Kahn et al. 2000).
Figure 17. Photograph at the back of a blast showing
cracks in the remaining rock mass.

Figure 18. Panoramic photo of the unwrapped surface

of a tunnel round. The white paint lines are identified
half-barrels. The length of the round was approximately Figure 20. Scheme of a sensor network using clustered
three metres. sensor nodes (Fig. 2 from Grosse et al. 2010).

34

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 34 10/3/2012 8:23:55 PM


Figure 21. Contour map of peak particle velocity lev-
els obtained from an array of geophones. (Fig. 3 from
Froedge 1989).
5 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
The present review paper has focused on the
measurement of parameters that directly affect
the primary blast outputs of rock fragmentation,
rock movement, environmental effects such as
ground vibration, and post-blast damage to
the remaining rock mass. Measurands include
the geometry, geology, kinematic quantities of
particle displacement, particle velocity and particle
acceleration, airblast, permanent displacement,
strain, pressure, temperature, velocity of detonation,
timing sequence information, fragmentation size
distribution, the presence, location and size of
cracking, amongst other parameters.
The measurement systems are typically point
measurements at points of interest amongst a
complete field of possible measurement locations.
Given the complexity of a rock mass, the extraor-
dinary power of a series of detonating charges that
form the blast, and the highly non-linear nature of
their interaction, it is impossible to imagine that
a few point measurements will capture the critical
elements that describe the complete blasting event.
Most projects rely on simple figures of merit and
often on the downstream effects of the primary
blast outputs of excavation speed to access ore and
ore production. However, the internal measure-
ments discussed here may be used in a diagnostic
sense that provides feedback to the blast design
and implementation. The question is: what more
should be done or could be done?
It appears that one important direction is to
massively increase the amount of data and the ease
of collecting it. There has been a trend to mini-
ature measurement devices that can communicate
35
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 35
their data in either an ad hoc manner or more regu-
larly and on demand. A typical configuration is the
use of so-called micro-electromechanical systems
(MEMS) combined with a mote, whose diction-
ary definition is a particle, or speck, especially of
dusttheir combination has been termed smart
dust for units on the scale of a millimetre-cubed
(Kahn et al. 2000). Figure 19 shows two motes on
the scale of a cubic inch. The trend is to make the
sensors smaller so that they use less power, some-
times relying on energy harvesting, and enabling
self-healing of net work communications to ensure
robust data transmission to a base station. The
network may be built up of several sub-networks
(Fig. 20, Grosse et al. 2010).
The use of such miniature scale sensor networks
can be seen as a natural extension of multiple point
measurements taken by traditional-scale systems.
For example, Frodge (1989) presents examples
of over 100 vibration transducers used to obtain
maps of vibration levels around a blast. Nutting
and Froedge (1990) show similar data. While their
transducers were not networked, the intent was
clearobtain many vibration data points in the
region of interest. Figure 21 shows a contour map
of the vibration levels possible using such systems.
While taking more measurements of param-
eters in a blast is one direction, there remains the
challenge of obtaining accurate data from just one
transducer. For example, it is well-known that cou-
pling of ground vibration transducers can influ-
ence the measured vibration level. Measurements
of any parameter in the near-field is fraught with
practical difficulties such as dynamic range, fre-
quency response and response time of the trans-
ducer, not to mention the actual survivability of
the transducer itself.
Novel transducers are imminent. For example,
recent research on optical fibre transducers offers
the prospect of data in various domains around a
blast (Wild and Hinkley 2008, Wild and Hinkley
2009, Gholamzadeh and Nabovati 2008).
Once data is acquired it is necessary to store and
analyse it. The trend is to web-enabled database
systems whereby the data recorded by transducers
is automatically uploaded to a web site where some
analysis may occur and notification of any exceed-
ances is sent to registered users.
Innovations come from many directions but as
indicated in some of the measurement methods
described here, it is always worth looking into the
past as well as seeking solutions in the future.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank my colleagues at the CSIROs
then Division of Geomechanics, and at Orica
10/3/2012 8:23:56 PM
 Mining Services (formerly ICI Explosives) for shar-
ing my unplanned trajectory in the study of meas-
urement systems in mining. In particular, my thanks
go to the technicians whose skill makes possible the
translation of ideas into working, useful devices.
REFERENCES
Aitchison, T.C. & W.E. Tournay (1959). Comparative
studies of explosives in granite. United States
Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines. Report of
Investigations 5509.
Anderson, D.A., Winzer, S.R. & A.P. Ritter (1984).
Timehistories of principal strains generated in rock
by cylindrical explosive charges. Proc. 25th US Symp.
Rock Mechanics, June 2527, Evanston, pp. 959968.
Armstrong, L.W. & N.T. Moxon (1990). Low shock
energy emulsion based wet hole explosives. Proc.
3rd Int. Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting,
Brisbane, 2631 August, pp. 4553.
Blair, B.E. (1959). Use of high-speed camera in blasting
studies. United States Department of Interior, Bureau
of Mines. Information Circular 5584.
Blair, D.P. & T.N. Little (1993). The assessment of open pit
blast performance using infra red, ainrblast and video
techniques. Proc. 4th Int. Symp. on Rock Fragmentation
by Blasting, Vienna, 58 July, pp. 253260.
Bogdanoff, I. (1996). Vibration measurements in the
damage zone in tunnel blasting. Proc. 5th Int. Symp.
on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting, Montreal, 2529
August, pp. 177185.
Braithwaite, C.H., Chapman, D.J., Field, J.E. & W.G.
Proud (2009). On the source of noise in gauge traces
in geological materials. Proc. AIP Conf. Proc. 1195
Shock Compression of Condensed Matter, 28 June
3 July, Nashville, pp. 878881.
Brent, G.F. & G.E. Smith (1996). Borehole pressure meas-
urements behind blast limits as an aid to determining
the extent of rock damage. Proc. 5th Int. Symp. on
Rock Fragmentation by Blasting, Montreal, 2529
August, pp. 103112.
Brent, G.F. & M.J. Noy (2006). Throw blasting analy-
sis. Proc. 8th Int. Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by
Blasting, Santiago, 711 May, pp. 255261.
Brinkmann, J.R. (1990). An experimental study of the
effects of shock and gas penetration in blasting. Proc.
3rd Int. Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting,
Brisbane, 2631 August, pp. 5566.
Cameron, A. & P. Grouhel (1990). The effects of the qual-
ity of bulk commercial explosives on blast perform-
ance. Proc. 3rd Int. Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by
Blasting, Brisbane, 2631 August, pp. 335343.
Carter, C.L. (1990). A proposed standard for the objective
measurement of muck pile profiles. Proc. 3rd Int.
Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting, Brisbane,
2631 August, pp. 159162.
Cheung, L.C.C., Poniewierski, J.M., Ward, B., LeBlanc, D.,
Thurley, M.J. & A.P. Maconochie (1996). SIRO-
JOINT and SIROFRAG: New techniques for joint
mapping and rock fragment size distribution. Proc.
5th Int. Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting,
Montreal, 2529 August, pp. 253258.
36
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 36
Chiappetta, R.F. & D.G. Borg (1983). Increasing produc-
tivity through field control and high-speed photogra-
phy. Proc. 1st Int. Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by
Blasting, Lulea, 2226 August, pp. 301331.
Chiappetta, R.F. & M.E. Mammele (1987). Analytical
high-speed photography to evaluate air decks, stem-
ming retention and gas confinement in presplitting,
reclamation and gross motion applications. Proc.
2nd Int. Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting,
Keystone, 2326 August, pp. 257301.
Chiappetta, R.F. & B. Vandenberg (1990). High-speed
motion picture photography analysis in 3DA new
approach to analyzing full scale blasts. Proc. 3rd Int.
Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting, Brisbane,
2631 August, pp. 245250.
Cunningham, C.V.B. (1990). The role of blasting instru-
mentation in promoting mining profitability. Proc.
3rd Int. Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting,
Brisbane, 2631 August, pp. 245250.
Decker, D.L., Bassett, W.A., Merrill, L., Hall, H.T. & J.D.
Barnett (1972). High-pressure calibrationA critical
review. Journal Physical Chemistry Reference Data,
pp. 179.
Dick, R.A, Fletcher, L.R, & D.V. DAndrea (1983).
Explosives and Blasting Procedures Manual. United
States Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines.
Information Circular 8925.
Duvall, W.I & T.C. Aitchison (1956). Rock breakage by
explosives. United States Department of Interior,
Bureau of Mines. Information Circular 5514.
Ellis, D.V. & J.M. Singer (2011). Well logging for earth
scientists (2nd edition). Springer, Amsterdam.
Felice, J.J., Beattie, T.A. & A.T. Spathis (1991). Face
velocity measurements using a microwave radar
technique. Proc. 7th Res. Symp. On Explosives and
Blasting Technique, ISEE, Las Vegas, 67 February,
pp. 7177.
Fjellborg, S. & M. Olsson (1996). Successful long drift
rounds by blasting to a large diameter uncharged
hole. Proc. 5th Int. Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by
Blasting, Montreal, 2529 August, pp. 397405.
Fogelson, D.E., Duvall, W.I. & T.C. Aitchison (1959).
Strain energy in explosion-generated strain pulses.
United States Department of Interior, Bureau of
Mines. Report of Investigations 5514.
Franklin, J.A. & T. Katsabanis (1996). Measurement of
Blast Fragmentation. Proc. Fragblast 5 Workshop on
Measurement of Blast Fragmentation, 2324 August,
Montreal.
Froedge, D.T. (1989). Outsmarting blast vibrations. Coal,
Nov., pp. 6769.
Gaich, A., Ptsch, M., Moser, P. & W. Schubert (2009).
How 3D images support bench face profiling, blast
planning and rock mass characterisation. Proc. 9th
Int. Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting,
Granada, 1317 September, pp. 8590.
Gholamzadeh, B. & H. Nabovati (2008). Fibre optic
sensors. World Academy of Science, Engineering and
Technology 42, pp. 297307.
Gibson, F.C., Bowser, M.L., Summers, C.R., Scott, F.H.
(1962). An electrical method for the continuous meas-
urement of propagation velocities in explosives and
propellants. United States Department of Interior,
Bureau of Mines. Report of Investigations 6207.
10/3/2012 8:23:57 PM
 Goswami, T., Brent, G. & L.Hain (2008). Reducing coal
damage and loss with a new blasting technology. Proc.
34th Ann. Conf. Explosives and Blasting Technique,
ISEE, New Orleans.
Grosse, C.U., Glaser, S.D. & M. Krger. Initial develop-
ment of wireless acoustic emission sensor motes for
civil infrastructure state monitoring. Smart Structures
and Systems, Vol. 6, No. 3, pp. 197209.
Hamdi, E., du Mouza, J. & J.M. Le Cleach (2006).
Mirco-fragmentation energy evaluation in rock
blasting. Proc. 8th Int. Symp. on Rock Fragmentation
by Blasting, Santiago, 711 May, pp. 134139.
Hamdi, E., du Mouza, J. & J.A. Fleurisson (2002).
Influence of rock mass structure on blast efficiency.
Proc. 7th Int. Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by
Blasting, Beijing, 1115 August, pp. 747754.
Harries, G. (1988). The assessment and optimisation of
blasting. EXPLO 88Explosives in Mining Work-
shop, AusIMM, 2324 November, pp. 12729.
Hopkins, M.L., Torrance, A.C. & N.T. Moxon (1988).
Development of explosive monitoring techniques for
use in quality control and production blast analysis.
EXPLO 88Explosives in Mining Workshop,
AusIMM, 2324 November, pp. 3943.
Hustrulid, W.A. & S.R. Iverson (2009). Evaluation
of Kiruna drifting data using the NIOSH design
approach. Proc. 9th Int. Symp. on Rock Fragmen-
tation by Blasting, Granada, 1317 September,
pp. 497506.
Hutchings, J. (1990). Blasthole diameter and its effect on
explosive distribution. Proc. 3rd Int. Symp. on Rock
Fragmentation by Blasting, Brisbane, 2631 August,
pp. 273277.
Kahn, J.M., Katz, R.H. & K.S.J. Pister (2000). Emerging
challenges: mobile networking for smart dust.
J. Communications and Networks, 2, pp. 188196.
Kemeny, J., Donovan, J. & C. Rodriguez Silva (2006).
Application of ground-based Lidar for pre-blast rock
mass characterisation. Proc. 8th Int. Symp. on Rock
Fragmentation by Blasting, Santiago, 711 May,
pp. 5054.
Killeen, P.G. & B.E. Elliot (1997). Surveying the path of
boreholes: A review of developments and methods
since 1987. Proceedings of Exploration 97: Fourth
Decennial Int. Conference on Mineral Exploration,
edited by A.G. Gubins, GEO F/X, Toronto, 1418
September, pp. 709712.
Kim, Y. & A. Bruland (2009). A study on the estimation
of the tunnel contour quality index in a drill and blast
round. Proc. 9th Int. Symp. on Rock Fragmentation
by Blasting, Granada, 1317 September, pp. 507513.
Kristiansen, J., Kure, K., Vestre, J. & I. Bergqvist (1990).
An investigation of heave and fragmentation related
to explosive properties. Proc. 3rd Int. Symp. on Rock
Fragmentation by Blasting, 2631 August, pp. 8390.
Lathm, J.-P., Munjiza, A. & P. Lu (1999). Components in
an understanding of rock blasting. Proc. 6th Int. Symp.
on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting, Johannesburg,
812 August, pp. 173181.
Lewandowksi, T., Keith, G., Croucher, M. & A. Richards
(1999). The impact of surface blasting on underground
openinggeotechnical assessment. 6th Int. Symp. on
Rock Fragmentation by Blasting, Johannesburg, 812
August, pp. 131137.
37
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 37
Lisle, R.J. (2004). Geological structure and maps: A
practical guide (3rd Edition). Elsevier, Oxford.
Little, T.N. & F.van Rooyen (1988). The current state of the
art of grade control blasting in the Eastern Goldfieds.
EXPLO 88Explosives in Mining Workshop,
AusIMM, 2324 November.
Little, T.N. & C.E. Murray (1996). The development
and trialling of a cement grout blasthole stemming
enhancement cone. Proc. 5th Int. Symp. on Rock
Fragmentation by Blasting, Montreal, 2529 August,
pp. 331341.
Little, T.N. (2011). Four useful blasting geology
frameworks. Presentation in 1st International Blasting
Geology Workshop held in conjunction with EXPLO
2011, 10 November, AusIMM, Melbourne.
Liu, Q. & H. Tran (1999). Drilling and blasting techniques
for developing inverse drop raises. Proc. 6th Int. Symp.
on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting, Johannesburg,
812 August, pp. 5359.
Liu, Q. (2002). Estimation of dynamic pressure around
a fully loaded blasthole in rock. Proc. 7th Int. Symp.
on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting, Beijing, 1115
August, pp. 267272.
Liu, K.Q. (2009). New methodology for the quality
control of long-hole drilling in underground hard rock
mines. Proc. 9th Int. Symp. on Rock Fragmentation
by Blasting, Granada, 1317 September, pp. 301310.
Mencacci, S. & R. Chavez (2005). The measurement and
analysis of detonation pressure during blasting. Proc.
3rd World Conference on Explosives and Blasting
Technique, 710 June, Brighton, pp. 231236.
Meyers, M.A. (1994). Dynamic Behaviour of Materials.
John Wiley and Sons, New York.
Mohanty, B. (2009). Intra-hole and inter-hole effects in
typical blast designs and their implications on explosive
energy release and detonator delay timeA critical
review. Proc. 9th Int. Symp. on Rock Fragmentation
by Blasting, Granada, 1317 September, pp. 2331.
Moser, P., Gaich, A., Zechmann, E. & A. Grasedieck
(2006). The SMX Blast MetrixA new tool to
determine the geometrical parameters of a blast
based on 3D imaging. Proc. 8th Int. Symp. on Rock
Fragmentation by Blasting, Santiago, 711 May,
pp. 8084.
Niklasson, B. & M. Keisu (1993). New techniques for
tunnelling and drifting. Proc. 4th Int. Symp. on
Rock Fragmentation by Blasting, Vienna, 58 July,
pp. 167174.
Noy, M.J. (2006). The latest in on-line fragmentation
measurementstereo imaging over a conveyor. Proc.
8th Int. Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting,
Santiago, 711 May, pp. 6166.
Nutting, M.J. & D.T. Froedge (2000). The mapping of
vibration patterns around a blast. Proc. 6th Research
Symp. Explosives and Blasting Technique, 89 Feb.,
Orlando, pp. 165178.
Obert, L. & W.I. Duvall (1949). A gage and recording
equipment for measuring dynamic strain in rock.
United States Department of Interior, Bureau of
Mines. Report of Investigations 4581.
OKeefe, S.G. & D.V. Thiel (1990). Radio noise monitor-
ing during rock fracture at blast sites. Proc. 3rd Int.
Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting, 2631
August, pp. 279281.
10/3/2012 8:23:57 PM
 Onederra, I., Cavanough, G. & A. Torrance (2011).
Detonation pressure and temperature measurements
of conventional and low-density explosives. Proc.
EXPLO 2011 Blasting: Controlled Productivity,
AusIMM, Melbourne, 89 October, pp. 133136.
Ouchterlony, F., Nie, S., Nyberg, U. & J. Deng (1996).
Monitoring of large open cut rounds by VOD, PPV
and gas pressure. Proc. 5th Int. Symp. on Rock
Fragmentation by Blasting, Montreal, 2529 August,
pp. 167176.
Ouchterlony, F. (2002). Drill hole deviations in a
road cut perimeter, experiences from measure-
ments at Sdertlje. Proc. 7th Int. Symp. on Rock
Fragmentation by Blasting, Beijing, 1115 August,
pp. 341354.
Paley, N. (1993). Improving the drilling of blast designs
with laser alignment. Proc. 4th Int. Symp. on Rock
Fragmentation by Blasting, Vienna, 58 July,
pp. 455462.
Petkof, B., Aitchison, T.C. & W. Duvall (1960).
Photographic observation of quarry blasting. United
States Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines.
Information Circular 5849.
Poropat, G.V. (2006). Remote 3D mapping of rock mass
structure. Laser and Photogrammetric Methods
for Rock Face Characterization (F. Tonon &
J. Kottenstette, eds.), Golden, held in conjunction with
GoldenRocks 2006, the 41st U.S. Rock Mechanics
Symposium, Colorado School of Mines, 1721 June.
Pugliese, J.M. (1972). Designing blast patterns using
empirical formulas: A comparison of calculated pat-
terns with plans used in quarrying limestone and
dolomite, with geologic considerations. United States
Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines. Information
Circular 8550.
Rosenberg, Z., Ginzberg, A. & E. Dekel (2009). High
shock measurements using commercial manganin
gauges. International Journal of Impact Engineering,
Vol. 36, pp. 13651370.
Rustan, A. (1996). Micro-sequential contour blasting
theoretical and empirical approaches. Proc. 5th Int.
Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting, Montreal,
2529 August, pp. 157165.
Schultz, D.L. (1987). Fibre optic probe used to measure
downhole detonation velocities of explosive columns.
United States Department of Interior, Bureau of
Mines. Information Circular 9135l.
Segui, J.B. & M. Higgins (2001). Blast design using meas-
urement while drilling parameters. Proc. EXPLO 2001
Blasting: Techniques and technologytoday and
tomorrows, AusIMM, Hunter Valley, 2831 October,
pp. 231235.
Seto, M., Nag, D.K., & V.S. Vututkuri (1996). Evaluation
or rock mass damage using acoustic emission tech-
nique in the laboratory. Proc. 5th Int. Symp. on Rock
Fragmentation by Blasting, Montreal, 2529 August,
pp. 139145.
Spathis, A.T. (1993). Muckpile shape predictions from
measured burden velocity distributions. Proc. 4th Int.
Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting, Vienna,
711 May, pp. 233238.
Spathis, A.T. (1999). On the energy efficiency of blasting.
Proc. 6th Int. Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by
Blasting, Johannesburg, 812 August, pp. 8190.
38
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 38
Spathis, A.T. (2006). Powder factors in asymmetric blast
patterns. Int. J. Blasting and Fragmentation, Vol. 10,
Nos. 34, pp. 97108.
Spathis, A.T., P. Lesberg & L.W.Armstrong (2006). Tunnel
blasting using precise electronic delay detonators
and bulk emulsions. Proc. 8th Int. Symp. on Rock
Fragmentation by Blasting, Santiago, 711 May,
pp. 411416.
Spathis, A.T. (2007). Suggested methods for the
measurement of the velocity of detonation of an
explosive in a blast. Unpublished manuscript for
Working Group of the Fragblast International
Organising Committee (Chairman: A.T. Spathis
Members: G.F. Brent (Australia), R. Frank
Chiappetta (USA), Richard D. Dick (USA),
M. Higgins (Australia), S. Hosein (United Kingdom),
S.K. Kanchibotla (Australia), B. Mohanty (Canada),
Qian (Ken) Lui (Canada), I. Onederra (Australia),
A. Rorke (South Africa), A. Rustan (Sweden), E. Sellers
(South Africa), A. Wetherelt (United Kingdom)).
Spathis, A.T. (2009). A brief review of the measurement,
modelling and management of vibrations produced
from blasting. In Vibrations from Blasting (A.T.
Spathis and M.J. Noy Eds). Workshop hosted by Int.
Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting, Granada,
1317 September. CRC Press, Leiden.
Spathis, A.T. (2009). Formulae and techniques for assessing
features of blast-induced fragmentation distributions.
Proc. 9th Int. Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by
Blasting, Granada, 1317 September, pp. 209219.
Stagg, M.S. & A. Rholl (1987). Effects of accurate delays
on fragmentation for single-row blasting in a 6.7 m
(22 ft) bench. Proc. 2nd Int. Symp. on Rock Frag-
mentation by Blasting, Keystone, 2326 August, pp.
210223.
Taylor, S.L., Gilbride, L.J., Daemen, J.J.K. & P. Mousset-
Jones (1996). The impact of blast induced movement
on grade dilution in Nevadas precious metal mines.
Proc. 5th Int. Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by
Blasting, Montreal, 2529 August, pp. 407413.
Thornton, D.M. (2009). The application of electronic
monitors to understand blast movement dynamics
and improve blast design. Proc. 9th Int. Symp. on
Rock Fragmentation by Blasting, Granada, 1317
September, pp. 287300.
Wagner, H. & P. Moxer (1996). Rock and rock mass
properties prediction based on drilling parameters
for underground drift blasting. Proc. 5th Int. Symp.
on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting, Montreal, 2529
August, pp. 415423.
Wetherelt, A. & D.C. Williams (2006). Using high defi-
nition surveying (HDS) to quantify tunnel hole bur-
dens and fragmentation. Proc. 8th Int. Symp. on Rock
Fragmentation by Blasting, Santiago, 711 May,
pp. 5560.
Wild, G., & S. Hinckley (2008). Acousto-ultrasonic opti-
cal fiber sensors: Overview and State-of-the-Art.
IEEE Sensors Journal, 8(7), pp. 11841193.
Wild, G., & S. Hinckley (2009). Distributed optical
fibre smart sensors for structural health monitoring:
A smart transducer interface module. Proc. 5th
Int. Conf. Intelligent sensors, sensor networks and
information processing, Melbourne, 710 Dec., pp.
373378.
10/3/2012 8:23:57 PM
 Williams, J.H. & C.D. Johnson (2004). Acoustic and opti-
cal borehole-wall imaging for fractured-rock aquifer
studies. J. Applied Physics, 55, pp. 151159.
Wimmer, M., Ouchterlony, F., Moser, P., Nordqvist, A. &
G. Lenz (2009). Referenced 3D images from inside
cavities and behind rings. Proc. 9th Int. Symp. on
Rock Fragmentation by Blasting, Granada, 1317
September, pp. 91100.
Winzer, S.R., Anderson, D.A. & A.P. Ritter (1983).
Rock fragmentation by blasting. Proc. 1st Int. Symp.
on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting, Lulea, 2226
August, pp. 225249.
Wortley, M., Nozawa, E. & K.J. Riihioja (2011). Metso
SmarTagthe next generation and beyond. 35th
APCOM Symposium, Wollongong, 2430 September,
pp. 841851.
39
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 39
Yeung, C.C. & A. Ord (1990). An on line fragment size
analyser using image processing techniques. Proc. 3rd
Int. Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting, 2631
August, pp. 233238.
Young, C., Founrey, W.L., Petti, N.C. & B.C. Trent
(1983). Electromagnetic velocity gauge measurement
of rock mass motion during blasting. Proc. 1st Int.
Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting, Lulea,
2226 August, pp. 289300.
Zhu, C., Ni, J., Xu, H. & D. Shu (2002). Monitoring and
analysis on effect of excavation blasting of diversion
tunnel in underground station. Proc. 7th Int. Symp.
on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting, Beijing, 1115
August, pp. 732737.
10/3/2012 8:23:57 PM
This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Status of characterization of strength and fracture properties of rocks

under dynamic loading

K. Xia
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada

ABSTRACT: The properties of rocks under dynamic loading are important in various rock mechan-
ics and rock engineering problems. Due to the transient nature of dynamic loading, the dynamic tests of
rock materials are very different from and much more challenge than their static counterparts. Dynamic
rock compressive property has been extensively studied by using split Hopkinson pressure bar (SHPB).
However, significant progress has only been made in recently years on the quantification of various rock
dynamic properties, owing to the advances in the experimental techniques of SHPB. As a result, three
rock dynamic testing methods were adopted as suggested methods by the International Society for Rock
Mechanics (ISRM) in 2012. Other innovative testing methods have also been proposed and thoroughly
validated for quantification of rock dynamic properties. With regards to the challenges in underground
rock engineering problems, attempts have also been made to study dynamic rock properties under con-
finement conditions.

1 INTRODUCTIONS 1989), ceramics (Chen & Ravichandran 1996,

The accurate determination of rock dynamic
mechanical properties has always been a very
important task for a variety of rock engineer-
ing and geophysical applications, including rock
quarrying, rock drilling, rock bursts and blasts,
earthquakes, and projectile penetrations. In these
applications, the rock materials are subjected
to dynamic loading over a wide range of load-
ing rates. Therefore, accurate determination of
dynamic strength and fracture toughness proper-
ties of rocks over such wide range of loading rates
is crucial. However, in sharp contrast to many
static rock testing methods suggested by the Inter-
national society for Rock Mechanics (ISRM), only
three dynamic testing methods has recently been
suggested by the ISRM Commission on Rock
Dynamics (Zhou et al., 2012), including dynamic
compression, dynamic Brazil test, and dynamic
notched semi-circular bend test.
To test dynamic mechanical properties of rocks,
one needs a reliable testing device. For testing rock
materials under high strain rates (102 103 s1),
split Hopkinson pressure bar (SHPB) is an ideal
dynamic testing apparatus. As a widely used device
to quantify the dynamic compressive response
of various metallic materials at high loading or
strain rates, SHPB was invented by Kolsky (Kol-
sky 1949, Kolsky 1953). Shortly after that, SHPB
was attempted by researchers to test brittle materi-
als such as concretes (Ross et al., 1995, Ross et al.,
Chen & Ravichandran 2000) and rocks (Chris-
tensen et al., 1972, Dai et al., 2010c). However,
some major limitations of using SHPB for brittle
materials were not fully explored until two decades
ago (Subhash et al., 2000).
Unlike ductile metals, brittle materials have small
failure strains (<1%) and hence if the loading is too
fast, as in a conventional SHPB test, the specimen
may fail in a non-uniform manner (i.e., the front
portion of the sample may be shattered while the
back portion of the sample remains intact.). To
achieve accurate measurements in SHPB tests,
one has to make sure that the dynamic loading is
slow enough so that the specimen is experiencing
an essentially quasi-static load, and thus the defor-
mation of the specimen is uniform. As a rule of
thumb, it takes the loading stress wave to travel in
the specimen 34 rounds for the stress to achieve
such an equilibrium state. The pulse-shaping tech-
nique was proposed to slow down the loading rate
and thus to minimize the so-called inertial effect
associated with the stress wave loading (Frew et al.,
2001). Another problem in conventional SHPB
tests is that the specimen will be subjected to mul-
tiple loading due to the reflection of the wave at
the impact end of the incident bar. A momentum-
trap technique was proposed to ensure single pulse
loading and thus enables valid post-mortem analy-
sis of the recovered specimen (Nemat-Nasser et al.,
1991). Other advancements in SHPB can be found
in a recent review (Field et al., 2004).

41

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 41 10/3/2012 8:23:57 PM

 Using these new techniques in SHPB, we sys-
tematically studied the dynamic mechanical prop-
erties of rocks. Several new testing methods were
developed to accurately measure the dynamic
compressive strength and response, the dynamic
tensile strength, and dynamic fracture param-
eters of rocks. For all these testing methods, we
used core-based rock specimens to facilitate sam-
ple preparation. Some of the methods have been
further developed and adopted as the new ISRM
suggested methods for rock dynamic tests (Zhou
et al., 2012), other methods are good candidates
for future ISRM suggested methods. The main
objective of the new ISRM Commission on Rock
Dynamic with the tenure from 2011 to 2015 is to
propose several new ISRM suggested methods for
rock dynamic tests.
This paper is organized as follows. Section 2
discusses the SHPB system and some new test-
ing techniques. Dynamic strength measurements,
including compression, tension, bending and shear
tests are presented in Section 3. Section 4 is on
dynamic fracture tests. Confined dynamic tests are
discussed in Section 5 and Section 6 summarizes
the entire paper.
2 PRINCIPLES OF SPLIT HOPKINSON
PRESSURE BAR AND NEW
TECHNIQUES
2.1 Split Hopkinson pressure bar system
SHPB is composed of three bars: a striker bar, an
incident bar, and a transmitted bar (Gray & Blu-
menthal 2000). The impact of the striker bar on the
free end of the incident bar induces a longitudinal
compressive wave propagating in both directions.
The left-propagating wave is fully released at the
free end of the striker bar and forms the trailing
end of the incident compressive pulse i (Fig. 1).
Upon reaching the bar-specimen interface, part of
the incident wave is reflected as the reflected wave
r and the remainder passes through the specimen
to the transmitted bar as the transmitted wave t.
In most of the tests discussed in the following sec-
tions, a 25 mm diameter SHPB system is used. The
length of the striker bar is 200 mm. The incident
bar is 1500 mm long and the strain gauge station is
733 mm from the impact end of the bar. The trans-
mitted bar is 1200 mm long and the stain gauge sta-
tion is 655 mm away from the sample. An infrared
detector system is used together with a two-channel
TDS1021 digital oscilloscope to measure the veloc-
ity of the striker bar. An eight-channel Sigma dig-
ital oscilloscope by Nicolet is used to record and
store the strain signals collected from the Wheat-
stone bridge circuits after amplification. Because
42
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 42
Figure 1. Schematics of a split Hopkinson pressure
bar (SHPB) system and the xt diagram of stress waves
propagation in SHPB.
the bar diameter is relatively small, it is suitable for
testing fine- to medium-grained rocks. However, the
methodologies developed can be applied to general
dynamic rock testing, given that an SHPB system
with appropriate diameter is chosen for a specific
rock.
2.2 Standard analysis of SHPB
Based on the one dimensional stress wave theory,
the dynamic forces (see Fig. 1) on the incident end
(P1) and the transmitted end (P2) of the specimen
are (Kolsky 1949, Kolsky 1953):
P1 = AE(i + r), P2 = AEt (1)
The velocities at the incident bar end (v1) and
the transmitted bar end (v2) are:
1 = c(i r), 2 = ct (2)
In the above equations, E is the Youngs Modu-
lus of the bar, A is the cross-sectional area of the
bar, and c is the one dimensional longitudinal stress
wave velocity of the bar.
2.3 Pulse-shaping technique
The loading pulse of the conventional SHPB sys-
tem for materials testing at high strain rates have
an approximately trapezoidal shape companied by
high level of oscillations. The oscillations induced
by the sharp rising portion of the incident wave
results in much difficulty in achieving dynamic
stress equilibrium state in the sample. However, the
stress equilibrium is a prerequisite for valid SHPB
tests.
In a review paper by Franz et al., discussing the
incident pulse shaping for SHPB experiments with
metal samples (Frantz et al., 1984), the authors
emphasized that a slowly rising incident pulse is a
preferred loading pulse in order to minimize the
effects of dispersion and inertia, and thus facilitate
10/3/2012 8:23:58 PM
 dynamic stress equilibrium of the sample. Franz
presented experimental results to show a properly
shaped loading pulse can not only provide stress
equilibrium in the sample, but also generate a
nearly constant strain rate in the sample (Frantz
et al., 1984). Gray and Blumenthal also discussed
these issues in their recent review paper (Gray &
Blumenthal 2000).
To change the shape of the incident pulse, one
way is to modify the geometry of the striker. For
example, Christensen et al., used striker bars with
a truncated-cone on the impact end in an attempt
to produce ramp pulses (Christensen et al., 1972),
Franz used a machined striker bar with a large
radius on the impact face to generate a slowly
rising incident pulse for the tests (Frantz et al.,
1984), Li et al., used tapered striker to generate an Figure 2. Different loading pulses produced by pulse-
approximate half-sine loading waveform (Li et al., shaping with shaper.
2000). Another way, maybe a more convenient way
is to place a small, thin disc made of soft materi-
als between the striker and the incident bar. The
disc is called the pulse shaper and can be made
of paper, aluminum, brass or stainless steel, with
0.12.0 mm in thickness. During tests, the striker
impacts on the pulse shaper before the incident
bar, thus generating a non-dispersive ramp pulse
propagating into the incident bar. This incident
pulse with slow-rising front facilitates the dynamic
force balance the specimen (Frew et al., 2001, Frew Figure 3. The momentum-trap system: (a) photograph
et al., 2002). Stress waves produced in the incident and (b) xt diagram showing its working principle.
bar of SHPB with and without pulse shaper are
shown in Figure 2. A wide variety of incident
pulses can be produced by varying the geometry of transfer flange that is attached to the impact end
the pulse shaper (Fig. 2). Depending on the materi- of the input bar and a rigid mass that is attached to
als of testing, different loading pulses are needed the supporting I-beam for the bar system.
and can be achieved with proper shaper design. Denoting the length of the incident bar by l,
The pulse-shaping technique in SHPB is espe- it takes t0 = 2l/c for the reflected wave to arrive at
cially useful for investigating dynamic response of the impact end of the incident bar. The reflection
brittle materials such as rocks (Frew et al., 2001, wave is then reflected and changes from the ten-
Frew et al., 2002). Without proper pulse-shaping, it sile wave to compression wave at the input end.
is difficult to achieve dynamic stress equilibrium in As a result, it will exert dynamic compression on
such materials because the sample may fail imme- the sample for a second time. This way, the sam-
diately from its end in contact with the incident bar ple in a conventional SHPB will thus experience
upon the arrival of the incident wave. In our SHPB multiple compressive loading. This kind of multi-
tests, we usually use the C11000 copper as the main loading complicates the post-mortem examination
shaper to modify the incident wave from a rectan- of tested samples (Nemat-Nasser et al., 1991). A
gular shape to a ramped shape. In addition to that, momentum-trap system similar to that proposed
a small rubber disc is placed in front of the copper by Song and Chen (Song & Chen 2004) is adopted
shaper to further reduce the slope of rising portion here. The main idea of this method is to absorb the
of the pulse to a desired value. first reflection by a big mass that can be considered
as rigid because of its large impedance (which is
equal to cA, where is density) compared to the
2.4 Momentum-trap system
bar. As showed in the inset of Fig. 3b, there is a
To ensure single pulse loading, the momentum- gap between the flange and the rigid mass. The dis-
trap technique is adopted in our Hopkinson bar tance of the gap d is determined by the velocity of
set up as shown in Fig. 3. the striker v0, the length of the input bar l and the
Figure 3a is the photograph of the momentum- shape of the input pulse. It is required that when
trap system, which is composed of a momentum the reflection wave arrives at the front end of the

43

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 43 10/3/2012 8:23:58 PM

 incident bar, the flange is in contact with the big
mass. As a result, the reflected compressive wave
will be changed to tension due to the interaction
between the incident bar and the big mass through
the flange. This requirement is expressed as:

c 0 i (t )dt
t
d (3)
0

If there is no pulse-shaper between the striker

and the input bar, the particle velocity of the input
bar after impact is 1/2 v0 for the case where the
striker and input bar are made of the same mate-
rial. Denote the length of the striker by ls, the total
duration of the loading pulse is t1 = 2ls /c, which is
usually much smaller than t0 = 2l/c. The total dis-
placement of the end of the incident bar (flange), Figure 4. Comparison of stress waves from the incident
which is equal to the gap between the flange and bar with and without momentum trap (Only the incident
the rigid mass that we need to set is then v0ls/c. bar is used in this test).
If there is a pulse-shaper between the striker and
the incident bar, we should use the measured inci-
dence pulse to determine the size of the gap using
Equation 3.
As an example shown in Figure 4, the second
compression is indeed reduced substantially by the
momentum-trap so that the sample will experience
essentially a single pulse loading. The second load-
ing pulse is composed of a low amplitude com-
pressive portion followed by a tensile portion. The
tensile portion of the pulse will separate the inci-
dent bar from the sample, resulting in soft-recovery
of the sample for valid post-mortem examination.

3 DYNAMIC STRENGTH

3.1 Compression Figure 5. Effect of length to diameter ratio on com-

Dynamic compression is the most common tests
using SHPB. The stress and strain rate can be
derived as (Kolsky 1949):
(t) (vv2 v1 ) / l0 = c r / l0
(4)
(t) (P
P1 P2 )/ ( 2A Et / A0
A0 ) = AE
where l0 is the length of the sample and A0 is the
initial area of the sample. We have invoked stress
equilibrium condition (i.e., P1 = P2 or i + r = t) in
the above equations.
Here we want to discuss the issue of length
to diameter ratio of the cylindrical compression
specimen. For standard SHPB method, the recom-
mended length to diameter ratio (LDR) is from
0.5 to 1 (George & Gray 2000). However, to avoid
end effect, people normally use LDR 2 or larger in
static compression tests. In dynamic tests, shorter
sample facilitates dynamic stress equilibrium and
pressive strength measurements in SHPB.
are thus preferred. We test Laurentian granite
(LG) with LDR being 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 respectively.
The results are summarized in Figure 5. The sam-
ple ends are lubricated with vacuum grease. The
results show that with lubrication, LDR of 0.5 is
good enough to minimize end effect in dynamic
tests. That is way in the ISRM suggested methods
for rock dynamic compression, both 0.5 and 1 are
acceptable LDR (Zhou et al., 2012). We can also
see the rate dependence of material strength from
the results (Fig. 5).
3.2 Brazilian Disc (BD) method
The BD specimen in the SHPB system is shown
schematically in the insert of Figure 6, where the
sample disc is sandwiched between the incident bar
and the transmitted bar. Provided a quasi-static

44

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 44 10/3/2012 8:23:59 PM


Figure 6. Rock tensile strength of Laurentian granite
measured using BD and SCB methods in SHPB system.
state has been achieved in the sample during the
test, the dynamic tensile strength is determined by
the following equation (Iqbal et al., 2008):
2 Pf
t = (5)
DB
where t is the tensile strength, Pf is the load when
the failure occurs, D is the disc diameter, and B is
the disc thickness. Under quasi-static state, Pf coin-
cides with the maximum loading to the sample.
Nominal diameter of the sample is 40 mm and
nominal thickness of the ample is 20 mm. The
loading rate is determined using the same way
as outline in the suggested methods (Zhou et al.,
2012). The rate dependence of dynamic tensile
strength for LG is demonstrated in Figure 6 (Dai
et al., 2010c)
3.3 Semi-Circular Bend (SCB) method
The Semi-circular bend specimen in the SHPB sys-
tem is shown schematically in the insert of Figure 6.
Provided a quasi-static state has been achieved in
the sample during the test, using a dimensional
argument, the equation for calculating the tensile
stress at O is (Dai et al., 2010c):
P(( )
( ) = Y ( / 2 R ) (6)
BR
where P(t) is the time-varying load recorded in the
test, S is the span of the supporting pins and R
is the radius of the disc. The dimensionless stress
Y(S/2R) can be calibrated using finite element
analysis. The dynamic tensile strength measured by
45
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 45
Figure 7. Schematics of the sample assembly for
dynamic punch shear.
the SCB method is also called flexural strength and
the flexural tensile strength f is taken as the maxi-
mum tensile stress in the history of (t) and the
corresponding loading rate is measured from the
slope of the pre-peak linear portion of the curve.
The reason why strengths measured using SCB
method are higher than those by BD is explained
using a non-local failure model (Dai et al., 2010c).
3.4 Shear
Shear strength is an important material parameter
for rocks. To measure the dynamic shear strength of
rocks, the punch shear method is used (Figure 7).
Conventional shear punch systems for static tests
have two types of punch head: the cylindrical punch
head and the block punch head. For dynamic tests,
the incident bar plays the role of punch head, so
usually an annular holder is adopted (Dabboussi &
Nemes 2005, Li et al., 2002, Qu et al., 2005). In the
current design, the sample assembly is composed
of a front cover, the disc sample and a rear sup-
porter (Fig. 7).
The purpose of the front cover is to reduce the
bending force during the test and prevent addi-
tional damage on the specimen after the test. The
inner diameter of holder is 25.4 mm, 0.4 mm larger
than that of bars. The outer diameter of the assem-
bly is 57 mm and a Teflon adaptor is used to con-
nect the rear holder to the transmitted bar (Huang
et al., 2011). The hole in the rear supporter recov-
ers the sample after the shear test.
When the tests are under force equilibrium con-
dition, i.e. P1 = P2, the punch shear stress in samples
is then calculated using the following equation:
= P (7)
DB
where is the punch shear stress; P is the loading
force; D and B are the diameter of incident bar and
the thickness of the disc specimen, respectively. The
maximum value of P is considered as the punch
shear strength of the tested sample. The loading
10/3/2012 8:24:00 PM

Figure 8. a) Typical tested and untested samples; b) the
ring and plug produced by the punch shear test.
rate is determined as the slope of the punch shear
stress.
Dynamic punch experiments on Longyou sand-
stone (LS) were conducted at different loading rates
to investigate the rate effect on tensile strength. All
tested samples were punched into a ring and a plug
as shown in Figure 8.
The dynamic punch shear strengths were
obtained at loading rates ranged from 566 GPa/s
to 1800 GPa/s. The maximum dynamic strength is
36.8 MPa. As comparison, the static punch shear
strength is only 11 MPa. The variation in punch
shear strength as a function of the loading rate is
illustrated in Figure 9. It is evident from the figure
that the strengths of LS with increasing loading
rates in the loading rate range achieved.
4 DYNAMIC FRACTURE
4.1 Notched Semi-Circular bend (NSCB) method
NSCB specimen has the semi-circular shape and it is
made by splitting the rock disc into two halves, fol-
lowed by machining a notch from the center of the
disc perpendicular to the diametrical cut (Fig. 10).
Based on the ASTM standard E399-06e2 for
rectangular three-point bending sample (2002), a
similar equation for calculating the stress intensity
46
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 46
Figure 9. Punch shear strength of LS and test loading
rate.
Figure 10. Schematics of NSCB sample in SHPB
system.
factor for mode-I fracture in current SCB speci-
men was proposed (Chen et al., 2009):
K I = PS Y ( a ) (8)
tR 3/2 R
where a is the crack length, t is the thickness of the
disc, and P is the time-varying loading force. The
dimensionless geometric function Y(a/R) depends
on the crack geometry, and can be calculated with
a standard finite element software package (e.g.,
ANSYS). Fracture toughness KIC is obtained at
the maximum load. The fracture toughness for
Laurentian granite is shown to be rate dependent
(Fig. 12).
4.2 Cracked Chevron Notched Brazilian disc
(CCNBD) method
CCNBD method has been suggested by ISRM as
one of its static fracture toughness measurement
methods (Fowell et al., 1995).
10/3/2012 8:24:02 PM

Figure 11. Schematics of CCNBD sample in SHPB
system.
As shown in Figure 11, the CCNBD specimen is
produced by two symmetric cuts on the ends a rock
disc perpendicular to the end and through one dia-
metrical direction.
The basic assumption of the method is that
the fractures initiate and propagate symmetrically
from the two tips of the ligaments. As compared
with the NSCB method, CCNDB method can be
applied to fine-grained rocks, for which it is very
difficult to fabricate sharp notches (Dai et al.,
2010a).
Provided a quasi-static state of the specimen
has been achieved during the SHPB test with pulse
shaping, the initiation fracture toughness KIC of
CCNBD specimen is determined by the ISRM
suggested method (Fowell et al., 1995):
Pmax
K IC = Ymi*in (9)
B R
where, Pmax is the measured maximum load, B
and R are the thickness and the radius of the disc
respectively, Ymi*in is the minimum value of Y *, and
Y * is the dimensionless SIF and can be determined
in advance by numerical calibrations accordingly.
We can see from Figure 12 that the fracture tough-
ness obtained from dynamic SCB and dynamic
CCNBD methods are consistent. Details of the
dynamic CCNBD method can be found in the lit-
erature (Dai et al., 2010a).
4.3 Cracked Chevron Notched Semi-Circular
Bend (CCNSCB) method
As shown in Figure 13, the CCNSCB specimen
is a combination of the NSCB specimen and
47
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 47
Figure 12. Rock fracture toughness measured using
SCB and CCNBD methods in SHPB system.
the CCNBD specimen. The CCNSCB method
is advantageous in that it does not need a sharp
pre-crack as in the NSCB method and involves
only one fracture (Dai et al., 2011). Just like the
CCNBD method, the CCNSCB method can be
applied to fine-grained rocks. In CCNBD method,
it is assumed that the two fractures should initi-
ate at the same time and propagate symmetrically.
This assumption can be easily violated due to inho-
mogeneities in the rock sample and misalignment.
The CCNSCB method overcomes this problem by
involving only one fracture. The meaning of the
variables in Figure 13 can be found in the paper
(Dai et al., 2011).
Provided a quasi-static state of the specimen
has been achieved during the SHPB test with care-
ful pulse shaping, the fracture properties can be
reduced using a quasi-static data analysis based
on the theory of linear elastic fracture mechan-
ics (Dai et al., 2010b). Similar to the calculation
equation suggested by ISRM for the NSCB speci-
men and the CCNBD specimen (Fowell et al.,
1995, Zhou et al., 2012), the initiation fracture
toughness (IFT) KIC of CCNSCB specimen can
be determined as:
Pmax S *
K IC = Y (10)
BR 3/2 miin
where Pmax is the measured maximum load, B and
R are the thickness and radius of the disc respec-
tively, Ymi*in is the minimum value of Y *, which is
the dimensionless stress intensity factor (SIF) and
can be pre-calibrated by numerical methods. It is
noted that this formula is different from what was
proposed before (Dai et al., 2011). Because there
is only one design of the sample dimension, the
result is independent of the form of the function.
Rock cores with a nominal diameter of 40 mm
are first drilled from the rock blocks and then
10/3/2012 8:24:04 PM

Figure 13. Schematic of the CCNSCB specimen in the
SHPB system. The CCNSCB specimen, is sandwiched
between the incident and transmitted bars. A strain
gauge is mounted on the surface of the specimen near
the notch.
sliced to obtain disk samples with a thickness of
16 mm. All disk samples are polished afterwards
resulting in a surface roughness variation of less
than 0.5% of the sample thickness. By diametrical
cutting, half disc samples are subsequently made
from the full discs. A diamond impregnated blade
saw is used to fabricate the notch near the diamet-
ric cut of the half discs. The geometric detail of the
CCNSCB specimen is shown in Figure 13. A strain
gauge cemented on the sample surface to monitor
the fracture initiation and propagation during the
test (Jiang et al., 2004).
The dynamic fracture toughness values meas-
ured by the CCNSCB method for Laurentian
granite are compared with those by the CCNBD
method and the NSCB method (Fig. 14). There
are two fracture toughnesses in the figure, propa-
gation fracture toughness and initiation fracture
toughness. The initiation fracture toughness is the
commonly used fracture toughness and the details
for measuring the propagation fracture toughness
can be found in the literature (Chen et al., 2009,
Dai et al., 2010a, Dai et al., 2011).
5 DYNAMIC ROCK TESTS WITH
CONFINEMENT
5.1 Confinements in underground rock mass
As shown in Figure 15, the rock mass around an
underground opening can be divided into three
zones depending on the distance to the opening.
The confining stress states vary from the dominantly
48
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 48
Figure 14. Comparison of the initiation fracture tough-
ness (IFT) and the average propagation fracture tough-
ness (PFT) from the CCNSCB method with that from
the CCNBD method and the SCB method.
hydrostatic state in the far zone, to the tri-axial state
in the intermediate zone, and to the tensile state in
the near zone. To effectively consider the dynamic
responses of rocks in underground, it is thus desir-
able to subject rock samples to all of these three
stress state before the dynamic loading.
In traditional confined SHPB tests for brittle
solids (Christensen et al., 1972, Gary & Bailly 1998,
Lindholm et al., 1974, Malvern & Jenkins 1991),
usually lateral confinement were used. For fine-
grained brittle solids like ceramics, other types of
confinement were possible (Chen & Ravichandran
1996). Linderhom (1974) conducted the pioneer
work in the dynamic tests of rocks under hydro-
static confinement (Fig. 16). His original design
was only recently improved by other researchers
(Frew et al., 2010, Li et al., 2008).
5.2 Dynamic compressive tests of rocks under
axial and hydrostatic confinements
As shown in Figure 16, Linderholm (1974) pro-
posed a system to determine the dynamic prop-
erties of rocks under tri-axial confinement. It is
composed of an SHPB system with two hydraulic
cylinders and the sample is enclosed in the lateral
confining cylinder. The lateral confining cylinder
exerts confining stresses in the transverse direction
and the axial confining cylinder applies the axial
confining stress.
In their experimental design, Li et al., (2008)
connected the two pressure cylinders with two
tie-rods. Although they claimed that they can do
tri-axial confinement, they only showed results
on axial confinement in their work. Using a very
similar idea, Frew et al., (2010) designed a system
that can apply hydrostatic confinement with four
tie-rods to connect the two cylinders. The method
10/3/2012 8:24:07 PM
 Figure 15. Zoning of the confining stress states around
an underground opening.
Figure 16. Schematics of Confined SHPB system for
testing rocks.
to achieve such a confining state is to first expose
the cylindrical rock sample to the confining fluid
and then maintain the same fluid pressure in both
cylinders. They reported dynamic compressive
responses of Indiana limestone at hydrostatic con-
fining pressures up to 200 MPa and strain rates of
400/sec.
5.3 Preliminary results on dynamic tensile tests
of rocks under pre-tension
To address in-situ stress state in the near zone, we
studied dynamic tensile strength of a marble sub-
jected to pre-tension. The experimental design is
very similar to those mentioned in Section 5 and
only axial confinment is applied. Brazilian disc
method is used for meauring the tensile strength
and the pre-tension is achieved by applying static
axial loading.
The tensile stress at the center of the disc can be
expressed as:
( ) = A Et (11)
RB
where E is the Youngs modulus of the bar, and
A is the area of the bar; R is the radius of the
sample and B is the thickness of the sample. The
dynamic tensile strength is the maximum value
of the dynamic tensile stress. Following the new
49
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 49
Figure 17. The effects of loading rate and pre-tension
on the tensile strength.
ISRM suggested method for dynamic tensile tests
of rocks, the tensile strength is measured against
the loading rate (Zhou et al., 2012).
The testing results are shown in Figure 17.
Because the static tensile strength of the marble
tested is about 4.5 MPa, pre-tension levels of 0, 1
and 2 MPa are chosen. It is clear from the data that
1) for given pre-tension stress, the tensile strength
increases with the loading rate and 2) for given
loading rate, the tensile strength decreases with the
increase of the pre-tension.
To describe the complicated dependence of the
tensile strength on the strain rate and pre-tension,
the following function is proposed:
t ts 0 (  ) n + (  ) 0 (12)
0 0
where ts is the static tensile strength, 0 is the pre-
tension,  is the loading rate,  0 is the reference
loading rate; n, , are fitting constants.
The physical meaning of each term of Equa-
tion 12 is justified as follows. If there is no dynamic
loading and the pre-tension is zero, the tensile
strength is simply the static tensile strength. The
second term considers the effect of pre-tension and
the third term describes the loading rate depend-
ence. We also propose another term to depict the
coupling between the pre-tension and the loading
rate. Using Equation 12, we did fitting using Genetic
Algorithm as in Figure 17. It can be concluded that
the equation represent the trend of the data nicely.
6 CONCLUSIONS
In this work, experimental studies of rock dynamic
properties of rocks are reviewed. Because of the
recent advances of SHPB techniques, significant
10/3/2012 8:24:09 PM
 progress has been made in the quantification of
various rock dynamic properties of rocks. Meth-
ods for measuring dynamic compressive strength,
dynamic tensile strength, dynamic flexural (bend-
ing) strength, dynamic shear strength, and dynamic
fracture toughness are either improved or proposed
and validated. Dynamic rock tests under confine-
ment are also mentioned. Out of these methods,
dynamic compression method, dynamic Brazil
test, and notched semi-circular bend method
were adopted by ISRM as suggested methods for
dynamic rock compression, tension, and fracture
methods respectively in 2012 by its Commission on
Rock Dynamics (20072011). Other methods are
good candidates for new suggested methods and
developing dynamic rock testing suggested meth-
ods is the main objective of the new ISRM Com-
mission on Rock Dynamics (20112015).
It is noted that some of these dynamic method
share the same sample geometry as their static
counterparts and some do not. The choice of
different geometry is to facilitate data reduction,
sample preparation, and experimentation for the
dynamic tests.
In dynamic rock tests, it is crucial to ensure the
dynamic force balance condition. For dynamic
compressive tests, this condition is also called
dynamic stress equilibrium and it is the pre-
requisite for this material testing method. For
other testing methods, this dynamic force balance
condition leads to quasi-static stress analysis.
Without this condition, a combined experimen-
tal-numerical method has to be used, which is a
rather tedious practice and the accuracy is not
guaranteed. The momentum-trap method is use-
ful in soft-recovery experiments, where the dam-
age of the samples is examined.
In the dynamic compression tests, the length to
diameter ratio is not as strict as in conventional
tests, owing to the utilization of pulse-shaping
technique. The length to diameter ratio range
from 0.5 to 1 is acceptable. In two dynamic ten-
sion tests, the dynamic SCB method measured the
flexural tensile strength, which is higher than the
tensile strength measured by the BD method. This
can be explained using the non-local failure theory.
Theoretically, the dynamic SCB method measured
intrinsic material tensile strength.
Three methods for quantification of the dynamic
fracture toughness of rocks are discussed. The NSCB
method is easy to apply and suitable for coarse- to
intermediate-grained rocks. The CCNBD and the
CCNSCB method are applicable to fine-grained
rocks. As compared with the CCNBD method, the
CCNSCB method is advantageous because there is
only one fracture is involved. The dynamic punch
shear test is a suitable for measuring dynamic shear
strength of rocks.
50
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 50
Studies on the confined dynamic tests are very
rare as compared with the unconfined ones. How-
ever, the experimental design for confined SHPB
tests is available. The remaining task is the fine tun-
ing of the design to accommodate the measurements
of different rock dynamic properties. As shown
from the preliminary results on dynamic tensile tests
of rocks under pre-tension, lots of new phenomena
are expected from the confined dynamic rock tests.
REFERENCES
2002. ASTM Standard E399-90. Standard test method
for plane strain fracture toughness of metallic mate-
rials. In Annual book of ASTM Standards: ASTM
International.
Chen, W. & Ravichandran, G. 1996. An experimental
technique for imposing dynamic multiaxial-com-
pression with mechanical confinement. Experimental
Mechanics 36(2):155158.
Chen, W. & Ravichandran, G. 2000. Failure mode transi-
tion in ceramics under dynamic multiaxial compression.
International Journal of Fracture 101(12):141159.
Chen, R., Xia, K. Dai, F., Lu, F. & Luo, S.N. 2009.
Determination of dynamic fracture parameters using
a semi-circular bend technique in split Hopkinson
pressure bar testing. Engineering Fracture Mechanics
76(9):12681276.
Christensen, R.J., Swanson, S.R. & Brown, W.S. 1972.
Split Hopkinson bar tests on rock under confining
pressure. Experimental Mechanics 12(11):508541.
Dabboussi, W. & Nemes, J.A. 2005. Modeling of ductile
fracture using the dynamic punch test. International
Journal of Mechanical Sciences 47(8):12821299.
Dai, F., Chen, R., Iqbal, M.J. & Xia, K. 2010a. Dynamic
cracked chevron notched Brazilian disc method for
measuring rock fracture parameters. International
Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences
47(4):606613.
Dai, F., Chen, R. & Xia, K. 2010b. A semi-circular bend
technique for determining dynamic fracture tough-
ness. Experimental Mechanics, DOI:10.1007/s11340-
009-9273-2.
Dai, F., Xia, K.W. & Tang, L.Z. 2010c. Rate dependence
of the flexural tensile strength of Laurentian granite.
International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining
Sciences 47(3):469475.
Dai, F., Xia, K., Zheng, H. & Wang, Y.X. 2011. Determi-
nation of dynamic rock Mode-I fracture parameters
using cracked chevron notched semi-circular bend
specimen. Engineering Fracture Mechanics 78(15):
26332644.
Field, J.E., Walley, S.M., Proud, W.G., Goldrein, H.T. &
Siviour, C.R. 2004. Review of experimental techniques
for high rate deformation and shock studies. Interna-
tional Journal of Impact Engineering 30:725775.
Fowell, R.J., Hudson, J.A., Xu, C. & Chen, J.F. 1995.
Suggested method for determining mode-I fracture
toughness using cracked chevron-notched Brazilian
disc (CCNBD) specimens. International Journal of
Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences & Geomechanics
Abstracts 32(1):5764.
10/3/2012 8:24:12 PM
 Frantz, C.E., Follansbee, P.S. & Wright, W.J. Year. New
experimental techniques with the split Hopkinson
pressure bar. In Berman, I. & Schroeder, J.W. (eds),
8th International Conference on High Energy Rate
Fabrication, San Antonio, 1984. City: ASME.
Frew, D.J., Forrestal, M.J. & Chen, W. 2001. A split Hop-
kinson pressure bar technique to determine compres-
sive stress-strain data for rock materials. Experimental
Mechanics 41(1):4046.
Frew, D.J., Forrestal, M.J. & Chen, W. 2002. Pulse shap-
ing techniques for testing brittle materials with a split
Hopkinson pressure bar. Experimental Mechanics
42(1):93106.
Frew, D.J., Akers, S.A., Chen, W. & Green, M.L. 2010.
Development of a dynamic triaxial Kolsky bar. Meas-
urement Science & Technology 21(10).
Gary, G. & Bailly, P. 1998. Behaviour of quasi-brittle mate-
rial at high strain rate: Experiment and modelling. Euro-
pean Journal of Mechanics a-Solids 17(3): 403420.
George, T. & Gray, III. 2000. Classic split-Hopkinson
pressure bar testing. In (eds), ASM Handbook Vol 8,
Mechanical Testing and Evaluation: 10271067. OH:
ASM Int, Materials Park.
Gray, G.T. & Blumenthal, W.R. 2000. Split-Hopkinson
Pressure Bar Testing of Soft Materials. In (eds), ASM
Handbook Vol 8, Mechanical Testing and Evaluation:
10931114. OH: ASM Int, Materials Park.
Huang, S., Feng, X.T. & Xia, K. 2011. A dynamic punch
method to quantify the dynamic shear strength of
brittle solids. Review of Scientific Instruments 82(5).
Jiang, F.C., Liu, R.T., Zhang, X.X., Vecchio, K.S. &
Rohatgi, A. 2004. Evaluation of dynamic fracture
toughness K-Id by Hopkinson pressure bar loaded
instrumented Charpy impact test. Engineering Frac-
ture Mechanics 71(3):279287.
Kolsky, H. 1949. An investigation of the mechanical
properties of materials at very high rates of loading.
Proceedings of the Royal Society A-Mathematical
Physical and Engineering Sciences B62:676700.
Kolsky, H. 1953. Stress waves in solids. Oxford: Claren-
don Press.
Li, X.B., Lok, T.S., Zhao, J. & Zhao, P.J. 2000. Oscilla-
tion elimination in the Hopkinson bar apparatus and
resultant complete dynamic stress-strain curves for
rocks. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and
Mining Sciences 37(7):10551060.
51
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 51
Li, X.B., Zhou, Z.L., Lok, T.S., Hong, L. & Yin, T.B.
2008. Innovative testing technique of rock subjected
to coupled static and dynamic loads. International
Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences
45(5):739748.
Li, Z.H., Bi, X.P., Lambros, J. & Geubelle, P.H. 2002.
Dynamic fiber debonding and frictional push-out in
model composite systems: Experimental observations.
Experimental Mechanics 42(4):417425.
Lindholm, U.S., Yeakley, L.M. & Nagy, A. 1974.
Dynamic strength and fracture properties of Dresser
basalt. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and
Mining Sciences 11(5):181191.
Malvern, L.E. & Jenkins, D.A. 1991. Dynamic testing of
laterally confined concrete: Elsevier Applied Science.
Nemat-Nasser, S., Isaacs, J.B. & Starrett, J.E. 1991. Hop-
kinson techniques for dynamic recovery experiments.
Proceedings of the Royal Society A-Mathematical
Physical and Engineering Sciences 435:371391.
Qu, J.B., Dabboussi, W., Hassani, F., Nemes, J. &
Yue, S. 2005. Effect of microstructure on static and
dynamic mechanical property of a dual phase steel
studied by shear punch testing. Isij International
45(11):17411746.
Ross, C.A., Thompson, P.Y. & Tedesco, J.W. 1989. Split-
Hopkinson Pressure-Bar Tests on Concrete and
Mortar in Tension and Compression. Aci Materials
Journal 86(5):475481.
Ross, C.A., Tedesco, J.W. & Kuennen, S.T. 1995. Effects
of Strain-Rate on Concrete Strength. Aci Materials
Journal 92(1):3747.
Song, B. & Chen, W. 2004. Loading and unloading split
Hopkinson pressure bar pulse-shaping techniques for
dynamic hysteretic loops. Experimental Mechanics
44(6):622627.
Subhash, G., Ravichandran, G. & Gray, G.T. 2000.
Split-Hopkinson pressure bar testing of ceramics. In
Kuhn, H. & Medlin, D. (eds), ASM Handbook Vol 8,
Mechanical Testing and Evaluation: 11141134. OH:
ASM Int, Materials Park.
Zhou, Y.X., Xia, K., Li, X.B., Li, H.B., Ma, G.W.,
Zhao, J., Zhou, Z.L. & Dai, F. 2012. Suggested meth-
ods for determining the dynamic strength parameters
and mode-I fracture toughness of rock materials.
International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining
Sciences 49:105112.
10/3/2012 8:24:12 PM
This page intentionally left blank
 Section 2 - Rock Mass Characterisation and Fragmentation

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 53 10/3/2012 8:24:13 PM

This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Crack formation in rocks due to action of cemented carbide bits

Chanakya Nariseti & Bibhu Mohanty

Lassonde Institute, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada

Markku Keskiniva
Sandvik Mining & Construction, Tampere, Finland

ABSTRACT: The mechanism of crack formation in selected target rocks by the action of a drilling
bit has been studied experimentally. The action of a drill bit is simulated through impact of the bit as a
function of impact velocity against a target rock. The variables studied are impact velocity and bit diam-
eter against disc shaped rock targets of varying fracture and strength properties. The impact velocity of
the drill bit is controlled by a modified Split-Hopkinson Pressure Bar (SHPB) apparatus, with the drill
bit mounted (9 mm and 15 mm diameter) at the end of an impacting steel rod, 25 mm in diameter and
135 mm in length. The impact velocity is varied between 7.7 m/s and 14.9 m/s. The resulting crack patterns
are correlated to bit diameter and bit velocity. The indentation phenomena have also been analyzed by
means of an advanced finite difference code AUTODYN for comparison with the experimental data.

1 INTRODUCTION They concluded that with blunt indenters existing

The most practical and adaptable method of drill-
ing is by transfer of mechanical energy (Percus-
sion, rotary or rotary percussion) since the mode
of energy transmission is direct and the energy
losses are minimum. In percussion drilling piston
impacts the drill steel at velocities of 510 m/s.
This impact produces a compressive wave in the
drill steel which then travels through the drill
steel into the bit and then into the rock and frag-
ments the rock according to the failure criteria.
Understanding of rock fragmentation mechanism
under the action of bit helps in design of better
drilling tools and better drilling efficiency have
led to extensive research in the past. Hertz (1881)
analyzed the contact between two elastic solids
and he showed that the maximum principal stress
just outside the contact surface is tensile and this
stress is responsible for the formation of the cone
crack that extends into the body at critical loading
otherwise also referred to as Hertzian cone crack.
During indentation tensile stresses always exist at
the edge of the contact circle however small they
may be. Lindqvist (1984) conducted indentation
tests on three types of rocks using a truncated
wedge indenter and observed the crack develop-
ment using a SEM. He observed the cracks being
initiated from the corners of the wedge and axial
cracks extending into the rock and their direction
coinciding with the theoretical stresses predicted
by Hertz. Swain & Lawn (1976) conducted inden-
tation tests on silicate glass and westerly granite.
surface flaws dominate the fracture pattern dur-
ing indentation and deformation induced flaws
dominate the fracture pattern with sharp indent-
ers. Chen and Lapua (2006) conducted indenta-
tion tests on Berea sandstone and charcoal granite
with 4 different indenters and varying confinement
and concluded that at low confinement rocks frag-
ments in brittle manner and at high confinement
they fragment in a plastic manner thus giving an
idea about the effect of insitu stress. Howarth
and bridge (1988) conducted indentation tests on
Microsyenite and granite with various spacing to
penetration ratios. They conducted tests on gran-
ites to look for the reproducibility of experiments
and found out a low spacing to penetration ratios
they are reproducible and at high ratio comparable
differences arises. Cook (1984) conducted indenta-
tion tests on Sierra granite using circular flat bot-
tomed punches with various diameters to study
the effect of punch size and confining pressure. He
concluded with punch size indentation strength
decreases and at low confining pressure sample
splits in two in a plane passing through the axis of
the punch.
However most of the indentation tests conducted
till now are static indentation tests in contrast
drilling is a dynamic process and dynamic inden-
tation testing is necessary to better understand
the fracture mechanism and study resulting crack
pattern. Indentation tests by various researchers
show that indentation phenomena is basically a
chipping process. Using indentation tests one can

55

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 55 10/3/2012 8:24:13 PM

 only observe the final fracture pattern however it is
necessary to understand the evolution of fracture
pattern and the various stages involved in it i.e.
buildup of stress field, formation of crushed zone,
lateral/axial cracks etc. Some of these stages occur
in succession and some occur simultaneously and
interact. Hence numerical modelling is necessary
to be able to visualize the evolution of fracture pat-
tern during indentation.
2 INDENTATION TESTS
For dynamic loading of the rock sample Split Hop-
kinson Pressure Bar (SHPB) apparatus is used.
SHPB apparatus is used for dynamic loading the
samples at strain rates from 101104 s1. In stand-
ard form it consists of a main striker bar, incident
bar and transmitter bar. A variable pressure gas
gun launches the striker bar onto the incident bar
which cause a compressive wave pulse to propagate
through the incident bar, through the rock sample
sandwiched between the incident and transmit-
ter bars and finally through the transmitter bars
thus dynamically loading the rock sample (Gama
2004).
In the modified form for our current experiment,
the incident bar and transmitter bars are removed,
and the striker bar is replaced by a custom made
indenter. The experimental setup of modified Split
Hopkinson bar is shown below (Figure 1 & 2). The
Indenter is made with a tungsten carbide bit as the
tip and remaining indenter is made of steel. Shape
of the tungsten carbide tip is a hemisphere with a
cylindrical extension attached to it.
Figure 1. Schematic of the indenter used.
Figure 2. Experimental setup.
56
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 56
Table 1. Carbide bit dimensions.
L (mm) D (mm)
Bit 1 10 9
Bit 2 15 15
An aluminium block is used to support the rock
sample to minimize reflections since the imped-
ance of aluminium and rock samples are almost
similar.
2.1 Mineralogical properties of target rocks
Laurentian granite (LG) and Barre granite (BG)
are selected for studying the fracture pattern. Min-
eralogical properties has been extensively studied
by Nasseri & Mohanty (2008) and mechanical
properties of these rocks has been extensively stud-
ied by Iqbal (2004), Ranjan (2007), and Dai (2010).
Laurentian granite is isotropic and homogenous
rock and is obtained from Laurentian region of
Greenville province of the Precambrian Canadian
Shield, north of St. Lawrence and north-west of
Quebec City, Canada. The grain size of Lauren-
tian granite varies from 0.22 mm. Feldspar is the
dominant mineral with 60% followed by Quartz
33% and Biotite 35% (Nasseri & Mohanty 2008).
Barre granite is relatively anisotropic rock and is
obtained from southwest region of Burlington in
Vermont, USA. The grain size of Barre granite
varies from 0.253 mm. Feldspar is the dominant
mineral with 65% followed by quartz with 25% and
Biotite with 6% (Nasseri & Mohanty 2008).
Cylindrical rock samples of diameter 106 mm
and 50.8 mm thickness are prepared. The indenter
is launched onto the rock samples at velocities
of 7.7(V1), 9.8(V2), 11.8(V3) and 14.9(V4) m/s
respectively.
2.2 Mechanical properties of target rocks
To model the mechanical behavior of rocks triax-
ial test data of both Laurentian and Barre granite
fitted to Hoek and Brown criterion is taken from
Banadaki (2010) and is given below. For intact
rock Hoek and Brown criterion is given as
1
m * ' 2
= + ci i 3 + s
' '
(1)
ci
1 3
where 11 and 31 are the maximum and minimum
effective stresses at failure, mi is intact rock con-
stant, s = 1 for intact rock, ci is uniaxial compres-
sive strength of intact rock.
Hoek and Brown criterion for LG is given in
equation 2
10/3/2012 8:24:13 PM
 1 in order. One cm thick slices are cut in the plane
29 * 3 2 perpendicular to the indentation using a diamond
1 = 3 + 259 + 1 (2)
259
Hoek and Brown criterion for BG is given in
equation 3
1
24 * 3 2 light. The digital images are stitched together using
1 = 3 + 167.1 + 1 (3)
167.1
Equations 2 and 3 are used to find equivalent
stress-pressure relationship that is required to
estimate Strength model constants required in
AUTODYN.
2.3 Characterization of cracks
Depending on the velocity at which the indenter is
launched onto the rock samples and the indenter
used different crack patterns are developed in
Laurentian and Barre granite. Visualization of
the crack patterns is necessary for comparison
of numerical results to the experiments and also
for estimating modelling constants. Indented rock
samples are impregnated with a fluorescent dye
that emits visible light when excited with UV light.
For this purpose 301 epoxy kit (resin + hardener)
is used with a fluorescent dye. Resin and hardener
are used in the ratio of 4:1 by weight. Indented
samples are kept in oven at 70C for overnight to
completely dry. These samples are kept in vacuum
to take air out of pores and epoxy resin, fluo-
rescent dye along with a hardener is introduced.
Impregnated Samples are placed in a pressure
chamber to allow for better penetration of the dye
into the cracks and left overnight to let the dye
harden/polymerize.
Hardened samples are taken out of pressure
chamber and they are grinded under hand pres-
sure using 60, 120, 180 and 240 grit sandpapers
saw. After slicing these samples are kept in oven at
temperature of 70C for overnight.
Cut slices are placed on a platform which can
be moved horizontally and vertically and high
resolution digital images are taken in a dark room
after exciting the fluorescent dye with UV spot
Microsoft image composite editor. The end resolu-
tion is approximately 2025 /pixel. Final stitched
image of Laurentian granite at V2 (9.8 m/s) using
bit 2 is shown in Figure 3. Detection of indentation
induced cracks is a little difficult because fluores-
cent dye enters open grain boundaries, indentation
induced cracks, natural cracks and also the exist-
ence of transparent quartz grains in Laurentian and
Barre granite. Hence the cracks have to be manu-
ally mapped. Cracks in length greater than 2.5 mm
are manually mapped in Adobe Photoshop. From
the crack mapped images of Laurentian granite at
V2 (9.8 m/s) using bit 2 (Figure 3) it can be seen
at the point of indentation the material is crushed
and various cracks emanate radially from the cen-
tre. There are two main cracks which are more or
less passing along a diameter of the rock and these
two cracks are mainly responsible for fragmenta-
tion and these are seen in all the samples tested in
this configuration indicating the main features of
the crack pattern are reproducible. However in the
second slice there are no cracks observed indicating
the indentation induced cracks are developing only
close to the surface of the sample probably around
1 cm into the sample. In smaller size samples (7 cm
diameter) these two cracks extend along the full
thickness breaking the sample. Indentations on LG
using bit 2 at V1 (7.7 m/s) only a few radial cracks
are developing unlike at V2 and is shown in figure 4.
At V1 most of the energy is spent in forming the
crater and at V2 radial cracks are seen to develop.
This leads us to believe that the impact energy is

Figure 3. a) Dye impregnated slice of LG using bit 2 at V2 b) corresponding crack mapped image.

57

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 57 10/3/2012 8:24:14 PM

 Figure 4. a) Dye impregnated slice of LG using bit 2 at V1 b) corresponding crack mapped image.
Figure 5. a) Dye impregnated slice of LG using bit 1 at V2 b) corresponding crack mapped image.
first spent in forming the crater, and any excess
leads to formation of the radial cracks.
Indentations on LG at V2 (figure 3) using bit 2
and bit 1 (figure 5) shows approximately same area
of crater but the radial cracks are larger with bit 2.
The energy of indentation is approximately same
in both cases hence the difference might be in the
volume of the crater created during indentation
Tests conducted under similar loading conditions
showed that major features of the crack pattern
are reproducible with only minor differences.
Comparison of figures 3 to 5 and 6 to 7 shows, as
expected, that bit 2 at the same velocity as bit 1
produces a larger damage zone. The diameter of
the rock slices in all the figures from 3 to 8 is equal
to 106 mm.
2.4 Indentation on BG and LG with bit 2 at V4
Both BG and LG when indented at V4 (14.9 m/s)
with bit 2 broke apart. Neverthless an approximate
depth of damage/crushed zone and maximum
58
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 58
crack length can be estimated from the cross-sec-
tional view of the broken samples and is shown for
BG in figure 8a. The depth of the crushed zone is
found to be 0.8 cm and the maximum crack length
is found out to be 0.9 cm. The Crater area is esti-
mated from the planar view in fig.8b and is found
to be 2.2 cm2. The features observed in cross-sec-
tional view of fig.8a coincides with the general
features of indentation i.e. crushed/damaged zone
under the indenter, axial cracks developing from
the boundary of crushed zone.
3 CRATER ANALYSIS
3.1 Crater area and maximum crack length
calculations
From the high resolution digital images obtained
crater area and maximum crack length are calcu-
lated. Digital images are calibrated in image pro
plus and the crater areas and maximum crack
10/3/2012 8:24:15 PM
 Figure 6. a) Dye impregnated slice of BG using bit 2 at V2 b) corresponding crack mapped image.

Figure 7. a) Dye impregnated slice of BG using bit 1 at V2 b) corresponding crack mapped image.

Figure 8. a) Cross-sectional view b) plan view of BG indented at V4 with bit 2.

lengths are calculated. Crater area is also calculated Maximum Crack length is calculated by using image
in Photoshop by counting the no of pixels in the pro plus. These are shown in from figure 9 to 12.
circle representing the disc shaped rock in the image Figure 9 shows that the maximum crack length
as well as in the area of interest i.e. the crater area. increases with impact velocity. The crater area on

59

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 59 10/3/2012 8:24:16 PM

 Figure 9. Maximum crack length (cm) vs. bit diameter
(mm)LG.
Figure 10. Crater area (cm2) vs. bit diameter (mm)LG.
the other hand appears larger with bit 1 than with
bit 2 at the same velocity. It is to be noted as one went
from from V1 to V2 for bit 2 the maximum crack
length increases by a factor of almost 5 which is not
observed with bit 1. When the velocity is increased
from V2 to V3 (11.8 m/s) there is a still increase in the
maximum crack length but it is more gradual.
Figure 10 shows that the crater area increases
slightly or remains approximately same beyond
V2 for bit 1. It is also observed that crater size is
larger with bit 1 than with bit 2. Unlike the maxi-
mum crack length there are no drastic changes
observed in the crater area when indenter velocity
is changed from V1 to V2. Comparison of figures 9
and figures 10 shows that at the same velocity
bit 2 yields higher maximum crack length than
bit 1,whereas the latter yields higher crater area.
The results with Barre granite (BG) are similar
with respect to impact velocity against crater area
and crack dimensions.
Figure 11 shows that there is a change of maxi-
mum crack length by a factor of 2 with bit 2 when
velocity is changed from V1 to V2 which is observed
in LG as well.
From figure 12 plot of crater area it is observed
that crater area increases with velocity for bit 2 but
remains approximately same for bit 1.Change in
maximum crack length and maximum crater area
60
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 60
Figure 11. Maximum crack length (cm) vs. bit diameter
(mm)BG.
Figure 12. Crater area (cm2) vs. bit diameter (mm)BG.
occurring with bit 2 when velocity changed from
V1 to V2 is interesting in both LG and BG. From
fig 11 and 12 it is observed that at same velocities
bit 2 causes high maximum crack length whereas
the area of the crater is larger with bit 1 and doesnt
change much with velocity.
3.2 Maximum crack length and crater area as a
function of indenter velocity
The maximum crack length as a function of
indenter velocities for both LG and BG is shown
in figures from 13 to 17.
From figure 13 it is observed there is a large
difference between the lengths of cracks induced
with the two bits at same velocities. The change
in maximum crack length when indenter velocity
is changed from V1 to V2 is very high for bit 2.
Crater area as a function of indenter velocity is
plotted for LG in figure 14. From figure 15 It seems
that as the indenter velocity is increased from V2
to V3 with bit 2 crater area seems to decrease but
the decrease shown is not very high and the dif-
ference might be due to estimations in the area
calculations. So it can be taken to be constant. Bit
1 shows a relatively higher crater area than bit 2 for
the same velocity of the indenter.
10/3/2012 8:24:17 PM
 Figure 13. Maximum crack length (cm) vs. indenter
velocity (m/s)LG.
Figure 14. Crater area (cm2) vs. indenter velocity
(m/s)LG.
From figure 15 it is observed there is a consid-
erable difference between the lengths of cracks
induced with the two bits. The change in maximum
crack length from between V1 and V2 is very high
for bit 2. Maximum crack length shows a consider-
able difference between bit 1 and bit 2 for the same
velocity.
The crater area as a function of indenter veloc-
ity is in BG is shown in figure 16. It is evident that
with bit 1 the crater area doesnt change signifi-
cantly, whereas with bit2 the crater area increases
significantly but slows down beyond V2. However
Crater area is higher with bit 1 than with bit 2.
4 NUMERICAL MODELLING
A numerical code, AUTODYN is utilized in this
study, which is an explicit finite difference code
for solving a wide variety of non-linear problems
in solid, fluid and gas dynamics. AUTODYN uti-
lizes differential equations governing unsteady
material dynamic motion and expresses the local
conservation of mass, energy and momentum. In
addition to conservation equations AUTODYN
61
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 61
Figure 15. Maximum crack length (cm) vs. indenter
velocity (m/s)BG.
Figure 16. Crater area (cm2) vs. velocity (m/s)BG.
utilizes equation of state, strength model, failure
model, initial and boundary conditions to solve
a dynamic problem. Material stresses are consid-
ered by separating the stress into two states one is
hydrostatic and other is deviatoric stress. Hydro-
static stresses are governed by equation of state
and deviatoric stresses are governed by strength
model. Equation of strength relates hydrostatic
pressure to the volumetric strain (density) and the
internal energy. Strength model relates deviatoric
stresses to deviatoric strains and thus models the
shear distortions. A failure criterion governs the
material failure. Indentation experiment is entirely
modelled in 3D. Material properties for Tungsten
alloy, steel and aluminium block is taken from
the AUTODYN library. Some material proper-
ties of rocks are taken from Ai & Ahrens (2006)
and Banadaki (2010) and others are estimated.
The response of rock to explosive action (Banad-
aki 2010) and hypervelocity impact (Ai & Ahrens
2006) have been modelled with AUTODYN using
Johnson Holmquist strength and damage model.
JH model is originally developed to describe the
brittle resonse of ceramics (Holmquist & Johnson
2002, 2005).
10/3/2012 8:24:18 PM
 4.1 Equation of State (EOS) Table 2. JH EOS constants.
Polynomial Equation of state has been selected for Parameters Laurentian (GPa) Barre (GPa)
modelling the rock (both Laurentian and Barre).
The relation between hydrostatic stresses to volu- A1 24.4 25.7
metric strain is always nonlinear. It is linear only at A2 4500 4500
low values of volumetric strain. Hence the material A3 300000 300000
has to be modelled by a nonlinear bulk modulus or G 20.3 21.9
compressibility curve. Hence a polynomial equa-
tion of state has been used for this purpose.
The polynomial equation of state in AUTO- Table 3. JH EOS constants.
DYN is defined as Parameters Laurentian (Gpa) Barre (GPa)
For > 0 (compression)
HEL 0.028 0.0278
P A1 + A2 2 A3 3 + ( B0 B1 ) 0e (4) PHEL 3.8 3.67

For < 0 (tension)

Table 4. Johnson Holmquist strength model constants.
P T1 + T2 2
B0 0e (5) Laurentian Barre
Parameters (GPa) (GPa)
Where = /0 1, = current density, 0 = refer-
ence density, e = specific energy. G (GPa) 20.3 21.9
At low values of , EOS should model a linear HEL (GPa) 4.5 4.5
curve with the slope being equal to bulk modulus Intact strength constant (A) 1.036 1.12
hence the value of A1 should be equal to bulk mod- Intact strength exponent (N) 0.753 0.78
ulus of rock. Pressure change due to change in spe- Strain rate constant (C) 0.005 0.005
cific energy is also negligible therefore the energy Fractured strength constant (B) 0.34 0.37
terms B0 and B1 can be neglected. T1 is assumed Fractured strength exponent (M) 0.753 0.78
to be equal to A1 i.e. material is assumed to behave Max fractured strength ratio 0.25 0.25
elastically under tension. An incremental pressure
(P) is added to the EOS pressure to account
P* = P/PHEL is normalized pressure and T* =
for the conversion of elastic distortion energy to
T/PHEL is the normalized maximum tensile hydro-
hydrostatic energy which results in increase in
static pressure that the material can withstand. P
hydrostatic stress. In AUTODYN this conversion
is actual pressure and PHEL is pressure at Hugo-
of elastic distortion energy to hydrostatic energy is
noit elastic limit. A-intact rock constant, N-intact
controlled by a constant called bulking factor ()
strength exponent and C-strain rate constant are
which varies from 0 to 1.
material constants.
P A1 + A2 2 A3 3 + ( P ) (6)
F* B ( P * )M ( C l * ) (8)
Where A1 is equal to bulk modulus of the material
where F* is the normalized residual strength, B is
for Laurentian granite it is equal to 24.4 GPa and
fracture strength constant and M is the fractured
for Barre granite it is equal to 25.7 GPa. Constants
strength exponent and are material properties.
A2 and A3 and G are taken from Banadaki (2010).

4.2 Johnson Holmquist strength model D* I* D (( I* F* ) (9)

Strength model is necessary where resistance to
shear distortions cannot be ignored. JH model
material is described as a smoothly varying func-
tion of intact strength, fractured strength, strain
rate and damage. JH strength model is given by the
following equation.
I* A( P * T * )N ( C l * )
where D* is the material strength at damage
level D.
Triaxial data fitted to Hoek and Brown crite-
rion is used to estimate some of the constants of
strength model. HEL is taken to be 4.5 GPa from
Ai & Ahrens (2006).
To obtain value of PHEL the procedure is taken
(7) from Johnson & Holmquist (1999)

where I* = I/HEL, I is intact rock strength,

4.55 = A1 + A2 2 + A3 3 + 4 G (10)
HEL is Hugonoit elastic limit of the material, 3 ( )

62

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 62 10/3/2012 8:24:21 PM

 Normalized Intact strengths at various confining Table 5. Johnson Holmquist failure model constants.
pressures are calculated from the Hoek and Brown
equations. Normalized intact strengths are calcu- Parameters Laurentian (GPa) Barre (GPa)
lated using JH strength equations. Error between
Hydro tensile limit 14.97 14.73
the obtained values are estimated and sum of the (MPa)
errors is minimized by continuously changing the D1 0.005 0.005
values of A, N and T*. Constant B is assumed to D2 0.7 0.7
be one third of constant A and M is assumed to Bulking constant 1 1
be the same as N. Maximum fractured strength is Type of failure Hydro Hydro
taken to be 25% of intact strength. C is taken from
Ai & Ahrens (2006).

4.3 Johnson Holmquist failure criterion

JH damage model is developed to simulate com-
pressive and shear induced strength and failure of
brittle materials such as ceramics. In this model
plastic strain to fracture is given as a function
depending on the normalized pressure (P*) and
normalized maximum tensile hydrostatic stress
(T*) and is given below.
Figure 17. AUTODYN simulated model.
fp = D1 ( *
+ *
* ) D2 (11)

where fp is equivalent plastic strain to fracture

and D1 and D2 are damage constants and are taken
from Ai & Ahrens (2006). Damage keeps on accu-
mulating in the system and is given

no of cycles
p
D= (
pf
)n (12)
n =1
Figure 18. a) AUTODYN simulated result of LG using
bit 2 at V2 b) corresponding crack mapped image.
The strength model is extrapolated back to inter-
sect the normalized pressure axis i.e. point where
intact strength becomes zero in other words nor-
malized pressure at which intact strength becomes
zero and this value multiplied by HEL gives the
hydrodynamic tensile strength of the material. The
values used in failure criterion are given below.

4.4 Numerical model

Smooth Particle Hydrodynamics employed for
simulations. It is a mesh free method which has no
connectivity to adjacent nodes or particles. They
provide accurate solutions to integral and differ-
ential equations. SPH takes into account the influ-
ence of neighbouring particles to find the values of
various variables, integrals and differential equa-
tions at point of interest.
Numerical model employed is shown above (Fig-
ure 17). Steel and aluminium part of the indenter is
modelled with 5 mm particle size to reduce the no
of particles. Tungsten alloy and rock is modelled
with 2 mm particle size. Steel part is modelled with
3348 nodes, tungsten alloy with 412 nodes, granite
with 54700 nodes and aluminium with 3792 nodes.
Figure 19. a) AUTODYN simulated result of BG using
bit 2 at V2 b) corresponding crack mapped image.
A coarse mesh is employed due to restrictions on
computational ability and computational time.
A simulated result of Laurentian granite at V2
with bit 2 and BG with bit 2 is shown below (Fig 18
& 19). Simulated results show comparable agree-
ment with experimental results.
4.5 Simulated results
The diameter of the rock slices in all the figures
from 18 and 19 is equal to 106 mm.

63

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 63 10/3/2012 8:24:25 PM

 5 CONCLUSIONS
The impact phenomena that occur during drill-
ing is successfully mimicked in a laboratory scale
by using a custom designed indenter and modi-
fied Split-Hopkinson Pressure Bar apparatus. The
crack developed from indentation are mapped
using a combination of digital photography and
UV fluorescence. Crater size and maximum crack
lengths are obtained from the mapped images and
these are correlated with bit diameter and indenter
velocity. It is found that as the indenter velocity is
increased maximum crack length and crater area
generally increase. At the same velocity bit 1 creates
more crater area than bit 2 but bit 2 creates higher
maximum crack length than bit 1. It is also found
that for both LG and BG with bit 2 as we go from
V1 to V2 crack length and crater area increased by
a factor of at least 2. As the indenter velocity is
increased further crater area increases more slowly
or remains approximately the same. AUTODYN
3D is used to simulate the fracture pattern devel-
oped during indentation phenomena in Split Hop-
kinson bar experiments. Numerical results show
a good agreement with the experimental results.
Numerical results show a densely cracked region or
crushed zone at the indentation centre and radial
cracks extending from the centre. It is observed
that the densely cracked zone or shear failure
zone is overly estimated by AUTODYN and this
is probably due to the large mesh size employed for
the simulations because of restrictions on the com-
putational time and computational ability.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was financially supported through research
grants from Sandvik Canada and the Natural Sci-
ence and Engineering Research Council of Canada.
REFERENCES
Ai, H.A. & Ahrens, T.J. 2006. Simulation of dynamic
response of granite: a numerical approach of shock-
induced damage beneath impact craters. International
journal of Impact Engineering 33:110.
Chen, L.H. & Labuj, J.F. 2006. Indentation of Rock
byWedge-Shaped Tools. International Journal of Rock
Mechanics and Mining Sciences 43:10231033.
64
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 64
Cook, N.G.W., Hood, M. & Tsai, F. 1984. Observations
of crack growth in hard rock loaded by an indenter.
International Journal Rock Mechanics Mining Science
& Geomechanics Abstracts 21(2):97107.
Dai, F. 2010. Dynamic Tensile, Flexural and Fracture
Tests of Anisotropic Barre Granite. PHD thesis at
University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada.
Dehghan Banadaki, M.M. 2010. Stress-wave induced
Fractures in Rock due to Explosive Action. PHD the-
sis at University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada.
Gama, B.A., Lopatnikov Sergey, L. & Gillespie Jr. 2004.
Hopkinson bar experimental technique: A critical
review. Applied mechanics reviews. 57(4):223250.
Hertz, H. 1881. Hertzs Miscellaneous Papers reprinted
in english, Macmillan, London, 1896.
Holmquist, T.J. & Johnson, G.R. 2002. Response of sili-
con carbide to high velocity impact. Journal of applied
physics 91(9):58585866.
Holmquist, T.J, & Johnson, G.R. 2005. Characteri-
zation and evaluation of silicon carbide for high-
velocity impact. Journal of applied physics 97(9):
93502-1,93502-12.
Howarth, D.F. & Bridge, E.J. 1988. Microfracture
beneath blunt disc cutters in rock. International Jour-
nal Rock Mechanics Mining Science & Geomechanics
Abstracts 25(1):3538.
Iqbal, M.J. 2004. Comparison of fracture toughness
measurement techniques in brittle rocks. M.A.Sc the-
sis at University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada.
Johnson, G.R. & Holmquist, T.J. 1999. Response of
boron carbide subjected to large strains, high strain
rates, and high pressures. Journal of applied physics
85(12): 80608073.
Lindqvist, P.A., Lai, H.H. & Alm, O. 1984. Indentation
fracture development in rock continuously observed
with a scanning electron microscope. International
Journal Rock Mechanics Mining Science & Geome-
chanics Abstracts 21: 165182.
Mohanty, B. & Dehghan Banadaki, M.M. 2009. Numeri-
cal simulation of stress wave induced fractures in
rock. International journal of Impact Engineering
4041:1625.
Nasseri, M.H.B. & Mohanty, B. 2008. Fracture tough-
ness anisotropy in granitic rocks. International Journal
of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 45:167193.
Ranjan, R. 2007. Dynamic Compression Measurements
on Selected Granitic Rocks using Split Hopkinson
Pressure Bar Test. M.A.Sc thesis at University of
Toronto, Toronto, Canada.
Swain, M.V. & Lawn, B.R. 1976. Indentation fracture in
brittle rocks and glasses. International Journal Rock
Mechanics Mining Science & Geomechanics Abstracts
13: 311319.
10/3/2012 8:24:27 PM
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

On the branching-merging mechanism during dynamic crack growth as

a major source of fines in rock blasting

F. Ouchterlony & P. Moser

Dept Min. Res. & Petr. Engng, Montanuniversitaet Leoben, Austria

ABSTRACT: Experimental and theoretical papers on the origin of fines in rock blasting are reviewed
against tests made at Montanuniversitaet Leoben and Swebrec, the Swedish Blasting Research Centre
during the last 10 years. The tests give strong evidence against geometric models in which the source of the
fines material is an annular crushed zone plus a near symmetric star shaped breakage zone around the
blast-hole where compressive failure occurs. A recent statistical model of brittle fragmentation is offered
as an alternative. It would follow that a large source of primary fines is the dynamic crack growth that
causes the fragmentation at least in competent materials like hard rock. The main suggested mechanism
for the creation of fines is the branching of the running crack tips, due to dynamic tensile instability and
subsequent merging of such branches. There is a general lack of data below the usual limit of dry siev-
ing, 6375 m. Here the sieving curve has often gone from rather flat in log-log space to becoming quite
steep. In one case, where the sieving was carried out down to 2 m this steepening is followed by another
flattening, i.e. the curve shows a bulge. This bulge is well described by the statistical model and this could
have large consequences for the energy losses associated with rock fragmentation. It is finally suggested
that critical experiments be made to verify the suggested mechanism.

1 INTRODUCTION Pate 2003). Most of the area created resides in

The amounts of mineral fines that are produced
have practical consequences. A major one relates to
the sustainability of raw material resources since in
many cases fine material is an unsellable liability or
waste that has cost money and energy to produce
and then has to be deposited too. This reasoning
lay behind the EU project Less Fines (Moser 2005)
and the volume of waste fines was estimated to be
500 Mton annually in Europe alone.
Blasting is a major producer of waste fines, the
downstream mechanical comminution by crush-
ing and milling another. Europe alone consumes
around 0,5 Mton of explosives each year, coun-
tries like Russia, Australia, Brazil, Chile, Canada,
China, India, South Africa and USA each of them
in most cases more, much more. 1 kg of explosive
produces around 15 ton of broken rock.
Blasting is a highly dynamic process and it cre-
ates the largest volumes of broken hard rock in the
world and the crack growth that defines breakage
is a major source of fines. Crack generated fines
(CGF) are also generated by crushing and grind-
ing. These methods are usually less dynamic but
their physical processes of crack propagation are
similar.
Fines are inherently related to the amount
of energy required in comminution (Herbst &
the fines and this area then determines the energy
consumed (Steiner 1991). A better knowledge of
how CGF are generated may also help to improve
blasting and crushing practices and to suppress the
amount of CGF at the source rather than dealing
with them afterwards.
2 TRADITIONAL MODELS ON BLASTING
FINES
Traditionally blast generated fines are considered
to originate mainly from the annular crushed zone
around a blast hole, which contains only 1 mm
material. The original crushed zone model (CZM,
a set of calculation formulas) has two Rosin-
Rammler components, one for the coarse material
and one for the finer 1 mm material (Thornton
et al. 2001). Esen et al. (2003) review different ways
of calculating the extent of the crushed zone and
develop their own formula. A secondary creation
of more 1 mm material can be expected from
handling, transportation and dumping prior to
crushing.
The choice of 1 mm as an upper fines limit has
no direct physical background, unless it could be
related to the grain size but it serves as an exam-
ple in the following. In practice fines denotes a size

65

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 65 10/3/2012 8:24:27 PM

 fraction thats less valuable, impossible to sell etc.
and fines may be as large as 25 mm.
The CZM model may be interpreted as saying
that fragment size is (almost) solely defined by the
distance to a blast-hole, the finest material cre-
ated at the borehole wall and fragment size (then)
decreasing with increasing distance from the blast-
hole.
Djordjevic (1999) developed an alternative
model, the two component model (TCM), with
overlapping fine-coarse component distributions.
Djordjevic (2002) discussed the sources of fines
again. He notes that the TCM frequently under-
estimates the amount of fines found after blasting
and observes that there is a considerable amount
produced even when half-barrels on the bench face
are visible after the blast.
He states that the only remaining significant
source of fine material is shear failure along the Figure 1. Volume of crushed material around an extended
in-situ joints and along blast-induced cracks and 2D blast-hole, from Onederra et al. (2004) figure 2. rc, n
concludes that for an improved accuracy in the and C1 are calculated from formulas. The crushed zone
prediction of blast-induced fines it is necessary to volume Vc is annular and the breakage zone volume Vb is
made up of the n partial volumes of the star arms.
collect detailed mapping information about joint-
ing and the existence and nature of joint fill. He
then analyses the joint in-fill part and constructs
an extra fines component for the TCM. He also
formulas in the literature the number of crack arm
gives in-flight collisions and digging as secondary
is estimated to lie in the range of n = 243. Their
sources of fines.
lengths C1 are similarly estimated but no values are
Onederra et al. (2004) take the CZM model a
given. A perusal of their data gives arm or crack
step further. As starting point they have: Lit-
length values (C1+rc) that are smaller than half of
erature indicates that fines present in a muckpile
the spacing or burden and thus do not suffice to
tend to originate from the near field crushing zone,
explain the disintegration or fragmentation of the
fracturing (shearing) zones as well as possible lib-
B S cell.
eration from rock mass discontinuities. The fines
Based on an image analysis of the crushed muck
inflection point (the 1 mm fragment size) is intro-
from six full size blasts they arrive at the conclu-
duced to consider these sources.
sion that: In full scale blasting operations, the
They state that: the estimation of the volume
crushed zone around a blast-hole is not the only
of crushed and/or sheared rock material follows
significant source of fines, and that in most cases,
simple geometric calculations given by (i) the
the contribution of breakage can be expected to be
radius of crushing rc and thus the volume of a
significant.
cylinder of crushed rock; and (ii) the distribu-
We agree with their conclusion even if we criti-
tion of n major radial cracks, which are assumed
cize their work on points such as these:
to be evenly distributed around a borehole, pla-
nar and also continuous along the length of the Focusing on a crusher product will overestimate
explosive charge. These two components define the amount of fines created by blasting.
the total volume of a star-shaped crushed region The Rosin-Rammler function is a bad choice
(i.e. Vc + Vb). See Figure 1. They also say that: for the fragment size distribution, especially in
the source of fines from overall breakage is the fines region (Ouchterlony 2005, 2009).
directly proportional to a volume of crushed Split Online is for many reasons an unreliable
material bounded by major blast induced (radial) method to measure the amount of 1 mm fines
fractures. (Ouchterlony et al. 2007).
In the formula for the amount of 1 mm fines The quasi-radial symmetry of the blast induced
they include Vc, Vb and a fines correction factor fractures that define the breakage zone could
Fc. The radius rc of the crushed zone is calculated only be valid until the reflected wave from the
using the formulas of Esen et al. (2003). bench face arrives and destroys the symmetry.
No formula for the fines volume is given but There is no direct evidence that the fine material
the bases of the star arms seem to cover the cir- from the star arms of the breakage zone is gen-
cumference of the crushed zone (Fig. 1). From erated by crushing or even partly by crushing.

66

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 66 10/3/2012 8:24:27 PM

 3 TESTS WITH LAYERED SPECIMENS
In our laboratories a different view has evolved.
Miklautsch (2002) e.g. shot 120-mm mortar cyl-
inders with PETN filled h = 5 mm blast-holes in
a closed chamber. In two steel confined cylinders,
only a crushed zone of roughly 10-mm and a com-
pacted zone of about 20-mm were created. Inspec-
tion revealed no star shaped region. The amount of
1 mm fines was 1.01.2% and potentially adding the
volume of the compacted zone, up to 3% of 1 mm
fines could possibly be obtained. The free reference
cylinder shattered in a normal fashion and gave 13%
of 1 mm fines, i.e. 0.6 kg of a 4.7-kg specimen.
Reichholf (2003) shot free cylinders and cubes
of rocks and mortar/concrete in a closed cham-
ber. He reassembled blast shattered specimens and
attributed the central core that couldnt be assem-
bled to 1 mm fines. Yet in nearly all his cases,
most of this material must have come from outside
the central core.
Svahn (2003) blasted three, 300 600 mm
mortar cylinders with concentric colored layers in
a closed chamber, see Figure 3a. The collected frag-
ments were sieved and color separated. The charge
was decoupled 40 g/m cord in a 9-mm through-
going hole, giving a specific charge of 0.53 kg/m3.
Figure 2a. Rebuilding specimens to determine crushed
zone.
Figure 2b. Central core volume part of 1 mm fines for
different materials. Reichholf (2003).
67
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 67
Similar work was done at the department of min-
eral resources at MU-Leoben (MUL-BBK 2000).
Here mortar cylinders with a core of magnetic
mortar and an outer ring of non-magnetic mortar
(or vice versa) were shot (Figure 3b). The volumes
of the two parts were almost equal. The magnetic
properties were obtained by adding 1.5% of iron
pigment.
Six cylinders were shot with coupled powder
PETN in 5.2-mm through-going holes; three of
size 300 600 mm with cores of about 212 mm
and three of 250 500 mm with average specific
charges of 0.34 and 0.50 kg/m3 respectively.
The fragments from the different layers were
separated and sieved. Figures 4ac show curves of
average masses passing in kg for the different cylin-
ders, separated in a core and an outer layer (ring).
The MUL-BBK curves in Figure 4a are averages
for tests with magnetic and non-magnetic cores.
The figures have been arranged in a series of pro-
gressively decreasing core sizes.
Figures 4ac show that the fragment size dis-
tribution (FSD) curves are all quite similar, being
Figure 3a. Multilayered 300 600 mm cylinder of
mortar.
Figure 3b. Mortar specimen with magnetic core.
10/3/2012 8:24:28 PM
 almost parallel in the fines region up to 1 mm frag-
ment size. There is also a cross over point at which
the core and the outer layer contain the same
amount of material; about 50, 25 and 0.25 mm for
each of the figures.
More important is that the FSDs for the cores
contain a whole range of fragment sizes and that
the core distributions have the same general charac-
ter as those of the outer layer. There is no tendency
either for the core material to consist of only fines
or for the outer layers to contain no fines. Both
regions produce the whole range of fragment sizes.
More important still is that in Figure 4c, the
120-mm black core contains less 1 mm material
in absolute terms than the outer layer. This is illus-
trated differently in Figure 4d, which shows P(x)
vs. x. The white fields at the top and the dark field
Figure 4a. Curves of mass passing P(x) in kg vs. mesh
size x in mm, comparing 212-mm core with ring. Aver-
aged results for specimens E-455, E-502 and E-037,
MUL-BBK (2000).
Figure 4c. Curves of mass passing P(x), comparing
120-mm black core with yellow + green layers, Svahn
(2003).
68
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 68
at the bottom are equally large and represent the
core.
There was no crushing inside the yellow and
green layers. So crack propagation must be the
main source of all fragments from them. Joint in-
fill or shearing has not contributed. In-flight colli-
sion of fragments may have contributed some, but
hardly collisions with the rubber clad container
walls or materials handling of the hard blasted
materials.
As the black layer wasnt completely pulverized
crack propagation has contributed to the fines here
too. The curve (Fig. 4c) is thus an absolute upper
limit to the contribution by a crushed zone around
the blast hole. By testing cylinders with progressively
smaller black cores, one would expect the cores FSD
to lie completely below that of the outer layer.
Figure 4b. Curves of mass passing P(x), comparing
black + yellow core (200-mm) with green layer, Svahn
(2003).
Figure 4d. Step plot of masses on screen P(x) for each
size class vs. mesh size.
10/3/2012 8:24:29 PM
 Due to the rotational symmetry of the specimens
in Figures 3ab, they would be an ideal test of the
model that Onederra et al. (2004) have presented
(Fig. 1). Our first observation is that the cracking
that defines the breakage of such a cylinder is defi-
nitely irregular, not evenly distributed around the
borehole, not planar and not continuous along the
length of the explosive charge (Fig. 5).
Secondly, from an analysis of the top 2/n sector
in Figure 1 one realizes that the absolute amount
of 1 mm material will always decrease with each
successive layer of material (outer = 120, 200 and
300 mm for black, yellow and green in Figure 3a).
Figures 4ac seemingly support this.
If we assume that the arms lengths of the major
radial cracks that make up the breakage zone reach
the outer periphery of the specimen (/2 = rc+C1
in Figure 1) and use the fact that the crushed zone
is contained in the black layer, then the relative Figure 5. Rebuilt cylinder of amphibolite after blast-
amount of 1 mm fines from the outer green layer ing. Moser et al. (2003a) figure 4.
should be 1/[(90/50)21] 0.45 of that from the yel-
low layer. The average amount of 1 mm material
from the yellow layer is however 0.37 kg and from the quasi-symmetry of the radial crack system
the green one 0.74 kg or twice the former amount (Ouchterlony & Moser 2012). Such cracks would
instead of less than half of it! presumably also generate fines and could thus
If the crushing zone model of Onederra et al. explain the larger amount of fines in the green
(2004) were basically correct we would be forced layer.
to conclude that more 1 mm fine material is pro- In section 5 below we present an alternative
duced by other mechanisms than crushing in the explanation for fines generation.
green layer. The consequence, having a model with
a fines correction factor Fc > 1 tells us that some-
thing essential is missing. So by what mechanisms 4 THE SWEBREC DISTRIBUTION
are the excess fines created?
It doesnt make sense to let rc+C1 > /2 because Most industrial materials, blasted and crushed have
the cracks cannot extend outside the specimen. cumulative fragment size distributions (FSDs) that
Theoretically the major radial cracks that define are quite well described by the Swebrec function
the breakage zone may stop inside the specimen, (Ouchterlony 2005, 2009), which reads
i.e. rc+C1 < /2 like in Figure 1. There is then the
basic problem of explaining why the continued P(x) = 1/{1+[ln(x50/x)/ln(x50/xmax)]b}or
propagation of these cracks, which fragments the
= 1/{1+a[ln(xmax/x)/ln(xmax/x50)]b (1)
specimen, suddenly stops producing crushing fines.
Furthermore the factor 0.45 would decrease and Fc + [(xmax/x1)/(xmax/x501)] }
c

would have to be even larger.

Thus using Onederras et al. (2004) extension
of the CZM model to explain experimental find-
ings leads to serious contradictions even for the
simplest blasting geometry possible. One wouldnt
then expect it to do a better job for the more com-
plex case of bench blasting.
The CZM extension is on the right track by
associating the radial crack growth with the crea-
tion of fines but most probably wrong in associ-
ating the growth with crushing, i.e. compressive
or shear failure. The radial crack growth itself is
caused by tangential tensile stresses.
In bench blasting, wave reflections from free
faces generate dynamic tensile stresses and sec-
ondary cracks that progress inwards and distort
when 0 < x xmax. P(x) denotes the relative
mass amount passing a rectangular mesh of size
x. The three parameter version contains constants
x50, xmax and b, the five parameter version two more;
a and c.
Experience, based on hundreds set of siev-
ing data, says that coefficient of determination
r2 > 0.995 in 95% of the cases. See Figures 6a, b.
When blasting free cylinders of a given size with
decreasing amounts of explosive, a critical charge
size is reached where the cylinder just barely falls
apart in a few large blocks plus small amounts of
very fine material; see e.g. Johansson (2008) who
shot 140 280 mm cylinders of magnetic mortar
with decoupled PETN cord. This dust and boul-

69

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 69 10/3/2012 8:24:30 PM


Figure 6a, b. Swebrec fits to data from confined cylin-
drical specimens; upper (a) #82 (20 g/m) and lower (b)
#80 (5 g/m). Johansson (2008), Johansson & Ouchterl-
ony (2011). Sieving curves shown in log-log diagram with
residual bars (data points-curve values) displayed on top.
ders behavior appears at a slightly higher charge
level when the specimen is surrounded by packed
aggregate that absorbs the kinetic energy and
freezes the fragments in position, thus prevent-
ing collisions. This behavior also occurs in model
blasting of intact and jointed material (Ouchter-
lony & Moser 2012).
The dust and boulders behavior expresses
a mixed discrete and continuous distribution,
where in many cases the dust or fines tail is well
described by the Swebrec distribution too, see
Figure 6b where the amount of 32 mm material
is about 2%. Due to the decoupling of the cord,
many of the boulder surfaces had intact sections
of borehole wall, indicating an almost nonexist-
ent crushed zone. With the removal of the crushed
zone and fragment collisions as sources of fines, it
is even more probable that the macroscopic crack
propagation process itself is a major source of fine
material.
5 A STATISTICAL FRAGMENTATION
MODEL
strm (2006) has reviewed statistical models of
brittle fragmentation. He concludes: For instan-
taneous and expansive brittle fragmentation (like
70
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 70
blasting), the emerging picture is that instability
of fast propagating crack plays a fundamental role
for the FSD in the small fragment regime and
unstable cracks leave behind a trace of small
fragments along their propagation pathswhose
fragments obey a universal power-law FSD
which has its origin in an inherently scale-invari-
ant branching-merging process Combined with
a finite width of the branching-merging region
( = finite penetration depth of branches) and a
Poisson process of activated cracks, the resulting
FSD seems to explain a wide class of numerical
and experimental results.
strm et al. (2004) eqn (6) published one such
model with these two components plus a grain size
correction. Their FSD reads, in the terminology of
strm (2006), with n the number of fragments/kg
n(v) {(1r)v(2D1)/Dexp[(2/)Dv]
+ rexp[(v1/D+)D/vuncorr]}[1+cgr(v)] (2)
Here v is the volume of a fragment, D the physi-
cal dimension. The first term describes the branch-
ing merging mechanism and (m) is the maximum
penetration depth for the crack branches away
from their parent cracks. Recently Keklinen
et al. (2007) formulated a generic model for the
crack branching-merging term. The second term
describes the Poisson process and vuncorr (m3) is the
volume scale of this process. r describes the rela-
tive importance of the two processes.
The grain size correction function gr(v) is con-
sidered to be log-normal with two additional
parameters, gr() = exp{[(log2())2/w]} where
 = v1/D. 3 and w 10 were chosen a priori.
The parameter c, the strength of the correction,
was used as a curve fitting parameter (strm
et al. 2004). Eqn (2) with D = 3 was fitted to siev-
ing curves from full-scale and model scale blasting
in Brarp gneiss (Moser et al. 2003b). The sieving
curves in terms of P(x) are given in Figures 7a, b.
The same data plotted as n(v) is shown in Fig-
ures 8a, b. The almost straight line in Figure 8a
implies that the branching merging term in eqn
(2) dominates and that the exponential cut-offs are
insignificant, i.e. and vuncorr . The deviation
from the straight line for small values of v was fit
by choosing c = 14 (strm et al. 2004). For the
cylinder data in Figure 8b, c = 2.6 and were
chosen plus a set of vuncorr-values depending on the
energy input.
The characteristics of the same data come out
quite differently in Figures 7 and 8. The log-log dia-
grams in Figures 7 emphasize the fines part more
than the standard lin-log diagram does but the n(v)
representation emphasizes the fines part even more
as the conversion is n(x; vx3) P(x)/3x5. Where
the curve fit in Figure 7a covers roughly 0.1 to
10/3/2012 8:24:30 PM
 Figure 7a. Sieving curve P(x) for full-scale Brarp blast
with five parameter Swebrec fit.
Figure 7b. P(x) for model cylinders of different sizes
shot with same charge diameter, = 5 mm of PETN.
1000 mm well, that in Figure 8a covers the equiva-
lent 103 to 109 mm3 well.
The coarse end n(v) fit in Figure 8b is not as
good as the P(x) coarse end fit in Figure 7b. We
are however more interested in the fit in the fines
region. The gr(v) factor in eqn (2) adds a bulge to
the bracketed term {} in the region of the grain
size. The first part of this bulge may be seen in Fig-
ure 8a from about 2 mm3 down to 0,001 mm3 which
corresponds to a mesh size of 6375 m where dry
sieving stops working. It is probable that we have
get sieving data well below this traditional size limit
in order to establish the existence of a bulge in the
FSD for crack generated fines (CGF).
We have found only one data set that goes fur-
ther down, Grimshaws (1958) data which go down
to 2 m. Most of his 12 sandstone shots show a
grain size related bulge between 0.055 mm of
the kind that eqn (2) predicts. We take his Darley
Dale sandstone test B as an example of how well
71
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 71
Figure 8a, b. Upper (a), same sieving data as in Figure 7a
presented in terms of dn(v) n(v) plus curve fit by eqn
(2) with parameters mentioned in text. Lower (b), same
for sieving data from Figure 7b.
the first, branching merging term together with the
grain size correction function in the equation can
fit the data.
We thus set r = 0 and with D = 3, the exponent
of the v factor becomes 5/3 or about 1.67. We
then set to remove the exponential cut-
off like strm et al. (2004) did in Figures 8.
Figure 9a shows a manual fit with a free expo-
nent to Grimshaws (1958) mass passing data
when converted to n(x; vx3) P(x)/3x5. The
x exponent 5.42 corresponds to a v exponent of
5.42/3 = 1.81 which is fairly close to the 1.67
of the theory.
This branching merging term allows closed
form integration, yielding a P(x) function with the
grain size correction given by an error function.
Figure 9b shows an automated fit using the x
exponent .35 in P(x), x exponent 5.35 in n(x)
or v exponent 5.35/3 = 1,78 in n(v). It gives an
excellent fit both to the bulge and the flattening
slope in the ultrafines region 63 m below. The
5-parameter Swebrec function fits the bulge
reasonably well but fails to display the slope
flattening below. This flattening implies that muck
piles may contain much more of ultrafine material
and that much more energy has been spent creating
the associated total fragment area than usually
thought (Ouchterlony et al. 2003, Sanchidrian &
Lopz 2003).
Silvestrov (2004) has shown that Grimshaws
data are well described by the Gilvarry (1961) and
Gilvarry & Bergstrm (1961) distribution, albeit
10/3/2012 8:24:30 PM

Figure 9a, b. FSD for Darley Dale sandstone shot B
(Grimshaw 1958). Upper (a) n(x) data with branching
merging term fit. Middle (b) P(x) data with branching
merging term fit with r2 = 0.988. Note fit to bulge in
region 0.055 mm.
with up to seven parameters. He didnt have access
to the Swebrec distribution though.
Sanchidrian et al. (2009a, b, 2012) tested various
FSDs against a large set of sieving data; using dif-
ferent weights and logarithmic error descriptions.
The FSDs were judged for their RMS log errors
over three size ranges P = 020%, 2080% and
80100%. The five parameter Swebrec function
(ExSWE) and the bi-component Gilvarry (BiGIL)
distribution with seven parameters are the over-
all best distributions; the Gilvarry (GIL) one for
data spanning more than 3 orders of magnitude
mass passing data and the Swebrec (SWE) one for
data spanning less than 3 orders of magnitude. See
Figure 10.
6 THE NBC CONCEPT
Work at the MUL (Grasedieck 2006) has been
able to relate the points along the sieving curves
of shot cylindrical specimens where the local
slope of the FSD in log-log space (GGS exponent
curve) has a minimum, i.e. the inflection points,
to the points where the fragments go from being
72
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 72
Figure 10. Coefficient of determination for some dis-
tributions. Excerpt from general study of 448 functions
(adapted from Sanchidrin et al. 2012). Abbreviations
mean, from left to right in the horizontal axis: Weibull-
Rosin-Rammler, Swebrec, Gilvarry, Grady, lognormal,
bimodal WRR, extended Swebrec, bimodal Gilvarry,
bimodal Grady and bimodal lognormal.
Figure 11. Continuous GGS curves for Brarp gneiss.
Left legend refers to full size bench rounds and the right-
hand one to the cylindrical specimens in Figure 6b.
composed of multiple, possibly polycrystalline
grains to mono-mineralic pieces of grains. This
occurs at x 1 mm in Figures 7a, b, at x 2 mm
in Figures 9a, b.
Ouchterlony & Moser (2006) showed that for
three rocks; Hengl amphibolite, Brarp gneiss
(Figure 11) and Vndle granite, the minimum
in the sieving curve appears at the same mesh
size in full-scale tests and in lab-scale blasts. Fig-
ure 11 shows the continuous version of the GGS
curve d(lnP(x))/d(lnx) = xP(x)/P(x).
Steiners (1991) introduced the concepts of
Natural Breakage Characteristics (NBC) and
Energy register (ER) as material properties that
are correlated with the fracture area generation
10/3/2012 8:24:31 PM
 in comminution. The ER concept says that for
energy optimized crushing and grinding, the mar-
ginal energy required to create new area is con-
stant so that a plot of specific area (cm2/g) plotted
vs. specific energy consumption (J/g) for different
degrees of comminution turns up as a straight
line, see Figure 12a.
The energy is measured in an optimal comminu-
tion sequence and the NBC implies a vertical par-
allel movement of the sieving curves in a double
logarithmic diagram, not a horizontal movement,
see Figure 12b.
Moser et al. (2000) extended this concept to the
blasting of cylindrical and cubic blocks in model
scale, c.f. Figure 7b, where curves for different cyl-
inders blasted with the same amounts of explosive
are relatively parallel in the range 05 mm.
Steiners normal way to illustrate this multipli-
cative behavior (lnP = f(lnx) + constant) is the GGS
diagrams (Moser et al. 2003b). In them one essen-
tially plots the discrete version of xP(x)/P(x) and
if these curves overlap reasonably well, the original
curves lnP(x, Q) are parallel. According to Steiner,
materials which undergo homogenous breakage
Figure 12a, b. Upper (a), energy register curve for Brarp
gneiss. Lower (b) vertical parallel shifting of sieving
curves according to NBC concept. From Moser et al.
(2003b).
73
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 73
conditions, i.e. have one dominating breakage
mechanism, display a straight line FSD, P x,
the Gaudin-Schuhmann distribution. C.f. the first
branching merging term in eqn (2).
The blasting curves in Figures 7 and 9 are how-
ever only locally straight, just like most of the cor-
responding crushing and grinding curves. With a
parameter transformation, the logarithmic kernel
of the Swebrec distribution in eqn (1) also gives a
set of curves that translate in parallel in P(x) space
(Ouchterlony & Moser 2006).
In different types of blast fragmentation, the NBC
character of the sieving curves hold roughly up to
20 mm fragment size (Ouchterlony & Moser 2006).
If it also includes the ultrafines tail is not known.
The work by Michaux (2009) in many ways par-
allels the work above without referencing much of
it. He prefers to work with fracture area A (m2)
instead of mass passing and finds several subpopu-
lations of fines in blasted rock. He finds that The
generation of fine fragmentation characterization
has two fragment size thresholds of note, 10 mm
and 1 mm, and is self-similar in nature. The self-
similarity implies that the A(x) locally obeys a
power law dependence. Since the transformation
from volume (mass) to area is usually executed
by dA/dx = (x)/xdV/dx, with (x) a grain shape
factor, the same conclusions basically apply to
V(x) and this clearly parallels the NBC discussion
above. Further, the thresholds must be related to
the physical process to make sense.
Studies (Nukala et al. 2008) indicate that the
anomalous roughness in 2D fracture simulations
arises due to crack branching and coalescence of
micro cracks, which induce jumps in the crack pro-
files. Morel et al. (2002) used statistical models in
a study of crack surface roughness and attribute
R-curve (crack growth resistance) behavior to it.
Nasseri et al. (2010) studied the correlation
between fracture toughness and fracture rough-
ness of Barre and Stanstead granite, both with
significant fracture toughness anisotropy. There
exists a clear correlation between roughness and
toughness along the three symmetry planes within
each rock examined. Specific orientation of micro-
crack alignment could result in preferred out-of-
plane propagation. Whatever the relation between
roughness and other material parameters in quasi-
static fracture, like petrography, it is highly prob-
able that the roughness in dynamic fracture carries
information about the branching merging process.
7 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
Dynamic crack propagation is probably not the
only source of fines material in rock blasting. The
review above establishes though that it is probably
10/3/2012 8:24:32 PM
 a major primary source of such fines, at least in
hard rock and similar materials. There would be
a substantial value in establishing this beyond
doubt through a verification of the branching
merging mechanism and providing a mathematical
description for the resulting size distribution. Such
a description would preferably also state whether
there is a critical crack velocity below which this
mechanism ceases to contribute.
In the introduction, the value of such verifica-
tion was pointed out for the area of rock blast-
ing and comminution. There is further value in
it too, depending on the range of fragment sizes
that could be covered. It is expected to be at least
0.0022 mm or 4 orders of linear magnitude or 12
orders of mass magnitude. Such a size range lies
far outside the capacity of simulation of even the
largest of todays computers.
The results of such research would thus become
a very valuable data base against which the predic-
tion of future generic fragmentation models for
geosciences in general could be tested (strm
et al. 2004, strm 2006, Keklinen at al. 2007).
Several applications outside these areas would
also be served, e.g. how fines are generated for:
Health and life quality related to the dust gen-
erated in mining and quarrying (Scott et al.
2009) and in road construction and in road
maintenance.
Regional and global circulation models (GCMs)
and the emitted fraction of clay aerosols (<2 m
diameter) that is involved in the radiative cool-
ing of the atmosphere (Kok 2011).
The potential effects of dirty bombs, related to
the fine ceramic fragments, 1 to 10 m in diam-
eter, generated by an explosion and that can be
transported some distance (Wu et al. 2007).
Judging the cause and process of collapsing
high-rise buildings with structural members of
concrete (Baant et al. 2008).
REFERENCES
strm, J.A., Ouchterlony, F., Linna, R.P. & Timonen
2004. Universal fragmentation in D dimensions. Phys.
Rev. Letters 52(24): 245506-1/4.
strm, J.A. (2006). Statistical models of brittle frag-
mentation. Adv. Phys.: 55(3) 247278.
Baant, Z.P., Le, J-L, Greening, F.R.& Benson, D.B.
2008. What did and did not cause collapse of WTC
Twin Towers in New York? J. Engng Mechs. ASCE:
134(10), 892906.
Djordjevic, N. 1999. Two-component model of blast
fragmentation. In Proc. 6th Int Symp. on Rock Frag-
mentation by Blasting: 213219. Symp. S21. Johannes-
burg: SAIMM.
Djordjevic, N. 2002. Origin of blast-induced fines. Min-
ing Tech (Trans Instn Min Metall A) 111: A143146.
74
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 74
Esen, S., Onederra, I. & Bilgin, H.A. 2003. Modelling
the size of the crushed zone around a blasthole. Int. J.
Rock Mechs Min. Scis: 40, 485495.
Gilvarry, J.J. 1961. Fracture of brittle solids. I. Distribu-
tion function for fragment size in single fracture (theo-
retical). J Appl Physics 32(3): 391399.
Gilvarry, J.J. & Bergstrm, B.H. 1961. Fracture of brittle
solids. II. Distribution function for fragment size in
single fracture (experimental). J Appl Physics: 32(3):
400410.
Grasedieck, A. 2006. Die natrliche Bruchcharakter-
istik (NC) von Gesteinen. PhD thesis, 217 pp. Inst.
fr Bergbaukunde, Bergtechnik und Bergwirtschaft.
Austria: Montan-universitt Leoben.
Grimshaw, H.C. 1958. The fragmentation produced by
explosive detonated in stone blocks. In Mechani-
cal properties of non-metallic materials: 380388.
London: Butterworths,
Herbst, J.A. & Pate, W.T. 2003. Dynamic simulation of
size reduction operations from mine-to-mill. www.
metso.com.
Johansson, D. 2008. Fragmentation and waste rock com-
paction in small-scale confined blasting. Lic thesis
2008:30. Lule: Lule Univ Techn.
Johansson, D. & Ouchterlony, F. 2011. Fragmentation in
small-scale confined blasting. Int. J. Mining and Min.
Engng: 3(1), 7294.
Keklinen, P., strm, J.A. & Timonen, J. 2007. Solu-
tion for the fragment-size distribution in a crack-
branching model of fragmentation. Phys. Rev. E: 76,
026112-1/7.
Kok, J.F. 2011. A scaling theory for the size distribu-
tion of emitted dust aerosols suggests climate models
underestimate the size of the global dust cycle. PNAS:
108(3), 10161021.
Michaux, S.P. 2009. Sub-populations and patterns in
blast induced fine fragmentation. Minerals Engng: 22,
576586.
Miklautsch, A. 2002. Experimental investigation of the
blast fragmentation behaviour of rock and concrete.
Dipl. work, Inst fr Bergbaukunde, Bergtechnik und
Bergwirtschaft. Austria: Montanuniversitt Leoben.
Morel, S., Bouchaud, E., Schmittbuhl, J. & Valentin, G.
(2002). R-curve behavior and roughness development
of fracture surfaces. Int. J. of Fracture: 114, 307325.
Moser, P. 2005. Less fines in aggregate and industrial
minerals productionresults of a European research
project. In R Holmberg (ed.), Proc. 3rd EFEE World
Conf. on Expl. & Blasting,: 567574. England: EFEE.
Moser, P., Cheimanoff, N., Ortiz, R & Hochholdinger, R.
2000. Breakage characteristics in rock blasting. In R.
Holmberg (ed.) Proc. 1st EFEE Conf. on Explosives &
Blasting Technique: 165170. Rotterdam: Balkema.
Moser, P., Grasedieck, A., Arsic, V. & Reichholf, G.
2003a. Charakteristik der Korngrssenverteilung von
Spreng-hauwerk in Feinbereich. Berg- und Htten-
mnnische Monatshefte: 205216.
Moser, P., Olsson, M., Ouchterlony, F. & Grasedieck, A.
2003b. Comparison of the blast fragmentation from
lab-scale and full-scale tests at Brarp. In R Holmberg
(ed.), Proc. EFEE 2nd World Conf. on Explosives &
Blasting Techn.: 449458. Rotterdam: Balkema.
MUL-BBK 2000. Unpublished test results. Inst. fr
Bergbaukunde, Bergtechnik und Bergwirtschaft. Aus-
tria: Montanuniversitt Leoben.
10/3/2012 8:24:32 PM
 Nasseri, M.H.B., Grasselli, G. & Mohanty, B. 2010. Frac-
ture toughness and fracture roughness in anisotropic
granitic rocks. Rock Mech. Rock Eng. l43, 403415.
Nukala, P.K.V.V., Zapperi, S., Alava, M.J. & imunovi, S.
2008. Crack roughness in the two-dimensional random
threshold beam model. Phys Rev E: 78, 046105-1/8.
Onederra, I., Esen, S. & Jankovic, A. 2004. Estimation of
fines generated by blasting applications for the min-
ing and quarrying industries. Mining Tech (Trans Inst
Min Metall A:113, A1-A11.
Ouchterlony, F. 2003. Influence of blasting on the size
distribution and properties of muckpile fragments, a
state-of-the-art review. MinFo proj. P200010,. Stock-
holm: Swed. Min. Res. Ass..
Ouchterlony, F. 2005. The Swebrec function: linking frag-
mentation by blasting and crushing. Mining Techn
(Trans of the Inst of Mining & Met A): 114, A29-A44.
Ouchterlony, F. 2009. Fragmentation characterization;
the Swebrec function and its use in blast engineering.
In J A Sanchidrin (ed.), Proc. 9th Int. Symp. Rock
Fragmentation by Blasting: 322. Leiden: CRCPress/
Balkema.
Ouchterlony, F. & Moser, P. 2006. Likenesses and differ-
ences in the fragmentation of full-scale and model-
scale blasts. In Proc. Fragblast 8, 8th Int. Symp. on
Rock Fragmentation by Blasting: 207220. Chile:
Editec SA.
Ouchterlony, F. & Moser, P. 2012. Lessons from single-
hole blasting in mortar, concrete and rocks. Manu-
script accepted for presentation at Fragblast 10.
Ouchterlony, F., Nyberg, U., Olsson, M., Bergqvist, I.,
Granlund, L. & Grind 2003. The energy balance of
production blasts at Nordkalks Klinthagen quarry. In
R. Holmberg (ed.) Proc EFEE 2nd World Conf Expl &
Blasting Techn: 193203. Lisse NL: Balkema.
Ouchterlony, F., Nyberg U., Bergman, P. & Esen, S. 2007.
Monitoring the blast fragmentation in Boliden Min-
erals Aitik mine. In P. Moser (ed.) Proc 4th EFEE
World Conf on Explosives and Blasting: 4762. Read-
ing: EFEE.
Reichholf, G. 2003. Experimental investigation into the
characteristic of particle size distributions of blasted
material. PhD thesis, 223 pp. Inst. fr Bergbaukunde,
Bergtechnik und Bergwirtschaft. Austria: Montanuni-
versitt Leoben.
75
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 75
Sanchidrin, J.A. & Lopz, L. 2003. Calculation of explo-
sives useful work. In R Holmberg (ed.) Proc EFEE
2nd World Conf. Expl. & Blasting Techn.: 357361.
Lisse: Balkema.
Sanchidrin, J.A., Segarra, P., Ouchterlony, F. & Lpez,
L.M. (2009a). On the accuracy of fragment size measure-
ment by image analysis in combination with some distri-
bution functions. Rock Mech Rock Engng 42: 95116.
Sanchidrin, J.A., Segarra, P., Lpez, L.M. &
Ouchterlony, F. 2009b. Evaluation of some distribution
functions for describing rock fragmentation data.
In J.A. Sanchidrin (ed.) Proc. 9th Int. Symp.
Rock Fragmentation by Blasting: 239248. Leiden:
CRCPress/Balkema.
Sanchidrin, J.A., Ouchterlony, F., Moser, P., Segarra, P.
& Lopz, L. 2012. Performance of some distributions
to describe rock fragmentation data. Int. J. of Rock
Mechs & Min. Scis 53: 1831.
Scott, A., Michaux, S. & Onederra, I. 2009. Character-
ising dust generation from blasting. In J.A. Sanchid-
rin (ed.) Proc 9th Int. Symp. Rock. Fragmentation by
Blasting: 663671. Leiden: CRCPress/Balkema.
Silvestrov, V.V. 2004. Application of the Gilvarry dis-
tribution to the statistical description of fragmenta-
tion of solids under dynamic loading. Comb., Expl. &
Shock Waves 4(2): 225237.
Steiner, H.J. 1991. The significance of the Rittinger
equation in present-day comminution technol-
ogy. In Proc XVII Int Min Proc Congr, Dresden,
I: 177188.
Svahn, V. 2003. Generation of fines in bench blasting.
Lic thesis, Dept of geology publ A104. Gothenburg:,
Chalmers Univ. Techn.
Thornton, D., Kanchibotla, S.S. & Brunton, I. 2001.
Modelling the impact of rockmass and blast design
variation on blast fragmentation. In A. Marton (ed.),
Proc. Explo 2001 Conf,: 197205. Carlton, VIC:
AusIMM.
Wu, Q., Jaansalu, K.M., Andrews, W.S., Erhardt, L.S.,
Roy, G. & Brousseau, P. 2007. Fracture and dispersion
of selected ceramics under explosive loads. In Proc
23rd Int Symp on Ballistics: 14791486. Tarragona
Spain, April 1620.
10/3/2012 8:24:32 PM
This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Applied method integrating rock mass in blast design

A.C. Sauvage
EGIDE Environnement Sarl, France

ABSTRACT: This paper presents an applied approach making it possible to structure information
concerning rock mass and blasting.
The rock mass is not defined as a homogeneous mass but rather through its discontinuities and their
variations. Shockwave and gases are taken into account to understand rock mass fragmentation.
We will study the relation between the rock mass and blasting by examining the type and structure of
rock, cracks, foliation and chemical weathering of several examples.
We will find clues of this relation on faces and blocks, as well as on film, and will check the influences
of these discontinuities on blasts throughout the site.
The essential step of this method is to identify a hierarchy of the influences and to class them from the
most important to the least influent. This hierarchy will make it possible to understand and anticipate
blast functioning and malfunctioning and to adapt the blast design.

1 INTRODUCTION In reality, rock mass is homogeneous in only

Currently, all blasting design models consider the
rock mass to be blasted as being homogeneous.
The blaster decides on a quantity of energy per m3
of rock to be blasted as well as one or several
explosives, depending on the conditions of the site.
This theoretical blasting plan is formed based on
the rock mass, the expected results and the equip-
ment available.
These choices are generally made based on the
designers experience depending on the hardness
of the rock to be fractured and on the estimation
of the charge confinement that the rock mass will
tolerate. Obviously, the stemming is adapted to
cover the expected confinement.
When a blasting plan is drawn up, the energy
placed in a blast hole is allocated to a volume of
rock, whose calculation is based on the thickness
of the bench, spacing and height. It is therefore
thought that this energy is distributed evenly from
a hole towards the free surface(s). This distribution
of energy takes place correctly if the whole volume
has identical characteristics, even if the rock mass
contains numerous faults. Confinement, which is
poor in the latter case for example, is uniform and
the blasting process remains normal, that is, can be
described using standard blasting models.
On the other hand, if the concerned volume of
rock has a mass with a higher rock resistance or, on
the contrary, with a weak area, the shock impact
energy, then the gas energy will not spread out as
evenly as expected. The higher the unexpected con-
trasts of rock mass resistance, the more significant
the variations of the results.
extremely rare cases. In order to overcome this prob-
lem and find a situation more in line with the the-
ory (homogeneous blasted volume), our approach
lies in determining the discontinuities that give
the rock mass its heterogeneous characteristics at
the time of blasting. The rock to be blasted must
be described through its discontinuities and their
variations. The aim of collecting information is to
find an organisation in space (blasting geometry)
and in time (initiation dynamics), which makes it
possible to find homogeneous confinement around
each charge.
Rock mass discontinuity corresponds to any
variation of the mass that will cause it to stop behav-
ing in a homogeneous manner. Discontinuities of
the rock mass are often beneficial for blasting as
they comprise relatively regular pre-cutting of the
blocks in position and make it possible to reduce
the energy required to blast the rock. However, they
can also obstruct the propagation of shockwaves
and/or facilitate the premature release of gas.
The role of the discontinuities is assessed
through their capacity to hinder traditional blasting
mechanisms. In our method, we consider that the
following functions form the basis of the fragmenta-
tion mechanism of the rock mass through blasting:
1. The first action of the rock mass, is to act as an
enclosure for the chemical reaction, that is the
detonation of the charge. It maintains a pressure
level around the hole and the detonation front,
and therefore influences the distribution of
explosive energy between the shock energy and
the gas energy. This confinement action does not

77

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 77 10/3/2012 8:24:33 PM

 only depend on the type of rock blasted, it also
reflects the cohesive state of the rock mass itself:
it is the result of the characteristics of the adja-
cent rocks, their geological history, and also the
mechanical actions linked to recent extractions.
2. Simultaneously, the second action of the rock
mass, which absorbs part of the energy, is to
transmit and filter the shockwaves. Microcracks,
more or less connected, appear along the range.
3. The rock mass compresses, then drains the
emitted gases at the time of detonation. These
interactions are used to fragment, through
the extension of the connections between the
microcracks, and to displace the volume of rock
to be extracted.
Outside the effect of the rock mass, the varia-
tions of the blasting results can be linked to poor
geometry or to varying efficiency of the explosives
being used. We consider that the geometry of the
set-up and the boreholes has been checked and
adhered to.
2 VARIATIONS OF EXPLOSIVE
DETONATION
When a blasting problem arises, it is important to
check that each of the three steps of rock mass frac-
turation has been carried out under the conditions
planned by the blasting designer. The dysfunctions
can be approximated by VOD measurements, the
composition of blasting fumes and the combus-
tion residue. All unexpected results form clues and
should be seen as a warning.
2.1 Variations linked to confinement
As the denotation of explosives is a chemical reac-
tion, it is important to keep in mind that the way it
decomposes depends on the nature of the product
itself, the temperature and the pressure affecting
it at the time of initiation, the power and type of
initiating explosive used, and of the confinement
level characterised by the state of the rock mass.
When comparing the detonation velocity
obtained in confined and non-confined areas as
shown on the product datasheet, it is clear that the
results of the chemical reaction of the products
used for blasting operations of the rock are par-
ticularly dependent upon confinement. This is also
true for most products on the market.
2.2 Variations linked to detonation
in adjacent blasts
When an explosive detonates in a blast hole, a
shockwave goes into the surrounding rock causing
78
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 78
fragmentations around the blast hole. This wave
then goes through the rock mass reacting with free
faces and other boreholes. When the shockwave
passes through non-initiated explosives, it causes
compression of gas bubbles and a reduction in
sensitivity.
When high pressure gas released from a deto-
nated explosive is dispersed into natural cracks or
those created by the explosive in the adjacent rock,
it is possible for these gases to spread distances of
several dozen metres into the rock mass. If such
a gas flow comes into contact with a blast hole
that has not yet been initiated, it can compress the
explosive and reduce its sensitivity. As pointed out
in the FEEM Blasting Practice Technical Bulletin
N 5, applying pressure through gas bubbles and/
or microspheres to a sensitive explosive at the time
of initiating a blast, can momentarily or perma-
nently desensitize them.
Depending on the type of product and the level
of shock or pressure undergone by the product,
desensitization can lead to uncontrolled initia-
tion, reduced efficiency, and even breakage of the
explosives casing the casing preventing it from
functioning.
There is also the occurrence of gases severing
the explosive column, leading to blasting failure
through interruption, or of the rock being dis-
placed, which can compress an adjacent charge.
Observation of rock discontinuities prior to
layout is therefore essential in order to maintain
a sufficient safety level for blasting to function
correctly.
3 RELEVANT DESCRIPTION
OF THE ROCK MASS VARIATIONS
The difficulty encountered when linking the rock
mass to blasting operations comes from either hav-
ing site information that is too generalised (rock
type, age ), or too precise (mineralogical descrip-
tion, structural summary ). In fact, all information
is potentially relevant, but needs to be organised
in such a way that it can be linked to the blasting
operation on the site. Another difficulty lies in the
fact that the geology itself often varies within the
same site from one extraction area to another. In
some situations, these disparities in the rock mass
to be blasted cause the blasting results to be within
the site managers accepted range.
For sites where the blasting results are strongly
influenced by the rock mass and in cases where
reducing risks of flyrock is essential, it is necessary
to organise geological information sessions by
using the influence of discontinuities on the blast
enabling a systematic procedure to be applied,
whatever the adjacent rocks, both on paper prior to
10/3/2012 8:24:33 PM
 the operation (geological/geotechnical documents)
and on site.
If the heterogeneities of the rock are
numerous and varied in the area, they are linked
to the formation mechanism of the rock, to
its subsequent geological history (fracturing,
weathering), and/or to the effects of earlier
extractions (blasting, displacement by equipment).
They can be observed (and have an effect on the
blast) on different scales, from a microscopic size
(discontinuities of the rock matrixmicrocracks,
pores, joints between grains) to the scale of the rock
mass, of several metres or kilometres (weathering,
fracturing, shearing).
3.1 Discontinuities to be recorded
The precision level of geological studies depends
on what stakes are involved for the quarry or
project. These studies can range from simple local
observations to more involved analyses relating to:
the understanding of dynamics, in the three
dimensions of space, the formation of different
rocks to identify inherited internal structures;
methods to describe faults, fractures, splits and
fillings, as well as inherited structures of the
metamorphism;
the understanding of dynamics, in three dimen-
sions of space, the formation of weathering on
the rock quality, depending on the type of rock
and fracture.
Next, this data is completed by a survey of
the exterior effects that result from the change in
confinement: the effects linked to previous blasts
(jointing not necessarily connected to the rock
and opening of existing discontinuities), and the
tearing and destabilizing of the blocks by removal
machinery for example.
Collecting information always concerns:
1. type of rock: chemical composition, grain size,
cementing,
2. rock structure: stratified rock, lava flow, chan-
nels,
3. cracks, joints, fractures, faults, foliation, veins:
orientation, extension, dip, opening, filling,
spacing,
4. chemical weathering: mineralogical change,
rock cohesion change, presence of cavities
5. water: in boreholes, in the rock mass
Just like the absence/presence of a discontinuity
(isolated karst in limestone, a colony of bioherm,
hydrothermal or sedimentary vein), it is often
simply discontinuity variation that leads to devia-
tions in the blasting operation (increased spacing
between fractures, reduced resistance of a rock
matrix).
79
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 79
A relevant level of description of the rock mass
for blasting should lead to the discontinuities
themselves being identified, and to the type of
influence they have on the blast respectively (or
could have).
3.2 Classifying the most influential discontinuities
On any site, given the quantity of discontinuities
and the fact that they all have a varying influence
on the blast, it is fundamental to identify the most
influential heterogeneities on the blasts, that is
those whose characteristic variations will have a
marked effect on the blasting results.
For each characteristic of the rock mass, it is a
question of finding reasons for its behaviour dur-
ing the blast:
a reduction and even a blocking of shock energy
transfer?
homogeneous confinement, direct outlet of gas
pressure?
an effect on the explosive products being used?
During the information-gathering phase, the
following details may be included:
1. For each identified rock: chemical composition,
grain size, cementing
observations/measurements of all external
effects having damaged the matrix/grains
(on fresh breaks in the blocks and faces,
old cracks, the way in which weathering
has spread ) allowing to take a position
with regard to its capacity to crack during
the shockwave propagation and its overall
resistance with comparison to the identified
heterogeneities
adjacent rocks to be checked and compared
capacity to withstand tool abrasion
2. The structure of each rock: stratified rock, lava
flow, channels
observations/measurements and if possible a
3D description of the known structures and/
or anticipation of their presence depending
on the types of rocks
surface state (fast or progressive evolution of
strength, existence of an argillaceous layer
and its origin, surface alteration, former or
recent alteration, depth, origin)
particular state of the matrix on both sides
characteristic spatial variations of the differ-
ent structures
relation between each structure and fresh
breaks on blocks and faces
geometric relation with the blasts, on the
face height and length, and any possible
variations
influences on borehole quality, on the charge
10/3/2012 8:24:33 PM
 3. Cracks, joints, fractures, faults, foliation,
veins: angle, extension, dip, opening, filling,
spacing
observations/measurements and if possible
3D description of the known fractures and/
or anticipation of their presence depending
on recorded information (regional or local
fracturing, possible regrouping)
if possible, types of fractures (tension, exten-
sion, shearing)
surface state (presence of breccia, cementing,
level of weathering, existence of argillaceous
layer, spacing, extension) to anticipate its
ability to hinder shockwave propagation
particular state of the matrix on both sides
characteristic spatial variations of the
different fractures
relation between each family of fractures and
fresh breaks on blocks and faces
geometric relation with the blast and any
possible variations
role and extension in the backbreaks (on site
and on film)
influences on borehole quality, on the
charge
4. Chemical weathering: mineralogical change,
rock cohesion change, presence of cavities
observations/measurements at all levels to
gather any information about the resistance
of the different areas of the massive

Table 1. Relevant rock mass characteristics (by Sauvage 1 Blanchier, 2004).

Rock characteristics Influences on blast Influences on results

Rock matrix
Chemistry, grain size Type of explosive Blast drilling
Grain cementing Energy consumption (Duration, wear)
Cohesion degree Shockwave velocity Charge distribution
Porosity
Rock structure
Stratified rock Drilling type
Bank thickness Energy factor Product consumption
Joint nature, thickness Block size
Dip/blast direction Spreading
Flyrock
Other structure Swelling Face stability
Lateral variations
Massive rock Shockwave propagation
Composition change
Blast n-1 effects Confinement Drilling
Charge distribution
Joint, fault, foliation families
Orientation/face
Dip Confinement Explosive efficiency
Opening Block size
Extent Swelling Flyrock
Filling Face stability
Spacing out
Families acting for instability Vertical/inclined face Safety
Cracks results of n-1 blast Stability Blast n+1 drilling
Opening of one family Initial block size Face geometry
New cracks produced Confinement Blast drilling
Shockwave propagation SpreadingLoading
Chemical alterations
Rock cohesion change Type of explosive Block size
Composition change Energy distribution Quality
Cavity Implementation
FlyrockSpread
Water Type of explosive Explosive efficiency
Energy distribution Face stability
Shockwave propagation

80

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 80 10/3/2012 8:24:33 PM

 observations/measurements and if possible
a 3D description of the kind of weathering
and/or anticipation of their presence depend-
ing on the types of identified rocks, allowing
the take a position on the possibility of even-
tual major contrasts of resistance,
geometry, systematic detection at boring stage
or probability of appearing in the blasting
volume, clues, relation with structures
described previously
influence on the charge
5. Presence of water: in the holes, in the mass
means of drainage from the quarry
influence on the nature of the charge
influence of the pressure on the explosive
column
Table 1 shows certain frequent influences of the
rock mass on the way the blast functions and the
results of blasting operations.
Organising the influences between the disconti-
nuities into a hierarchy is an important step in these
surveys, particularly on site. This will result in clas-
sifying the most important of them, carrying out
observations as required and making corrections
if necessary depending on the geographical layout
of the blasts. This hierarchy makes it possible to
understand and to anticipate the functioning of
the explosive, to avoid malfunctioning and to adapt
the blasting plan (design, charging, delays )
Experience shows that these major influences
can be organised into a hierarchy in any given
blasting situation.
4 INTEGRATING THE ROCK MASS
TO IMPROVE BLASTING OPERATIONS
Once the discontinuities have been identified and
their influence on blasts classified for any given
face layout, the decisions regarding blasting opera-
tion parameters are made to minimise adverse
influences on the blast and to return to a homoge-
neous confinement for each charge.
The two cases below present examples of this
studys approach to the rock mass, which guides:
a thorough search for discontinuities on site,
integration of general relevant data procured
from the bibliography on the type of rock to be
blasted
the collection of clues and their relation with the
blasting operation.
The blast designer and the blaster always have a
large number of possibilities at their disposal:
modifying the charge (making intermediate
stemming, adapting the characteristics of the
explosives, drill diameter )
81
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 81
modifying the geometry of the charge and/or the
blast (bench, spacing, drill angle, overdrilling,
face height )
modifying the dynamic free surfaces (organ-
ising the rows, the choice of delays between
holes and between rows depending on the speed
of the phenomenashockwaves, gas, block
displacement)
These decisions are made after thorough analysis
of the constraints within quarry by including the
boundaries linked to the environment (safeguarding
the infrastructures, overpressure, animal stress,
inconvenience to residents in the area, safety area
regarding flyrock ).
The blasters ability to identify and anticipate
the most influential discontinuities constitutes an
important part of the work. In the majority of
sites, it is possible to build a reconnaissance proce-
dure of the rock mass prior to blasting with block
diagrams that assist observation in 3D.
4.1 The case of a metamorphic rock quarry
Issue: to extract the blasted volume without reliev-
ing holes; to reduce the excessive uncontrolled
vibration level.
Environment: housing.
Initial blasting operation: relatively low height of
the 6 faces between 6 and 10 m, drilling diam-
eters 76 mm and 89 mm, bench 2.5 m, spacing
2.5 m, set-up in staggered rows, charged with
dynamite, face positioned perpendicularly to the
foliation.
1. Type of rock (chemical composition, grain size,
cementing, other relevant information, effects
of previous operations):
Homogeneous finely grained cemented rock
Allow shockwave discharge
2. Rock structure (stratified, lava flow, channels,
other relevant information, effects of previous
operations)
Rock predominantly metamorphosed (origi-
nal structure obliterated)
3. Cracks, faults, foliation (orientation, extension,
dip, opening, filling, spacing, other relevant
information, effects of previous operations)
Some families of faults
These faults have little effect on perpen-
dicular faces
The infrequent faults parallel to the faces
present instabilities, which are cleared after
mucking operation.
Vertical foliation
Significant effect on stability of faces par-
allel to the foliation, hence the decision to
position the faces perpendicularly to the
foliation planes.
10/3/2012 8:24:33 PM
 Table 2. Example of hierarchy of discontinuities inmet- 5. Water:
amorphic rock. No presence of water in the holes
Rock mass discontinuities Influence Hierarchy of influential discontinuities in the rock
at lower part of the quarry Frequency on blast mass:
Blasting operation adaptation:
Foliation All around High 1 The behaviour of the rock is extremely anisotropic
Chemical weathering Rare Average 2 due to the presence of the foliation planes connect-
Fault families Variable Low 3 ing one charge to the other.
To counter this phenomenon, the bench was
increased (E/B went from 1 to 0.7) in order to
Table 3. Example of hierarchy of discontinuities in
artificially increase the resistance of the rock with
volcanic rock. regard to foliation, and therefore the confinement.
Initially, the dynamite was replaced by a rein-
Rock mass forced emulsion with the same level of energy, then
discontinuities Influence on by a pressure-resistant classic emulsion.
at the first bench Frequency blast The horizontal holes were removed, the heights
of the holes of the two vertical rows were adjusted
Prisms 60 to 90 cm Very high 1 to the height of the face and the implementation
Argillaceous joints 60 to 90 cm Very high 2 was prepared firstly in 3D, then in 2D.
Chemical weathering 1 cm to 4 m High 3
Perpendicular cracks 10 cm to 4 m Average 4 Conclusion:
Fault families Rare Low to 5 The organized approach of the influence of dis-
negligible continuities affecting blasts leads to understanding
the particular functioning of the explosive-rock
mass system and allows a blasting pattern without
horizontal holes to be designed. This approach
Highly significant effect on the blasting solves the issue of excessive vibration level at the
process: same time, a factor that not been dealt with previ-
fragmentation between blast holes in ous classical designs.
the same row is practically inexistent,
therefore the blaster chose a staggered 4.2 The case of a volcanic rock
layout for the holes, added a horizontal
row at the foot to cut in between the ver- Issue: to reduce the granularity of the muckpile.
tical holes, Environment: motorway 200 m away from the last
the chronological timing of the initia- benches
tion recorded through VODs measure- Initial blasting operation: diameter 89 mm, bench
ments show uncontrolled initiation of 3.6 m, spacing 4.1 m, face height 5 to 12 m, 2 rows
some blasts in the second row following of 15 holes, charge composed of emulsion at the
the start of the lifters (vibration signal foot and of ANFO (<1 MJ/m3).
superposition and increase of vibra- 1. Type of rock:
tions due to a lack of relief) Two types of volcanic rock, one homoge-
the dynamites specific energy value is neous with fine cemented grains, the other
high (2.73 to 3.55 MJ/m3 of rock blasted) granulated
but the output is very low because the No evidence of preferential positioning,
pressure applied to the explosive prod- from the top to the bottom of the flow or
ucts are considerably high in the folia- from the centre to the outside
tion planes. No evidence of different reaction at the
4. Chemical weathering (modification of rock time of fragmentation by the explosive
cohesion, mineralogical modification, existence Allowance of shockwave discharge
of cavity, other relevant information, effects of 2. Rock structure:
previous operations) Cooled lava in prisms
First face significantly affected by chemical Section from 60 cm to 90 cm
weathering Joints open between prisms
Weathering of rock matrix minerals in the Prisms contribute to block formation in
foliation planes the muckpile
Shockwave effectiveness reduced 3. Cracks, faults, foliation:
Premature degassing in these planes with Rare faults observed
less resistant rock No major effect on the blasting procedure

82

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 82 10/3/2012 8:24:33 PM

 A number of sub-horizontal cracks
Significant effect on fragmentation
4. Chemical weathering:
Argillaceous material in the joints and cracks
Weathering of the rock matrix
1/4 to 1/3 of the upper part of the face can be
affected by chemical weathering
Shockwave effectiveness reduced
Contrast of resistance between the rock
and the joints
Significant risk of flyrock
Premature degassing in these planes with
less rock resistance
5. Water:
No presence of water in the holes at this
stage.
Hierarchy of influential discontinuities in the rock
mass:
Blasting operation adaptation:
Given the conclusions drawn from points 2, 3 and
4 regarding the functioning of fragmentation at the
time of blasting, neither modifying the spread of
explosives shock/gas nor increasing the energy will
bring about improved block size. Risks of flyrock
on the motorway situated 200 m away are likely
to be increased with such modifications. Without
modifying the blasting parameters, this risk should
be taken into account, particularly by positioning
the faces in the opposite direction.
In this case, priority should be given to adapting
the equipment, particularly the opening of an ore
crusher, or even the shovel.
Conclusion:
The organized approach of the influence of dis-
continuities affecting blasts highlights the risk of
flyrock and takes it into account in the conceivable
blast scenarios.
5 CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES
This applied method makes it possible to structure
rock mass and blasting information.
83
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 83
Shockwaves and gases are taken into account in
order to understand the fragmentation of the rock
mass.
The rock mass is not defined as a homogene-
ous mass but rather through its discontinuities and
their variations.
It compels the blaster to define the working sce-
narios and to test them on site.
This method of analysis is integrated into the
blasting process and makes it possible to:
determine essential elements relating to the func-
tioning of the blast
check the blast design and the means of
extraction.
This method of analysing the rock mass to be
blasted also enables us to examine potential causes
of flyrock and set up steps to prevent it.
Equipment and software are being developed
and will enable face surveys to be carried out safely
(reconstitute rock mass in 3D, identify and clas-
sify the discontinuities). But interpreting how the
explosive works in the rock mass is still to be done.
And time must be dedicated to this important
task.
REFERENCES
FEEM Blasting Practice, Preventing desensitization in
gassed and microsphere sensitized explosives, Techni-
cal Bulletin n5.
Sauvage, A.C. & Blanchier A. Blasting improvements by
using most active rock variations on blast. Volume 1,
Proceedings of the 30th annual conference on Explo-
sives & Blasting Technique, Feb. 14, 2004.
10/3/2012 8:24:33 PM
This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Limits blast design: Controlling vibration, gas pressure &

fragmentation

C.K. McKenzie
Blastechnology, Queensland, Australia

ABSTRACT: With a focus on large-scale open pit mining, this paper presents a methodology which can
be easily adopted to prepare and compare different blast design options for careful wall control blasting
applications. The paper explores the principal damage mechanisms of vibration and gas pressure, or con-
finement, effects and presents an engineering approach for the control of both mechanisms to minimize
damage to open pit walls from blasting. Further, the paper recognises that the productivity of mining
equipment must be maintained in order to implement good wall control blasting in a sustainable manner.
Part of the attraction of the proposed limits blasting concept is that it challenges the common paradigm
of trim blasting, which in many operations raises significant difficulties with mine planning and sched-
uling, as well as tending to reduce machine productivity. Trim blasting is commonly considered to have
significant shortcomings both in concept and in practical implementation. Full width blasting with any
number of blasthole rows can provide control over all damage mechanisms at least as well as trim blast-
ing, providing that attention is directed to controlling the Scaled Depth of Burial of the charges, and that
charge distribution is adjusted to minimize vibration impacts while still delivering excellent control over
fragmentation. The Release-of-Load failure mechanism is investigated to compare different initiation
sequences and how they impact on the pit wall in terms of cracking due to tensile failure.

1 INTRODUCTION The concept of dynamic burden or burden

Blasting adjacent to the limits of excavations,
whether they be final limits or interim limits, is
something which challenges many rock blasting
applications. Planned rock excavation requires
adherence to a designed excavation limit, and break-
age extending beyond that limit represents a degree
of non-compliance, with consequences including
unnecessary additional volume of material to be exca-
vated, creation of a safety hazard due to the presence
of loose and unstable rock blocks in the walls of the
excavation, generation of oversize material and dif-
ficulties in material handling, dilution of ore.
In addressing limits blasting (also commonly
referred to as contour blasting or wall control blast-
ing), design personnel invariably focus on the need
for vibration control (through reduction in the size
of explosive charges). Many will also attempt to
address the issue of charge confinement, though
the term is poorly defined, has no commonly-
accepted units, and for which there are few quan-
titative relationships, or equations, to assist in
controlling the effect to acceptable impacts.
In the context of this paper, reference is most
commonly made to vibration instead of dynamic
stress, since it is generally measured using vibration
monitors rather than by stress gauges, though the
concepts are used interchangeably.
relief appears in some blast design and assessment
models, based on the premise that blasthole charges
should have a well-defined free-face to which break-
age and rock movement can occur. While useful and
commonly used, the concept appears overly simplistic
as a means of quantifying charge confinement, since
it takes into consideration only the burden dimension
(whether as-drilled or effective as defined by the
initiation sequence) and the delay time between the
rows. This seems to be useful, except that it fails to
account for the size of the charge, the strength of the
rock, or the inertial resistance of the rock mass. It
seems intuitive that if the charge in the hole is insuf-
ficient to displace the volume or tonnage of rock
surrounding it, then extended delay timing will do
little to provide relief through rock displacement.
The concept of confinement therefore seems to
involve at least the following factors:
1. time for significant burden displacement and
expansion of explosion gases (the concept that
charges should not be expected to displace
excessive quantities of rock, and should not be
excessively buried);
2. size of charge in relation to the burden it is
required to displace or fragment (expressed
preferably as a ratio of weight of explosive to
weight of burden material);

85

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 85 10/3/2012 8:24:33 PM

 3. The nature and characteristics of the rock mass,
e.g. soft, fractured, hard, blocky, low density
such as coal, or high density such as iron ore.
Some landmark studies of wall control blasting
are worth mention, including the study by LeJuge
et al (1994), Ouchterlony (1996), Brent et al (2001),
and Spathis et al (2001), which address in some
detail the mechanisms of both vibration and gas-
related impacts on open pit walls.
The distinction between vibration and con-
finement damage mechanisms may even be a lit-
tle blurred, as many books and technical articles
refer to the effects of excessive charge confinement
on the levels of induced vibration. Work by Brent
(2001) casts doubt on the age-old paradigm that
levels of vibration are influenced by the state of
confinement of the charge, and the authors own
experience relates to observations that, in appli-
cations of wave superposition models, the use of
signature waves obtained from totally confined
charges (deeply buried without a free-face and with Figure 1. Single charge tests in confined and free-face
infinite burden) does not result in any tendency conditions (hole dia = 114 mm, K calculated using best
to over-estimate the vibration levels obtained from fit scaled distance regression exponent = 1.515). Data
normal production blasts fired to a free-face. If courtesy of Mike Osborne, Austin Powder Company.
charge confinement had a strong influence on lev-
els of induced vibration, the use of signature waves
from infinitely confined charges should result in commonly applied. While these options are few,
predicted vibration levels significantly exceeding there is a wide variation in how they are imple-
measured levels for blasts fired to clean free-faces, mented, and in expectations as regards effective-
and a signature wave obtained from an infinitely ness of outcome.
confined charge should be of significantly higher
amplitude than one obtained from firing to a
free-face. Field experience shows that this is often 2 PRE-SPLITTING
not the case (Fig. 1, two single hole charges of
118 kg fired in the same quarry and measured at A brief discussion of pre-split design is made here,
two different locations). since any technical review of wall control blasting
While the data of Figure 1 are not presented would be incomplete without such discussion. It
with the aim of dispelling a correlation between is also presented because of the demonstrated sig-
confinement and peak levels of induced stress, they nificance of an effective pre-split fracture in acting
question the effect and the conditions under which as a barrier to the potentially damaging impacts of
it might be evident. vibrations and high pressure gases.
In the context of incompletely-defined dam- The theory of pre-splitting as expounded by
age concepts, and paradigms which are not always Calder (1977), Bauer (1982), Chiappetta (1990),
supported by field data, this paper aims to present and Workman (1991) revolves around the preferen-
procedures which connect some behaviours estab- tial growth of fractures along a line of light explo-
lished by field studies or modern quantified trends sive charges fired simultaneously. Ouchterlony
to assist in achieving the often-conflicting goals of (1997) presented the results of a well-controlled
damage control, fragmentation control, and pro- and carefully implemented study of pre-splitting
ductivity control while blasting against open pit in hard rock, showing the importance of precise
walls. Much of the proposed design philosophy can timing control in achieving the preferential shear-
also be applied to underground excavation design. ing with minimal radial damage to the surrounding
Practices which are commonly deployed for rock. With linear charges evenly distributed along
blasts fired adjacent to, or close to, pit walls (final the length of the borehole, a well-defined fracture
or interim) include pre-splitting, trim blasting, plane can be established in most rock types, pro-
and buffer blasting. Smooth blasting, represent- vided that the pressure generated in each hole is
ing a compromise between pre-splitting and trim sufficient to facilitate preferential crack growth
blasting, appears to be another option, though less between adjacent holes and for the full depth of

86

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 86 10/3/2012 8:24:34 PM

 the bench. If the pressure is insufficient to create
preferential crack growth, then the detonation of
the charge will produce a random radial crack
growth pattern around each hole, and the final wall
will show little or no evidence of the pre-split blast,
other than a discontinuous and occasional series
of half barrels. Where the pre-split blast has failed
to create a continuous fracture plane over the full
length of the pre-split holes, its value to the process
of forming clean and stable walls compliant with
the designed pit profile must be questioned.
Calder (1977), Bauer (1982), Chiappetta (1990),
and Workman (1991) all present the same equation
to estimate the ideal spacing of pre-split holes, as
a function of the pressure generated in each hole
(controlled by the charge configuration), presented
in equation (1).
Pb T The coupling factor exponent, n, is reported
S= (1)
T the average value of 1.25 is assumed here. When
where S is the hole spacing (m), Pb is the borehole
pressure (MPa), T is the tensile strength of the rock
(MPa), and is the hole diameter (m).
Since the tensile strength of rock is frequently
unknown with any degree of certainty, equation
(1) is commonly replaced by the alternative form:
Pb T P UCSS/k
S= = b
T UCS
CS k (2)
k Pb + UCS
C taneous compliance with equations (2) and (3)
= will very likely deliver consistently good pre-split
UCS
C results, though the final wall quality also depends
where k is the ratio of Unconfined Compressive
Strength (UCS) to Tensile Strength (T), an average
value for which could be considered to be 12, but
which appears to commonly range from around 8
to around 20.
For the recommended case where the borehole
pressure is equal to the UCS, and for cases where
the UCS is approximately 12 times the tensile
strength, equation (2) suggests a pre-split hole spac-
ing of approximately 13 times the hole diameter.
Note that the spacing is independent of the rock
strength according to equation (2). Lower pres-
sures and appropriately reduced hole spacing are
commonly used in civil engineering applications. In
practice, this spacing can be achieved in competent
(lightly fractured) ground, but should be reduced
by around 2030% in more structured (heavily
fractured) ground. Horizontal fractures seem to
have little effect on pre-split quality, and vertical
fractures oriented at around 20 degrees and less to
the line of the pre-split holes are known to have a
strong effect on pre-split efficiency and the smooth-
ness of the resulting wall (Worsey et al, 1981).
87
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 87
The above authors also present the same equation
to calculate the pressure generated by the detona-
tion of the explosive charge, shown in equation (3).
On that count, it is worth noting the article by
Cunningham (2006) in which that author offers
an alternative (reportedly more reliable) method
of calculating blasthole pressure resulting from the
detonation of non-ideal explosive charges.
Pb fcn VOD 2 exxp (3)
where fc is the coupling factor, defined as the ratio
of the volume of explosive to the volume of the
hole (excluding the volume occupied by stemming,
if present), VOD is the velocity of detonation of
the explosive (m/s) and exp is the density of the
explosive (kg/m3).
to have a value between 1.2 and 1.3, for which
using continuous lengths of small diameter sensi-
tised emulsion traced with detonating cord for pre-
splitting, the velocity of detonation to be used in
equation (3) is the VOD of the explosive, not that
of the detonating cord.
Importantly, the creation of a continuous and
prominent pre-split fracture requires that the pre-
split hole spacing is consistent with the borehole
pressure created by the detonation of the pre-split
charge. The experience of this author is that simul-
strongly on the design of the charges drilled close
to the pre-split linethis may require adjustment
to the positioning and/or charging of the back two
rows of blastholes in the adjacent blasts.
The theory of pre-splitting provides little or
no guide as to vibration filtering which might be
achieved by virtue of any continuous fracture. It
is common to read in technical articles emanating
from South America that the pre-split acts to filter
the vibrations from later-firing production holes,
by factors up to 95% (e.g. Moreno et al, 2008).
However, any significant reduction is unlikely
to be achieved if the borehole pressure and hole
spacing are not properly matched, and if a con-
tinuous fracture is not achieved. The combination
of a single strand of small diameter (3237 mm)
continuous pre-split explosive, and large diameter
holes (165 mm and greater) is unlikely to produce
an effective pre-split fracture in anything but the
weakest rock masses.
Since the recommended practice is to pre-split
before firing charges in the adjacent ground, and
because the pre-split charges are light and decou-
pled, the pre-split charges can be considered to
10/3/2012 8:24:34 PM
 be very heavily confined. Studies by LeJuge et al
(1994) show that these charges can induce verti-
cal swell in the bench, resulting in loss of cohe-
sion and friction along sub-horizontal joint sets,
and reduced block stability. Intuitively it would
seem that the use of stemming in pre-split holes,
to control overpressure levels, would only exacer-
bate the problem of bench dilation. As a result,
the use of stemming in pre-split holes needs to be
carefully monitored and considered. On the other
hand, work by LeJuge et al (1994) as well as that by
Ouchterlony et al (1996) both show that an effec-
tive pre-split does act to prevent or substantially
limit the passage of high pressure gases from the
back rows of adjacent blasts.
3 TRIM BLAST DESIGN
LeJuge et al (1994), Ouchterlony et al (1996), Brent
et al (2001), and Spathis et al (2001) have all shown
that high pressure gases from charges located near
to the pit wall cause measurable dilation of catch-
ment berms due to the opening of sub-horizontal
fractures (both natural joints and blast-induced),
and that high pressure gases can penetrate distances
up to 30 metres behind blast patterns. Once joints
have been dilated, there is an inevitable and irre-
versible loss of cohesion and friction along joint
surfaces, and therefore a loss of block stability,
potentially capable of negatively affecting the bench-
scale stability of the adjacent catchment berm.
McKenzie & Holley (2004) showed through a field
program focused on measurement of the damage
profile behind limits blasts that the dilation affects
all sub-horizontal joints for the full catchment bench
depth, not just those located near the surface.
Each of the above mentioned authors, while
investigating blasting impacts on pit wall damage,
also carefully considered the vibration impacts, rec-
ognising that high vibration levels are capable of
inducing fresh fracturing, or extending and dilat-
ing existing fractures. Each of these effects has the
potential to reduce the rock mass stability rating.
Against the above background, the underlying
concepts of the trim blast design are considered by
the author to be:
1. Narrow blast (three rows of blastholes) so as
to avoid over confinement of charges at the
back of the blast, adjacent to the pit wall, lead-
ing to possible increases in vibration levels and
gas pressure effects;
2. The use of a clean free-face to permit rapid and
unimpeded burden movement and minimise the
potential for over confinement of charges and
excessive retention times for the high pressure
explosion gases;
88
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 88
3. Reduced linear charge concentration near to the
pit wall to minimise levels of vibration induced
in the wall or catchment berm adjacent to the
trim blast;
4. Initiation sequence to promote forward move-
ment of rock in a direction perpendicular to the
wall so as to avoid congestion and over con-
finement in the rear rows of blastholes adja-
cent to the pit wall or catchment berm.
While the above concepts seem appropriate, the
reality of trim blasting as practised in many large
open pit mines is somewhat different and can be
summarised as:
1. Narrow blasts are unusual, due to equipment
movement restrictions and reduced excavator
productivity, so that trim blasts will commonly
have 5 rows of blastholes, or more;
2. Clean free-faces are unusual since this standard
of bench preparation has a negative effect on
excavator productivity;
3. While a reduced explosive density is commonly
deployed in the back rows of blastholes, pro-
ducing some degree of reduced linear charge
concentration, more and more mines prefer to
use the same diameter blastholes in the trim
blasts as are used in the production blasts, for
reasons of minimising costs, reducing pit con-
gestion from operating machinery, and maxim-
ising drill rig productivity;
4. Confinement of charges near to the pit wall can
be greater in the trim blast section than in the
production blast due to reduced powder factors,
increased stemming lengths, and the common
use of air-decks.
Additional factors considered by the author to
be critical in designing trim blasts, which are com-
monly overlooked in practice, include:
1. Diameter of blastholes adjacent to the pit wall
or pre-split face;
2. Charging of the blastholes adjacent to the pit
wall or pre-split face, and the standoff distance
of those holes from the designed catchment
bench crest and toe lines;
3. Powder factor in the holes adjacent to the pit
wall or pre-split face;
4. Stemming lengths applied to holes adjacent to
the pit wall or pre-split face.
3.1 Blasthole diameter
It is advisable to reduce blasthole diameter in at
least the two rows of blastholes drilled closest to
the pit wall, but only where the production blast-
hole diameter is large. Where mining involves
small benches and small production blasthole
10/3/2012 8:24:36 PM
 diameters (e.g. less than 127 mm diameter), there
may be little technical or economic benefit in
further reducing blasthole diameter and effective
linear charge concentrations. If a reduction from
311 mm to 203 mm or 165 mm produces good trim
blast results for large scale mining with 15 metre
benches, then the use of a 127 mm diameter hole in
small benches should be capable of achieving even
better results, without the need for further reduc-
tions in diameter.
The decision regarding the appropriate hole
diameter for holes drilled adjacent to the pit wall
must be made in the context of the explosive prod-
uct to be used, as well as the rock slope sensitivity
(e.g. Factor of Safety of the slope). Estimates of
the dependence of induced vibration levels on
blasthole diameter, for various explosive densi-
ties, can be obtained from several sources includ-
ing Holmberg & Persson (1979), Hustrulid &
Wenbo (2002), and Blair (2006). While the appli-
cation and derivation of the equation proposed
by Holmberg & Persson (1979) have been chal-
lenged (Blair & Minchinton, 1996), the form of
the equation can readily be verified as appropri-
ate for prediction of near-field vibration levels
through regression of measured field data, as
illustrated in Figure 2 below.
D Dg Dg Dh + Lc
tan1 h + tan 1
R0 R0 R0
Figure 2. Linear regression of vibration data measured
in close proximity to single hole charges using the form of
equation proposed by Holmberg & Persson (1979). The
red dots represent the uncertainty, at a 90% Confidence
Level, in the regressed value of the parameter, K.
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 89
Using the fitted parameters and the regression
analysis of Figure 2, the dependence of peak vibra-
tion level, PPV, on hole diameter, , and explosive
density, exp, can be shown to be:
PPV n ex
n
xp (4)
where n is the vibration attenuation exponent
used in normal square-root charge-weight scaling
equations, and has the value 2.15 for the data of
Figure 2.
Using the differential form of this depend-
ency, the percentage reduction in vibration
level, %PPV, to be expected from a particular
percentage reduction in hole diameter, %, or
explosive density, %exp, can be estimated from
equation (5).
% %
n (5)
% % eexp
2
For the vibration attenuation exponent of
n = 2.15 from Figure 2, equation (5) suggests
that a 20% reduction in hole diameter will reduce
vibration levels in the near-field by approximately
43%, though the same percentage reduction in
explosive density will reduce the level by only half
this amount. Hence, a 251 mm diameter hole is
expected to induce vibration levels approximately
43% lower, at the same distance close to the blast-
hole, than a hole of diameter 311 mm loaded with
the same explosive product. Similarly, reducing
explosive density by 20% from 1.0 g/cc to 0.8 g/cc
with a fixed hole diameter will only effect a reduc-
tion in peak vibration level of around 21% for the
rock mass associated with Figure 2.
While a 43% reduction in vibration level might
be considered significant, in practice this reduction
is of the same order as the normal scatter in meas-
ured vibration levels, and may therefore be difficult
to verify. This level of reduction can also often be
achieved by simply optimising the (electronic) delay
timing using new generation seed waveform models.
This simple analysis suggests that, to achieve
significant and easily demonstrable reductions
in peak vibration level relative to those generated
by production blastholes, trim blasthole diam-
eter needs to be more than 20% smaller than the
production blasthole diameter unless significant
reductions are also made to the effective charge
density used in the holes nearest to the pit wall. In
the experience of the author, control over final wall
condition becomes increasingly difficult and costly
for hole diameters in excess of approximately
200 mm.
89
10/3/2012 8:24:36 PM
 Further, in considering the appropriate diam-
eter for blastholes adjacent to the pit wall, the
percentage reduction in peak vibration level due
to a reduction in diameter of the blastholes is not
the most important factor. The critical issue is the
radius of the damage zone around the charge in
the back row of holes, and the positioning of the
back row of charges with respect to the designed
pit profile (designed crest and toe lines) so as to
minimize the overlap of the damage radius around
the charge and the designed pit profile.
3.2 Charging and standoff distance from wall
The decision regarding the optimum standoff
distance of the back row trim blasthole from
the designed pit wall or pre-split must be made
in conjunction with the decision regarding the
charge configuration for that row of holes.
Neither decision should be made in isolation
from the other. Holmberg & Persson (1979)
and Ouchterlony (1996) have shown how dam-
age limits can be related, at least in part, to peak
vibration levels.
Using the fitted data in Figure 2, contours
of equal peak vibration level can be established
around any type of charge loaded into any diam-
eter of blasthole. This becomes a very useful tool
to help decide charge composition, charge distri-
bution, and hole diameter, as well as an appropri-
ate standoff distance from the designed pit profile.
If the standoff distance from the designed pit pro-
file is considered excessive, or if experience from
the pit shows that the excavators are unable to dig
back to the designed profile, then either the hole
diameter or charge configuration can be adjusted
so as to permit a reduction in the standoff distance.
Blair (2006) presents an alternative method which
appears to give very similar results in terms of the
shape of the vibration contours around explosive
charges, and Hustrulid & Wenbo (2002) presents a
modification of the original Holmberg & Persson
equation which permits the same contours to be
constructed. There therefore appear to be several
ways to estimate the maximum damage radius
around any type of charge planned for any row of
blastholes. The design objective then becomes a
matter of adjustment of hole diameter, charge con-
figuration, and standoff distance so as to minimise
overlap of the vibration-damage contours from the
different blasthole charges, with the designed pit
profile or pre-split line.
3.3 Controlling charge confinement
There are several practical ways to minimise the
effect of high pressure explosion gases on the sur-
rounding rock mass:
90
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 90
1. minimise the blasthole pressure levels produced
after the detonation of the explosive (e.g. by use
of low density explosives, low VOD explosives,
or decoupled explosives, equation 3);
2. careful adjustment of stemming length to ensure
that the high pressure gases are only momentar-
ily retained.
Particular note is made of the findings by
LeJuge et al (1994), Ouchterlony (1996), Spathis
et al (2001) and Brent et al (2001), that gas pen-
etration distances can be as much as 30 metres,
suggesting that excessive confinement and bench
dilation can occur from rows of blastholes other
than the back row. In some operations, stemming
is omitted from the back row of blastholes, specifi-
cally to limit the extent of heave and gas penetra-
tion occurring from the back row of holes.
Chiappetta (1997) presented a guide between
stemming ejection and Scaled Depth of Burial
which can be extremely helpful when designing
for minimal stemming retention time. Chiappettas
definition of the Scaled Depth of Burial, SDB, is
presented as equation (6), in its metric form.
St + 0.5 m
SDB = (6)
0.923 3 m 3 exp
x
where St is the stemming length (metres), is the
hole diameter (metres), exp is the explosive den-
sity (kg/m3), and m is an empirical constant with
value 10 for blastholes of diameter greater than
102 mm, and the value of 8 for holes of smaller
diameter.
Commonly, production holes are designed with
SDB in the range 1.2 to 1.5 m/kg0.33, depending
usually on the hardness and block size distribution
in the stemming zone of the bench. To achieve a
reduced retention time for the high pressure gases,
and therefore reduced potential for bench dilation
and reduced stability, values in the range 0.9 to
1.1 m/kg0.33 can be considered for holes close to
the pit wall or pre-split line, though practition-
ers must be careful to check the effect of this
change on maximum flyrock projection distance
(McKenzie, 2009).
When calculating the SDB for charge configura-
tions which include an air-deck, it is recommended
that users calculate the effective density by consid-
ering the charge weight to be evenly distributed
over the combined length of the charge plus air-
deck. Importantly, the use of small charges with
very long stemming columns in blasthole rows
near to the pit wall is not recommended, since it
produces a very high state of charge confinement
which, in turn, acts to promote bench dilation and
gas penetration, despite its positive impact on peak
vibration levels.
10/3/2012 8:24:38 PM
 3.4 Initiation sequence
The most common initiation sequences for blasts
fired near to pit walls are echelon or V
sequences, both of which tend to promote rock
displacement approximately perpendicular to the
pit wall. In the particular case of narrow trim
blasts, this is an almost-universally-used initiation
sequence, implemented to promote strong forward
movement of material and to minimise over-con-
finement of charges near the pit wall. Strong for-
ward movement all the way back to the back row
of blastholes, however, will only occur if:
1. there is a free-face clear of loose material;
2. there are only a few blasthole rows (maximum
of approximately 4);
3. the powder factor in each row is sufficient to
produce strong movement (Chiappetta, 1983,
presents a method to estimate burden move-
ment velocity as a function of charge design);
4. the inter-row timing is sufficiently long that Figure 3. Initiation sequence options for pit wall blasts
the front rows do not impede the back row burden movement parallel to, or perpendicular to, pit wall
(downward facing arrows indicate rock movement direc-
displacement.
tion, upward facing red arrows indicate direction of reac-
These limiting conditions provide clear guide- tion forces).
lines for the design of the trim blasts. However, it
is frequently observed that compliance with these
guidelines can still cause tensile cracking, parallel degree of build-up of confinement appears to be
to the pit wall, in the catchment berm behind trim inevitable, even for rather narrow blasts.
blasts. To understand this, the author presents the An alternative firing sequence involves initiat-
following discussion of Release-of-Load failure ing the blast at the beginning of a row close to
mechanisms, and how the initiation sequence may the pit wall, as illustrated in the lower sequence
be altered to reduce the impact on the pit wall. of Figure 3. This effectively amounts to a rotated
initiation sequence, and some practitioners also
undertake a rotation of the drill pattern. Note that
under this scenario, the rear-acting reaction forces
4 RELEASE OF LOAD FAILURE
are now also rotated, tending to produce the same
tensile failure, but restricted to the material inside
In the standard echelon initiation sequence
the pit, affecting the next blast but with reduced
(upper sequence of Fig. 3), the timing contours
effect on the pit wall. The advantages of this type
give an indication of the expected direction of bur-
of initiation sequence are:
den displacement which is the result of the large
forces applied by high pressure gases acting over 1. it reduces the effect of reaction forces and ten-
the length of charge within each blasthole. While sile failure cracks parallel to the pit wall;
these forces are being applied (which may be for 2. charge confinement can be controlled by careful
more than 100 ms), they also generate an oppo- calculation of stemming length, rather than by
site force which pushes back towards the pit wall, relying on burden movement;
roughly perpendicular to it, as also indicated in 3. vibration control is effected by careful control
Figure 3. When the burden material finally dis- of linear charge concentration in the (usually
places, the forward push disappears and so does two) rows closest to the pit wall;
the rear-acting reaction force. 4. there is no limit on the number of rows which
It is the sudden removal of this reaction force can be fired, thereby eliminating difficulties
which contributes heavily to the tensile failure with equipment scheduling and reduced excava-
which occurs parallel to the pit walldepending tor productivity commonly associated with nar-
on the orientation of joint sets, it may also cause row trim blasts;
wedge dislocation behind the blast. The effect can 5. the earlier firing holes near to the pit wall act to
be partially mitigated by increasing the inter-row filter the effects (both gas pressure and vibra-
delay time for each successive row, thereby reduc- tion) from the larger production blastholes by
ing the effects of burden congestion, but some creating a trench of fragmented rubble (a very

91

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 91 10/3/2012 8:24:38 PM

 effective buffer) between the large charges and
the pit wall.
Figure 4 presents a cross sectional view of an
example wall control blast (upper section of dou-
ble bench stack) displaying the design concepts
discussed above. The table appearing in the figure
includes reference to the Relative D50, presented
as an indication of likely fragmentation in each
row of blastholes, relative to the fragmentation
achieved in the production rows. It is defined with
reference to the Kuznetsov equation (7):

0.63
115
d 50 A PF 0.8 Q 0 167 (7)
E
Figure 5. Example wall control blast for lower half of
double bench stack. Note fragmentation is expected to be
where d50 is the average fragment size (cm), A is the finer in back 2 rows.
rock factor, PF is the powder factor (kg/m3), Q is
the weight of explosive per blasthole (kg) and E is
the relative weight strength of the explosive (%).
ble of causing damage deep into the underlying
The Relative D50 therefore ignores the local rock
berm. Alternatively, two or three rows of reduced
conditions, and is calculated with reference only
diameter can be drilled over the underlying berm
to the drilling and charging design. A percentage
crest, and the remainder of the rows drilled in large
value greater than 100% indicates coarser fragmen-
diameter.
tation, and a percentage value less than 100% rep-
Figure 5 provides an example of a design for
resents finer fragmentation than that achieved in
the lower portion of a double bench stack on the
the production holes.
pit wall. The small overlap of the expected dam-
The design focus for the lower section of the
age contour with the toe of the pit wall is probably
double bench stack must shift from controlling the
required in order to facilitate complete excavation
impact on the catchment bench face to controlling
back to the designed bench toe line, and is not con-
the impact on the underlying catchment bench
sidered a problem in terms of possible damage to
berm, especially in the vicinity of the underly-
the pit wall, being at such a low point in the bench
ing crest. This may require more rows of reduced
face.
hole diameter, since it is clear from the contours
of Figure 4 that the large diameter holes are capa-
5 FRAGMENTATION CONTROL

The final piece in the puzzle of effective wall

Figure 4. Example wall control blast showing drill pat-
tern and charging configurations, as well as row-by-row
powder factors, Scaled Depth of Burial and Relative
Fragmentation (estimated using Kuznetsov equation).
Note fragmentation is expected to be finer in back
2 rows.
control blasting relates to methods to satisfy the
requirements of mine production personnel (frag-
mentation and equipment productivity) as well as
those of the geotechnical engineers responsible for
the condition of the pit walls.
For any particular rock mass, fragmentation
is controlled principally by powder factor, or the
energy available for fragmentation (assuming that
the available energy is effectively distributed and
efficiently utilised), as confirmed by the exponents
in the Kuznetsov equation commonly used for
fragmentation prediction purposes (equation 7).
There appears to be a tendency in many min-
ing operations to reduce powder factor in the rows
of blastholes near to the pit wall, in the belief that
powder factor and damage are inherently linked.
Powder factor can be controlled by pattern dimen-
sions, whereas damage appears to be related more
to linear charge concentration and the action of

92

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 92 10/3/2012 8:24:39 PM

 high pressure gases relating to the size of individ-
ual charges. To a very large extent, these are two
independent effects which can quite effectively be
controlled by the use of judicious delay timing.
Linear charge concentration can be reduced by
reducing explosive density and blasthole diameter
to provide appropriate control over the damage
radius. Appropriate adjustment can then be made
to burden and spacing dimensions so that powder
factor remains sufficient to produce the desired
fragmentation and/or excavator productivity.
In deciding an appropriate powder factor in
cases where charge configurations in trim or buffer
rows include an air deck, consideration must be
given to the effect of the air deck on fragmentation.
A powder factor of 0.6 kg/m3, for example, when
achieved in blastholes without air decks, will pro-
duce significantly finer fragmentation than it will in
holes containing a 50% air deck (i.e. equal lengths
of charge and air in the same hole). It is therefore
not sufficient to consider only the numerical value
of the powder factor (i.e. total weight of explosives
divided by total weight of rock blasted). Bergman
(1973) indicated that decoupling of explosives may
increase average fragment size in proportion to the
degree of decoupling, in a log-linear fashion, as
indicated in equation (8).
Fs K b log
( + ) VOD 2
1.33
VOD VOD
2 2
1 + V 2 V
p p
R 1 EWk
v wall. Adjustment of stemming lengths is easier to
B2 (8)
where K and b are constants dependent on rock
type, exp is the explosive density (kg/m3), VOD is
the velocity of detonation of the explosive, Vp is
the p-wave velocity of the rock, Rv is the coupling
ratio (defined as the volume of the hole divided
by the volume of the explosive), B is the charge
burden, and EWk is the calculated expansion work
per unit of charge length. Note that Bergmanns
definition of coupling factor is the inverse of the
definition commonly used today.
6 CONCLUSIONS
The concepts presented in this paper have evolved
over many years, and are being applied in many
large scale open pit mines throughout the world,
though it is rare to find a single operation which
embraces the full scope of wall control blasting.
Good wall control blasting requires equal focus
on peak vibration levels induced in the pit wall
93
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 93
and catchment berms, charge confinement influ-
ences due to excessively high borehole pressures or
excessively long retention times of the high pres-
sure gases, careful attention to initiation sequence
and delay timing selection, and fragmentation con-
trol which also leads to improved control over pit
productivity.
Pre-splitting is an important part of many wall
control programs in large scale open pit mining.
Its success and cost effectiveness depend on care-
ful selection of hole spacing and hole charging.
The increased use of relatively large hole diameters
places a focus on appropriate charging to achieve
the desired effect of a continuous shear plane and
any concurrent benefits such as vibration and gas
filtering.
In large scale open pit mining, the use of large
diameter holes (e.g. greater than 250 mm) creates
the need for special attention to the design of blasts
against pit walls. Various methods exist to assist in
deciding the critical issues of back row location
and back row charging so as to tightly control the
vibration impacts of trim or buffer blasts on pit
wall, or a pre-split face. Decisions regarding appro-
priate hole diameter for trim or buffer rows must
be made in conjunction with charging options, and
the ability to adjust the standoff distance from the
designed pit slope.
Confinement effects, relating to the time over
which high pressure gases are able to act on, and
penetrate, rock mass joint sets can be controlled
by use of the Scaled Depth of Burial, and in some
operations is achieved by elimination of stemming
in the one or two rows of holes nearest to the pit
achieve in a consistent manner than alternative
methods which require accurate front row burden
control, the existence of a clean free-face, and a
small number of blasthole rows. In particular, the
use of small toe charges and long stemming col-
umns is not consistent with the objective of con-
trolling gas penetration into joints.
Release of Load failure may be a significant
factor affecting damage induced in catchment
benches behind trim and buffer blasts, and may be
exacerbated by initiation sequences which promote
burden movement perpendicular to the pit wall.
Initiation sequence can be changed to promote
burden displacement parallel to the wall. By com-
mencing the initiation from rows close to the wall,
the gas and vibration effects from rows of produc-
tion holes can be decoupled from the pit wall, obvi-
ating the need for narrow trim blasts.
Fragmentation control can be achieved simulta-
neously with control over peak vibration levels and
gas penetration, but it is likely to result in increased
drilling costs. The focus should be on achieving a
good distribution of energy as well as the lowest
10/3/2012 8:24:40 PM
 practical linear charge concentration. Powder
factor should be maintained as close as possible
to production row powder factors, and is best
adjusted by adjusting burden and spacing dimen-
sions rather than by increasing charge weight per
hole. If air-decks are used, the numeric value of
powder factor in those rows should be increased to
compensate for their tendency to produce coarser
fragmentation.
REFERENCES
Bauer, A., 1982. Wall Control Blasting in Open Pits,
Proc. of the 14th Canadian Rock Mechanics Sympo-
sium, pp 310.
Bergmann, O.R., Riggle, J.W., and Wu, F.C., 1973.
Model Rock BlastingEffect Of Explosives Prop-
erties And Other Variables On Blasting Results, Int.
J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr. Vol. 10,
pp 585612. Pergamon Press 1973. Printed in Great
Britain.
Blair, D.P. and Minchinton, A., 1996. On the damage
zone surrounding a single blasthole, in Proceedings
5th International Symposium on Fragmentation by
BlastingFragblast 5, (ed: B Mohanty), pp 121130
(AA Balkema: Rotterdam).
Brent, G.F., Smith, G.E., and Lye, G.N., 2001. Studies on
the Effect of Burden on Blast Damage and the Imple-
mentation of New Blasting Practices to Improve Pro-
ductivity at KCGMs Fimiston Mine, AusIMM, Explo
2001 Conference, Hunter Valley, NSW, 2831 October
2001.
Calder, P., 1977; Pit Slope Manual, Chapter 7Perimeter
Blasting; CANMET (Canadian Center for Mineral
and Energy Technology); CANMET Report 77-14.
Chiappetta, R., Bauer, A., Dailey, P. & Burchell, S., 1983.
The Use of High-Speed Motion Picture Photogra-
phy in Blast Evaluation and Design, Proceedings 9th
Annual Conference on Explosives and Blasting Tech-
nique, International Society of Explosives Engineers,
Dallas, TX., pp 258309.
Chiappetta, F, 1990. Pre-splitting and controlled blast-
ing techniques, Proc. 2nd High Tech Seminar, Florida.
ISEE, Cleveland, Ohio.
Chiappetta, F. & Treleaven, T, 1997. Expansion of the
Panama Canal, 7th High Tech Seminar, Blasting Tech-
nology, Instrumentation, and Explosives Applications,
Orlando, USA, 44p.
Cunningham, C., 2006. Blasthole Pressure: What it really
means and how we should use it, 32nd Annual Con-
ference on Explosives and Blasting Technique, Interna-
tional Society of Explosives Engineers, Grapevine, TX,
29 Jan01 Feb.
94
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 94
Hustrulid, W., and Wenbo, L., 2002. Some general design
concepts regarding the control of blast-induced dam-
age during rock slope excavation, in Proceedings 7th
International Symposium on Rock Fragmentation by
BlastingFragblast 7 (Ed: Prof WANG Xuguang) pp
595604 (Beijing Metallurgical Industry Press).
LeJuge, G.E., Jubber, L., Sandy, D.A., and McKenzie, C.K.,
1994. Blast Damage Mechanisms In Open Cut
Mining, AusIMM Open Pit Blasting Workshop 94,
Perth, Sept 1012.
McKenzie, C.K., and Holley, K., 2004. A study of dam-
age profiles behind blasts, 30th Annual Conference on
Explosives and Blasting Technique, International Soci-
ety of Explosives Engineers, Volume 2, New Orleans,
LA.
McKenzie, C.K., 2009. Flyrock range and fragment size
prediction, 35th Annual Conference on Explosives
and Blasting Technique, International Society of
Explosives Engineers, Volume 2, Denver, CO.
Moreno, E., Sanhueza, J.C, and Vanbrabant, F., 2008.
Balance fragmentacin-dao en zona primaria en
Mina Los Pelambres, ASIEX, VI Jornadas de Trona-
dura, Pucn, Chile, in Spanish.
Ouchterlony, F, Nie, S, Nyberg, U and Deng, J, 1996.
Monitoring of large open cut rounds by VOD, PPV
and gas pressure measurements, in Proceedings 5th
International Symposium on Rock Fragmentation by
BlastingFragblast 5 (Ed: B Mohanty) pp 167176
(Balkema: Rotterdam).
Ouchterlony, F, 1997. Prediction of crack lengths in rock
after cautious blasting with zero inter-hole delay, Int.
J. for Blasting and Fragmentation, 1:417444.
Spathis, A.T., Smith, G.E., Yacob, I., and Labriola, A.,
2001. Wall Control at the Freeport Grasberg Opencut
Mine: Vibration and Gas Penetration Measurements
as a Precursor to Improvements, 27th Annual Con-
ference on Explosives and Blasting Technique, Inter-
national Society of Explosives Engineers, Volume 2,
Orlando, FL.
Workman, J.L, and Calder, P.N., 1991. A method for
calculating the weight of charge to use in large hole
pre-splitting for cast blasting operations, 17th Annual
Conference on Explosives and Blasting Technique,
International Society of Explosives Engineers,
Volume 2, Las Vegas, NV.
Worsey, P.N., Farmer, I.W., and Matheson, G.D., (1981),
The mechanics of pre-splitting in discontinuous rock,
Proc. 22nd U.S. Rock Mechanics Symp., Univ. of
Missouri, Rolla, pp 205210.
10/3/2012 8:24:41 PM
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Blast optimisation through computer modelling of fragmentation,

heave and damage

P.C. Dare-Bryan & S. Mansfield

Orica Mining Services, Australia

J. Schoeman
Uranium Projects, BHP Billiton, Australia

ABSTRACT: BHP Billiton is assessing open cut development as an expansion scenario for the Olympic
Dam resource in South Australia. This has included blast optimisation for each of the major geologi-
cal domains, involving the design muckpile loading unit configuration, final wall control, and pit edge
muckpile cast reduction. Numerical modelling is a powerful tool for evaluating a wide range of blast-
related problems, with the ability to quantify the performance of different blast designs with respect to
fragmentation, heave and damage. A range of production blast designs were modelled, using different
explosives, novel priming and charging techniques, and electronic initiation. The effectiveness of different
pre-split designs were evaluated by modelling the interaction between seven pre-split holes, where designs
compared different hole diameters, hole spacing and diameter of packaged product. Combined produc-
tion and trim designs were modelled to compare the damage produced behind the pre-split line. Edge
cast was assessed to determine the amount of material deposited on the catch benches below for a single
geological domain.

1 INTRODUCTION

BHP Billitons Olympic Dam operation is located

approximately 560 km northwest of Adelaide in
South Australia. The ore body at Olympic Dam is
the worlds largest uranium deposit, fourth largest
copper deposit, fifth largest gold deposit and also
contains significant amounts of silver.
The existing underground mine is Australias
largest, producing approximately 180,000 tonnes
of copper, 4,000 tonnes of uranium oxide, 80,000
ounces of gold and 800,000 ounces of silver
annually. The proposed Olympic Dam Expansion
Project will consist of an open pit mine which will
operate simultaneously with the underground.
The deposit when viewed from above is shaped
like a frying pan. The open pit will mine the pan
while the underground will continue mining the
Figure 1. Simplified stratigraphical column showing
handle. major units.
In February 2011, Orica Mining Services was
engaged by BHP Billiton to undertake a Blast
Optimisation Study for the Olympic Dam Expan- Production/Trim Designsto minimise the
sion Project (ODP). The first part of the study damage behind pre-split lines.
concerned the waste region, or Cover Sequence Pre-Split Designsto maximise the damage
(Fig. 1) and was divided into four sections, using between holes, while controlling the damage pro-
numerical modelling to assess: duced behind the holes.
Fragmentation from Production Designsto Pit Edge Designsto minimise the amount of
produce a predefined particle size distribution material cast over the edge onto the catch benches
known to achieve high bucket fill factors. below.

95

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 95 10/3/2012 8:24:41 PM

 Each section comprises a Base Case using ANFO
bulk explosives and non-electric initiating systems as
well as a Conservative and Stretch design alternative
that use: higher energy bulk explosives; novel priming
and charging techniques; and electronic initiation.
This paper summarises a sample of the pro-
duction, combined production/trim and pre-
split design modelling for each of the three cover
sequence lithologies and the modelling of the
interface designs for the Andamooka Limestone.
2 NUMERICAL MODELS
The breadth of the solutions required for this
work requires the use of complex simulations that
adequately represent the salient physics processes
involved. These span wide temporal and spa-
tial ranges from the detonics associated with the
explosive(s) in the blastholes, the delay timings,
the damage and fragmentation evolution and the
cooperative bulk motion.
The incorporation of all these processes in trac-
table models is a difficult task but has been made
possible through adroit usage of the large Elfen
dynamic finite/discrete element code (Owen et al.
1992) coupled with post-processing extensions.
2.1 Mechanistic Blasting Model
The Mechanistic Blasting Model (MBM) which is
based on Elfen, can simulate non-ideal explosive
loading of the blasthole wall and the subsequent
fracturing and bulk motion of the surrounding rock
mass due to stress/strain effects and the influence of
dynamic gas loading in the blasthole and throughout
the fracture network (Minchinton & Lynch 1996).
The finite element mesh is constructed with
triangular elements which are allowed to fracture
through the application of a strain-rate-dependent
softening Rankine plasticity model. In each ele-
ment the fracture criteria are checked at each inte-
gration point: fracturing may occur if the tensile
strength of the rock has been reached and if dur-
ing the post-peak process the stress has reduced to
zero, following a softening gradient.
Under sufficient fracturing discrete elements
are formed as separate, distinct polygonal elements
made up of one or more finite elements; as such
these discrete elements are fully deformable and
can support stress and strain.
The detonation of the explosives in the blasthole
is modelled using information from a code derived
from the original non-ideal detonation code devel-
oped by Kirby & Leiper (1985). This code models
the reactive flow of the detonation products, both
before and after the sonic (CJ) plane and the influ-
ence of the rock confinement and blasthole diam-
96
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 96
eter on the resulting Velocity of Detonation (VoD)
and blasthole wall pressure-time profile.
In the fracture code, the post CJ pressure load-
ing of the rock mass is handled dynamically by the
gas flow model. As such, the gas flow is modelled
independently of the rock fracture dynamics being
coupled at every time step through interpolation
from an effectively Eulerian gas mesh into face
loads on the Lagrangian discrete/fracture element
edges. The revised element geometry then feeds
back to the local gas mesh porosity and hence the
flow and pressure are altered for the next timestep.
In this study MBM was used to model the pro-
duction and pre-split designs.
Due to computational limitations within MBM
there is a limit on the smallest fragment size down
to which the rock mass can fracture. Therefore, the
direct output from MBM underestimates the fines
produced in blasting. A solution to this is to fit
a curve that is known to reliably represent the full
particle size distribution to the larger passing size
distribution data from MBM. The most widely
used size distribution curve in blasting is the Rosin-
Rammler curve which follows a Weibull distribution,
and is used in the empirical Kuz-Ram fragmentation
model (Cunningham 2005). However, it has been
shown that the Rosin-Rammler curve consistently
underestimates the percentage of fines produced in
blasting (Djordjevic 1998). However, the more recent
Swebrec function used in this work has been shown
to fit blast size distribution data more accurately
(Ouchterlony 2010) over the complete size range.
2.2 SoHheave modelling
The SoH model uses the same numerical engine
as MBM, however, to model the heave process a
vertical two-dimensional section is taken through
the bench, the section of bench that contains the
blast is defined as the blast domain, which is filled
with rectangular particles that are tightly tiled.
Blastholes are overlaid on the particles, based on
the blast design, and face (pressure) loads obtained
from the non-ideal detonation code are applied
to the particles that surround the blastholes.
Therefore, the loading naturally includes the influ-
ence of the VoD and the stress wave-induced veloc-
ities of the rock. Since the particles in the blast
domain are tightly packed, as each hole detonates
the stress waves from the charge radiate through
the domain and interact with the surrounding rock
mass which is modelled as a finite element mesh
and therefore induce stresses and fracturing.
Zones of different rock types can be applied to
the blast domain. Dominant geology, such as major
joint sets, can be built into the surrounding rock
mass. As such SoH can be used to model the dam-
age behind the combined production/trim designs.
10/3/2012 8:24:41 PM
 After the initial explosive loading phase has Table 1. Cover sequence rock properties.
run, the discrete elements can be converted to rigid
(distinct) elements (which do not support stress) to White
facilitate more rapid calculation during the heave Andamooka Arcoona Tregolana
Sample limestone Quartzite shale
phase. The heave model has previously been shown
to be useful in controlling damage in the rock mass Density (g/cc) 2.6 2.5 2.7
surrounding a bench blast (Dare-Bryan et al. 2010). Youngs modulus 60 65 23
Numerical simulations were conducted for the (GPa)
combined production/trim and pit edge designs Poissons ratio 0.26 0.2 0.23
using this heave model. Tensile strength 6.6 17.3 8.05
(MPa)
P-wave velocity 5313 5375 3065
3 ROCK PROPERTIES (m/s)
S-wave velocity 3026 3291 1877
Accurate input data is critical to the quality of (m/s)
blast modelling. For each of the rock types to be
modelled, elastic, plastic and geologic properties
have to be defined.
Geologic structure was built into the model
Elastic properties: density, P-wave velocity, S-wave geometries for the three rock domains based on
velocity, Youngs Modulus and Poissons ratio discontinuity dip angle, direction, spacing and
these are associated with elastic stress wave propa- persistence. Unfortunately the data for the White
gation through the rock mass. Arcoona Quartzite (Quartzite) and Tregolana
Plastic properties: tensile strength, fracture Shale (Shale) was lacking information regarding
energyassociated with fracture generation and joint set persistence as the data came from bore-
propagation. hole logs. Therefore, the persistence data from
Geologic properties: major joint sets and disconti- the Andamooka Limestone (Limestone) his-
nuitiesdescribes rock structure. toric quarry mapping was used for the Shale and
The ODP pit shell intersects three main geo- Quartzite domains. The original data divided the
technical zones; Zone 2, Zone 3 and Zone 4 discontinuities into joint sets, bedding planes and
(Fig. 2). Only a small volume of material is from fault/shear sets; they are all represented in the same
Zone 4, therefore, only the rock properties applica- way within the model and will be called joints for
ble to Zones 2 and 3 were considered in this work the rest of the paper.
(Table 1). Zone 2 (west) and Zone 3 (east) have bat-
ter angles of 90 and 75 respectively; only work 4 FRAGMENTATION FROM
for Zone 2 is covered in this paper. It is important PRODUCTION BLASTS
to note that this data is an indication of the rock
properties and in pit variability is to be expected. 4.1 Blast designs
The required particle size data to produce high
shovel bucket fill factors are; P10 = 25 mm,
P50 = 150 mm and P80 = 400 mm.
For each cover sequence lithology, three blast
designs were modelled in MBM; a Base Case using
non-electric initiation and ANFO bulk explosive, a
Conservative Case using non-electric initiation and
heavy ANFO bulk explosive, and a Stretch Case
using electronic initiation and a high energy heavy
ANFO bulk explosive with small charges located
in the stemming region to improve energy distri-
bution (Table 2). In the Stretch Case the affect on
fragmentation of 0, 1 and 2 ms delays between the
main charge and the stemming charge were mod-
elled for each of the rock types.

4.2 Model setup and output

Figure 2. Plan view of pit shell with cover sequence Due to time constraints and the computational
geotechnical zones. expense of 3D fracture simulations we were forced

97

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 97 10/3/2012 8:24:41 PM

 Table 2. Drill and blast design parametersthe three
sets of Burden and Spacing dimensions are for the
Limestone, Quartzite and Shale (left to right).

Conservative
Design Base case case Stretch case

Burden (m) 6.5/6.0/6.9 8.2/7.5/8.5 8.2/7.5/8.5

Spacing (m) 7.5/6.9/7.9 9.4/8.6/9.8 9.4/8.6/9.8
Charging

Figure 3. Jointing applied to the Limestone (left),

Quartzite (middle) and Shale (right).

Explosive ANFO Heavy High energy

ANFO heavy ANFO

to use 2D simulations. Therefore, despite the ques-

tions associated with the interpretation of fractur-
ing axisymmetric simulations and the concept of
axisymmetric joint sets, the ability to accurately
resolve the stress waves in the rock mass led us down
this path. Simulations with the axis of symmetry
down the centre of the blasthole has the obvious
shortcoming of not being able to take into considera-
tion the interaction of multiple blastholes. However,
the near to medium field around a blasthole domi-
nates the formation of the size distribution curve
and so we believe axisymmetric geometries deliver
sufficient information for this size analysis study.
Axisymmetric geometries should be replaced by full
3D geometries when such modelling is tractable.
It can be seen from Figure 3 that the Limestone
has two major medium spaced (13 m) joint sets
with persistence of 45 m. The Quartzite on the
other hand has a considerable amount of jointing
with four dominant closed spaced (11.5 m) joint
sets. The Shale has the least amount of jointing,
with joint spacings on the order of 5 m. The orien-
tation of the section taken through the rock mass
was selected mainly for the ease of applying the
joint sets to the models, as intersecting joint sets at
acute angles cannot be meshed.
Figure 4, left shows the damage envelope around
the blasthole as predicted by MBM while the
figure on the right shows the delineated fragments
determined from MBM data by the post-processor
size distribution code FragSize. The area sampled
Figure 4. MBM output on the left and the associated
FragSize output on the right.
for the size analysis extends from grade level (the
bench height of 15 m) to the top of the bench, and
out to a half-spacing distance away from the hole.
For the case below, the design spacing was 9.4 m,
therefore, the half spacing distance is 4.7 m.
Defining a 100% passing size is somewhat of a
problem both within the modelling and in the field.
This is because the final top size is the result of
the formation of particular fractures, not the cul-
mination of many fractures as with the rest of the
size distribution. As such the top size is open to
the greatest variability in the field and is likely
to change from blast to blast. This works against
the Swebrec function because it is sensitive to the
effective maximum (at 100%) which acts to stretch
the top of the curve in particular. Therefore, as
the top size out of FragSize defines the top size in

98

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 98 10/3/2012 8:24:42 PM

 Swebrec, in the modelling we take the 99.95% pass-
ing size as the top size for a relative comparison of
different blast designs or rock types.
4.3 Results and discussion
4.3.1 Andamooka limestone
Figure 5 shows the curves from FragSize for the
raw fragmentation data produced by MBM, and
the fitted Swebrec function for each of the cases. It
is clear that the raw data from MBM does not fit
closely to the distribution curve form the Swebrec
function; the fines section in the MBM curve does
not exist, also the 90% passing size is far too large.
The lack of fines is to be expected, and the large 90%
passing size is due to the lack of pre-conditioning of
the stemming region in the model from blasting the
bench above. However, it is clear that the Swebrec
curves do take the major differences in fragmenta-
tion produced in MBM and effectively fit them to
real world curves. Thus, we would expect that if
MBM was run with much finer meshes the resultant
size distribution curves would be more closely fit by
the Swebrec function. However, currently a model
run to 10 ms with a mesh size of 100 mm set to frac-
ture down to 50 mm takes around 24 hours, if the
mesh was allowed to fracture down to 25 mm the
runs would take around 72 hours, even in 2D.
Both the Swebrec curves for Conservative and
Stretch cases show improved passing size curves
compared to the Base Case (Fig. 5). This is due to
the increased detonation pressures and Velocity of
Detonation (VoD) of the heavy ANFO bulk explo-
sives compared to ANFO. Higher pressures (and
hence higher VoDs) contribute to greater stresses
in the rock mass. The VoDs of the heavy ANFO
products are comparable to the sonic velocity of
the rock, while the VoD of the ANFO is signifi-
cantly lower. The Stretch Case shows a minimal
improvement over the Conservative Case.
This modelling shows that by replacing ANFO
with heavy ANFO the blast pattern can be
Figure 5. Fragmentation distributions for Andamooka
Limestone blast designs.
99
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 99
expanded while also producing finer fragmenta-
tion. Likewise, for this rock mass, higher energy
heavy ANFO and stemming charges do not pro-
duce significantly finer fragmentation than the
standard heavy ANFO design.
4.3.2 Arcoona Quartzite
The curves for the Base and Conservative designs
applied to the Quartzite are very similar (Fig. 6)
indicating that by using heavy ANFO instead of
ANFO the blast pattern can be expanded and pro-
duce comparable fragmentation. The Stretch design
shows an improvement in the lower 50% of the
curve, showing that with high energy heavy ANFO
and stemming charges finer fragmentation can be
produced in the smaller passing sizes. The passing
sizes at the top end of the curves are comparatively
uniform due to the significant natural jointing.
There was some difficulty fitting the Swebrec
function as shown by the shape of the curves at
the large passing sizes. This is due to the high pro-
portion of larger particles in the models from the
stemming region caused by the high strength and
significant jointing of the rock.
4.3.3 Tregolana shale
The Stretch Case design produces the finest size dis-
tribution curve above P10 by a reasonable margin.
For example, at P80 the passing size for the Stretch
Case is 155 mm, while for the Conservative Case
it is 203 mm, and for the Base Case it is 241 mm
(Fig. 7). One of the main contributing factors to
this spread in passing sizes for different designs is
that in the Shale, ANFO has a VoD that is com-
parable to the P-wave velocity of the rock, how-
ever, the heavy ANFOs have VoDs that are greater
than the P-wave velocity of the rock, therefore, the
waves form a conical shape rather than the more
spherical wavefront shape from the ANFO. This
results in a higher energy flux, and so the heavy
ANFO bulk explosives maintain a higher energy
density than the ANFO.
Figure 6. Fragmentation distributions for White
Arcoona Quartzite blast designs.
10/3/2012 8:24:42 PM

Figure 7. Fragmentation distributions for Tregolana
Shale blast designs.
5 TRIM DESIGNS
5.1 Blast designs
Trim designs consisted of 4 rows made up of
165 mm diameter holes for the batter and buffer
rows and 251 mm diameter holes for the two trim
rows (Fig. 8). This configuration was used for the
Base Case and the Conservative Case. For the
Stretch Case the diameter of the trim rows was
reduced to 165 mm. In all the designs the batter
row had a smaller charge with an air deck on top.
The trim designs are configured to deliver frag-
mentation from the trim rows that is in line with
the target particle size distribution, while the batter
and buffer rows were optimised to minimise dam-
age to the wall. The initiation design applied to the
combined production/trim designs was a centre
lift, centred along the first trim row.
Figure 8. Base case trim design configuration;
red region = batter row, orange region = buffer row,
yellow = trim rows.
100
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 100
Three blast designs were modelled in SoH for
each lithology; a Base Case using non-electric ini-
tiation and ANFO bulk explosive, a Conservative
Case using non-electric initiation and heavy ANFO
bulk explosive, and a Stretch Case using electronic
initiation and high energy heavy ANFO bulk explo-
sive. The Conservative and Stretch Case designs
had expanded patterns compared to the Base Case
and increased standoff from the pre-split line.
5.2 Model setup and output
The jointing information is built into the rock
mass behind the pre-split line. Figure 9 shows the
interaction of the stress field with the local dis-
continuities in the rock mass; note that the peak
effective stresses can be above the tensile strength
of the rock but will not cause fracturing if they are
compressive stresses.
The output from the modelling can be analysed
to determine the amount of damage in the rock
mass behind the pre-split line. As each element
in the finite element mesh (that is the rock mass)
accumulates damage it is flagged with a failure fac-
tor between 0 and 1, where 0 is undamaged and 1
is a fracture. Values between 0 and 1 define increas-
ing degrees of micro damage. By calculating the
sum of the area-averaged damage it is possible to
calculate the total damage in a given region; it is
also possible to calculate the amount of total dam-
age that is attributed to micro damage. The total
number of fractures can also be determined and
from that the total length of all the fractures in
metres for that region.
Figure 10 shows the regions of the west sections
analysed. The area within 1 m of the pre-split line
(orange regions) determines the damage in the
rock mass close to the pre-split line, while the area
Figure 9. Example of a SoH model of the Limestone
domain with colour contours showing the effective stress
(Pa) loading of the particles in the blast domain and the
surrounding rock.
10/3/2012 8:24:43 PM
 Table 3a. Analysis of the damage in the rock mass
1 metre behind the pre-split line.

Region within 1 m of pre-split line

Micro Total Fracture

damage damage length (m)
Limestone
Base case 2.9 11.7 17.5
Conservative case 2.9 10.6 14.1
Stretch case 3.2 12.7 17.7
Quartzite
Base case 0.4 4.5 6.7
Conservative case 0.5 5.2 8.2
Stretch case 0.7 4.3 5.8
Shale
Figure 10. Example model showing areas on the West Base case 3.5 14.6 21.0
section analysed to calculate damage. The orange region Conservative case 6.0 25.5 41.5
defines an area within 1 m of the pre-split line, while the Stretch case 2.8 13.0 20.5
red region is within 5 m of the pre-split line.

within 5 m of the pre-split line (red regions) pro- Table 3b. Analysis of the damage in the rock mass
vides data on the quality of the rock mass further 5 metres behind the pre-split line.
away from the pre-split line. Region within 5 m of pre-split line

5.3 Results and discussion Micro Total Fracture

damage damage length (m)
The data in Tables 3a and 3b show that the Quartz-
ite walls have much less damage than the Lime- Limestone
stone or Shale. The strength of the Quartzite is Base case 2.2 9.8 73.9
also evident in the decrease in total damage by at Conservative case 2.2 10.6 79.3
least 50% when assessing the region 5 m from the Stretch case 1.7 7.6 56.8
pre-split compared to 1 m away, while on average Quartzite
for the Limestone and Shale the decrease in dam- Base case 0.4 2.2 15.3
age is much less. The small increase in total fracture Conservative case 0.2 2.4 18.8
length in the Quartzite from 1 to 5 m also reveals Stretch case 0.4 2.1 14.7
the very limited damage in the bench away from the Shale
pre-spilt. It is also interesting to note that the micro Base case 1.7 10.8 82.3
damage for the Quartzite is approximately 10% of Conservative case 3.0 17.1 137.7
the total damage, while for the Limestone and Shale Stretch Case 2.1 11.2 92.7
it is around 20%, therefore, not only is the Quartzite
significantly stronger it also proportionally accumu-
lates less micro cracks. Overall, there is little varia-
tion in the amount of damage behind the pre-split and across different designs. This highlights the
line in the Quartzite across the three designs. need to assess each rock type and its local geology
In Table 3a and 3b, for the Limestone close to the separately to ensure the trim design minimises the
pre-split the damage results are comparable for the damage behind the pre-split line, while also present-
three Cases, however, further away from the pre-split ing a muckpile that can be efficiently excavated.
line the Stretch Case out performs the other designs.
For the Shale the Conservative Case produces
6 PRE-SPLIT DESIGNS
the most damage, while the Base and Stretch Cases
produce comparable damage. This indicates that
6.1 Blast designs
for the Conservative Case the 251 mm holes in the
trim rows loaded with heavy ANFO are causing The Base Case pre-split designs consisted of 102 mm
excessive damage. holes loaded with 26 mm diameter packaged explo-
The trim design modelling shows variation in sives. The hole spacing was 1.2 m for the Limestone
accumulated damage in the different rock types and Shale, and a 1.0 m spacing for the Quartzite.

101

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 101 10/3/2012 8:24:43 PM

 Two further designs were modelled in MBM.
First, a Conservative Case consisting of a 114 mm
diameter hole on a 1.4 m spacing for the Limestone
and Shale, and a 1.0 m spacing for the Quartzite.
Second, a Stretch Case, using a 140 mm larger
diameter hole and 32 mm diameter packaged
explosives on a 1.7 m spacing for the Limestone
and Shale, and 1.2 m spacing for the Quartzite.
Figure 11. Limestone with 102 mm design (1.2 m hole
spacing) and regions of the model highlighted for effec-
tiveness of the pre-spilt (green region) and damage (red
regions).
Figure 12. Quartzite with 102 mm design (1.0 m hole
spacing).
Figure 13. Shale with 102 mm design (1.2 m hole
spacing).
6.2 Model setup and output
For the pre-split designs horizontal sections were
modelled, analysing the interaction between
seven pre-split holes. The relevant joint sets were
built into the model geometry for the Limestone,
Quartzite and Shale. As different hole spacings for
different pre-split designs would be applied to the
same geometry the joint sets built into the model
had to be symmetric around the central hole. The
holes were initiated with a nominal delay between
holes of 0.2 milliseconds to represent the delay
from initiating with detonating cord. For decou-
pled charges the pressure from the explosive travel-
ling across the air gap to act on the blasthole wall
was calculated from the adiabatic expansion of the
explosive gases.
Figure 11 shows the resulting fracture pattern
in the Limestone for the Base Case design. The
figure also shows how for each of the model runs
the output was analysed for cumulative damage in
the rock mass to asses:
the quality and consistency of the damage net-
work between the holes, and so the effectiveness
of the pre-split (green region); and
the amount of damage beyond the pre-split
line which is considered detrimental to a good
pre-split (average of the two red regions).
The green region extends 0.15 m either side of
the centre of the blastholes, while the red region
is from 0.15 m to 1m away from the centre of the
blastholes.
Figures 11 to 13 compare the fracture patterns
of the Base Case designs for the three lithologies,
where the relative rock strengths clearly dictate the
fracture density around each hole. Also note how
the local jointing has a pronounced affect on the
development of the fracture networks.

Table 4. Damage data for different pre-split designs in the three lithologies.

Rock type Limestone Quartzite Shale

Hole diameter (mm) 102 114 140 102 114 140 102 114 140
Accumulated micro damage
Micro damage beyond p/s 10.3 9.2 12.0 1.1 1.2 1.5 2.7 2.6 2.5
Micro damage at p/s 43.8 35.9 31.1 8.7 6.7 7.5 7.0 6.2 5.1
Ratio (beyond p/s)/(p/s) 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.5
Accumulated total damage
Total damage beyond p/s 14.2 13.0 16.3 5.3 4.3 5.1 14.0 13.2 14.6
Total damage at p/s 62.7 48.5 42.4 36.4 28.0 27.3 51.6 41.2 39.6
Ratio (beyond p/s)/(p/s) 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4
Fracture length per metre along p/s
Fracture length beyond p/s (m) 1.6 1.4 1.6 1.6 1.1 1.3 5.2 4.1 4.8
Fracture length at p/s (m) 3.4 2.0 1.8 4.4 3.2 2.9 8.3 5.9 5.3
Ratio (beyond p/s)/(p/s) 0.5 0.7 0.9 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.7 0.9

102

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 102 10/3/2012 8:24:44 PM

 6.3 Results and discussion
Table 4 contains data on the damage in the two
regions analysed for each design and rock type
along with ratios of the damage beyond the pre-
split (p/s) (red region) over the damage at the pre-
split (green region). Overall, across all the rock
types, the 102 mm hole diameter designs produce
the lowest damage ratios and highest amount of
Figure 14. Base Case #1Vector plot at 0.5 seconds.
damage and fracture length at the pre-split.
Comparing the rock types, for the Limestone a
high proportion of the total damage is from the
micro damage, while for the Quartzite and Shale
most of the total damage is from the formation
of discrete fractures. The pre-splits in the Shale
produce by far the greatest number of fractures
compared to the Quartzite and the Limestone.
The Quartzite has a comparable fracture length
at the pre-split to the Limestone, though the accu-
mulated damage beyond the pre-split is very low.
This means that the Quartzite will produce a clean
high-wall, however, there will be little attenuation Figure 15. Base Case #1 at 16 seconds.
of production blast stress waves as they travel
through the pre-split. The significant micro dam-
material at rest The first catch bench below the blast
age in the Limestone should attenuate stress waves
has been completely filled with material from the
effectively, while the low fracture length beyond
blast, and the second catch bench below the blast
the pre-split should produce a relatively clean high-
has a considerable amount of material on it.
wall. The Shale, on the other hand, with its greater
The Base Case #2 design, kept the same drill
amount of fractures, while also attenuating stress
pattern, however, the timing of the shot has been
waves, will produce the least stable high-wall.
altered. The control row has been moved back
away from the free face by two rows, and the
delays on the control row are now 25 ms instead
7 PIT EDGE DESIGNS
of 42 ms. Also, down the echelon the delays were
progressively longer starting at 42 ms then 65 ms
7.1 Blast designs
and finally 100 ms at the free face. These timing
Pit edge designs used the west section as this is alterations are designed to promote upward move-
where the first pushback is planned to occur. This ment of material at the control row, opening up a
resulted in a geometry with a vertical free face. dynamic void for the subsequent burdens to move
For simplicity only the top 15 m bench was mod- into, while the longer delays away from the control
elled using a nominal bench width of 80 m and a row give the burdens before them time to move,
vertical free face. The first catch bench is 14.6 m therefore, encouraging horizontal movement of
wide and the second catch bench is 30 m wide. Ini- material away from the free face.
tially a conventional centre-lift design, consisting of The vector plot (Fig. 16) at 750 ms after the first
42 ms delays on the control row and 25 ms down hole and 53 ms after the last hole shows increased
the echelon, was applied to the bench geometry as horizontal movement of material away from the
Base Case #1 to use as a reference. Then subsequent free face which should reduce the amount of mate-
modifications were made to the Base Case design rial from the second and third burdens (back from
to improve the performance of the blast in relation the free face) moving down onto the catch benches
to minimising the amount of material thrown over below. The model output at 16 seconds (Fig. 17)
the edge onto the catch benches below. shows an increase in swell at the back of the bench
and reduced material on the second catch bench
below the blast compared to the standard base case
7.2 Model setup and output
design output in Figure 15.
The vector plot for Base Case #1 at 500 ms after
the first hole initiates and 123 ms after the last hole
7.3 Results and discussion
shows a predominantly vertical direction of move-
ment early on in the heave (Fig. 14). Figure 15 shows Table 5 shows a comparison of the amount of
the muckpile profile at 16 seconds with most of the material collected on the catch benches for the two

103

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 103 10/3/2012 8:24:44 PM


Figure 16. Base Case #2Vector plot at 0.75 seconds.
Figure 17. Base Case #2 at 16 seconds.
Table 5. Amount of material collected on catch
benches.
Base Base
Design case #1 case #2
Area on 1st catch bench (m2) 118 112
Area on 2nd catch bench (m2) 161 123
Total area on catch benches (m2) 279 235
Percentage change of area against 0 16
base case #1 (%)
Base Case designs, with the Base Case #2 design
depositing 16% less material on the catch benches
just by adjusting the non-electric timing.
8 CONCLUSIONS
Modelling of the production blasts shows that, for
each of the cover lithologies the suggested designs
will meet the required size distribution data. For
the Limestone and Shale the fragmentation curves
are well inside the required data.
The pre-split modelling shows that the 102 mm
diameter designs outperformed the larger diam-
eter designs in every rock type, producing the high-
est amount of damage and fracture length at the
pre-split and proportionally the least amount of
damage beyond the pre-split. Also of note is the
variation in damage between the rock types and
the effect of local discontinuities.
The production/trim modelling shows the fea-
sibility of the design methodology to the cover
lithologies. The work also highlights the need to
104
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 104
tailor each trim design to the local rock type, and
how small variations in design can have significant
influences on the overall accumulation of damage
behind the pre-split line.
Modelling the movement of material when blast-
ing at the pit edge shows that benefits can be made
in controlling the amount of material thrown over
the edge onto the catch benches below.
The flexibility afforded the numerical model-
ling techniques presented allow for a wide range
of blast-related problems to be assessed in the
planning stage for greenfield projects, especially
where existing reliable data is unavailable. Dedi-
cated post-processing of numerical modelling can
produce quantifiable data for the comparison of
different blast designs.
Fitting fragmentation data from numerical
modelling techniques to the Swebrec function have
been shown to be beneficial in overcoming the lim-
itations of the number of discrete particles current
numerical models can handle. However, future 3D
work in the area is required to overcome the limita-
tions of the 2D environment.
REFERENCES
Cunningham, C.V.B., 2005, The Kuz-Ram fragmenta-
tion model 20 years on. In R Holmberg (ed.), Proc.
3rd EFEE World Conf. on Explosives and Blasting,
Brighton UK, 1316 Sept. pp. 201210. Reading, UK,
European Federation of Explosives Engineers.
Dare-Bryan, P., Byers, T. & Theobald, A., 2010, Numeri-
cal Modelling and Electronic Initiation to Assist
Blasting in Heavily Jointed Rock, Proc. of the 36th
Annual Conference on Explosives and Blasting Tech-
nique, Orlando, Florida, 710 February, Int. Society
of Explosive Engineers, pp.
Djordjevic, N., Optimal blast fragmentation, Mining
Magazine, February, pp. 121125, 1998.
Kirby, I.J. & Leiper, G.A., 1985, A Small Divergent
Detonation Theory for Intermolecular Explosives, 8th
Int. Symp. on Detonation, Albuquerque, NM, USA,
1519 July, Office of Naval Research, Report NSWC
MP 86194, pp. 176186.
Minchinton, A. & Lynch, P.M., 1996, Fragmentation and
Heave Modelling Using a Coupled Discrete Element
Gas Code, Proc. 5th. Int. Symp. on Rock Fragmenta-
tion by Blasting, Montreal, Canada, 2529 Aug, A.A.
Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 7180.
Ouchterlony, F., 2010, Fragmentation characterisation;
the Swebrec function and its use in blast engineer-
ing, Proc. 9th. Int. Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by
Blasting, Madrid, Spain, 1317 Sept., A.A. Balkema,
Roterdam, pp. 322.
Owen, D.R.J., Munjiza, A. & Bicanic, 1992, A finite
element-discrete element approach to the simulation
of rock blasting problems, Proc. 11th Symp. on finite
elements in South Africa, Centre for Research in Com-
putaional and Applied Mechanics, Cape Town, 1517
Jan, pp. 3958.
10/3/2012 8:24:45 PM
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Use radar reflectivity as possibility for measurements

of fragmentation during the blasting

C. Drebenstedt & J. Ortuta

Technische Universitt Bergakademie Freiberg, Institute of Mining and Special Construction
Engineering, Germany

ABSTRACT: Blasting is the first step of the size reduction in mining and it is followed by crushing and
grinding unit operations. The efficiency of these unit operations is directly related to the size distribution
of muck pile. Therefore, reliable evaluation of fragmentation is a critical mining problem. Production of
finer fragments in blasting operation reduces the workload of primary crushers; therefore increasing the
crusher efficiency and reducing the crushing cost. Also crushing rate per hour will increase. The problem
of determining the true size distribution of blast fragmentation from the surface of a pile of fragments
has been studied by many mining researchers. In this paper, an attempt is made to derive a reliable meas-
ure of fragments, based on Doppler radar measure of reflectivity of flying stones during blasting. The
paper is primarily concerned with the development of new measure method for identify of rock fragments
using reflectivity of blasted material.

1 INTRODUCTION 2 METHODS FOR DETERMINATION

The open-pit mining process is generally made up
of a sequence of unit operations including drilling,
blasting, loading, hauling and crushing. Drilling
and blasting, being the first unit operations, can
have a major impact on the performance and cost
of subsequent operations. The prime objective of
these two operations is to obtain optimum frag-
mentation within safe and economical limits.
The output from the blasting process is depend-
ent on many parameters such as rock composi-
tion, layer thickness, type of explosives, etc. As a
result, a quick and accurate evaluation process is
required to assess its effectiveness. In addition, this
evaluation process can be used to monitor blast-
ing, optimize the blast design and assess loading
conditions for scoops and shovels. One of the key
indicators of the effectiveness of a blast is the size
of the resulting fragments. To date, the most accu-
rate method of measuring fragment size is sieving
analysis. The drawback of this method is that it is
a time consuming and labour intensive process.
Among these parameters are jointing measure-
ments, empirical formulae, etc. The disadvantage
of the prediction methods is the lack of actual
measurement of the fragments which may result
in inaccurate assessment. Clearly, there is a need
for a more reliable and effective way of obtaining
fragment size distribution than by sieving analysis,
while providing more accurate results than the pre-
dictive methods.
OF THE GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION
Several attempts have been made already to solve
the problem of measuring rock fragmentation
using computer vision with varying degrees of
success. Section gives a review of recent work that
has been performed in the field of rock fragmenta-
tion and related topics in the mineral processing
industry.
Image analysis techniques for rock fragmenta-
tion analysis can be separated into three categories:
manual, semi-automatic and automatic. The
following list gives an indication of how each of
the categories is achieved and the types of errors
that are introduced.
Manual methods involve an operator perform-
ing the task of delineating fragments in an image
for the purpose of digitisation. Although error can
be reduced by allowing human interpretation of
indistinct fragment boundaries, the process is very
slow with the result that sampling errors are likely
to increase because fewer images can be analyzed
[Cheung et al 1992].
Semi-automatic methods often involve a human
operator who makes corrections after a compu-
ter has outlined fragments [Cheung et al 1992].
Another semi-automatic approach is described in
[Chung et al 1992]. Computer is used to correct
projection transformations and provide a flexible
setup in which various media may by analysed
using a digitising tablet.

105

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 105 10/3/2012 8:24:45 PM

 Automatic methods are achieved completely with
the use of a computer which outlines rock frag-
ments and calculates volume measurements using a
stereological method to convert from the measured
value of area or size [Cheung et al 1992]. Although
automatic processing can proceed more rapidly
than manual processing with the result that sam-
pling errors are reduced, other measurement errors
are introduced when the computer incorrectly out-
lines fragments [Thurley 2009] [Thurley 2010].
Further source of error [Paley 1992] in the size
measurement are the determination of fines which
is usually difficult from an image, particle sorting
errors which occur because the same particle may
be measured to have a different size depending on
what surface is being projected, segregation errors
which occur because the fragments which occur at
the surface may not be representative of the overall
distribution and errors which are introduced by the
stereological method for converting to a volume
measurement.
3 LIMITATIONS OF IMAGE ANALYSIS
TECHNIQUES
There are basically two problems which have to
be solved to correctly obtain a representative size
distribution of rocks from an image. The first
problem is that of actually identifying rocks in the
image and correctly segmenting the image so that
their projected size/area can be measured accu-
rately. The second problem is that only two dimen-
sional projections of rocks at the surface of the
rock stream can be measured when the parameter
of interest is actually the volume size distribution
of all the material in the rock stream.
The problem of determining volume distribu-
tion from low-dimension measurements, especially
under the conditions where material is deeply piled,
provides one of the strongest arguments against a
machine vision solution to this problem.
However, some errors are also associated with
the digital image analysis. It is extremely hard to
obtain accurate estimates of rock fragmentation
after blasting. Following are the main reasons for
error in using image analysis programs.
1. Image analysis can only process what can be seen
with the eye. Image analysis software cannot
take into account the internal rock, so the sam-
pling strategies should be carefully considered.
2. Analyzed particle size can be over-divided or
combined; which means larger particles can be
divided into smaller particles and smaller par-
ticles can be grouped into larger particles. This
is a common problem in all image-processing
programs. Therefore, manual editing is required.
106
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 106
3. Very fine particles can be underestimated, espe-
cially from a muck pile after blasting. There is
no good answer to avoid these problems.
4. Material can be wet or dry. In the case of wet
material, fines become attached to the surface
of larger rocks which acts as camouflage and
increases the difficulty of identifying rocks.
A wet surface also increases the possibility of
secular reflection which complicates the image
process by producing highlights or bright marks
on object surfaces.
5. The spatial distribution of material can vary
from very sparse to a deep pile. Clearly, when
the material is sparse, it is easier to identify
rocks and a more accurate size distribution can
be estimated because most of the material is vis-
ible. Once material begins to overlap, detection
of rocks becomes more difficult due to occlu-
sion and it is necessary to extrapolate to the
actual size distribution from the measured one.
Is possible these errors, arising from the measure-
ment, to reduce, eventually completely eliminate?
One way to avoid some errors in the measurements
is using the modified Doppler radar for grain size
analysis.
4 USING OF RADAR REFLECTIVITY
FOR DETERMINE OF GRAIN SIZE
The reflectivity, R is the ratio between reflected
and incident intensity as size of energy for exam-
ple electromagnetic waves (light current) or sound
waves (sound pressure, sound field size).
Reflectivity is defined as the total reflecting area
of small particles per cubic meter with a dielectric
constant greater than zero. This value is propor-
tional to the sixth power of the diameter of an
object with a spherical surface. The reflectivity is
the sum of all individual objects in a space of one
cubic meter in accordance with a model of the dis-
tribution of the different grain size.
For ours measurement was used micro rain
radar MRR-2 by company METEK, modified for
use as volcano radar in our case as blasting radar
(Table 1) (Fig. 1).
The following modifications should be made for
the blasting radar (Table 2).
Table 1. Main parameters of blasting radar.
Signal Continuous wave, 50 mW
Frequency 24, 15 GHz24, 25
GHz (1, 4 cm)
Antenna type Offset parabolic mirror
Observation distance 60 cm mirror: 2000 m
Power consumption 25 W
10/3/2012 8:24:45 PM
 Figure 1. Setup of a radar station with additional sche-
matic arrangements.
Figure 2. Schematic representation of the dependence
of the reflected energy of particles diameter DP and
wavelength trans.
Table 2. Modification of micro rain radar for blasting
radar.

ADC sampling rate: Instead of 125 KHz, now 187,

5 KHz
Sweep rate Increased from 2 KHz to 3 KHz
Nyquistspeed Increased from 12 m/s to 18 m/s
Maximum number of Increased from 20 to 25
calculated spectra
Transmission time From 5 s to 1 s
spectra
Minimum Increased from 57600 to 115200
averaging time
Figure 3. Sketch of the first measurements for three
different grain sizes.

4.1 The first measurement and result

The reflectivity is a function of the wavelength of
the transmitted wave, the sizes of the objects within
the radar beam and the dielectric constant. The
scattering behaviour of particles can be roughly
divided into three sections (Fig. 2).
First experiment (Fig. 3) granite (Fig. 4) shows
the relationship between reflectivity, velocity and
grain size (Fig. 5). Figure 4. Test material (granite).
Judging by the developed state of knowledge,
research results are expected for the current state
of knowledge on these subjects a significant step
forward:
Using the scattering theory (Fig. 2) in practice
would be of great importance for research in the
blast.
Development of an algorithm to determine the
lumpiness of the ejected material (during the blast-
ing) with the help of the measured reflectivity.
More information about the scattering theory Figure 5. Dependency between reflectivity and velocity
can be found in [Mischenko et al 2002] [Mie 1908] for different grain size.
[Cochran et al 2004].

inherent to the individual grains of different sizes.

4.2 Determination of mathematical dependence
between grain size and reflectivity
Determine this depending is necessarily on describ-
ing changes in the size of the reflectivity, which is
Physical exploration showed us that there is this
dependence, which was confirmed by the first
experimental measurements (Fig. 5). These meas-
urements, be extended from two for more of

107

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 107 10/3/2012 8:24:45 PM

 varying fractions diameter. This would lead to the
possibility of creating a picture of the progress of
possible correlations and follow the equation.
Because of these experiments were made inside
and not outside (no other effects as: possible
movement in the background, unstable tempera-
ture, wind ...), it was possible number of variables
reduced only to change the size (Fig. 6) and change
of speed (Fig. 7).
As a result of these measurements is created
relationship between grain size and reflectivity
(Fig. 8). With this relationship were derived equa-
tions covering the area bounded by maximum
(blue line) and minimum (pink line) values.
The measured dependence is described by: Figure 7. Influence of changes the speed on the reflec-
tivity for D = 0, 0296 cm.
Z max 0, 40 1.D + 37, 301 [dBz] (1)

Z min 0, 3 4 .D + 34, 850 [dBz] (2)

The modified equations (1) and (2) to the real

situation, consisting of blast, we get:

t ti
Z max,i 37, 85
Di,max = 0, 4071
[m] (3)
t =1

t tj
Z min, j 34, 85
D j,min = 0, 3547
[m] (4)
t =1
Figure 8. Change of reflectivity depending on changes
Surface grain size analysis, expresses the abso- of grain grains.
lute value of the sum of all the measured reflec-
tivitys of flying particles, for the duration of the
blasting from t = 1 s to t + tn. In the next chapters will be demonstrated first
The laboratory measurements were possi- deployment of the radar as a measuring device, in
ble only to simulate the material with the size of the quarries.
0,07 m, which is not exactly really situation (size
up to 1 m), but equations are easily adjusted to the
any quarrys after a few test blasting and compari- 5 USING OF CORRELATION
son with another method. RELATIONSHIP RD FOR GRAIN
SIZE DISTRIBUTION WITH HELP OF
THE RADAR ANALYSIS IN SPECIFIC
QUARRIES

5.1 Quarry Leukersdorf

Figure 6. Influence of changes the size on the reflectivity.
In the quarry Leukersdorf was made 9 blasting,
which were measured by the radar sensor. Imme-
diately after the shot, was made surface grain size
analysis using photographic methods.
Figure 9 presents the results of surface grain size
analyses from blasted material for all nine blasting
by photo analysis.
In Figure 10, is expressed grain size analysis
measured by Doppler radar during blasting for
quarry Leukersdorf, and in Figure 11 is compari-
son of grain size distribution evaluated by radar
measurement and photo analyses.

108

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 108 10/3/2012 8:24:46 PM

 Figure 9. Surface grain size distribution (photo
analysis) for quarry Leukersdorf [Mller et al 2009].
Figure 10. Surface grain size distribution (radar
analysis) for quarry Leukersdorf.
Figure 11. Comparison of radar and photo analyses.
5.2 Quarry elbingerode
In Figure 12 are results of photo analyses of sur-
face grain size distributions from blasted material
and after radar analyses in Figure 13. Using of the
equations (3) and (4). In Figure 14 is comparison
of grain size distribution evaluated by radar meas-
urement and photo analyses.
109
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 109
Figure 12. Surface grain size distribution (photo
analysis) for quarry Elbingerode [Mller et al 2009].
Figure 13. Surface grain size distribution (radar analy-
sis) for quarry Elbingerode.
Figure 14. Comparison of radar and photo analyses.
5.3 Change of the walls structure during
the blasting with radar analysis
With method, which is a advancing in this section,
it is possible to do analysis of the walls structure
during the blasting. This analysis can show what
kind of impact has used explosives and method of
initiation to the damage of quarrys material.
10/3/2012 8:24:48 PM

Figure 15. Complete analysis of blasting second after
second for quarry Seifsdorf.
As an example, I would like show, the measure-
ment in the quarry Seifsdorf. This measure was
supplemented by scanning the blasting wall with
high-speed camera.
After modification of the measured values, it
was possible to make a complete analysis of blast-
ing second after second (equations (3) and (4)).
The result is in Figure 15. It seems that the size of
material changes every second (possible to measure
even shorter time steps). This change influences the
quantities of the energy from the use of explosives.
6 CONCLUSION
The idea of using a Doppler effect to detect objects
in space is old more than one hundred years. On the
basis of physical theories and follow the mathemat-
ical descriptions was possible the first radar con-
structed and subsequent years to expand its use.
With radars as revivalists and a recipient of
an electromagnetic wave in recent years, can we
encounter at every step. Also, because of its vari-
ability is currently no limit.
This work is based on physical theory, by which
it is possible to use electromagnetic waves to deter-
mine the particle size.
On this physical basis, and other auxiliary meas-
urements and subsequent in situ measurement of
specific quarries (in work approaches only three),
it is possible with great precision to determine:
1. the kinetic properties of blast material (Option
right for the quarry to determine the most
advantageous type of explosive and its quantity,
which has not least a significant impact on the
surrounding environment.),
2. grain size analysis of the blasting material
(Figure 11 a 14),
3. equations 3 and 4 describe what is happen-
ing with the blasting wall during the blasting
(section 5.3 describes the measured values in one
second apart, but it is possible to measure even
110
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 110
shorter time steps. It depends on the accuracy
of the radar.) (Fig. 15).
This is the first deployment of the radar as a
measuring device, in the quarries. In situ measure-
ments were conducted at five quarries with differ-
ent material structure (currently are measurements
in other three quarries), which was conducted and
analyzed over 60 blasting with a very positive cor-
relation results. After the establishment of a com-
putational algorithm, the total time determining
of the grain size distribution decreased to about
2 minutes after the blast. As for comparison with
the photographic analysis of the blasting material
is a big difference. The radar analysis also elimi-
nates subjective determination of the decisive sam-
ples. On the other site, for this analysis is necessary
to either buy or rent a radar technique, which rep-
resents an increase in prices.
It should also be noted that the overall analysis
and calculation assumes a spherical particle shape.
But that is not completely true to the reality. This is
the idealization that is contained in the photographic
analysis and largely simplifies the final conversion.
REFERENCES
Cheung W., F.P. Ferrie, R. Dimitrakopoulos and
G. Carayannis: Computer vision-based rock modelling,
Computing Systems in Engineering, 3(5):601608, 1992.
Chung H.S. and G. Ludwig: Semi-automated fragmen-
tation assessment, In Proceedings of the 8th Annual
Symposium on Explosives and Blasting Research,
pages 131140, Orlando, Florida, USA, 1992.
Cochran J.F. and B. Heinrich: Applications of Maxwells
Equations, Simon Fraser University, Canada, 2004.
Mie G.: Beitrge zur Optik trber Medien, speziell kol-
loidaler Metallsungen, Annalen der Physik, 330:377
445, 1908.
Mischenko M.I., L.D. Travis and A.A. Lacis: Scattering,
Absorption, and Emission of Light by Small Particles,
Cambridge University Press, 2002.
Mller, B., Drebenstedt, C., Haumann, J., Ortuta, J.,
Niedzwiedz, H., Martienen, T.: Entwicklung eines
Verfahrens zur definierten Berechnung von Gewin-
nungssprengungen und deren Erschtterungsimmis-
sionen zur Reduzierung der Umwelteninwirkungen
sowie Erhhung der Sicherheit, Abschlussbericht
ber ein Projekt, Aktenzeichen 24578-21/0 von der
Deutschen Bundesstiftung Umwelt, 2009.
Paley N.: Errors in sampling rock fragmentation, In Sym-
posium on Sampling Practices in the Minerals Indus-
try, Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy,
pages 8187, Mount Isa, Australia, November 1992.
Thurley M.J.: Automated Online Measurement of Particle
Size Distribution using 3D Range Data, Lulea University
of Technology, Lulea, SE-97187 Sweden, 2010.
Thurley M.J.: Fragmentation size measurement using 3d
surface imaging, In Proceedings of the Ninth Inter-
national Symposium on Rock Fragmentation by
BlastingFRAGBLAST 9, 2009.
10/3/2012 8:24:49 PM
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Influence of initiation point position on fragmentation by blasting

in iron ore

Y. Long, M.S. Zhong, Q.M. Xie, X.H. Li, K.J. Song & K. Liao
PLA University of Science and Engineering, Nanjing, China

ABSTRACT: Reasonable control of blasting fragmentation has direct influence on improving the effi-
ciency and benefit of mining operation. Influence of the initiation point position on blasting fragmentation
in iron ore is investigated in detail at the Dading iron mine, the largest open pit iron mine in Guangdong
province of China. Pressure at the bottom of the blasthole is analyzed theoretically and compared for the
different initiation point positions. Then, the blasting effects of the different initiation point positions in
deep hole are studied by numerical calculation. Blasting experiments using top, bottom and central initia-
tion were carried out in rocks formations with different iron content, testing theoretical calculations in a
practical setting. The influence of the initiation position on blasting fragmentation in deep hole blasting is
assessed from the comparative study of the results of theoretical analysis, experimental tests and numeri-
cal calculation. The results can be used to guide the blasting of iron ore in future projects.

1 INTRODUCTION 2 ONE-DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS OF

In blast mining for iron ore, there are strict require-
ments for blasting fragmentation. If there are many
large blocks after blasting, that cannot meet the
mine demands, they must be broken up by other
means. This not only increases the cost, but also
affects progress of the project. In order to reduce
costs and improve economic benefits, it is a chal-
lenging and hard problem to reduce boulder yield
and raise utilization ratio of explosive.
Currently, researchers have studied the influ-
ence of explosive type, charge structure, initiation
method, delay time, burden and number of free sur-
faces on the blasting fragmentation effect (Yang &
Jin 1999, Sun & Xu 2004). However, there are no
research results about the influence of the initia-
tion point position on blasting fragmentation. In
Dading iron mine, joints of the ore are not appar-
ent and the quality is not even. In the blasting
process, we optimize the influence of explosive
type and charge structure, but the boulder yield
remained high, and the task of boulder breakage
is difficult. It is not convenient to use machinery
and transport for additional fragmentation since
it would slow the process and also increase the
costs of the project. Based on existing research
findings and related data available, the initiation
point position appears to have some influence on
blasting fragmentation. Thus, research of the role
of the initiation point position on blasting effect
has important practical significance in improving
blast fragmentation quality and enhancing eco-
nomic efficiency in practical projects.
THE BOTTOM OF BLASTHOLE FOR
DIFFERENT INITIATION MODES
According to the position of initiating charge in
the blasthole, there are three different initiation
methods (i.e., top, bottom and central initiation).
The influence of these three different initiation
methods on blasting fragmentation is studied in
this paper. In top initiation, the initiating charge is
in the upper part of the blasthole, and the energy
focusing wave of the detonator and the detonation
wave propagate towards the bottom of the blast-
hole. In bottom initiation, the initiating charge is
in the bottom of the blasthole, the energy focus-
ing wave of the detonator and the detonation wave
propagate towards the collar of the hole. When the
initiating charge is in the middle of the hole, it is the
case of the central initiation. The initiation position
and the explosion shock wave propagation have an
influence on fragmentation. The pressure on the
blasthole bottom is analyzed quantitatively and the
three methods are compared in this section.
2.1 Top initiation
The detonation process is very complex. It is
convenient to assume the detonation process as
one-dimensional and the flow of the detonation
products as a one-dimensional as well. At the same
time, we treat the longitudinal hole as transverse
(as shown in Fig. 1). Let the length of the hole
be L and the velocity of the detonation wave D.
When t L/D, the detonation wave propagates

111

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 111 10/3/2012 8:24:49 PM

 Figure 1. Schematic diagram of detonation position.

to the right, followed by the rarefaction wave to Figure 2. The p-t curve at the bottom of the blast hole
the right. As the rarefaction wave propagates in a with top initiation.
steady flow zone, we see it as a simple wave. If the
x axis coordinate origin is in the upper end of the
charge, the distribution of the state parameter of initiation, the detonation wave propagates to the
the detonation products is (Ye 1996): opening end of the blasthole along the explosive.
In the range 0 < t < 3L/D, the pressure at the bot-
x (u + c ) t + F1 (u ) tom of the blasthole is:
u c = constant (1)

3
D 3D 8
p pH = pH (4)
F1(u) and the constant are based on the initial
2 4 27
condition; F1(u) is the integral constant, F1(u) = 0
and constant = D/2; u represents the particle
velocity; c represents the sound velocity. On the When the time t > 3L/D, with the influence of
wave front, x/t = D, so the velocities values are the rarefaction wave, the pressure becomes lower,
u = D/4, c = 3D/4. the expression is:
If the pressure of the detonation products is pH,
the variation law of pressure with time at the bot- 3 3
3L 3D 8 3L
tom of the blasthole is derived from the isentropic p pH = pH (5)
equation of the detonation products: 2t 4 27 Dt

3 3 The pressure at the bottom of the blasthole is

c
p pH = pH (2) much lower than with top initiation, but attenu-

H cH ates much more slowly. The evolution of pressure
at the bottom of the blasthole with time is shown
If t < L/D, there is no pressure at the bottom of in Figure 3.
the blast hole; If t > L/D, at the bottom of the blast When the initiation point is located in the middle
hole u = 0, at the bottom wall c = D, c = L/t, and, of a hole, detonation waves will spread to the two
cH = 3D/4. Then we can get: directions after detonation. This situation is simi-
lar to both top and bottom initiation. The detona-
3 tion wave will reach the bottom of the hole when
64 L
p p (3)
27 H Dt
t = L/2D (Yun & Zhao 2005). After initiation, the
bottom of the hole starts to bear pressure and the
wall pressure jump to p = (64/27)pH, which is simi-
When the time t = L/D, the detonation is over lar to top initiation. Following the detonation wave
and the pressure at the bottom wall is p = (64/27)pH; is the center rarefaction wave to the left, which tail
the pressure at the bottom of the blast hole attenu- will reach the bottom at the time t = L/D, so in the
ates rapidly as time elapses. Figure 2 shows the range L/2D < t < L/D, the pressure at the bottom
evolution of the pressure at the bottom of the blast begins to decline gradually due to the center rar-
hole with time. efaction wave to the left. The evolution of pressure
on the wall with time is:
2.2 Bottom and central initiation
3
The initiation position lies at the bottom of the 64 L
p pH (6)
blasthole in the mode of bottom initiation. After 27 2 Dt

112

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 112 10/3/2012 8:24:50 PM


Figure 3. The p-t curve at the bottom with bottom
initiation.
Figure 4. The p-t curve at the bottom with central
initiation.
From Equation 6, when t = L/D, pressure in the
bottom declines to p = (8/27)pH. At this time, the
situation is equivalent to bottom initiation. In
the time L/D < t < 5L/2D, the pressure at the bot-
tom of the hole is p = (8/27)pH. When t > 5L/2D,
the evolution of pressure with time is given by:
3 3
5L 3D 8 5L
p pH = pH
4t 4 27 2 Dt
The peak pressure at the bottom is equivalent
to that of top initiation, but attenuates much more
slowly; the variation of pressure with time is shown
in Figure 4.
This theoretical analysis shows the features of
the three kinds of initiation location: the top ini-
tiation produces a larger explosive load at the blast
moment, but the pressure on the bottom decays rap-
idly with time; bottom initiation produces a small
explosive load at the blast moment. However, we
can see from Figure 3, the pressure is maintained for
longer period in a pressure plateau, thus increasing
the effective acting time on the rock. When detona-
tion is located in the middle, the explosive load is
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 113
higher than with bottom initiation, but it attenuates
more rapidly. Although there is a period of pressure
plateau, it does not last very long, so it is somewhere
between the top and bottom initiation.
3 THE INFLUENCE OF THE INITIATION
POINT POSITION ON THE EXPLOSIVE
SHOCK WAVES ENERGY
A three-dimensional simulation model was estab-
lished for studying the dynamic response and
energy spread characteristics of the iron mine in
the range of about 90 of the detonator bottom in
different positions under the explosive loads. Lines
of 0, 20, 30 and 45 in the center of the detona-
tor bottom were chosen, beginning from detonator
bottom at 0.5 m, intervals of 0.5 m. The initiation
method included the three types under discussion:
top, bottom and central. The numerical calculation
model is shown in Figure 5.
The effective stress contours for 30 kg explosive
under different initiation modes are illustrated
in Figure 6. From the computational results,
the initiation method has shown to have a great
influence on the spread and distribution of explo-
sive shock waves energy. Different initiation modes
encompass different modes of stress wave propa-
gation in the rock and the failure mode of the sur-
rounding rock mass is also different. For top and
central initiation, at a certain distance below the
initiation point, the stress field of explosive shock
waves is stronger outside the centerline at a certain
(7)
Figure 5. Sketch map of model and unit situation.
113
10/3/2012 8:24:54 PM
 Figure 6. Effective stress contours in rock medium.
Figure 7. Peak vertical stress curves with distance.
angle, rather than just below the rock mass. For
bottom initiation, rock stress on the centerline is
the strongest in the range of 45, but the intensity
is less than with the other two initiation modes.
Figure 7 shows the vertical stress peak curve in
rock against distance for the different initiation
modes (vertical distance between unit and bottom).
It can be seen from the figure that the initiation
mode has a significant influence on the rock stress
below the detonator. For the three initiation modes,
stress field in the rock below the detonator is the
strongest in center initiation, followed by the top ini-
tiation one, and the weakest one is with the bottom
initiation. The value of three detonation modes are
114
CH011_Paper 070.indd 114
relatively close in the far filed. In general, the bottom
initiation mode is availed to reduce the stress peak.
This research shows that, compared with top
and central initiation, bottom initiation has the
following characteristics:
1. It increases the interaction efficiency of explo-
sive stress wave. As detonation starts in the bot-
tom of the hole, the explosive stress wave will
superpose to a high stress wave pointing to the
free surface in the process of transmission; it
will form a relatively strong tension stress wave
near the free surface, which increases the crush-
ing effect of the rock near the free surface. Top
10/4/2012 3:58:48 PM
 initiation shows an opposite behavior; the super- Table 1. The main blasting parameters of deep-hole
position stress wave does not point to the free blasting.
surface but to the inside of the rock, then the
energy of the stress wave will be absorbed by the Name Symbol Unit Value
rock, which reduces the crushing effect on it. Bench height H m 12.0
2. It increases the blasting effect of the bottom of Diameter D mm 140
the hole. It consumes more energy to crush the Toe burden Wb m 5.0
rock near the bottom of the hole because of its Drilling angle 8590
maximum anti-knock resistance. The preced- Hole spacing a m 5.0
ing analysis shows that if a fracture appears too Hole depth L m 14.0
early in the orifice, as observed in top initiation, Subdrill h m 2.0
the explosive gases easily escape along the fis- Stemming length Lc m 4.0
sure, so the pressure acting on the bottom of Powder factor q kg/m3 0.5
the hole will be significantly reduced and the Explosive mass per hole Q kg 120180
time over which the explosive gases act on the
rock will be shortened. Therefore, the crushing
effect on the rock in the bottom of the hole is
reduced as well. In the case of bottom initia-
tion, the explosive gas is sealed in the blasthole
before rock failure, so the pressure on the rock
is higher and its acting time is longer, leading to
a more intense rock crushing.

4 EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF THE

EFFECT OF THE INITIATION POSITION
ON FRAGMENTATION IN IRON ORE
BLASTING

4.1 Experimental methods (a) Results with top initiation

Relatively homogeneous iron ore formations with
iron content of about 25%, 30%, and 40% respec-
tively were selected. In each of these three differ-
ent formations, three deep-hole blasting tests with
different initiation positions (i.e., top, central and
bottom) were carried out respectively. Emulsion
explosives were used, the blasting parameters are
shown in Table 1. The holes were stemmed and
only one drilling pattern was used. With the statis-
tic of boulder yield in iron ore after blasting, we get
values of boulder yield with different detonation
positions. The technology in favor of improving the
blasting effect will be used in blasting excavation of (b) Results with bottom initiation
the large top iron ore mining. The boulder yield cal-
culation method is according to the requirements
of the mine which labels the fragments whose sizes
are larger than 60 cm as boulders.

4.2 Results and analysis

The location of the first set of trials was ore of
about 25% iron (called lean ore). Its physical char-
acteristics are slightly higher than ordinary rock,
but lower in hardness and other indicators com-
pared with iron ore of higher yield. The texture of
this area is relatively uniform, the development of
joints and fractures are in a less extent, which has (c) Results with central initiation
little effect on the results. The top initiation test
was done first, measure the amount of the square Figure 8. Blasting effect of different initiation.

115

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 115 10/3/2012 8:24:56 PM

 Table 2. Field test data with iron ore content of 25%. From the results of the three different initiation
positions, the following conclusions are drawn: The
Initiation position Top Bottom Central boulder yield of the first two groups is nearly the
same, and for the third test is much higher, because
Number of holes 7 7 7
Single-hole charge (kg) 176 176 176
the rock mass was different: the third group of tests
Volume excavated (m3) 2693 2482 2355
was conducted in jointed rock and developed cracks.
Boulder yield (%) 8.63 6.32 6.78 The test results are basically identical to the theoreti-
cal analysis in section 2. Bottom initiation gives the
lowest boulder yield and the blasting effect is also
very good. Thus, the bottom initiation technique
Table 3. Field test data with iron content of about 30%.
should be used in order to reduce the boulder yield.
Initiation position Top Bottom Central However, boulder production can be influenced, in
blasts made in the same rock type, by a variety of fac-
Number of holes 7 7 7 tors, such as the natural block size distribution and
Single-hole charge (kg) 152 152 152 the position of the holes with respect to the joints
Volume excavated (m3) 2380 2560 2190 systems, which may lead to a bias in the results.
Boulder yield (%) 7.28 5.37 6.04

Table 4. Field test data with iron content of about 40%.
Initiation position Top Bottom Central
Number of holes 7 7 7 used, explosion load is small, but the duration
Single-hole charge (kg) 152 152 152
Volume excavated (m3) 2817 2743 3024
Boulder yield (%) 15.92 13.53 13.94
after the explosion, pick the blocks with diameter
bigger than 60 cm, measure its volume, and finally
remove them all. Then the bottom initiation and
central initiation experiments were done in the
same way. The blasting effects of the three kinds
of initiation are shown in Figure 8; the scale is the
same for the three photographs. The test statistics
are shown in Table 2. Figure 8 and Table 2 show
that the boulder yield of the top initiation is high-
est, followed by the central initiation, and the value
of the bottom initiation is the lowest.
In order to study the influence of the initiation
position in different ores, the second and third trials
were done in ores of about 30% and 40% iron. The
tests were done in the same sequence: top initiation,
bottom initiation and central initiation. After each
test, the sizes of fragments were measured and then
the blocks with diameter greater than 60 cm were
manually selected and their volume measured. The
statistical results of the experimental data for the
three types of initiation are shown in Tables 3 and
4. The results with iron content of 30% and 40%
are similar: the boulder yield of the top initiation
is highest, followed by the central initiation, and
finally the bottom initiation. The fact that the stem-
ming is retained more time when bottom initiation
is used, leads to a confinement of the detonation
gasses for longer time which helps to fragment
more the material in the upper part of the block.
5 CONCLUSIONS
1. The explosion load generated initially is higher
when the top initiation technique is used, but
decays quickly. When bottom initiation is
is longer. When central initiation is used, the
instantaneous explosion load is higher than with
bottom initiation, but the decay time is shorter,
although there is a middle pressure plateau
of short duration. Its effects are thus between
those of top and bottom initiation modes.
2. The influence of the initiation position on the
blasting effect is different with iron content.
When the iron content is between 25% and 30%,
the bottom and central position initiations have
nearly the same effect, but the effect of bottom
initiation is somewhat better, while top initia-
tion gives the least satisfactory results. When
the iron content is greater than 40%, blasting
boulder yield is higher.
3. Bottom initiation technique in deep hole blast-
ing in iron ore mining projects can reduce the
blasting boulder yield and operation costs effec-
tively, which can also avoid wasting resources in
boulder crushing. This has important practical
significance for reasonable mining and decreas-
ing operation cost.
REFERENCES
Sun, B.P. & Xu, Q.J. 2004. Study on controlling the frag-
mentation of rock in deep-hole blasting. Blasting 3:
2831.
Yang, J. & Jin, Q.K. 1999. Rock blasting theory model and
numerical calculation. Beijing: Science Press.
Ye, X.S. 1996. Explosion action basis. Nanjing: Engineers
engineering institute.
Yun, S.R. & Zhao, H.Y. 2005. Explosion mechanics.
Beijing: National defense industry press.

116

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 116 10/3/2012 8:24:58 PM

 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Fragmentation in production rounds and mill through-put in the Aitik

copper mine, a summary of development projects 20022009

F. Ouchterlony
Swebrec at Lule University of Technology, Sweden
Montanuniversitaet Leoben, Austria

P. Bergman
Boliden Mineral AB, Sweden

U. Nyberg
Swebrec at Lule University of Technology, Sweden

ABSTRACT: The Boliden Mineral Aitik mine has worked to increase the through-put in the primary AG
mills together with Swebrec. A raised specific charge from 0.9 to 1.3 kg/m3 raised the throughput by nearly
7%. This was implemented in 2009. For two rounds Swebrec has mapped joints from 3D images to determine
the rock mass factor and combined Split Desktop measurements with sieving of muck-pile samples to get
the sieving curve of the muck pile, based on the Swebrec function. For a 3rd round such curves were fed into
a crusher model and results compared with Online data. The crusher product can affect the mills by three
mechanisms; a harder blasting that i) produces more fines that may pass the mill intact, ii) gives a finer crusher
product which takes a shorter time to grind iii) increases the amount of larger stones that pass the crusher
intact but have an increased grindability. All three must contribute to the increased mill through-put.

1 INTRODUCTION Aitik steadily pushes towards higher productiv-

1.1 General background
During 20022009 Boliden Mineral AB did R&D
work at Aitik, a 18 Mton/a copper ore mine in
northern Sweden (Fig. 1). Swebrec (Swedish Blast-
ing Research Centre at Lule University of Tech-
nology) worked together with Boliden Mineral AB.
The goal has been to develop a blasting technique
that maximizes throughput in the primary mills
while taking geology into account (Ouchterlony
et al. 2010a).
Figure 1. View of Aitik mine from north.
ity. A new plant was installed in 2010 and the mine
expects to double capacity by 2014 (Renstrm
2010).
The interface between the mine and the plant
before 2010 lay after the two primary crushers
(Bergman 2005), which deliver ore to the primary
mills via a stock pile. To operate efficiently the
plant desires ore with known and constant cop-
per content. The mine tries to accommodate by
planning the blasting and sometimes hauling from
several rounds at once. A complication is that the
stock pile is small, 50 kton or 24 hr of production,
and that it doesnt homogenize the ore variations
as intended.
The mine controls its own production line but
the bottle neck has been the mass flow though the
primary mills in the plant. The mine can influence
this by producing ore with optimal size distribu-
tion and grindability that spends as little time as
possible in the primary mills.
Given that the mine works with double 15-m
benches (Fig. 2), drills 311-mm production
holes and used site sensitized emulsions like Titan
6080 or 8070 (Dyno Nobel) or Fortis Advantage
70 (Orica), it is the drilling, charging and initia-
tion plans of the production rounds that have the
largest influence on the blasting results.

117

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 117 10/3/2012 8:24:58 PM


Figure 2. Aitik layout with double 15-m benches
between catchment berms (Marklund et al. 2007).
With their Mine-to-Mill project M2M Aitik
started investigating the effects of various changes
in 2002 (Bergman 2005). When the follow-up
project G5 Optimized Blasting started the poten-
tial value of increasing the mills through-put was
judged to be 10 SEK (1.4 USD/ton); that of other
improvements like less boulders, faster loading etc.
a magnitude less.
Given the importance of the mills, Boliden has
also worked with a dynamic modelling of them
(Berggren et al. 2003).
The sieving curve of blasted rock is usually
extremely well described by the Swebrec function
(Ouchterlony 2005a). The amount of material in
a size class is largest where the curve is steepest, i.e.
usually around x50 (the median fragment size). For
Aitik x50 would be in the range 150300 mm in the
muck piles and 5570 mm after the primary crusher.
The optimal size distribution of AG-mill feed
looks different however (Napier-Munn 1996,
Berggren et al. 2003). When feed and output are in
balance, i.e. during stationary conditions, there are
a sufficient number of large rounded mill stones in
the charge that crush the finer particles. The hard
to grind pebbles in the range 2550 or 3060 mm
should ideally be absent in the feed. If making
the feed finer increases the amount of pebbles the
mill through-put might get lower. Mill conditions
at Aitik are seldom stationary however and mill
control includes controlling the toe angle of the
charge and the mill power to keep up through-put
(Berggren et al. 2003). These variations are hard to
predict and so are the effects of changing feed size.
Aitik settled for two main ways to influence the
mill feed; changing the blasting pattern and initiation
timing. This paper will cover the first approach.
118
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 118
1.2 Aitik in-house projects
In the M2M project, Bergman (2005) monitored
five blasts in the western footwall on levels 225 and
240 m. They belonged to three blasting domains
and blast fragmentation and mill through-put were
measured. The goal was to find a blasting tech-
nique adapted to the local geology.
The mill through-put was correlated to the posi-
tions of the trucks during loading via MineStar
(Renstrm 2007). The domains were correlated
to the production results for the dip wise closest
blasts on the level above (reference rounds) and
for each an optimal change in fragmentation was
defined.
Fragmentation was measured with the newly in-
stalled Split Online system and from these data the
input parameters of the CZM model (Kanchibotla
et al. 1999) were calculated, e.g. the rock mass fac-
tor A. CZM was then used to define the blasting
pattern that would give the desired fragmentation
change.
As the plant had five different primary mills that
all operate differently care was taken to normalize
their through-puts while respecting the mass bal-
ance. These values were then used to define the
grindability of the feed. In a similar fashion the
mills power consumptions were normalized.
Cameras for the Split Online system were in-
stalled above the four hoppers of the two primary
crushers, above the belt after the crushers and above
the feed belts of the five primary mills. The calibra-
tion was made against material on two mill feed
belts and these sieving curves follow the Swebrec
function well (Ouchterlony 2009, Fig. 10).
Bergman (2005) found that the Online data
from the feed hoppers were light sensitive so used
only daylight images. Ouchterlony et al. (2007)
found the same and that the x50-variations caused
by changing lighting could surpass those expected
from changes in the specific charge. Bergman chose
x60, the mesh size of 60% passing as the relevant
measure.
To connect the hopper fragmentation data
with that on the belts, Bergmann (2005) used a
crusher model with a circular breakage function
and assumed that all fines are generated by the
blasting.
The specific charge in the reference rounds was
about 0.84 kg/m3, in the test rounds in the range
of 1.081.13 kg/m3. Some results are shown in
Table 1.
Further details of the results may be found in
Bergmann (2005) and Ouchterlony et al. (2010a).
The findings that the mill through-put increased by
8% when the specific charge was increased by 35%
led to the start of the second in-house project, G5
Optimized blasting (hman & Bergman 2006).
10/3/2012 8:24:59 PM
 Table 1. Fragmentation results after primary crusher Table 2. Results1 in Aitik tests (Ouchterlony et al. 2010b).
and corresponding normalized mill through-puts
(Bergman 2005). x80: mm Through-put, Bucket
Round meas ton/hr fill, s
Through-put,
Round x60: mm calc mm meas. ton/hr No. Ref. Tests Ref. Tests Diff % Ref. Tests

No. Ref. Tests Ref. Tests Ref. Tests Diff. % 5153-1H1 155 151 483 499 32 18.2 19.0
5153-2N 159 152 484 492 2 18.7 19.2
41161 92.1 76.3 1 1 478 463 3.1 5153-3H 160 152 444 456 3 20.0 19.2
4128 103.0 87.9 95.1 89.7 398 452 13.6 51562-2N 175 146 503 408 23 19.2 19.7
4134 103.0 87.9 95.1 78.0 398 486 22.1 51562-1H 175 145 426 482 13 18.4 18.3
4148 93.2 76.5 2 (91.6) 455 505 11.0 5171-1H 140 137 391 402 3 20.2 19.8
4149 93.2 76.5 93.4 88.5 466 468 0.4 5178-1H 148 155 514 573 11 19.8 20.5
Mean 96.9 81.0 94.5 85.4 439 475 +8.8 5178-2N 148 157 546 556 2 21.8 21.1
Diff., % 16.4 9.7 +8.2 Mean stdev 79 19.5 19.6

Note 1: Online not installed. 2: Not working during rd Note 1: The fragmentation data refers to x80 instead of
4148. x60. 2: Effect is positive if the test H-round has higher
through-put.

The project came to focus on ore rounds with

parts with high (H) and normal (N) specific charge,
nominally 1.36 kg/m3 for a 6.5 8.1 m pattern and
0.92 kg/m3 for a 7.5 9.5 m pattern respectively.
Four rounds with five N-parts and three H-parts
were blasted. Each had a corresponding vertically
positioned reference round that was monitored
too.
The mill through-put (normalized) and the
Online fragmentation after the primary crusher
were monitored. The hopper data was judged to be
unreliable. The vertical swelling of the rounds was
measured with GPS and the digability by timing
the excavator arm from muck-pile entry to begin of
swing (bucket fill time) via the MineStar system.
The swellings of the muck-piles looked differ-
ent. Those from the N-rounds swelled up to 6.5 m
and left a ditch along the wall in the shooting direc-
tion but not at the back. Those from the H-rounds
swelled up to 8.5 m and left pronounced ditches in
both places. This increased swelling and movement
of the muck-pile didnt result in a faster bucket fill
time though. Some results are given in Table 2.
The increase in through-put of the H-rounds
was significant and made Aitik change to this
drilling pattern through-out the production in late
2009.
The x80 values in Table 2 were measured after the
primary crushers. The effect of raising the specific
charge is minimal, both for x80 and x30. Bergman &
Grifftihs (2010) saw this as an effect of Split seeing
only the coarser material and guessing the fines.
Split has a fines limit of 75% of the size where the
uncorrected curve is steepest. Below that values are
extrapolated along an assumed size distribution.
Bergman & Grifftihs (2010) also mention that
the crushers closed side settings determine the
coarse part of the size distribution, making it
independent of the specific charge. Aggregate
quarry work (Ouchterlony et al. 2010b) seem to
support this; irrespective of x50 values in the interval
120200 mm, the amount of 032 mm mate-
rial after the primary was about 70%. However,
Bergmans (2005) own crusher model contradicts
this observation.
If the size of the mill feed was independent of the
specific charge, then mill through-put could only
be explained by the internal damage of the feed.
Some international investigations (Ouchterlony
2003) support this but recent results from hard
rock aggregate quarries (Ouchterlony et al. 2006,
2010b) show minimal or no internal weakening
from harder blasting.
Other explanations are possible. One could be
that the 56 m deep stemming region of the blast
breaks up along preexisting blast damage fractures
and produces enough mill stones. The 910 m
deep region between the explosive columns cre-
ates a finer material that is sensitive to the specific
charge. The percentage of blasted rock that passes
the crusher intact increases with the specific charge
and the blasted rock is more damaged. This might
give a higher mill through-put even if the crusher
produces a size distribution that is independent of
specific charge.
Measuring crusher power could support or con-
tradict such speculations.
2 SWEBREC PROJECTS
Swebrecs work has been integrated in the two Aitik
projects. It contains more detailed studies of some
blasts. Mapping rock conditions, providing a more
detailed description of the blasted size distribution

119

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 119 10/3/2012 8:24:59 PM

 and looking at crusher model predictions have
been in focus while keeping the long range goal of
increased mill through-put in mind.
2.1 Round 4141-2
This round was the reference round of test round
4134 (Table 1) in the M2M project, see Nyberg
et al. (2006) and Ouchterlony et al. (2007).
The 190 kton round 4141-2 was smaller than a
normal production blast and turned 45. It lay on
the 300-m level in the Hanging-wall Middle (HM)
section. It had 44 311-mm production holes on
a 7.5 9.9 m pattern with 0.8 m subdrilling and
6.7 m of stemming (Fig. 3). There were also 152-
and 127-mm holes in the partly presplit contour.
Nonel Unidet initiation was used with redundant
42 ms in-row and 176 ms between-row delays.
Several details were looked at; charging, VOD,
and initiation timing. One was the rise of the warm
gassed Titan 6080 emulsion column. It was both
faster and higher in dry holes and this led Aitik
to charge up to a fixed height rather than to the
nominal charge weight, hoping to decrease the
boulders.
The main work concerned determination of
rock mass jointing, which is a key factor in the
rock mass factor A of fragmentation models, a
comparison of fragmentation measurement meth-
ods (Split Online and Desktop) and an attempt to
construct the complete sieving curve of the muck
pile.
The rock mass jointing was determined by two
methods, first by drilling six oriented cores inside
the round perpendicular to the main joint system
and second by taking 3D images of the free face
and the side wall. The images were mapped using
the program JMX-Analyst (Gaich et al. 2004),
which gives joint information; orientation, dis-
tances and lengths directly in the 3D model and
then joint statistics.
Figure 3. Round 4141-2 with planned collaring
positions.
120
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 120
The core drilling gave an average joint spacing
of 0.3 m in the main dip direction N15E. The 3D
images provided the same main dip direction but
the joint spacing along lines parallel was 0.5 m and
along horizontal lines in the face and the sidewall
0.71.3 m. The rock on free faces close to deto-
nating charges, should, due to cracking, normally
have a smaller fracture spacing than the rock far-
ther away. We ascribed our opposite result to that
the 3D photo method for such mapping needs
improvements.
Two different blasting domains could be identi-
fied from the mapping but the possible differences
in fragmentation were masked by the large varia-
tions in the latter (Ouchterlony et al. 2007).
Much effort was spent on analysing the frag-
mentation measurements. The Online system gath-
ered photo sets from 502 out of 693 truckloads
while dumping into the primary crusher, day and
night. For 461 trucks the loading coordinates were
known. The Online data contains many errors
(Ouchterlony et al. 2007, 2010a). The system inter-
prets much in the images as rock that is not, block
delineation is gravely disturbed by dust etc. Light
conditions have a substantial influence, giving a
diurnal variation of 42 mm about an average x50
of 173 mm etc.
For Split Desktop 162 photos from truckloads
were taken and they all required manual retouch-
ing of the automatically generated edge mesh that
is used for calculating the size distribution. In the
end 89 photos were given a 20 min touch-up and of
these we had the truck loading coordinates for 79.
The Online system had been calibrated against
sieved material on two mill feed belts. However it
seems to be more of a redistribution of bin con-
tents for different size classes until agreement is
obtained, than an actual calibration. Calibration
of muck pile photos is a problem. For Desk-
top, furthermore, an assumption of a unimodal
size distribution seems to be built in (Potts &
Ouchterlony 2005).
The image analysis methods gave the results that
x50,online = 171 108 mm, x80,online = 602 215 mm and
x50,desktop = 458 175 mm, x80,desktop = 888 307 mm.
The correlation between 59 data pairs with
common loading coordinates was analysed, there
is basically none. This is rather odd since the two
numbers supposedly measure the same quantity.
Considering the different factors we decided to
trust Desktop more than Online and data from the
coarse part of the curve more than data from the
fines region.
In order to construct the complete sieving curve
of the muck pile we then relied on two compo-
nents; i) x50 and x80 data from Split Desktop, ii) lab
sieving of four, 250 kg barrel samples of 250 mm.
The sieving curves are shown in Figure 4.
10/3/2012 8:24:59 PM
 Online curve with x50 = 170 mm as the latter comes
dangerously close to the crusher product curve in
the fines region (Ouchterlony et al. 2007, 2010a).

2.2 Round 5153

This test round had round 5144 as reference round
and it was part of the G5 project (Table 2).
The 600 kton round was a normal production
blast. It lay on the 285-m level in the HN section. It
had 306 311-mm production holes (Fig. 6).
The south part (5153-1H) had 156 311-mm
blast holes in 12 rows on a 6.5 8.1 m pattern with
2 m of subdrilling and 5 m of stemming. The last
shot part (5153-3H) used the same pattern for 59
holes in 6 rows. This gave a nominal specific charge
of 1.36 kg/m3. The middle part (5153-2N) had 91
Figure 4. Sieving curves for barrel samples plus
weighted ave. holes in 9 rows on a 7.5 9.5 m pattern with 2 m of
subdrilling and 6 m of stemming and 0.92 kg/m3.
The explosive used was Titan 8070 SSE emul-
Table 3. Swebrec function parameters for round sion with a density of 11801200 kg/m3, giving a
4141-2. total charge of roughly 1000 kg in each produc-
tion hole. Nonel Unidet initiation was used with
x50 xmax b r2 s50 x500.75 125 mm redundant 42 ms in-row and 176 ms between-row
(mm) (mm) () () (1/mm0.25) (%) delays.
In much the same way as for round 4141-2, the
426 1 565 1.834 0.9998 0.078 22.4 jointing of the rock mass was determined with 3D
images of the bench face and side wall plus video
filming of seven contour holes. The correlation
between Split Online and Desktop data was
again investigated and the sieving curves for the
H- and N-parts were determined (Ouchterlony
et al. 2010a).
A newer program from the same company was
used in the image analysis, ShapeMetrix v 1.9. Two
main joint families were detected and the joint

Figure 5. Assembled muck-pile sieving curve, round

4141-2.

The curves (Fig. 4) are concave upwards in

the interval 0.5125 mm. Using x50 and x80 from
Split Desktop with f = 0.2 as fixed points and
the weighted average curve above as a tail with
unknown absolute level, we have chosen the
Swebrec function parameter values and tail level
that give the highest r2 value as representing the
sieving curve of the muck pile, c.f. Ouchterlony
et al. (2010a). The data are given in Table 3 and the
curve in Figure 5.
Even if an x50 of 426 mm is high, this Desktop Figure 6. Round 5153 with Nonel tube lines and delays
curve for the muck-pile is more credible than the (left).

121

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 121 10/3/2012 8:24:59 PM

 density was in the range of 0.71.3 per m, i.e. a
joint spacing in the range of 0.81.4 m. The dif-
ferences between the H- and N-round parts were
small.
The video filming was only a partial success.
Three holes with dirty water gave no useful infor-
mation. The rotation was hard to control and the
dip direction data became unreliable. The dip angle
was in the range of 5565, which agreed well with
what the image analysis gave.
The correlation analysis of the Split Online and
Desktop data went deeper this time but the result
was the same, that the Online data from dumping
of the truck trays into the primary crusher hold
no correlation to the Desktop data obtained from
photos of the same trays and that the Online data
are unreliable. Details are given by Ouchterlony
et al. (2010a).
Two samples were taken from the muck pile
of each round part. Buckets with 1035 ton of
material were run over a 100-mm grizzly and the
passing part was remixed and quartered until two
barrels of about 250 kg each remained for lab siev-
ing. From the six sieving curves, weighted averages
were calculated, one for part 5153-2N and one for
the merged parts 5153-1H/3H. This provided tail
data in the concave region 0.590 mm. Then Desk-
top data for x50, x60, x70 and x80 were used as fixed
points and Swebrec function parameter values that
gave the highest r2 values were determined, see
Table 4 and Figure 7.
In Figure 8, the Swebrec distributions are com-
pared with the Desktop curves, given as dashed
Table 4. Swebrec function parameters for round 5153.
Parts of x50 xmax b r2
rd 5153 (mm) (mm) ()
-2N 290 1203 1.896
-1H/3H 194 920 1.636
Figure 7. Assembled muck-pile sieving curve, round
5153-2N.
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 122
lines. The double logarithmic diagram exaggerates
the differences in the fines region but it is clear that
they are large. The Desktop curves do not have the
concave character of the lab sieving curves. The
10 mm fractions of the Swebrec distributions
are 2 times higher than the Desktop data and the
1 mm fractions 10 times higher. This difference
should be large enough to influence the judgment
of what happens downstream in crushers and
mills. In fairness though, it is possible that the dif-
ferences would become smaller if the overall plus
zoom-in image pairs would have been used in the
Desktop evaluations.
The increase of the specific charge from 0.92 to
1.36 kg/m3 decreased x50 from 290 to about 195 mm.
This is only slightly more than the 210 mm one
would expect from the Kuz-Ram formula, which
says that x50 1/q0.8 (Cunningham 1987). If the
joining point of the two parts of the CZM model
lies above x50, a steeper dependence may occur.
At this point the trials with using the joint map-
ping from the 3D images of side faces and back
walls of the benches as an objective input to the
rock mass factor A was abandoned. For Aitik, the
near vertical dip direction correlation of rounds is
still the best predictor for the milling properties.
2.3 Round 5162
This round was a reference round for test round
5171 and it was part of the G5 project (Table 2).
The 400 kton round was a normal production
blast. It lay on the 300-m level in the Footwall
s50 x500.75 90 mm
() (1/mm0.25) (%)
0.9980 0.081 26.5
0.9983 0.070 36.5
Figure 8. Swebrec functions vs. Desktop curves, round
5153.
122
10/3/2012 8:25:00 PM
 North (FN) section. It had 177 311-mm produc-
tion holes. The first initiated NW part (5162-1N)
had 81 311-mm blast holes in 11 rows on a
7.5 9.5 m pattern with 02 m of subdrilling and
6 m of stemming. This gave a nominal specific
charge of 0.98 kg/m3. The second part (5162-2H)
had 96 holes in 12 rows on a 6.5 8.1 m pattern
with 02 m of subdrilling, 5 m of stemming and
nominally 1.26 kg/m3. The real specific charge val-
ues became 1.08 and 1.35 kg/m3. The explosive and
initiation pattern were as in rd 5153.
The intention was to measure the blast fragmen-
tation with Split Desktop and to monitor crusher
power to shed light on the credibility of the con-
structed sieving curves of the muck piles. A new
power logging system with second intervals was
being installed but it was delayed. The 1 minute
intervals of the old system were considered too
long to properly measure the power during the
intermittent work periods of the oversize primary
crushers.
Thus the focus of the project was changed to
comparing three different ways of estimating
(measuring) the fragmentation after the primary
crusher:
1. As measured with Split Online over the belt.
2. As calculated by letting Bolidens crusher model
operate on the blast fragmentation; given by
Swebrec distributions based on Desktop data
plus lab sieving of muck-pile samples.
3. As calculated by letting Bolidens crusher model
operate on the blast fragmentation as described
by adapted CZM models.
The work was mainly done by Demenegas
(2008).
From the hauling, 264 images of truckloads were
taken. Care was taken to eliminate poor images
and irrelevant parts of the remaining images before
spending about 30 min on retouching the edge
mesh etc. Details are given in Demenegas (2008)
and Ouchterlony (2010a). In the end 30 images
for each round part were used. Results are given
in Table 5.
The central values x40-x60 of the data set x10,
x20, , x100 for the H- and N-parts differ signifi-
cantly on the 95% level but the rest do not. They
probably would, had we used 60 photos per part
instead of 30.
To construct the muck-pile sieving curves, two
front loader shovels were taken from each part,
poured over a 100-mm grizzly, the passing remixed,
quartered etc. till two 350 kg barrels remained. The
contents were then sieved and one weighted aver-
age fines tail was calculated for each part.
To get the complete sieving curves, x50 and
x80 from Split Desktop and fines tail data in the
range 190 mm were used. The Swebrec function
parameters are given in Table 6 and the curves in
Figure 9.
Demenegas (2008) then compared these curves
with Kuz-Ram model predictions and found that
the latter grossly underestimate the amount of
fines but that the CZM model predicts a fragmen-
tation that is considerably finer than the Desktop
data (Fig. 10).
Feeding the Swebrec function data into the
crusher model and the CZM curve data gave the
following results, Figures 1114. Note the lin-log
diagrams.
Two major observations may be made. Firstly
the CZM feed has more fines than the measured

Table 5. Statistics for Split Desktop data for round 5162.

Quantity x20 x50 x80 x100

(Round part) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)

5162-1N
Ave stdev 70 19 233 47 463 108 838 190
Minmax 3798 161369 293735 5271235
5162-2H
Ave stdev 61 14 200 54 419 126 802 214
Minmax 3785 108302 224548 4761059

Table 6. Swebrec function parameters for round 5162.

Parts of x50 xmax b r2 s50 x500.75 90 mm

rd 51623 (mm) (mm) () () (1/mm0.25) (%)

-1N 233 1276 2.661 0.9992 0.100 55

-2H 197 914 2.120 0.9995 0.092 100

123

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 123 10/3/2012 8:25:01 PM

 Figure 12. CZM feed into crusher model, round
Figure 9. Swebrec functions vs. Desktop curves, round 5162-1N. The set of curves for round 5162-2H have the
5162. same appearance.

Figure 13. Swebrec feed into crusher model, round

Figure 10. Swebrec vs. Kuz-Ram & CZM curves, round
5162-2H.
5162.

Figure 11. Swebrec feed into crusher model, round Figure 14. Breakage functions; histograms for daughter
5162-1N. particles when a particle of size x0 is crushed.

124

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 124 10/3/2012 8:25:01 PM

 Table 7. Key data from crusher modelling for round 5162.
5162-1N
Round data Swebrec CZM
x80, mm
Feed 468 314
Crushed 199 161
x50, mm
Feed 233 67
Crushed 125 47
Note 1: Suspected erroneous value since feed value is smaller.
product (Fig. 12), which is physically impossible.
Since Split Online was calibrated for the crushed
material on the belts (Ouchterlony 2010a), these
curves for belt 189 are believed to be relatively
accurate, even if they probably underestimate the
fines region. The second is that the Swebrec curve
feed produces too little fine material when com-
pared with the Online curves for belt 189 (Figs. 11
and 13). Table 7 gives data from interpolation of
Demenegas (2008) data series. No Online data for
the feed were available.
Figure 12 shows that the CZM feed gives a
crusher product that in the coarse, +100 mm range
agrees well with what was measured on the belt
with Online. It does so however by underestimat-
ing the average feed size; x50 = 34 or 67 mm vs.
the more credible Desktop based values 197 and
233 mm. The amount of excess fines in the CZM
based crusher product increases with decreasing
mesh size.
Since the CZM model contains a number of
parameters that are hard to determine objectively,
among them the rock mass factor A, it would be
possible to tweak the parameters so that the agree-
ment between modeled and real outcome of the
crushing would agree better. To do this in an objec-
tive and consistent way is not easy.
It must also be noted that the Online data in
Table 7 for the two round parts are practically
the same. The values for round 5162-2H are
higher than those for round 5162-1N by 23 mm
which they shouldnt be. This minimal differ-
ence may be due to variations in data and rock
properties.
All crusher modeling, including Bolidens, pre-
dicts that a difference in x50 or x80 of two realistic
feed batches should remain in the correspond-
ing product batches, if of smaller magnitude.
Table 7 shows that x50 or x80 is around 3050 mm
before crushing (after blasting) and about 10 mm
after-wards.
Using straight Desktop curve data as feed to
the crusher model was also tried but the difference
125
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 125
5162-2H
Online Swebrec CZM Online
413 264
139 194 153 141
197 341
54 115 351 57
from the Swebrec column data in Table 7 is
negligible.
3 CONSEQUENCES FOR MILL
OPERATION
The Swebrec curves in Figure 9 are our best esti-
mate of the muck-pile fragmentation in round
5162. When they are used as feed in the crusher
model, the result is too little fines in the modeled
product (Figs. 10 and 12). The reason is prob-
ably the cylindrical breakage function (Fig. 15) in
Bolidens crusher model (Bergman 2005).
Ouchterlony (2005a) showed that breakage
appearance functions for crushers developed by
the JKMRC (Napier-Munn 1996) through drop
weight testing could be described by the Swebrec
distribution. Such a choice of breakage function
would alter Bergmans function in the direction
shown by the histograms in Figure 14. To facili-
tate a comparison, the areas under the curves have
been made equal.
With the Swebrec breakage function consid-
erably more fines would be generated by the
crusher model, perhaps raising the product curves
(Figs. 11 and 13) to the level of the Online meas-
urements. Tests with crushing of weighed and
measured stones during a production stop could
help in deciding which breakage function that is
the most realistic one. The important matter for
the mine is, however, if any of this would influ-
ence the mill through-put.
Since the Swebrec curves are the most reason-
able feed description we could use the x80 values
in Table 7 and Bonds law (1952) to estimate the
energy difference in power consumption. The
primary mills output grate has dimensions of
15 30 mm. Smaller pieces do not need to be
crushed to pass the grate.
This makes xp80 15 mm. With xf80 either 194 or
199 mm (Table 7) the difference is around 0.5% at
constant grindability. This value is negligible com-
10/3/2012 8:25:02 PM
 Figure 15. Mill feed curves for rounds 5162-1N and -2H.
Table 8. Size class contents in % for different mill feeds.
Swebrec data
mm 020 3060 60100
-1N 10 11 16
-2H 14 11 15
pared to other variations and not detectable. The
difference in the Online data is even smaller, instead
of 199 194 = 5 mm it is 139 141 = 2 mm and
useless because the value is negative.
Focusing instead on the mill feed curves we
obtain the data in Table 8 and Figure 15, where
linear axes are used. The upper curves are the Split
Online data of the crusher product, the lower ones
what crusher model gave with the Swebrec feed.
Figure 15 has two grey fields, the 020 mm frac-
tion that could pass the mill without further com-
minution and 3060 mm, the hard ground pebble
fraction. The mill stones are assumed to come from
the +100 mm fraction.
Table 8 and Figure 15 show that the 020 mm
fractions differ considerably between the feed
descriptions. The hard ground 3060 mm fraction
and even the 30100 mm one are however quite
independent of the specific charge. This follows
from the near linear parallelism of the curves in
that interval.
If we believe the Swebrec feed description,
raising the specific charge decreases the amount
of potential mill stones by 4% and increases the
020 mm fine fraction by the same amount.
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 126
Online data
+100 020 3060 60100 +100
60 31 15 15 33
56 30 15 15 33
As the residence time in the mill isnt negligible
even for the fine fraction, the 4% increase predicted
by the Swebrec feed could probably not explain
even half of the 7% through-put increase. The
depletion of larger mill stones that need comminu-
tion also improves the through-put though; during
stationary operations the input and size reduction
of mill stones must balance. These two factors
together might explain the observed increase in
mill through-put.
There must be a limit to the latter mechanism
though, if the mill stones become too few, then the
milling capacity will decrease. On the other hand,
the results in project G5 do not point towards a
higher specific charge giving too few mill stones.
If we believe the Online data there is no such
decrease of mill stones. The G5, 8% increase in mill
through-put (Table 2) would then have be explained
by changes in grindability. Figure 16 shows the
amount of uncrushed rock passing the primary
crusher. From the Swebrec feed curves we have
subtracted the amount of each fraction that is
crushed.
The crusher model uses a quarter-elliptic
classification function over 180600 mm to determine
126
10/3/2012 8:25:02 PM

Figure 16. Cumulative amount material passing
crusher intact.
this (Bergman 2005). All finer material passes intact,
all coarser is crushed. The function rises steeply
from 180 mm and reaches 600 mm asymptotically.
Figure 16 shows that the total amount passing intact
increases from 58.3 to 64.7% or nearly 7% when the
specific charge increases. The difference in grindabil-
ity for this fraction is hardly enough to explain the
7% increase in through-put either.
If we further assume that most mill stones come
from the crushed part of the +100 mm fraction,
then perusal of Table 8 and the 100 mm values in
Figure 16 tell that the amount of crushed +100 mm
stones is 60.0-(58.325.5) 27% in round 5162-1 N
and 55.6-(64.730.9) 22% in round 5162-2H. If
this were true, the amount of available mill stones
would drop by about 20% when we increase the
specific charge.
4 CONCLUSION
This paper has described the R&D work of
Boliden Mineral to improve the through-put in the
primary mills in the Aitik mine, plus the supporting
research carried out by Swebrec. Details are given
by Ouchterlony et al. (2010a).
Much effort has been put into developing a cred-
ible description of the muck-pile fragmentation of
large blasts. Our method consists of using truck
load data from photos that are evaluated with Split
Desktop to describe the coarse fractions, together
with lab sieving of muck-pile samples. These
data are combined into a Swebrec function curve
whereby the amount of fine material increases con-
siderably compared to the levels given by the Desk-
top curves.
The Online data for the muck-pile rock was
found to be unreliable but we have used Online
127
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 127
data for rock on the belt after the primary crusher,
a situation for which Online was calibrated.
The effort to obtain an independent assessment
of the rock mass factor A in the CZM model from
joint mapping in 3D models did not lead to useful
results.
The Swebrec curve description of the muck pile
fragmentation and the CZM model description are
both fed into a crusher model to yield the product
that feeds the primary mils. The CZM model yields
contradictory results and the crusher model needs a
breakage function with a better fines description.
Raising the specific charge in Aitik from 0.92
to 1.36 kg/m3 raised the mill through-put by 8%.
Three mechanisms that could contribute are dis-
cussed, a harder blasting that;
a. produces more fines that may pass the mill
intact,
b. gives a finer crusher product, which takes a
shorter time to grind
c. increases the amount of larger stones that
pass the crusher intact but have an increased
grindability.
According to our data all three mechanisms have
to contribute to the increased mill through-put.
To have a good description of the first mecha-
nism one probably should be able to describe the
blast fragmentation well down to about 10 mm
size. In present models the 10 mm fraction var-
ies between 5 and 33%, which is far too much. In
better models one should probably i) describe the
blast fragmentation with Swebrec curves based on
lab sieved samples, ii) use a crusher breakage func-
tion with better fines description and iii) use better
fragmentation measurement methods.
The development of blast modeling is hampered
by many factors. A major one is fragmentation
measurements. Methods based on 2D imaging are
not really sufficient. Recently 3D imaging tech-
niques are gaining ground for measurements on
belts (Noy 2007, Thurley 2009, 2012). Muck pile
measurements are not as well developed but in
time they will also become fast and efficient meth-
ods whose use in the future projects will cut the
work needed for fragmentation measurements to
a fraction of that used in the present ones. More
accurate fragmentation measurements will also
lead to better simulation models; for blasting and
for crushing and grinding.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to thank the personnel of
Boliden Mineral AB and especially of the Aitik mine
who helped with planning, field preparations and
data collection during the projects reported here.
10/3/2012 8:25:03 PM
 REFERENCES
Bergman, P. 2005. Optimisation of fragmentation and
comminution at Boliden Mineral, Aitik operation.
Lic. thesis 2005:90. Lule: Lule Univ. Techn.
Bergman, P. & Griffiths, C. 2010. Optimerad sprngn-
ing i AitikJmfrelse av hg/lg specifikladdning.
Boliden Techn. Rpt TG_REP2010/005. In Swedish.
Berggren, A., Bergman, P. & Jnsson, H. 2003. M2M
AitikOre domain characterization, progress report
2. Boliden Process Techn. Rpt TG_REP2003/045. In
Swedish.
Bond F.C. 1952. The third theory of comminution. Min-
ing Engineering: 484494.
Cunningham, C.V.B. 1987. Fragmentation estima-
tions and the Kuz-Ram modelfour years on. In
W.L. Fourney & R.D. Dick (ed.) Proc. 2nd Intnl Symp.
on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting: 475487. Bethel
CT, USA:SEM.
Demenegas, V. 2008. Fragmentation analysis of opti-
mized blasting in the Aitik mine. MSc thesis 2008:071.
Lule: Lule Univ. Techn.
Gaich, W., Schubert, W. & Ptsch, M. 2004. Reproducible
rock mass description in 3D using JointMetriX3D
system. In Eurock 2004, Proc of the ISRM Regional
Symp Eurock 2004 & 53rd Geomechanics Colloquy:
6164. Salzburg, Austria.
Kanchibotla, S.S., Valery, W & Morell, S. 1999. Mod-
elling fines in blast fragmentation and its impact
on crushing and grinding. In C. Workman-Davies
(ed.) Proc. Explo 1999 Conf.: 137144. Carlton VIC,
Australia: AusIMM.
Marklund, P.-I., Sjberg, J., Ouchterlony, F. & Nilsson, N.
2007. Improved Blasting and Bench Slope Design at
the Aitik Mine. Slope Stability 07, In Proc. Intnl Symp.
on Rock Slope Stability in Open Pit Mining and Civil
Engng: 279292. Perth WA, Australien: ACG.
Napier-Munn, T.J., Morrell, S., Morrison, R.D. &
Kojovic, T. 1996. Mineral comminution circuits, their
operation and optimisation. Monograph series in
Mining and Mineral Processing 2. Brisbane QLD:
JKMRC.
Noy, M.J. 2006. The latest in online fragmentation
measurementstereo imaging over a conveyor. In Proc
Fragblast 8, 8th Intnl Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by
Blasting: 6166. Santiago: Editec SA.
Nyberg, U., Esen, S. Bergman, P. & Ouchterlony, F. 2006.
Uppfljning av styckefallet i salva 4141-2 i Aitikgru-
van. Rpt 2006:1. Lule: Swebrec. In Swedish.
128
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 128
Ouchterlony, F. 2003. Influence of blasting on the size
distribution and properties of muckpile fragments,
a state-of-the-art review. MinFo project P200010.
Stockholm: Swedish Min. Res. Inst.
Ouchterlony, F. 2005a. The Swebrec function: linking
fragmentation by blasting and crushing. Mining Tech-
nology (Transactions of the Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy A) 114:A29A44.
Ouchterlony, F. 2009. Fragmentation characterization;
The Swebrec function and its use in blast engineering.,
In J.A. Sanchidrin (ed.), Proc 9th Intnl Symp. on
Rock Fragmentation by Blasting: 322. London:.
Taylor & Francis.
Ouchterlony, F., Olsson, M., Nyberg, U., Andersson, P. &
Gustavsson, L. 2006. Constructing the fragment size
distribution of a bench blasting round, using the new
Swebrec function. In Proc Fragblast 8, Proc 8th Intnl
Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting: 332344.
Santiago: Editec SA.
Ouchterlony, F., Nyberg U., Bergman, P. & Esen, S. 2007.
Monitoring the blast fragmentation in Boliden Minerals
Aitik mine. In P. Moser (ed.) Proc 4th EFEE World Conf
on Explosives and Blasting: 4762. Reading: EFEE.
Ouchterlony, F., Bergman, P. & Nyberg, U. 2010a.
Fragmentation in production rounds and mill through-
put in the Aitik mine, a summary of development
projects 20022009. Rpt 2010:3. Lule: Swebrec. In
Swedish.
Ouchterlony, F., Nyberg, U., Olsson, M., Vikstrm, K. &
Svedensten, P. 2010b. Optimal fragmentation in
quarries, field tests at Lngsen. Rpt 2010:2. Lule:
Swebrec. In Swedish.
Potts, G. & Ouchterlony, F. 2005. The capacity of image
analysis to measure fragmentation, an evaluation
using Split Desktop. Rpt 2005:2. Swebrec:Lule.
Renstrm, A. 2007. Truck fleet utilization and fuel saving
in Aitik. In Proc. 6th Large Open Pit Mining Conf.:
107112. Carlton VIC, Australia: AusIMM.
Renstrm, A. 2010. Productivity enhancement to increase
the ore production from 18 to 36 Mton at Aitik. In
Proc 7th Large Open Pit Mining Conf.: 115119.
Carlton VIC, Australia: AusIMM.
Thurley, M.J. 2009. Fragmentation size measurement
using 3D surface imaging. In J.A. Sanchidrin (ed.),
Proc 9th Intnl Symp on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting:
229237. London: Taylor & Francis, London.
Thurley, M.J. 2012. Automated, online, calibration-free,
particle size measurement using 3D profile data.
Manuscript submitted to Fragblast 10 conference.
10/3/2012 8:25:03 PM
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Drilling and blasting technics by underground magnesite

mining at Slovakia

V. Bauer
Technical University of Koice, Faculty BERG, Koice, Slovakia

ABSTRACT: The paper deals with innovative drilling and blasting techniques that are used for
magnesite extraction at the Dubrava-Mikova deposit belonging in SMZ Jelava, Inc. The Slovak
Magnesite Enterprise one of the most important magnesite producers in Europe. In relation to drilling
and blasting works are described the main technological parameters of two mining methods; stop mining
and cut & fill mining with backfilling. For purpose of higher effectiveness of drilling and blasting works
were the plastic explosives substituted progressively by powdery ANFO explosives and the low powerful
drilling equipments by modern drilling ring. With regard to the necessity to observe negative influence
of productive drilling and blasting on the rock massive destruction possibility were also built the both
geotechnical monitoring system and seismic measuring system. The particular evaluation of the both
technical and spatial parameters of each individual underground bench blasting is very important to
achieve the required outputs by drill and blast works with inclusion of safety aspects. The repeated
calculation of drilling and blasting parameters for each individual benching makes it possible for the blast
construction design engineers to provide various corrections in a new blasting plan.

1 BLAST WORKS USING cutting had been carried out with the vertically and
IN THE MAGNESITE MINE soft incline parallel respectively fan length bore-
holes with maximum three row (Fig. 1).
In the Slovakia mining industry the raw magnesite The calculations of bench blasting technical
extraction is very important since long years. On parameters for the each cut in extracted magnesite
Slovakia territory there are about 10% of total block have been done by normally usage formula
world geological raw magnesite reserves with and draw design of the drill and blast pattern. The
not only Slovak or EU but even with world wide well designed drill and blast technical parameters
importance. The magnesite extraction industry are basic requirement to achieve growing results
including mineral processing plant concentrates by bench blasting process. First of all is concerned
into the largest exploited deposit Jelava (Mikov the very well values of fragmentation in primary
Dbravsk massive) with more than 75% verified rock breaking. The drilling and blasting operation
magnesite reserves volume that has dominating but also the loading, hauling and transport mining
position on the present mining industry. The
important part of all mining production insures the
SMZ, a. s. Jelava (Slovak Magnesite Enterprise,
Inc. Mining Company), that belong between
to greatest main worldwide extractor (annually
1.2 million tons) and producers of various both
ceramics and refractory products. Currently, it is
on the fourth position with 7.4% share of worlds
production of magnesite products.
As on date by underground magnesite extrac-
tion, there are two mining methods used for extrac-
tion. First of all they have been the open stop
block mining methodused in the past and the
cut & fill mining with backfillingused nowadays.
The drilling and blasting works by both were per-
formed in hard homogenous dolomite crystalline
rocks existing on the mentioned magnesite deposit. Figure 1. The open stop mining with sublevel drifts
In case the open stop mining method the individual (source: SMZ; ATLAS COPCO).

129

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 129 10/3/2012 8:25:03 PM

 activities at deposits are performed by using the
modern mining equipments and technologies sig-
nificantly. In the active extraction blocks at the
deposit in case the both above mentioned mining
methods is used electrohydraulic drilling. Stepwise
three Atlas Copco drilling sets were bought
(Boomer 282, Boomer 281 and Rocket Boomer
M2C). These 3 sets bored more than 2849500 m
boreholes by the 2010 year end. Several technical
and economical indicators of the electrohydraulic
drilling will be shown in the next tables. The drilling
and blasting technical parameters are designed and
are as much important at following processes: the
mining blocks (open stop and cut & fill), tunnels
and gallery excavation (tunnelling) and secondary
blasting of over-size grading rocks. Mainly, two
mining methods are in use by extractionopen
stop mining (OK) and cut and fill mining with
backfilling (VD) in combination with room and
pillar mining method on the each small horizon-
tally bench. The open stop mining in block is one
of the oldest mining methods, since the time of
change to underground extraction at Dubravsk
massive rock. This mining method over the time
had been developed. The finally up to very well
technical condition of mining method with mod-
ern drilling and loading equipments. This extrac-
tion method isnt nowadays in use any more.
2 BLASTING SPECIFICATIONS
IN MAGNESITE EXTRACTION
The blasting is most important operation by the
raw magnesite extraction process not in active min-
ing blocks only. Because blasting is used in the all
important phases of the deposit exploitation for
instance:
in extraction by productive bench blasting,
in opening works (excavation blasting)
in development works (excavation, spaces &
tunneling) and
in secondary blasting.
The magnesite extraction is provided explicitly
by using the innovative drilling and blasting tech-
nics. By the open stop mining, the drilling and
blasting works have been exclusive performed by
rock destruction on the vertical bench by using
with at this time relative modern drilling equip-
ment and blasting agents. The parallel shape of
circle or fan boreholes were in various planning by
production magnesite extraction in open stop min-
ing block. The most modern variant of open stop
mining rooms have been planning with two drilling
drifts/tunnels. The spatial distribution of the open
stop mining is shown in 3-D model mining method
(Fig. 1).
130
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 130
From the technological point of view is the min-
ing process which included blasting and are divided
into several phases:
Blasting out the undercut to create a horizontal
room
Blasting out the vertical room
Blasting by Open stop mining
Blasting in individual technological protected
pillars
The rock massive destruction was provided
exclusively by use of drilling and blasting. The drill-
ing works have been executed in production drifts
and drilled in shape of circle or fan. The drilling is
provided after the prepared drilling schemes. The
drilling and blasting technical parameters were
computing after standard procedures. The mining
in last stop was finished and only the liquidation
of protecting pillars is provided now.
By open stop mining method had been the
parallel production blastholes projected between
2025 m up to 35 m by random form of vertically
fanwise boreholes. These borehole length has been
insured the mining block stability requirements
corresponding with safety regulations. The bore-
holes depth in a row were always specified follow-
ing to height level of mining that was generally
up to 50 m with planning burden of three parallel
boreholes in row was generally up to 4.5 m. The
productive bore holes diameter by drilling works
are moving at relatively large scope between
90160 mm, mainly depending on used drilling
equipment type. The practical blast holes spac-
ing in row blasting is the function both explosive
charge and the maximum burden.
Based on practically achieved blasting result,
the parameters values in operation mine are cur-
rently in design the productive boreholes diameters
at intervals of 95 to 120 mm. This method will be
substituted by new cross-open stop mining method
with backfilling (so called cut and fill mining).
On the Dbrava deposit the extracted cross-open
stop mining method with backfilling was introduced
practically twenty years ago. It is actually some
modification of the stop & pillar mining method as
shows the 3-D model (Fig. 2). At the deposit was the
open stop full substituted by cut-and-fill with back-
filling mining method what had it great signification
for both ecological improvement and increasing
grade of extracted raw magnesite. While by using of
open stop mining method have rise huge dumps of
waste material at the surface, these can to be after
mineral processing used as backfilling material as
well. By using of cut-and-fill with backfilling min-
ing method are forming no dumps at surface what is
large advantage of this method from environmental
point of view. Unnecessary waste material arising
by this mining method are being at once in mining
10/3/2012 8:25:03 PM

Figure 2. The cut and fill mining with backfilling
(source: SMZ; ATLAS COPCO).
Key: 1down-cast air raises, 2up-cast air raises,
3ore chutes ,4backfill chutes, 5intra-block pillars,
6backfill.
technology disposed because the waste material is
used as the backfill to fill up the stop room. This
method can supply the required quality of ore and
enables selective extraction directly in mine. The dis-
advantages of this method are higher requirements
for the mechanised trackless haulage and higher
organisational skills.
The cut-and-fill with backfilling mining block
is characterised by large sizes whereby the mining
in extracted block is realised at many active work
places in several drift faces. The mining starts in
each extracted magnesite block on the zero bench
what is actually the most lower extracted bench at
bottom unload horizon. The cutting proceeds in
12 m wide and 6 m high square stripes. The dis-
tance between the stripes is 5 m. After extraction
of a stripe, another 12 m wide stripe is mined per-
pendicularly. In this way a network of intra-block
protecting pillars is formed. After completion of
the zero bench follows extraction of the first bench
and back-filling of the zero bench by the backfill.
In this way proceeds the process until the extraction
of the magnesite from whole deposit. The drilling
and blasting work is divided into two groups:
the drilling and blasting work on zero bench
the drilling and blasting work on the first and
higher bench
The drilling works are executed according to
prepared drilling schemes. The schemes are worked
out to ensure quality realisation of the blasting, the
requested fragmentation of the disintegrated ore as
well as to keep the planned measures of the intra-
block pillars. The break of these pillars in con-
sequence of blasting would negatively affect the
safety of the workplace. The schemes are worked
out for various diameters of the boreholes and for
different dimensions of drift face. After finishing
the drilling comes filling and blasting. These oper-
ations are performed by specialised work teams.
Several parameters of blasting are showed in the
several next tables.
131
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 131
The more powerful and safer lightweight and
mediumweight drilling equipments as well as the
alternative technical explosives have been enable
continued bore holes diameters increasingly. In
the most open stop mining blocks at a Jelava
magnesite deposit had been in used the mobile and
easily manageable drilling equipments that have
both the excellent technical parameters and high
grade servicing (e.g. Atlas Copco).
A very important operation in process of min-
ing is drifting. This activity is provided exclusively
by drilling and blasting. For drilling the electrohy-
draulic drilling set Rocket boomer M2C of Atlas
Copco were used. At some small-diameter holes
pneumatic manual hammers VK 22 for hand drill-
ing were also used. The drilling schemes are differ-
ent and depends on size of excavation, form faces
and on geological respectively structure tectonics
situation.
3 BLASTING TECHNICAL PARAMETERS
CALCULATION
The blasting technical parameters e.g. vertical bore
holes depth (the height of bench), specific charge
in bore hole, maximum burden, concentration
of charge, bore hole geometry and spacing and
other, and are designed following theoretical cal-
culations, and also following directly empirically
amounts that are obtained from practise blasting
in the mine. By the mentioned parameters is most
important make the calculations on base a rules of
standard procedure that are as follows:
1. the spatial draft layout of productive boreholes
by using the regular drilling scheme,
2. the design of specific explosive charge amount
i.e. determination the specific blasting agent
The computing of mentioned parameters are
made for proposed and selected type of industrial
explosive.
The all operational technical parameters con-
cerning to blasting are given in the main technical
report calledTechnical Blasting Project (TPO) that
are done by highup qualified experts/specialists
namedTechnical Construction Engineer (TVO).
The technical report includes particularly the fol-
lowing three groups of aspects:
a. rock destruction processes in the each techno-
logical cutting/advance which includes drilling,
charging, initiating and blasting,
b. space layout of production blastholes system,
c. raw magnesite quality and rock fragmentation.
The individual parameters computations sepa-
rately for each drilling and blasting works must
to be performed. The Technical Blasting Project
10/3/2012 8:25:03 PM
 contains technical report that includes full compu-
tation of explosive specific charge for designed bore
holes system (Table 1). In the report Technical
Blasting Project that is working-out for each indi-
vidual schemes are also calculated the all designed
technical parameters of production blasting. The
computation is also focused to the aftershocks
blasting works effects that are directly connected
with the following explosive charge parameters:
total charge weight per bore hole, explosive spe-
cific charge, concentration of column charge and
brisance of high explosive. The base for technical
parameters calculation they are following:
the knowledge of the theoretical principles of
rock destruction with using the tube explosive
charge,
using of applied methodology the blast works
perform that are described in the literature,
the laboratory research of blasts,
the practical results of several blasts performed
in operated mine at magnesite deposit.
The technical construction engineersTVO
need for calculations of blasting parameters values
to consider a great number of rock massive factors
too. The most important are mechanical rock mass
facilities and rock break-ness condition in blasting
site that affecting the rock disintegration process
first of all the fragmentation and raw magnesite
quality.
The rock mass destruction is performed by drill-
ing and blasting facilities but explicitly at the active
mine work places. The specific drilling schemes are
planning particularly whereby the each drilling
spatial has characteristic technical parameters that
will be calculations under reputable formula:
( / )
d n s
Wmax = [m]
33 c fu m
where
Wmax = maximum burden [m]
d = diameter in the bottom [mm]
n = explosive charge specific [kg m3]
Table 1. The standard of technical calculation.
Computed parameter Specification
1. Explosive charge concentration (p) [kg m1]
2. Specific explosive charge (q) [kg m3]
3. Maximum burden (Wmax) [m]
4. Borehole spacing in the row (a) [m]
5. Stemming length in boreholes (lu) [m]
6. Max. weight of explosive charge (QV) [kg]
7. Initiation charge delay time [sec]
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 132
c = coefficient of rock massive facilities
s = coefficient of explosive working capacity
(weight strength of the explosive)
Fu = degree of rock fixation
m = explosive charge approaching coefficient
a
m= (2)
Wmax
f
p = 1,1 c m Wmax 2 [kg m 1 ] (3)
s
where
p = explosive charge concentration in borehole
[kg m1]
a = distance between explosive charge in rowhole
spacing [m]
4 DRILLING AND BLASTING
CONDITION BY MINING
The blasting technical parameters calculations for
horizontal and vertical working excavation in dif-
ferent profile are performed according to standard
procedure by TVO. The drilling and blasting works
by driving are in use most in following:
1. In case of cut-and-fill mining at horizontal
bench where are excavated in broad working
face (room and pillar mining system).
2. In case of open stop mining in large room are in
most excavated sublevel drifts.
3. In case of safety pillar destruction with espe-
cially drifts.
4. In case of vertical ventilation raises system etc.
The blasting works are performed by using of
(1)
plastic explosive charge and various type of electri-
cal detonating cord. By open stop mining method
including safety pillars extraction (liquidation)
have been achieved in blasting with the average
specific explosive consumption of 0,055 [kg t1]
and the average specific detonators consumption
of 0.065 [number/t]. The values have been obtained
from 9 different working places. The specific explo-
sive and detonators consumption by mining and
liquidation in year 2010 were as follows:
blasting agents/explosive total = 4 367.5 kg,
explosive consumption = 0.04 kg t1,
detonators total = 8 734 number t1,
detonators consumption = 0.08 kg t1
The mining method open stop mining in room
is already not in use at present. In extracted rooms
are carried out safety pillars destruction only. The
above given result values had been calculated over
the total recovery raw magnesite.
132
10/3/2012 8:25:04 PM
 4.1 Cut-and-fill mining method different boreholes diameter and large drift faces.
The practice example of drilling scheme by bore-
The modern variant cut-and-fill mining method
holes horizontal of l = 2.5 m and d = 64 mm is
has been already planned at underground active
showed on Figure 3.
horizon 220 m above sea level. As discussed above
By the cut-and-fill mining method at individual
the mining method give very well imagine about
horizontal bench are in use often planned the short
the extreme large geometrical parameters in spatial
parallel boreholes with diameter between 80105 mm
extraction. The modern mining method design like
independent drill equipment. Accordingly Figure 3
as modern drilling and loading equipments make
is depicting about drilling scheme with parallel
possible to achieve high performance by productive
short boreholes in regular net. The mining advance
drilling. Up to now have been drilled more than
on the large face between regular intra pillars in
cca 3000 km of productive boreholes with various
two different direction has been 2.53.0 m. Based
diameter and length. Some technical and opera-
on practical verification blasting result parameters
tional parameters of the electrohydraulic drilling
values they are planned the productive boreholes
with drill equipment ATLAS COPCO are shown
diameters at intervals 95115 mm at the present.
in the Table 2. The blasting works are performed
In principle they are drilled short boreholes in two
on the base of boring schemes that contains the all
extraction advance direction DX and DY. The
technical drilling and blasting parameters because
intra pillars large face of horizontal bench has
of one blast and burden.
up to 150 m2 that is drilled with more than 6 m
In the calculation they are allowance the next
length boreholes. The individual burden in blast-
requirements:
ing are in use with both high-performance ATLAS
to provide for quality of blast works carrying COPCO drilling equipment and more economic
out, DAP (ANFO) powder explosive. The drilling at
to achieve the required raw magnesite the horizontal bench is performed by using with
fragmentation, smaller boreholes diameter. The some results of
to save the spatial parameters of intra mining blasting works average values by the cut-and-fill
block safety room pillars at particular horizon- mining method are presented in Table 3.
tal bench.
specific explosive consumption [kgt1]
The intra mining block safety pillars stability bench zero = 0.772
breaking with blast works impact has very negative advanced bench = 0.318
effects on both work place and extraction operat- total average = 0.416
ing safety. The spatial boreholes schemes including explosive charge concentration [kg m1] 1.172.
detonators timing are variant making for both the
4.2 Usage terms of explosive
Table 2a. Open stop mining specific blasting parameters. by magnesite extracion
For disintegration of the magnesite the plastic and
Blasting loose explosives are used. In the past the emul-
Technical parameter place Average value
sion explosives were tested as well, but they didnt
1. Explosive consumption OK 0,07 [kg t 1]
2. Detonators consumption 0,04 [number/t]
1. Explosive consumption DP 0.04 [kg t 1]
2. Detonators consumption 0.09 [number/t]

*note OKopen stop mining; DPsafety pillar extraction.

Table 2b. Selected operating parametersdrilling.

Average
Operating parameter value Measure

1. Drilled borehole 241313 [m/year]

total volume
2. Total productivity 116 [m/man/shift]
3. Specific boreholes 0,355 [m/t]
consumption
Figure 3. Detail of drilling scheme in drift face 12 4,8 m.

133

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 133 10/3/2012 8:25:05 PM

 Table 3. Explosive and detonators consumption
by * VD (2010).

Mining Explosive Detonators

VD [t] [kg t1] [number t1]

1 14400 0,33 0,04

2 72600 0,33 0,05
3 600 0,33 0,07
4 139720 0,35 0,07
5 265920 0,35 0,1
6 36220 0,33 0,08
7 47810 0,33 0,07
8 10540 0,33 0,06
9 587810 0,34 0,08

*note to symbols VDcut-and-fill mining method. Figure 4. Diagram ratio of the share the plastic and
loose explosive DAP-K.

prove well because of high prices. The plastic

explosives DANUBIT 2, DANUBIT GEOFEX 2, Table 4. Present of using the plastic explosive, DAP-K
PERUNIT 20 and latterly mainly Polish producer loose explosive and primer (2010).
ERGODYN were used before. Now a days
the explosives are in use, first of all the plastic Other Explosive Primer
explosive DANUBIT 2, LAMBREX, RIOGEL, Mining explosive ANFO total total
[kt] [t] [t] [t] [pcs]
SUPERGEL 30 a ERGODYN 30 that are better
economically. The plastic explosives are used as OK 105,3 4,37 0 4,37 8,734
adjusting charge for initiation the main charge of DP 285 18,58 160 17,87 37,633
DAP (ANFO) powdery explosive what is for the VD 587,8 21,42 181 202,62 52,086
mine much more economic. PPS 15 6,01 17 23,19 4,363
The main effort by extraction and excavation is DOB 260 50,35 358 409 102820
to substitute the plastic explosives by loose explo-
sives DAP-K type that has been produced at mine *note to symbols; OKopen stop mining in room;
in past. Forward from mine point of view has been VDcut-and-fill mining method; DPsafety pillars
aim to increase the share of DAP explosive conse- mining; PPStotal excavation/tunneling; DOB
quently the plastic-DAP (ANFO) explosive ratio extraction per year.
remain in existence till now (Fig. 4). The industry
explosive named DAP-K is nowadays marketed by
explosive producer MATRIX Slovakia according loading device NZN-22-30-1 is used. This device
to allowed technical documentation. works on the principle of compressed air as well.
The smallest allowable borehole diameter in that The DAP/ANFO explosive consumption at
possible to use DAP-K explosive is 35 mm by 3 m Jelava magnesite mine does relative large share
borehole length and 50 mm by the bigger length at the total quantity of explosive consumption
of drilling. The DAP-K loose explosive are having Slovakia (Table 4). In compare with year 2008
following initiation features: was indeed in the year 2009 substantial decrease by
explosive consumption (up to 25%), by detonator
igniting explosive charge with weight 200 g and
(42%) and by detonating cord (40%). The situation
detonation velocity minimal 4000 ms1
was changed last year when it is got to the essential
igniting with detonating cord ERGODET
improvement because the both economical results
0.45 A WZI.
and grow of yearly capacity extraction.
The mentioned detonating cord they are very The mining total in year 2010 has been 993260 t,
high-class and economically relative profitable elec- what is in compare with 2009 year (751.2 kt) very
tric Polish detonators. The DAP-K loose explosive fundamental increase (up to 32.2%). When it is
loading is realised by pneumatic loading devices taken into consideration the total blasting agents
SLG 100 or JET ANOL eventually they are free consumption 3648465.57 kg per year and also
bulk into boreholes. The loading devices with the 612875 number of detonators in whole mining
help of compressed air push in the loose explosive extraction industry Slovakia, does the consumption
DAP-K into the boreholes. In case when plastic in SMZ Jelava, a.s. cca 11.2% share by explosive
explosives are pushed into the long boreholes, the and cca 16.7% share by detonators only. Even this

134

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 134 10/3/2012 8:25:06 PM

 specification it shows that it is really concerned
about the greatest non-metallic mining company
at Slovakia.
5 CONCLUSION
By the drilling and blasting parameters design are
at Jelava magnesite mining company in use rela-
tively large assortment of blasting agent products
that there are import at a Slovakia from various
country EU (e.g. well-know producers ERGO-
DYN, Maxam, Explosia, Austin Detonator, Orica,
Istrochem Explosives and another). At present
the most often used ANFO (DAP) is already buy-
ing from Matrix Slovakia only. The emulsion and
plastic industrial explosives are used always in
according to specific case. By explosive uses they
are also calculated the drilling and blasting costs
that are expressed in cost per ton of blasted rock
[Eur t1] like follows: the explosive cost (NT); det-
onators cost (ND); Cord cost (NB); Primers cost
(NR); Drilling cost (NV); Blasting cost (NTP). By
results comparison of the re-measurement it is
possible to provide such corrections that they are
sensitive to the both selected explosive type but
also to production boreholes geometrical param-
eters in each technological cut. The specific intent
is achievement the better economic results of the
whole of drilling and blasting process in magne-
site mine.
135
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 135
The drilling and blasting technical parameters
computing are performed by many technical
construction engineers on base the methodological
procedure that has been prepared at a Mining
Department Faculty BERG Technical University
of Koice.
REFERENCES
Bauer, V., Birka, M. & Lorincz,A., 2006. The modern
technology and effectivity of magnesite extraction
by means of drilling and blasting. EFEE Conference
2006, Wien (unpublished).
Bauer, V., 2005. Mineral policies and land use planning
in Slovakia. Mining and Sustainable Development,
World Mining Congress, SUB Theme 1: Environment
Impact of Mining. Geological Survey and National
Geosciences Database of IRAN, (Current Contents),
2005 Teheran, p. 149160.
Bauer, V., 2006. Drilling and blasting. Hand book. ES
Koice, 95 p.
Beovsk, M., 2002. Generally blasting plan in quarries.
Technical report of Luvema, s.r.o.
Dojr, O.,Hork, J. & Konek, R., 1996. Blasting technics.
Ostrava Montanex, 421p. ISBN 80-85780-69-0.
Langefors, U. & Kihlstrm, B. 1978. The modern tech-
nique of rock blasting. Wiley, New York.
Mncner, E & kol. 2000. Handbook for construction engi-
neers and tampers. SSTVP Bansk Bystrica 201 p.
Olofsson, S.O. 2003: Applied explosives technology for
construction and minning. Ljungfretagen tryckeri
AB, Orebro. 342 p.
10/3/2012 8:25:06 PM
This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

A new tool for homogenization of jointed rock masses using wave

propagation analysis

Hatem Gasmi, Sarra Yahyaoui & Essaeb Hamdi

Geotechnical Research Team, University of Tunis El-Manar, Ecole Nationale dIngnieurs de Tunis, Tunisia

ABSTRACT: Equivalent elastic parameters of jointed rock masses have been evaluated by empirical
formulas. In this work, we present a new numerical tool, namely HLA-Dissim, that 1) simulates a
discontinuity network of real rock masses based on the ISRM scanline field mapping methodology
2) evaluates a series of classic joint parameters to characterize density (RQD, specific length of
discontinuities) 3) propagates an incident pulse wave, characterized by its amplitude, central frequency
and duration, from one source point to another receiver point of the simulated jointed rock mass using
a complex recursive method for evaluating the transmission and reflection coefficient for each simulated
discontinuity 4) calculates the seismic parameters (delay, velocity and attenuation of the wave when it is
propagating from source to receiver points) 5) computes numerically the equivalent Youngs modulus of
the rock mass taking into account the natural discontinuity distribution.
This methodology was applied to different bench fronts from two Tunisian aggregates quarries. Its
allows characterizing the rock mass discontinuity network, the seismic resulting performance and the
equivalent medium stiffness. The relationship between equivalent Youngs modulus and rock discontinuity
parameters was also analyzed.
For these different bench fronts, the proposed numerical approach was also compared to several
empirical formulas, based on RQD and fracture density values, given by previous research works showing
its usefulness and efficiency in estimating rapidly the Youngs modulus of equivalent medium for wave
propagation analysis.

Keywords: HLA-Dissim, rock mass, fracture mapping, deformation modulus, vibration, numerical
simulation, wave velocity, Tunisia

1 INTRODUCTION Em E Er (1)
Jointed rock masses parameters, especially fracture
where E = 0.0231RQD 1.32 0.15
properties, have a great influence on vibrations
Where Em is the equivalent rock mass Young
induced by blasting. When a wave propagates
modulus, Er is the rock matrix Young modulus and
through fractured rock masses, it is greatly slowed
RQD is the rock quality designation.
and attenuated due to the presence of fractures. To
However, this formula could only be used when
study wave propagation across jointed rock mass,
RQD is greater than 57%. For the other cases,
we have to know equivalent elastic parameters of
Gardner suggested to take:
equivalent medium. To determine these parameters,
we can use empirical formulas or a numerical Em (2)
E Er
approach.
Empirical formulas present the equivalent
Because of previously mentioned limitation,
Youngs modulus of the rock mass as a function
additional data were collected by Zhang and
of structural parameters. Deere et al. (1967), sug-
Einstein (2004), from the literature. Kayabasi et
gested using the RQD to express the equivalent
al. (2003), present the following formula which
Young modulus. Other authors (Gardner (1987))
involves the RQD (0 < RQD < 100%) and weather-
tried to develop this approach by introducing other
ing degree WD.
parameters. They consider that the equivalent rock
mass Young Modulus can be derived from the rock 1.1747
matrix Young modulus. Er(1 + 0.01RQD )
Em = 0.1423 (3)
Gardner (1987) proposed the following formula: WD

137

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 137 10/3/2012 8:25:06 PM

 Another approach was proposed by Amadai
and Savage (1993), showing the influence of
discontinuity stiffness, kn and the average spacing
between discontinuities, s:
Er
Em =
Er
1+
s.kn
It is worth noticing that this formula has the
limitation that can only be used when the spacing
is the same for all discontinuity sets.
The present work proposes a new numerical tool
to evaluate equivalent elastic parameters of jointed
rock masses.
2 HOMOGENIZATION PROPOSED
METHODOLOGY
HLA-Dissim was presented by Gasmi et al. (2008)
and Hamdi et al. (2010) as a new tool for the 2D
simulation of real fractured rock masses and only
a brief summary is given here.
HLA-Dissim is based on a series of several
MATLABprogrammed routines. The main steps
are described in the following sections.
2.1 Field mapping campaigns using the scanline
sampling method
In this method (Baecher et al. (1977), Cruden
(1977), Hudson & Priest (1979), Warburton (1980),
Priest and Hudson (1981), Sen & Kazi (1984)), the
scanlines are performed in several directions. For
each line, the parameters for any discontinuity
through the scanline are systematically node,
namely its location relative to a chosen reference
(x), length (l), dip direction () counted from
the north axis and dip angle () measured from the
horizontal plane.
In the present work, seventeen bench fronts,
numbered from F1 to F17, were selected in different
quarries of Tunisia. Figure 1 illustrates the F5 to
F7 fronts of SOMATP quarry. Table 1 presents the
result of field mapping campaigns using the scan
line sampling method for F5.
2.2 Step 2: Classification of the discontinuities
in main directional sets
Once the discontinuity data file is read by the
program, HLA-Dissim applies a mathematical
criterion based on classification in order to assign
each discontinuity to one of the main directional
sets (Warburton (1980), Priest & Hudson (1981)).
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 138
(4)
Figure 1. F5 to F7 Bench fronts (SOMATP quarry,
Tunisia).
The adopted algorithm consists on the computation
of the following scalar:
Dij = |ni nj| (5)
where, i and nj are respectively the normal vectors
of discontinuities i and j.
This algorithm is reproduced until the main
directional families are obtained.
2.3 Step 3: Statistical analysis of the geometrical
parameters of each identified set
Once the discontinuities are classified in directional
families, histograms are established by HLA-Dissim
for 4 geometrical parameters: dip direction, dip
angle, trace length and spacing. These histograms
are established for each directional identified set
(Dershowitz & Herda, 1992).
In addition, for each parameter, one theoretical
density distribution law (bimodal, normal, log-
normal, and exponential) is fitted and the best
fitting distribution parameters (mean and standard
deviation) are given by HLA-Dissim.
For example, Figure 2 presents the statistical
analysis results of F5 bench front.
Table 2 presents the distribution laws and their
parameters (mean and standard deviation) for the
two sets of discontinuities of F5 bench front.
2.4 Step 4: Discontinuity network simulation
The simulation of the discontinuity network
is performed for each discontinuity set within
a fixed simulation domain using the following
methodology:
Determination of the fracture density: defined
as being the number of discontinuities per unit
of area. This parameter itself is equal to the
138
10/3/2012 8:25:08 PM
 Figure 2. Histograms of geometrical parameters for
identified joint set (a) # 1 and (b) # 2 of F5 bench front. Figure 3. (a) Simulated discontinuities of F5 bench front
and (b) Contour map of the Rock Quality Designation.

inverse of mean spacing such as given by the

statistical analysis previously performed. Figure 3a shows the result of one of the per-
Determination of the number of discontinui- formed simulations of F5 bench front using the
ties Ns to be generated: equal to the product of previous data.
the density of fracturing by the surface of the
simulation domain.
2.5 Step 4: Discontinuity network simulation
Discontinuities Generation: using the Monte
Carlo method according to a uniform law for the The simulation of the discontinuity network
position of the discontinuities centers. On the is performed for each discontinuity set within
other hand, for each identified discontinuity set, a fixed simulation domain using the following
HLA-Dissim uses the best fitted theoretical law methodology:
and its parameters to generate values of the two
Determination of the fracture density: defined
geometrical angles used for these simulations,
as being the number of discontinuities per unit
namely the dip angle and the trace length.
of area. This parameter itself is equal to the
A mathematical algorithm was then written
inverse of mean spacing such as given by the
in order to eliminate the possibility that some
statistical analysis previously performed.
discontinuities go outside the simulation
domain. Extra discontinuities are truncated to
this simulation domain. 2.6 Step 4: Discontinuity network simulation
Drawing the simulated discontinuities network:
The simulation of the discontinuity network is per-
each discontinuity set is then simulated and
formed for each discontinuity set within a fixed sim-
placed in the simulation domain. HLA-Dissim
ulation domain using the following methodology:
assigns to each discontinuity set a specific
color. The user can use a maximum of 7 colors Determination of the fracture density: defined
corresponding to 7 directional sets. as being the number of discontinuities per unit

139

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 139 10/3/2012 8:25:09 PM

 of area. This parameter itself is equal to the
inverse of mean spacing such as given by the sta-
tistical analysis previously performed.
Determination of the number of discontinuities
Ns to be generated: equal to the product of the
density of fracturing by the surface of the simu-
lation domain.
Discontinuities Generation: using the Monte
Carlo method according to a uniform law for
the position of the discontinuities centers. On
the other hand, for each identified discontinuity
set, HLA-Dissim uses the best fitted theoretical
law and its parameters to generate values of the
two geometrical angles used for these simula-
tions, namely the dip angle and the trace length.
A mathematical algorithm was then written
in order to eliminate the possibility that some
discontinuities go outside the simulation
domain. Extra discontinuities are truncated to
this simulation domain.
Drawing the simulated discontinuities network:
each discontinuity set is then simulated and
placed in the simulation domain. HLA-Dissim
assigns to each discontinuity set a specific color.
The user can use a maximum of 7 colors corre-
sponding to 7 directional sets.
Figure 3a shows the result of one of the per-
formed simulations of F5 bench front using the
previous data.
2.7 Step 5: Evaluation of the structural
parameters
Following the simulation of discontinuities, HLA-
Dissim computes the length of the discontinuities
included in the field of simulation. Then, it
computes:
The specific length defined as:
=
lk (6)
S
(k)
Where l is the length of the kth discontinuity
and S is the area of the simulation domain.
Determination of the RQD contour map, based
on the following procedures:
The simulation domain is uniformly meshed
in 10 10 m squared elements;
At each node, and for each line direction
varying from 0 to 175 with a step of 5, the
RQD is computed;
HLA-Dissim associates to each node the main
value of the so obtained RQD values;
Using these data, HLA-Dissim draws the
contour map of the RQD. Such result is shown in
Figure 3b for one of the performed simulations.
140
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 140
2.8 Step 6: Calculation of the simulated fractured
rock mass response to an incident wave
In this step the program HLA-Dissim propagates a
sinusoidal signal from a source point of coordinates
(0,5 m) to one or several receiver points through
the simulated discontinuity network.
For this aim, a subroutine has been added,
which consists in different modules:
Mesh: In this module, we have to initial-
ize the receiver points grid by entering their
coordinates.
The source wave is transformed from time
domain to frequency domain using the Fast
Fourier Transform technique.
The source wave is propagated gradually from
the source point in all directions towards the
receiver points. Each intersection between
the incident wave and discontinuities will pro-
duce a transmitted wave and a reflected wave.
These waveform are calculated based on the inci-
dent wave and the transmission coefficient given
by (Boadu,1997):
t1( n )t( n 1) n exp( i ( n 1) )
T1,n = (7)
1 r1( n )r( n 1) n ( 2i ( n 1) )
where t( n ) n and r( n ) n are, respectively, the local
transmission and reflection coefficients across
the nth and (n- 1)th section, n = hn Vn , where
is the angular frequency of the propagating
waveform, hn and Vn are, respectively, the thickness
and velocity of the nth intact material.
For each node, the final waveform is calculated,
in frequency domain, as the sum of all received
waves. The Inverse Fast Fourier transform
(IFFT) is then applied to obtain the received
waveform in time domain.
For each receiver point, three seismic parameters
were then calculated with HLA-Dissim:
1. The amplitude attenuation which is the ratio
between the respective amplitudes of the input
signal and the output received signal;
2. The time delay Tr between the output
received signal and the input wave. This delay
corresponds to the wave transmission dispersion
when the wave crosses the discontinuities. For
the investigated rock masses, simulation is
performed on a 10 m 10 m outcrop. In that
case, the time delay between the two waves is
about several milliseconds. Of course, for real
site tests, measurements of real blast induced
vibrations are performed on minimum distances
of 100 m;
3. Considering this time delay as well as the
distance d between the receiver and the signal
10/3/2012 8:25:10 PM
 source locations, a characteristic wave velocity
V can be determined as: V = d/Tr .

3 ROCK MASS STRUCTURE PROPERTIES-

SEISMIC PARAMETERS RELATIONSHIP

In order to characterize most precisely the

structure of the rock masses corresponding to
the 17 investigated bench fronts F1 to F17 and
considering the fact that simulations by HLA-
Dissim are stochastic (and consequently they
Figure 5. Variation in the specific length according to
cannot be repeated), twenty simulations were
the average RQD.
carried out for each bench front.
From these 20 simulations, mean values of
the simulated rock mass structure and seismic
properties of transmitted wave in point (10 m, 5 m)
coming from source point (0 m, 5 m) are computed
and presented in Table 3.
Figure 4 shows the change in max, min, average
value of RQD and wave velocity for each front
On the other side, it is worth noticing that:
the variation range of the two parameters of
density ( and RQD) is rather wide, which is an
advantage for the present bench fronts database;
the rock bench fronts of the same site can show
very different structures. That is the case of fronts

Figure 6. Variation of the seismic parameters (wave

Figure 4. Max, min and mean values of (a) RQD (b) wave velocity and attenuation ratio) versus the rock mass
velocity. structure parameters (RQD and specific length).

141

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 141 10/3/2012 8:25:13 PM

 3.1 Variation of the specific length versus RQD
Figure 5 shows the relative variation of the fracture
density parameters, namely the specific length and
the RQD. A logical result is found stipulating that
if the specific length is low (few or small fractures),
the RQD is then high.
F7 and F9 which, although belonging to the same
site, have different structures ( and RQD).

3.2 Variation of wave velocity versus RQD

Figures 6a and 6b confirm that the wave velocity
increases when the rock mass RQD increases and Figure 7. Recommended relationships between RQD
decreases. Of course, this is a logical result since the and the ratio Em/Er (after Zhang and Einstein, 2004).
velocity decreases when fracture density increases.

Table 4. Numerical and empirical Youngs modulus.

3.3 Ariation of attenuation coefficient versus
RQD Bench Eemp/ Eemp/ Eemp/ Enum/
front # RQDmoy Er Er Er Er
Figures 6c and 6d shows that the attenuation ratio
decreases when the rock mass RQD increases F1 76.9 0.332 0.066 0.598 0.055
and decreases. In other words, if the rock mass F2 54.8 0.128 0.025 0.232 0.043
has a good structural quality (few or small exten- F3 60.3 0.163 0.032 0.293 0.0517
sion discontinuities), the amplitude of the output F4 70.6 0.253 0.050 0.456 0.069
waveform is not very attenuated (low value of the F5 77.5 0.341 0.068 0.614 0.072
attenuation ratio). On the other hand, when the F6 70.2 0.248 0.049 0.448 0.084
rock mass is much fractured (low RQD), the inci- F7 62.3 0.177 0.035 0.319 0.042
dent wave is dramatically attenuated by the existing F8 77.0 0.332 0.066 0.599 0.055
discontinuity system. F9 81.4 0.401 0.080 0.723 0.066
F10 69.2 0.238 0.047 0.429 0.073
F11 71.5 0.263 0.052 0.473 0.044
4 EMPIRICAL HOMOGENIZATION F12 73.7 0.289 0.057 0.520 0.056
NUMERICAL HOMOGENIZATION F13 54.7 0.128 0.025 0.230 0.041
F14 64.4 0.194 0.039 0.350 0.053
4.1 Empirical approach homogenization F15 78.0 0.347 0.069 0.625 0.050
This method is based on the accumulated engineer- F16 77.5 0.340 0.068 0.613 0.041
ing experience of engineering applied to real cases F17 71.8 0.266 0.053 0.479 0.056
of rock masses where tests have been performed.
It thus provides empirical relationships between
the Young modulus of rock mass and structure The modlus of deformation Enum is numerically
parameters. calculated from the formula:
Considering the data shown in Figure 7, a set
of relationships has been recommended by Zhang Enum
and Einstein (2004) to estimate the Youngs modu- V= (11)
lus of the rock mass:

Lower curve: Em/Er = 0.2 100.0186RQD-1.91 (8) with is the density of the rock and V is the wave
propagation given in Table 3.
Upper curve: Em/Er = 1.8 10 0.0186RQD-1.91
(9)
Average curve: Em/Er = 10 0.0186RQD-1.9
(10) 4.3 Results and Interpretation
The rock matrix has a Youngs modulus equal to
4.2 Numerical approach homogenization
63 GPa (Er) and a density equal to 2650 kg.m3
A major objective of this research is to compare (). Table 4 presents the results of empirical and
the results of numerical homogenization using numerical values of the equivalent rock mass
wave propagation in simulated jointed rock masses Youngs modulus. Eemp, Eemp and Eemp present the
with empirical methods proposed previously. Young's modulus calculated respectively from the

142

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 142 10/3/2012 8:25:14 PM


Figure 8. Comparison between numerically-evaluated
versus empirically-evaluated fractured rock mass Youngs
modulus.
lower limit curve, the average curve and the upper
curve formula.
Figure 8 shows the variations of numerical and
empirical Youngs modules. With this. This figure
shows that the variation of Enum/Er fits with the
lower limit curve.
5 CONCLUSION
The present work aimed at investigating and ana-
lyzing the influence of rock mass structure on the
resulting wave propagating within a fractured rock
mass. It was shown in particular that existing frac-
tures in the rock mass induce delay and attenuation
in the wave propagation. Moreover, propagation
velocity is shown to decrease with an increase in
the fracture density parameter (specific length).
Finally, it was shown that fractured rock mass with
lower RQD will have lower seismic velocities.
Second, we conducted a comparison between
the results of numerical homogenization in terms
of equivalent deformation modulus of fractured
rock mass and that calculated by empirical meth-
ods. This comparison clearly showed that the pro-
posed methodology is suitable for estimating the
equivalent rock mass deformation Youngs modu-
lus given a precise rock mass structure and rock
matrix deformation modulus.
REFERENCES
Amadei B.W & Savage Z. 1993. Effect of joints on rock
mass strength and deformability. In: Hudson JA,
editor. Comprehensive rock engineeringprinciple,
practice and projects, vol. 1. Oxford.
143
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 143
Baecher G.B., Lanney N.A. & Einstein H.H. 1977
Statistical description of rock properties and sampling.
In. Proc. 18th U.S.Symp. On Rock Mechanics, pages
5C1-15C1-8, Colorado.
Boadu, F.K. 1997. Fractured rock mass characterization
parameters and seismic propertiesAnalytical studies.
J. Applied Geophys. 36, 119.
Cruden D.M. 1977. Describing the size of discontinuities,
Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr.
Vol 14, pp. 133137.
Deere D.U, Hendron A.J, Patton F.D & Cording E.J.
1967 Design of surface and near surface construction
in rock. In: Proceedings of the Eighth US Symposium
on Rock MechanicsFailure and Breakage of Rock,
Network: p. 237302.
Dershowitz W.S. & Herda H.H. 1992. Interpretation
of fracture spacing and intensity. Tillerson J.R. &
Wawersik W.R. (eds.), proc., 33rd US Symp. On rock
Mech, Belkema, Rotterdam, pp. 757765.
Gardner WS. 1987. Design of drilled piers in the Atlantic
Piedmont. In: Smith RE, editor. Foundations and
excavations in decomposed rock of the piedmont
province, GSP ASCE, No. 9, p. 6286.
Gasmi H., Hamdi E. & Bouden Romdhane N. 2008.
Influence of the in situ rock mass structure on the
blast induced vibrations. Int. Conf. On Geotech
EngineeringICGE08, Hammamet, Tunisia, March
2426, pp.523532.
Hamdi E., Gasmi H. & Bouden Romdhane N. 2009.
Influence of rock mass discontinuity networks on
the seismic response parameters. Int. Symp. on
Rock Fragmentation by BlastingFRAGBLAST 9,
Granada, Spain, September 1317, pp. 589596.
Hudson J.A. & Priest S.A. 1979. Discontinuities and rock
mass geometry. Int. J. Rock mech. Min. Sci. & Geo-
mech. Abstr. Vol. 16, 339362.
Kayabasi A., Gokceoglu C. & Ercanoglu M. 2003.
Estimating the deformation modulus of rock
masses: a comparative study. Int J Rock Mech Min
Sci; 40:5563.
Priest S.A. & Hudson J.A. 1981. Estimation of disconti-
nuity spacingand trace length using scanline suveys.
Int. J. Rock mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr. Vol.
18, pp. 183187.
Sen J. & Kazi A. 1984. Discontinuity spacing and RQD
estimates from finite lenth csanlines. Int. J. Rock mech.
Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr. Vol. 28, pp. 375382.
Warburton P.M. 1980. A stereological interpretation
of joint trace data. Int. J. Rock mech. Min. Sci. &
Geomech. Abstr. Vol. 17, N4, pp. 181190.
Zhang L. & Einstein H.H. 2004. Using RQD to estimate
the deformation modulus of rock masses. Int. J. Rock
mech. & Min. Sci. Vol 41 pp, 337341.
10/3/2012 8:25:14 PM
This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

SPH procedures for failure analysis of circular rock disk under

distributed arc loading

D. Deb & R. Pramanik

Department of Mining Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India

ABSTRACT: The paper presents a numerical procedure based on Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics
(SPH) to simulate the failure process of rock medium by predicting the initiation of microcracks and the
subsequent propagation of macroscopic cracks without any special treatment or assumption of fractur-
ing process. The objective of the research is to elucidate the failure and fracture process under dynamic
loads. It has broad application in all fracture and fragmentation phenomena in rock, and especially under
tensile load. The implementing procedure of softening elastoplastic model has been discussed in the SPH
framework. In order to model tensile failure of a circular rock specimen, Rankine maximum tensile fail-
ure criterion is implemented. The results have been compared and demonstrated that the developed pro-
cedure has the potential to provide useful information to understand the key physical phenomena that
occur in the failure process. During the loading process, it is observed that the maximum tensile stress is
concentrated in the central region of the sample. The extent of accumulated plastic zone increases along
the loading vertical axis with the duration of loading. The SPH particles at the plastic zone coalesce with
each other to form the primary crack along the vertical diameter of the specimen causing the specimen
to fail due to tension.

1 INTRODUCTION of fracture mechanics have been applied to pre-

The prior information regarding the failure pat-
tern of geomaterial is a major concern in various
excavations made in soil or rock viz. tunnels, slopes
and mining excavations. Over the past several dec-
ades, researchers have performed numerous exper-
imental studies on various type of rock material
and provided explanation of failure mechanism
according to their observed strength and failure
behavior of the material (Sprunt & Brace 1974,
Wong et al. 1996) study. Their investigations have
revealed that the macroscopic behavior and the
failure process are generally initiated by the micro-
cracks development, propagation and interaction
of several cracks, defects and inherent flaws. The
mechanical properties and the failure characteris-
tics of rock are sensitive to loading rate and rock
sample undergoes through multiple physical proc-
esses which occur at the different time and length
scales. A circular disk type rock sample under
angular concentrated load generally fails along the
loading axis due to tension generated at the middle
of the sample.
Apart from the insight understanding of the fail-
ure process in the experimental test, the prediction
of breakage phenomenon remains a big challenge.
In view of that, many micromechanical models
have been proposed. The concept and theories
dict fracture generation and propagation in rock
medium (Paterson & Wong 2005). Computational
methods are noticeably well suited to investigate
the process of rock degradation and failure, such
as the lattice based model (Blair & Cook 1998)
in which the local element is considered to be
failed by tensile cracking if the local tensile stress
exceeds the local tensile strength, the local degra-
dation model on FLAC (Fang & Harrison 2002),
the synthetic rock mass model based on PFC
(Potyondy & Cundall 2004), and the digital image
approaches based on the FLAC (Chen et al. 2004),
FEM (Ortiz et al. 1987) for localized failure. Tang
et al. (2000) analyzed the rock deformation, both
pre- and post failure using finite element code,
in which the elastic modulus and strength of the
individual elements were assumed to follow the
Weibull distribution.
The above mentioned studies successfully pre-
dict the failure process in one aspect or another but
they have limitation as well. For example, in the
application of fracture mechanics theory, it is dif-
ficult to estimate the micromechanical parameters
such as crack density and toughness for cracks in
different modes. Continuum modeling based on
grid base methods sometimes do not work well for
the simulation of failure process involving large
deformation and fragmentation. Another method

145

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 145 10/3/2012 8:25:15 PM

 most often been used to solve geotechnical prob- D a
lems, namely Discrete Element Method (DEM). = m ( ) W (2)
Dt b b a b a ab
This method is limited for only small scale simula- a
tion and not well defined in processing the continu-
ous deformation. Recent development of meshless
where a is the density of the particle a having
or meshfree methods have advantage for simulat-
velocity a and mb is the mass of the particle b, b
ing large deformation, fracture propagation and
is the neighbor of a having velocity b , Wab is a C2
fragmentation that occur in the failure process.
spline smoothing kernel with smoothing length h ,
Among the meshfree method, Smoothed Particle
a is the support domain of particle a defined by
Hydrodynamics (SPH) have shown the promises to
the smoothing length.
simulate large deformation behavior of solid and
fluid. SPH was first developed to simulate nonax-
isymmetric phenomena in astrophysical dynamics, 2.2 Acceleration equation
in particular polytropes (Gingold & Monaghan
1977, Benz et al. 1989). SPH is a gridless Lagrang- The Lagrangian description of momentum equa-
ian particle method which replaces the continuum tion for elastic deformation with external force is
equations of motion by particle equations. given by
This paper presents tensile failure process of
a circular rock specimen in the SPH framework D 1
under distributed angular load. The aim of this = + g (3)
Dt
investigation is to trace the mechanical response
due to crack development and propagation dur-
ing failure process. The maximum principal stress where is the stress tensor and g is the external
criterion of Rankine is implemented in the SPH body force acting on the body. It has two parts, iso-
framework for yielding of individual particles. tropic pressure p and deviatoric stress s.

= p + s (4)
2 SPH FORMULATION OF GOVERENING
EQUATIONS where is the Kroneckers delta. The isotropic
pressure p is directly calculated from the definition
In SPH, the state of particles is represented by a set of mean stress, i.e. p = 1 / 3 . SPH approxima-
of points with fixed volume, which possess mate- tion for the momentum equation leads to
rial properties interact with the all neighboring
particles by a weight function or smoothing func-
D a
tion or smoothing kernel (Monaghan 1992). This = m a2 + b2 ab I aW + g a (5)
function required to be continuous and differenti- Dt b b a
b
ab
able. Each particle has a support domain specified
by a smoothing length. The value of a function at
a typical particle is obtained by interpolating the where a and b are the stress tensor of the particle
average of those values of that function at all par- a and b respectively, ab is the artificial viscosity
ticles in its support domain weighted by smoothing (Monaghan 1992) and I is the identity matrix.
function.
2.3 The artificial viscosity
2.1 Continuity equations
In the case of SPH, it is easiest to introduce an arti-
Density of the material in SPH method plays an ficial viscosity, though it is possible to use Riemann
important role in determination of particle dis- solver. Many form of artificial viscosity has been
tribution and smoothing length. The continuity introduced in the literatures. The most commonly
equation or conservation of mass in Lagrangian used Monaghan (Monaghan 1992) type artificial
form for elasto-plastic material can be written as viscosity has been considered for this study as
given below:
D
= (1)
Dt
cabb abb + ab
2

x <0
where a is the density and a is the velocity. = ab ab (6)
ab ab
The approximation of density according to the 0 0,
continuity equation is abb abb

146

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 146 10/3/2012 8:25:15 PM

 where where is a tensile correction coefficient ranging
from 0 to 1.
haab ab x ab The same rule is applied for R ayy . The compo-
ab = 2
(7)
rab . h2 nent of the artificial stress in the original coordi-
nates for particle a is given by
and cab 1/ 2 (ca cb ) , ab 1/ 2( a b ) , v ab v a v b ,
hab / ( ha hb ) . Here ca denotes the sounds Ra cos 2 a R axx + sin
i 2 a R ayy (12)
speed at a particle a. It has been observed that
(Monaghan 1992) considering this viscosity, shock Ra sin2 a R axx + cos 2 a R ayy (13)
fronts are spread over 3h. In the above equation,
the values of and has been set around 1 and The artificial stress terms, ( a ij n
b ) fab is added
2 respectively. The factor 0.01h2 in the denomina- with the momentum equation (5). The expression
tor is included to prevent singularity when two of momentum equation of the particle a lead to
particles approach each other. The artificial viscos-
ity also assists to avoid the unphysical penetration Dv a b
between particles. = mb fabn aWab g a
a2
2 ab a b
Dt b b
(14)
2.4 Artificial stress for tensile instability
where fab Wab /W ( d , h ) , d is the initial par-
When SPH is applied to solids, the SPH particles ticle spacing. Gray et al. (2001) suggested that
behave like atoms. If the solid is compressed, the n = 4, 0.3 produces best result for elastic solid.
atoms repel each other and if material is stretched,
the atoms attract each other. SPH particles behave
in same manner, except when material is stretched.
The attraction results to form an unphysical clump- 3 THE ELASTOPLASTIC CONSTITUTIVE
ing in the SPH particles. This instability was first MODEL
studied by Swegle et al. (1995), who related it to
the sign of the pressure and the sign of the second For the elastoplastic behavior of the rock material,
derivative of the interpolating kernel. It is com- a yield criterion is implemented in the SPH frame-
monly called tensile instability. There have been a work. In this paper, tensile failure process of a
number of attempts to remove this instability with circular of the rock specimen is analyzed by using
different approach, but the most effective and suc- Rankine maximum tensile failure criterion.
cessful method has been proposed by Gray et al. The component of the strain rate is given by:
(2001). The method is to diagonalise the stress ten-
sor for each particle in the principal plane. Then an 1 v v
artificial stress term is added to the any of the diag-  = + (15)
2 x x
onal components which are positive (i.e. in tension).
After that the artificial stress is rotated back to the
For elasto-plastic material, the stain tensor can
original coordinate system. If the major principal
be decomposed into elastic component e, and the
axis of the particle a makes an angle a with the
plastic component, as
x-axis, then rotated component of stress is given by p

 e +  (16)
 a 2
a a i a cos a axy + sin2 a ayy (8) p

 a i 2 a a i a cos a axy + cos 2 a ayy (9) The objective of the elasto-plastic constitutive
model is to apply a irreversible process in the SPH
where framework. The elastic stress rate of tensor is cal-
culated by the generalized Hookss law:
1 2 xy
a = tan 1 xx a yy (10)  e D mnemn
2 a a
= 2Ged

K ev (17)
Then tensor, R a is given by
where D mmn is the fourth order standard isotropic
 axxx elastic tensor; G and K are, respectively the shear
2 if  xx
x
<0 and bulk moduli; ed
and ev are the rates of devi-
R axx = a a
(11)
0 atoric and volumetric parts of the elastic strain
otherwise tensor.

147

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 147 10/3/2012 8:25:24 PM

 3.1 Rankine maximum tensile failure model ft ft ( p)

Maximum tensile failure criterion of Rankine = ft 0

k( p)
(21)
(Fig. 1) is based on the maximum principal stress.
The failure surface is triangular in the plane. where the scalar, k associated to isotropic
According to the criterion, the tensile failure hardening. Considering associative hardening law,
at a point inside the material takes place when the accumulated plastic strain is then defined by
the maximum principal p stress exceeds the mate-
rial tensile strength, ft which can be found by F 
a simple tensile test. The failure surface can be  p  = (22)
described as

By assuming a associative flow rule, the elasto-

F ft ) J ( ) p()) ft 0 (18) plastic constitutive model is given by

where F
 e (t ) =  (t )  (t ) (t ) (23)

3 3 3 J3 ( ) F 
= ; cos 3 = (19)  p  = (24)
2 cos 2 J 23/ 2 ( )

3.2 Correction of stresses in plastic regime together with the loading-unloading conditions

In addition to the yield criterion, the plastic poten-  ( ) , () ,  ( )F ( ) = 0 (25)

tial function, Q has to be determined to specify the
stress-strain relationship. In this study, associated for each instance t [t0 ,T ] , where  is the plastic
plastic flow rule, i.e. F Q is considered. consistency parameter. The above initial value
The plastic strain of the particle a takes the problem (23), (24) and (25) has been solved numer-
form ically for the set of hardening internal variables
and the plastic multiplier of each SPH particle.
1
 p =  s I (20)
2 2 (s ) 3
4 COMPRESSION OF A CIRCULAR ROCK
SPECIMEN
In the present study, associative isotropic strain
softening is included by letting the tensile strength, Exact solution for such problem is available in the
ft that takes part in the yield function be a linear elastic state, so numerical procedure is preferred to
function of the accumulated plastic strain: analyze the post failure process. The attention is
focused on the stress components, growth of accu-
mulated plastic strain and failure pattern in the
specimen.
The geometric configuration and loading condi-
tions for the rock disk in consideration is shown in
Figure 2. The specimen has elastic modulus of 32.4
GPa tensile strength of 16.52 MPa, a mass density
of 2790 kg/m3 and a poissons ratio of 0.28. The
rock specimen has the diameter of 57 mm and is
discretized into 2668 SPH particle with spacing
of 1 mm. The smoothing length of each particle
is equal to 1.2 times of the initial spacing. The
loading platens are assumed to have much higher
strength than rock, so that platen will not yield in
the simulation process. The angle (2 0 ) of loading
in the specimen is 6. The specimen is loaded with
the axial platen velocity of 0.01 m/s.
Initially, the specimen behaves as an elastic
Figure 1. The plane section of Rankine failure medium and the maximum tensile stress distribu-
criterion. tion in the rock specimen is shown in Figure 3 at

148

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 148 10/3/2012 8:25:42 PM

 Figure 4. Theoretical and SPH results of stresses distri-
bution along the loading diameter.
Figure 2. Circular rock specimen under distributed
uniform angle load.

Figure 3. Maximum tensile stress distribution in the

specimen when the tensile stress is 92.46% peak at the
center.

92.46% peak tensile stress. It can be seen that the

maximum tensile stress is generated at the middle
of the sample and gradually decreases towards the
vertical loading surfaces. The stress distributions
along the vertical diameter are depicted in the
Figure 4 and compared with the existing theoreti-
cal results (Hondros 1959) for the specified angle
of loading. It can be observed that the stresses
estimated from the SPH code show a very well
agreement with the theoretical stress distribution.
At time 24.6 ms, four particles (two bottom and
two top) at the corner of the platens have failed at
the early stage due to the generation of high ten-
sile stress at the critical position, near the ends of
the loading surfaces (Fig. 5a). In the subsequent
Figure 5. Accumulated plastic strain in the specimen at
different timestep.
time steps, neither the failure initiate from these
four critical particles nor these particles affect the
simulation process. From Figure 5b, it can be seen
that the failure has been initiated at time 26.01 ms.
The plastic strain is accumulated at the center of
the specimen and propagated along the vertical
diameter towards the loading boundary. Due to

149

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 149 10/3/2012 8:25:49 PM


Figure 6. Axial stress-displacement curve of the
specimen.
the accumulation of the plastic strain, microcracks
have been initiated in the neighborhood of the
yielded particles. These microcracks coalesce and
form a primary crack along the vertical diameter
(Fig. 5c). At time 26.5 ms, the plastic strain accu-
mulates more at the front of the primary crack
for secondary failure near the loading surface. At
time 27.1 ms, a moderate crack has been developed
along the vertical diameter and the small fragments
of particles being created near the loading surface
(Fig. 5d). Figure 5e shows the final failure pattern
of the rock specimen. The trend of axial stress
with respect to the displacement is depicted in the
Figure 6.
5 CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, an elastoplastic with softening based
smoothed particle hydrodynamics has been imple-
mented to simulate the brittle failure process of a
circular rock specimen. In addition, hydrostatic
pressure in SPH has been directly evaluated from
the mean stress instead of an equation of state as
proposed by earlier works. The initiation of micro-
cracks is observed from the center of the speci-
men due to high tensile stress. These microcracks
coalesce and interact with each other and extend
to a well known diametrical failure. The obtained
stresses from the SPH approach along the vertical
diameter agree well with the exact solution.
It is to be noted that SPH method automati-
cally keeps track of the material free surface gener-
ated by fracturing without any special treatments
or assumption. Due to the Lagrangian nature of
SPH, the motion and size of the fragments can
also be predicted easily.
The obtained results suggest that SPH has the
potential to provide useful information to under-
stand the key physical phenomena that occur in the
fracturing process. By considering more complexity
in the problem domain such as rock fragmentation
150
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 150
by blasting, the development of adequate numeri-
cal models will assist to estimate the design param-
eters and to predict the failure behavior of physical
structures.
REFERENCES
Benz, W., Cameron, A., Melosh, H. 1989. The origin of
the moon and the single-impact hypothesis III. Icarus
81: 113131.
Blair, S. & Cook, N. 1998. Analysis of compressive frac-
ture I rock using statistical techniques: Part I. a non-
linear rule-based model. International Journal of Rock
Mechanics and Mining Sciences. 35: 837848.
Chen, S., Yue, Z., Tham, L. 2004. Digital image-based
numerical modeling method for prediction of inho-
mogeneous rock failure. International journal of rock
mechanics and mining sciences. 41: 939957.
Fang, Z. & Harrison, J. 2002. Development of a local
degradation approach to the modelling of brittle
fracture in heterogeneous rocks. International Journal
of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences. 39: 443457.
Gingold, R. & Monaghan, J. 1977. Smoothed
particle hydrodynamics-theory and application to
non-spherical stars. Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society. 181: 375389.
Gray J.P., Monaghan J.J., Swift R.P. 2001. SPH elastic
dynamics, Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics
and Engineering. 190: 66416662.
Hondros, G. 1959. The evaluation of poissons ratio and
the modulus of materials of a low tensile resistance
by the brazilian (indirect tensile) test with particular
reference to concrete. Australian Journal of Applied
Science. 10: 243268.
Monaghan, J.J. 1992. Smoothed particle hydrodynam-
ics. Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics.
30:54374.
Ortiz, M., Leroy, Y., Needleman, A. 1987. A finite ele-
ment method for localized failure analysis. Computer
Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering. 61:
189214.
Paterson, M. & Wong, T. 2005. Experimental rock defor-
mationthe brittle field. Springer Verlag.
Potyondy, D. & Cundall, P. 2004. A bonded particle
model for rock. International journal of rock mechan-
ics and mining sciences. 41: 13291364.
Sprunt, E. & Brace, W., 1974. Direct observation of
microcavties in crystalline rocks. International Journal
of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences Geomechanics
Abstracts. 11: 139150.
Swegle, J.W., Hicks, D.L., Attaway, S.W. 1995. Smoothed
particle hydrodynamics stability analysis. Journal of
Computational Physics. 116(1):123134.
Tang, C., Liu, H., Lee, P., Tsui, Y., Tham, L. 2000.
Numerical studies of the influence of microstructure
on rock failure in uniaxial compression part I: effect of
heterogeneity. International Journal of Rock Mechan-
ics and Mining Sciences. 37: 555569.
Wong, R.H.C., Chau, K.T., Wang, P. 1996. Microc-
racking and grain size effect in Yuen Long marbles.
International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining
Sciences Geomechanics Abstracts. 33: 479485.
10/3/2012 8:25:51 PM
 Section 3 - Blast Design

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 151 10/3/2012 8:25:52 PM

This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Quantification of the effect of inaccurate drilling on the risk of poor

fragmentation and increased blast hazard

E. Sellers, M. Kotze & M. Mthalane

AEL Mining Services, Modderfontein, South Africa

ABSTRACT: A case study at a large open cast platinum mine indicated that there was a significant
improvement in the fineness and uniformity of fragmentation when drilling deviations were reduced. The
risk of poor fragmentation is quantified in financial terms through the Kuz Ram fragmentation model
and Bonds work index, based on drill deviations obtained at two quarries. A minor decrease in uniform-
ity can lead to a huge increase in cost due to the power law relationship between rock size and crushing
energy. Flyrock range is also significantly affected by drilling deviations due to the power law relationship
with burden. It is unfortunate that a major production activity is seldom performed carefully and that
significant efforts must go into analyzing the effects of this poor quality.

1 INTRODUCTION 2 CASE STUDY

The objective of this work was to highlight the effect
of drill hole precision on fragmentation results and
the hazards of blasting. The study was conducted
at quarries and platinum mines in South Africa to
compare the effect of drilling inaccurate versus
accurate boreholes on the fragmentation results.
The project highlighted that the fragmentation
from drilling accurate holes was more uniform and
consistent compared to that from drilling inaccu-
rate holes. Sabrex modelling software and the Kuz
Ram model were also used to simulate the effect on
fragmentation with regard to hole accuracy.
Mines are required to quantify the risk of their
mining practices. Managers often like a value to
quantify the possibility of any occurrence. The
data is used in conjunction with power law relation-
ships prevalent in blasting mechanics to show how
small inaccuracies lead to dramatically magnified
hazards. The application of analytical procedures,
such as the first order second moment method,
provides new and simple methods for blast hazard
quantification. The case study provides a vehicle
for investigating two of the main risks at a mine,
which are the risk of poor quality fragmentation
on the financial performance and the environmen-
tal risk of causing damage or injury due to flyrock.
Data from various other sites is used to investigate
the questions that arise from taking this approach.
What do the input and output variations look like?
How do they combine? How do we obtain some
predictive capability? These methods are applied
to a database of over 300 blast patterns to evaluate
the trends in hazard due to blasting.
A blast auditing project was done on an open pit
platinum mine in Rustenburg, South Africa to
monitor the drilling accuracy of the boreholes
using borehole survey instrument (MDL Boretrak
MK3TM). The overburden being mined is a Norite
rock type and the blast design blast parameters
recorded are shown in Table 1. Typical blasts use
about 400 holes.
The study was aimed at comparing the effect of
drilling inaccurate versus accurate boreholes on
fragmentation results under similar mining con-
ditions. Split Software was used to analyse the
fragmentation photos. The method used involves
taking photos and analysing them with the SPLIT
Desktop program with care taken to manually
correct the image delineation. There is always an
understanding that this is an approximate method,
but can provide representative results if manual
delineation is performed (Ouchterlony 2010a).
Care was taken to select the size of the scaling
object and the lighting.
Due to the large hole depths, the survey process
is time consuming. With the limited time available
fifteen holes on the bench were randomly selected
to be surveyed to give an overall view of the condi-
tion of the blast holes as drilled on two benches.
On the second bench, care was taken to improve
drilling. In order to evaluate the true effect of the
drill deviation on the actual powder factor in the
region around a hole it is important to normal-
ize the hole deviation by the burden or spacing
and not the hole length, as may be done in some
places. Based on the data from the survey 80%

153

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 153 10/3/2012 8:25:52 PM

 Table 1. Designed blast parameters for case study.

Description Measure

Hole diameter (mm) 165

Hole angle () 90 (vertical)
Average hole depth (m) 30.8 Figure 1. Comparison of drilling deviations with
Hole condition (wet/dry) Wet a) less accurate and b) more accurate drilling. The actual
Drill pattern Staggered number of holes per category are shown on each pie.
Burden (m) 4.2
Spacing (m) 5.2
Stemming material Crushed aggregate
Stemming height (m) 4
Explosive type SD135 Eco
Charging method Pumped
Initiation system Digishot
Booster 400 g pentolite primer

of the holes deflected more than 10% of spacing

i.e. 0.52 m, where the design parameters for this
blast were burden 4.2 m and spacing 5.2 m as
shown in Figure 1. Using a 35% doped emulsion,
the powder factor is about 1 kg/m3. After drilling
improvements were implemented, 40% of the holes
deflected more than 10% of spacing.
There were no boulders experienced on either
blast. The fragmentation distribution curves, cal- Figure 2. Fragmentation analysis results from SPLIT.
culated from about 11 photographs taken immedi-
ately after each blast, are shown in Figure 2. These
are from a small sample, but provide an indica-
tive comparison. Considering the fragmentation
analysis of the first blast, with worse drilling, the
mean fragmentation size (Xc) was measured to be
242.3 mm and the uniformity index (n) was 0.89.
With improved drilling, the mean fragment size
decreased to 188.5 mm and the uniformity index (n)
improved to 1.24. The greatest significant differ-
ence in the fragment size distribution was found
in the P50, P80 and top size passing sizes. In all
cases, the holes drilled more accurately resulted in Figure 3. SABREX model of inaccurate holes.
a fragment size reduction of approximately 22% in
particle size for the P50 passing size; 30% for the
P80 passing size; and 30% for the top size passing a fragment size increase of approximately 13%
sizes. Thus the fragment size was reduced substan- for the P20 passing size and 7% for the P50 pass-
tially for the holes drilled accurately. No significant ing size. In P80, the holes drilled more accurately
difference was found in both shots for the P20 size started reducing in fragmentation size as com-
range between 51.7 mm to 54.8 mm. pared to the holes drilled inaccurately. Thus, with
The SABREX modelling software (Kirby et al. improved drilling the fines and oversize decreased
1997) was also used to simulate the effect on frag- with a nominal increase in mean size.
mentation with regards to holes accuracy. This
effectively uses the old Kuz Ram model for frag-
mentation prediction. Figure 3 depicts the model 3 DRILLING DEVIATION RESULTS
for the blast with inaccurately drilled holes. The
mean fragmentation was found to be 230 mm. In the light of these studies, we decided to investigate
The difference in the fragment size distribution the effect of drilling deviation on the fragmentation
was found in the P20, P50 and P80 passing sizes. results and to determine if it was possible to predict
The case with holes drilled accurately resulted in any changes using the updated Kuz Ram predictive

154

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 154 10/3/2012 8:25:52 PM

 face, which appear reasonably normally distributed
(noting that the outliers are approximately 180 from
the main set of azimuths). This suggests that on the
surface mine there is a more consistent tramming
direction of the drills, possibly due to the larger size
of the vehicle. None of the sites showed exactly ver-
tical plunge angles (Fig. 7) though on the platinum
mine the frequency of the drilling within two to four
degrees improved with the improved controls.
Thus, as Figure 5 shows schematically, the align-
ment (i.e plunge angle) and accuracy should both
be considered. A good blast pattern should have
Figure 4. Types of drilling inaccuracy a) section b) plan. good accuracy, but the alignment is less of a prob-
lem, and of course at a perfect vertical angle the
azimuth is ill-defined. However, the worst case is
fragmentation model (Cunningham 2005). Given when both accuracy and alignment vary.
good blast management, drilling deviation should The average angle of drilling alters the absolute
not be an issue. However, due to poor skills and deviation at the bottom of the hole and hence the
rushed production to meet targets there are often average burden. In we consider an average plunge
significant lapses of the drilling quality. The first angle.
step is to understand and quantify drilling devia-
tion. Then, it is possible to determine the risk to the pB ptD
= sin 1 = sin 1 (1)
economics of the mine and the safety of the mine. H H
Sets of borehole deviation data from two quar-
ries and the two blasts from the case study described
where p is the fraction of burden B required for a
above were analyzed in order to understand the drill-
bench height H and t allows the expression in terms
ing deviations and quantify these as statistical dis-
tributions. As shown in Figure 4 there are a number
of possible causes and effects of poor drilling.
Firstly, the drill may not be placed at the designed
position (d1). Secondly the alignment () may not
be as planned (d2) e.g. hole is drilled off vertical.
Thirdly, due to the interaction of the drilling process
and the discontinuities in the rock mass there may be
further deviations (d3) of the drill rod, especially with
smaller diameters. Due to the lack of precise survey
equipment at the time, we were unable to determine
the deviations from design positions. Only a general
deviation (d) from the centre of the hole at an azimuth
() and average plunge angle () were considered.

4 DRILLING ACCURACY STUDIES

Figure 5. Schematic of drilling accuracy.
To evaluate the deviations in practice, the data
from the case study at the platinum mine was sup-
plemented by Boretrak data from two hard rock
quarries, one in Quartzite rock and one in Felsite,
both using 89 mm diameter holes. The presence
of extreme outliers is worrying as these are small
in number but have a huge effect on the results.
These outliers make statistical description difficult
and we have taken an approach to use the simplest
distributions possible to illustrate the concepts
instead of using a full statistical package to evalu-
ate a more complex, but accurate distribution.
The azimuths (Fig. 6) from the quarries were
more uniformly distributed than those from the sur- Figure 6. Azimuth variation in three mines.

155

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 155 10/3/2012 8:25:53 PM

 There is substantial variation and does not seem
to have any normal distribution. The normal distri-
bution relates to random noise (Meyer 1975; Harr
1987), however, the drilling depth variation may
result from a number of systematic errors. Opera-
tor laziness and production pressures encourage
shorter holes, pricing per metre incentivizes longer
holes, poor training and discipline would lead to
more random errors, geological patterns could also
lead to systematic errors. A lognormal distribution
of hole depths and drill deviations may be inferred
as the lognormal since this characteristically meas-
Figure 7. Plunge angle variation in three mines. ures situations where the errors will be proportional
to the deviation. These are infinite in one direction
and a beta distribution with finite bounds may be
more suitable (Meyer 1975).

5 PROBABALISTIC DESIGN
METHODOLOGY

Risk analysis is common in geotechnical and rock

engineering where there are many unknowns and
where some information can be obtained about
the distribution of these unknowns (Lilly 2000,
Joughin et al. 2012, Lilly and Li 2000, Viera and
Durrheim 2001, Sellers and Coetzer 2003, Chiwaye
and Stacey 2011, Terbrugge et al 2006). Risk is
defined as the product of the probability of failure
Figure 8. Hole depth variation in three mines.
and the consequences of failure (Terbrugge et al.
2006). The consequences are often well known and
can be measured in terms of the financial implica-
tions or in safety terms as the potential injury or
loss of life of the miners. Thus, to compute the risk
it is important to be able to quantify the probabil-
ity of failure. Formal probabilistic design methods
are available to assist with the input of statistical
distributions of input parameters and to deter-
mine the hazard or reliability of an excavation. It
is suggested here that they are well suited for the
problem of designing excavations in a rock mass
with a variable stress state.
The first step is to define the criterion for fail-
ure. This can be a limit state design value, which
Figure 9. Drill deviation as percent of burden in 3 mines.
represents the probability that the factor of safety
is less than unity i.e.

Pf = P[ S < 1]
P FS (2)
of diameter and is often around 30. Considering
our case study, if we consider 10% to be an accept-
able drilling deviation (p = 0.1) and the bench This method is most appropriate for pillar
height is 30 m, the angle should be less than 1.3. (Joughin et al. 2012) or tunnel designs (Sellers and
For the quarries, the angles should not be more Coetzer 2003). Alternatively, a serviceability state
than 3. Clearly, even the improved drilling is not could be used that, for example, limits a selected
meeting these requirements. parameter (e.g. displacement in Lilly and Li
The variation in drilling depth relative to the 2000) to be less than a critical value c i.e.
design value is shown in Figure 8 for the four
cases. Pf P [ < c ] (3)

156

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 156 10/3/2012 8:25:55 PM

 To translate this into blasting terms, Equation (3)
is more suitable in most cases and some examples
could include the probability that a given size fraction
(e.g P50) is less than some size, or the flyrock passes
some distance. Once the criterion for the probability
has been determined, the statistical distribution of
each of the n input parameters must be determined.
There are a number of methods to evaluate the
unknown probability distribution that can be used
to evaluate the probability of failure. Assuming the
input distributions are known and simple, the Monte
Carlo approach is used where numerous simulations
are performed with random samplings from all
input distributions and the unknown distribution is
built up with sufficient number of runs (Harr 1987).
However, for a proper simulation using a Monte
Carlo approach millions of analyses may be required
to determine to complete output probability distri-
bution, depending on the required error fraction
(Harr 1987). Morin and Ficarazzo (2006) used the
Monte Carlo method was used to estimate the size
distribution based on variations in the strength and
rockmass properties. St George and Gibson (2001)
used the method for to estimate fly rock risk zone
sizes though only used 1000 trials.
A simpler method is to use the First Order-Second
Moment (FOSM) method, which is most suitable
for engineering calculations where the deterministic
solution is a set of products raised to a power and
there is some information available about the expected
values, standard deviation, minimum and maximum
of the ranges. Thus for a function, F(x1, x2 xn) of n
random variables the expected value is.
E [ F ] = F (x , x xn ) (4)
And the variance is
2
F 2
n tion is the Kuz-Ram model (Cunningham 2005).
V [F ] =
2
V [ xi ] (5)
x
i =1 i
Where V2(xi) are the squares of the input vari-
ances. As a special case, the vector equation
FOSM method (Harr 1987) states that for a func-
tion consisting of powers of random variables.
G ( x1 x2 x
xn ) = ax1g1x2g 2 xngn (6)
with the a and gi being constants. Then the expected
value is
E [G ] = g ( x , x xn ) (7)
And the variance is
V 2 ( g ) = g1V 2 ((x
x1 ) + g2V 2 ( x2 ) + (8)
157
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 157
Table 2. Maximum entropy principle for choosing
distributions.
Information available Distribution
Bounds a < x < b Uniform
Expected value Exponential
Expected value, standard deviation Normal
Expected value, standard deviation, Beta
bounds
Thus, the output distribution depends on the
choice of input distributions, which in turn are
determined by the maximum entropy principle
(Harr 1987). The simplest distribution that fits
the available compiled data must be used as per
Table 2.
An approach that also leads to a formal design
methodology based on a risk analysis of the exca-
vation with unknown distributions of the inputs
is to apply Rosenblueths Point Estimate method
(Harr, 1987). The method has been applied to pil-
lar design (Joughin et al, 2012) and to the design
of tunnels (Lilly and Li, 2000). The expected
value E[yn] of the design criterion is calculated
by evaluating the design criterion (y) at a small
number of specific points (n) in the input distri-
butions. The probability of failure is then found
by fitting a distribution to the expected values
and the variance, and substituting in the fail-
ure criterion. When using a numerical tool, the
Response surface method is preferred (Chiwaye
and Stacey 2010).
6 RISK ANALYSIS OF FRAGMENTATION
The most common predictive model of fragmenta-
The model has been discussed in many places and
the Rosin-Rammler size distribution is denoted by
X
n
Rx = exp 0.693 c ( A) (9)
X 50
where the X is the sieve size, and c(A) is a calibra-
tion factor. The mean size is
19
1
08 115 30
X 50 AK Q6 (10)
RWS
W
with A being the rock factor, K the powder factor,
Q the charge per hole and RWS the relative weight
strength. The uniformity n is given by
10/3/2012 8:25:57 PM
 n ns n10 5 n20 5 n3n40 3c( n )n50.3
30 B S
n1 = 2 n2 = 0.5 1 + Where Wco is the work required with no drill devi-
d B (11)
W L A
n3 = 1 n4 = , n5 = paid for in any case, Wcw is the work expended for
B H 6 a given drilling standard deviation W, c is the cost
where ns is the effect of timing scatter, B is the bur-
den (m), S the spacing (m), d the diameter (mm),
W the standard deviation of drill deviations (m),
L the charge length (m), H the bench height (m)
and c(n) a calibration factor. Considerable effort
has been placed into the study of this equation and
the general consensus is that the Rosin-Rammler
curve underestimates the fines portion of the blast
(Spathis 2010; Ouchterlony 2010a). Alternative dis-
tributions such as the Swebrec function have been
proposed (Ouchterlony 2010a) and improve this
aspect. Many modifications have been made to the
predictive equations for X50 and n and Ouchter-
lony (2010a) suggests that the equation for X50 is
suitable for prediction but Ouchterlony (2010b)
concludes that the equation for n should have the
same dimensions as X50. The standard model will
be used for the illustrations here.
The risk of poor drilling must be expressed as a
financial cost. Risk is usually expressed as the prob-
ability of failure times consequence (Terbrugge
et al 2006). The consequence of poor fragmenta-
tion must be seen in the additional cost of crushing
and milling (Workman and Eloranto 2003). The
third theory of comminution developed by Bond
(1952) is used as a simple estimate of the energy
consumption during beneficiation. The work Wc
required in kWh/t is.
1 1
Wc 10Wi .5 0 .5 (12)
P0 F the uniformity is calculated using Equation 11 with
where Wi is the work index for the specific rock type
(KWh/t), P is the 80% passing size of the product
(m) and F is 80% passing size of the feed (m).
In the simplest approach to determine the prob-
ability of failure the maximum drill deviation Wmax
is considered to have a probability of 1.0 and the
effect is calculated using the standard Kuz-Ram
model though the variation of W in the equa-
tion for n. There may well be a change in mean
size in addition to the decrease in uniformity as
was observed in our case study and this can only
be evaluated using a full Monte Carlo simulation.
The standard deviation W in factor n3 of Equation
(11) is Wmax/3 for all practical purposes, assuming
a normal distribution (Harr 1987). Using Rx = 0.2,
the 80% passing is calculated using Equation 9.
Then, the financial risk equals.
158
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 158
R = (Wcw Wco) cM (13)
ations (i.e. W = 0) that has to be expended and
of energy in $/kWh and M is the total mass of
rock.
As an example, we consider the platinum mine
case study presented earlier. The rock factor is cal-
culated to be 6.6 and c(A) = 0.9 is used to match
the mean size. The uniformity is then calculated for
a range of drill deviations and decreases from 1.3
to 0.87 as shown in Figure 10. This encompasses
the change of uniformity with improved drilling
observed in practice.
We use Wi = 20 kWh/t as the Norite material is
similar to the rock used in the surface platinum
mine described by Sellers and Gumede (2011).
The financial risk is evaluated by multiplying the
work required by a typical dollar cost of electri-
cal energy c = $0.101/kWh (Sellers and Gumede,
2011). The mass of rock is assumed to be equal to
the volume from the design burden, spacing and
height multiplied by the number of rows times
the number of columns of holes in the blast. We
consider, a typical blast with a maximum drill
deviation equal to the burden and consisting of
7 rows and 100 columns. The amazing result also
shown in Figure 10, is that the 33% decrease in
uniformity factor n causes a 37% increase in X80,
which in turn due to the cumulative nonlinearity
of the equations leads to a fourteen fold increase
in financial risk.
A complete estimation of the effects of the
drilling on the fragmentation curve requires a full
Monte Carlo simulation that is still in development
where each burden is considered independently
based on the drill deviation at each hole and where
n3 = 1 and the full particle distribution is deter-
mined based on the sum for all holes.
Figure 10. Risk of poor drilling with increasing drill
deviation.
10/3/2012 8:26:01 PM
 7 RISK ANALYIS OF FLYROCK
There are many approaches for calculating the
flyrock distance including empirical, mechanistic
and Monte Carlo methods as reviewed in Little and
Blair (2010). Using the approach of Richards
and Moore (2002), the maximum distance for face
bursting can be rewritten as
k 2 1 3 2.6
Lmax = m B (14)
g
where k is a rockmass constant equal to 13.5 for
soft competent rock and 27 for hard competent
rock, g is the gravitational constant and m is the
mass of explosive in kg/m.
Consider that the variation in the front burden
is in question here and that it includes a compo-
nent from the drilling deviation and the face shape.
Then.
B = Bm + f(d) + g(b) (15)
where Bm is the design burden, d is the drill devia-
tion sampled from the distribution of drill devia-
tions f and b is face deviation sampled from the
distribution of block sizes g. The deviation in face
shape will be related to the block size of the rock
mass as the face will tend to fall out or be scraped
within a discrete number of blocks. We consider
the block sizes to be either normally distributed or,
more commonly, having a negative exponential dis-
tribution (Joughin et al 2012, Chiwaye and Stacey
2010). Then, from the FOSM method the expected
value of throw is given by
E [ k ]2 1.3
[( E[[ )]max ] = m ( [([ B ]))].26 (16)
g rifling and other poor blast practices. Even when
where E[] is the expected value of that variable
for that distribution. The expected value of maxi-
mum throw is 120 m for our case study with a
design burden of 4.2 m, k = 27 for hard rock and
m = 25.7 kg for an explosive relative density of
1.2 in a 165 mm borehole.
The distribution of flyrock distances for various
input distributions are shown in Figure 12. When
the input distribution of the drilling deviation is
normally distributed with a maximum deviation
equal to the burden (i.e. W = B/3) and the face
variation is exponentially distributed (NORM-
EXP-100%B) there is always a finite probability of
flyrock at a given distance due to the infinite extent
of the exponential distribution. Therefore, is better
to use a finite distribution e.g. a normal distribu-
tion for both burden and drilling deviations. Then
when the maximum drilling deviation is 100% of
159
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 159
Figure 11. Schematic of drill and burden deviations.
Figure 12. Distribution of fly rock distances with drill
and face variation (note log scale of vertical axis).
burden (i.e. W = B/3) there is still a risk of rocks
landing at a distance of 1000 m or more (NORM-
NORM-100%B). It can be seen that if the maxi-
mum drilling deviation is less than half the burden
(i.e. W = B/6) there are a few possible instances of
fly rock beyond 200 m (NORM-NORM-50%B).
Further reducing the drilling deviations to 30%
of burden (i.e. W = B/10) would avoid any rocks
landing beyond 200 m (NORM-NORM-30%B).
this validates the criterion that the drilling devia-
tion should not be less than 10% of the burden.
Note that this does not include wild flyrock
noted by Little (2007) from stemming ejection,
using normal distributions of the inputs, the out-
puts in terms of landing distances are described by
a negative exponential distribution in agreement
with the observations of flyrock data presented by
Little (2007). This is due to the power law relation-
ship between burden and range. The probability
of exceeding a given distance L can be determined
from fitting a probability distribution function to
the Monte Carlo simulation. As per Little (2007),
the total probability is found by multiplying by the
frequency of blasting and by the spatial and dam-
age probabilities.
To further illustrate the consequence of these
highly nonlinear relationships we took a set of data
collected from actual measured blasting param-
eters and compare two scenarios. No fly rock dis-
tance data was available for these blasts, but the
range of actual blast parameters allows us to pre-
dict rock landing distances. The first prediction
10/3/2012 8:26:02 PM

Figure 13. Effect of drilling deviation with 10% stand-
ard deviation and 1 m of face variation on throw range.
(Fig. 13) using the design burden (W = 0) and
no face deviation (b = 0) suggests that no flyrock
distance exceeds 300 m.The second prediction
included a drilling variation with a standard devia-
tion of 10% of burden (W = 0.1B) and a face devi-
ation of 0.1 m (b = 0.1). The maximum distance
now extends to 730 m. Finally, if there was 1 m of
maximum face deviation, which is typical of many
mines, there is a huge increase in the predicted
landing distances as shown in Figure 13. Certain
mines, particularly those mining Kimberlite, use
large hole diameters and small patterns so fly rock
distances could extend to significant distances in
some cases, though these do seem excessive. The
leaving of toes may provide some respite, but for
the wrong reasons. In these cases, both the drilling
accuracy and the face condition are vital, though
the predominance of toes on the faces is probably
a mitigating factor. We have to accept that this is
a simple model and there are significant physical
limitations, such as the influence of topography,
which can be addressed by more complex models
e.g. Little and Blair (2010). It does, however pro-
vide a first order methodology for illustrating the
sensitivity to the drilling parameters. Since all these
blast parameters are from real mines, the study
emphasizes the sensitivity of the designs to varia-
tions in drilling and face shape.
8 CONCLUSIONS
A case study at a large open cast platinum mine
indicated that there was a significant improvement
in the fineness and uniformity of fragmentation
when drilling deviations were reduced. This led to
a study to quantify the risk of drilling deviations.
The risk of poor fragmentation can be expressed
in financial terms. A seemingly minor decrease in
uniformity can lead to a huge increase in cost due
to the power law relationship between rock size and
160
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 160
crushing energy. In the case study in question the
costs increased by a factor of fourteen. The effect
of drilling deviation on flyrock distances is also
significantly affected by the power law relation-
ship between burden and range. There seems to be
almost a binary probability distribution of poten-
tial to exceed a typical exclusion distance such
as 500 m. If the bench is drilled and prepared to
design the probability of exceeding is zero and yet
an apparently slight deviation of 10% results in a
probability of unity. It is unfortunate that a major
production activity is seldom performed carefully
and that significant efforts must go into analyzing
the effects of this poor production quality. Obvi-
ously, the models are simple and need more data for
validation. The benefits are that a method has been
developed to quantify the financial costs and hence
emphasize the value of good controls to the mine.
ACKNOWLEGDEMENTS
We would like to thank Claude Cunningham for
helpful discussions.
REFERENCES
Bond, F.C. 1952. The Third Theory of Comminution,
Mining Engineering, 484494.
Chiwaye, H.T. & Stacey T.R. 2010. A comparison of limit
equilibrium and numerical modelling approaches to
risk analysis for open pit mining. The Journal of The
Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy
110. 571580.
Cunningham, C.V.B. 2005. The Kuz-Ram fragmentation
model20 years on. Brighton Conference Proceed-
ings, R. European Federation of Explosives Engineers.
Holmberg et al. 201210.
Harr, M.E. 1987. Reliability based design in civil
engineering. McGraw-Hill. 290 pp.
Joughin, W.C., Jager A., Nezomba E., & L. Rwodzi.
2012. A risk evaluation model for support design
in Bushveld Complex underground mines: Parts I
and II. The Journal of The Southern African Institute
of Mining and Metallurgy. 112. 83104
Kirby I.J., Harries, G.H. & Tidman J.P 1997. ICIs Com-
puter Blasting Model SABREXBasic Principles
and Capabilities International Society of Explosives
Engineers. Proceedings 23rd Annual Conference. Las
Vegas, NV.
Lilly, P. 2000. Probability and risk in Geomechanics.
Course notes Snowden Mining Industry Consultants.
Lilly, P. & Li, J., 2000. Estimating excavation reliability
from displacement modelling. Int. J. Rock. Mech. Min
Sci. 37. 12611265.
Little, T.N. 2007. Flyrock risk. Proc. Explo 2007
Wollongong, Australia. 3543. AUSIMM.
Little, T.N. & Blair, D.P. 2010. Mechanistic Monte
Carlo models for analysis of flyrock risk. Rock
Fragmentation by blasting. Sanchidrian (ed). Taylor
and Francis Group. London.
10/3/2012 8:26:04 PM
 Meyer, S.L. 1975. Data analysis for scientists and
engineers. Wiley. New York.
Morin M.A. & Ficarazzo, F. 2006. Monte Carlo simula-
tion as a tool to predict blasting fragmentation based
on the Kuz-Ram model. Computers and Geosciences,
32 352359.
Ouchterlony, F. 2010a. Fragmentation characterization:
the Swebrec function and its use in blast engineering.
Rock Fragmentation by Blasting. Granada, Sanchidrian
(ed). Taylor and Francis Group. London. 323.
Ouchterlony, F. 2010b. A common form for fragment size
distributions from blasting and a derivation of a gen-
eralised Kuznetsovs x50 equation. Rock Fragmenta-
tion in Blasting. Granada, Sanchidrian (ed). Taylor and
Francis Group. London. 199209.
Richards, A.B. & Moore A.J. 2002. Flyrock Controlby
chance or design. International Society of Explosive
Engineers Conference. New Orleans.
Sellers, E. & Coetzer, S. 2003. Probabilistic design meth-
odology for dealing with insitu stress variation. 3rd
International Symposium on Rock Stress. 535542. RS
Kumamoto 03.
Sellers E.J. & Gumede X. 2011. Environmentally
conscious blasting: Beyond Mine to Mill. EFEE
Conference. Lisbon.
161
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 161
Spathis, A.T. 2010. Formulae and techniques for assessing
features of blast-induced fragmentation distributions.
Rock Fragmentation in Blasting. Granada, Sanchidrian
(ed). Taylor and Francis Group. London: 209219.
St George, J.D. & Gibson, M.F.L. 2001. Estimation of
flyrock travel distances: a probabilistic approach.
EXPLO2001. Hunter Valley, NSW. 245252.
AUSIMM.
Terbrugge, P.J. Wesseloo, J. Venter, J. & Steffen, O.K.H.
2006. A risk consequence approach to open pit slope
design. The Journal of The South African Institute of
Mining and Metallurgy. 106: 503511.
Viera F.M.C.C. & Durrheim, R.J. 2001. Probabilistic mine
design methods to reduce rockburst risk. Rockbursts
and seismicity in mines. RASIM5. Johannesburg.
SAIMM.
Workman, L. & Eloranta, J. 2003. The Effects of
Blasting on Crushing and Grinding Efficiency and
Energy Consumption, Proc of the 29th Annual Con-
ference on Explosives and Blasting Technique, Feb.,
Nashville, TN.
10/3/2012 8:26:04 PM
This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Ultra-high intensity blasting for improved ore comminution

G.F. Brent, M.D. Rothery & P.C. Dare-Bryan

Orica Mining Services Technology Centre, Kurri Kurri, NSW, Australia

S.J. Hawke
Orica Mining Services, Cannon Hill, QLD, Australia

R. Gomez & I. Humeres

Orica Mining Services Latin America, Santiago, Chile

ABSTRACT: It has long been a goal of blasting to provide enhanced rock fragmentation to improve
the productivity of crushing and grinding circuits. Mine-to-mill studies have demonstrated downstream
productivity benefits from modest increases in powder factor. However, such increases have been limited
by safety and environmental constraints; excessive blast energy usually results in the hazard of flyrock
along with other concerns including vibration, airblast or perimeter and wall damage. Now, a new blasting
method has been developed that can overcome these constraints, allowing the use of blast energies that
are several times higher than those conventionally used. The method involves dual blast layers within a
single blast event that is initiated with electronic blasting systems. An upper blast layer comprising con-
ventional powder factors is initiated first and the broken rock is allowed to fall to rest before initiation of
the lower layer which comprises ultra-high powder factors and hence considerably higher blast energy.
The broken rock from the earlier-firing upper layer provides an effective buffer to avoid flyrock, enabling
powder factors in the range 25 kg of explosives per cubic metre of rock to be achieved with control. This
paper presents the concept along with modelling studies and the results of field trials that demonstrate,
for the first time, the viability of ultra-high powder factors in open cut metalliferous mining. Independent
fragmentation and comminution modelling has also shown that such powder factors can produce much
finer rock fragmentation and increase mill throughput by 2040%. This new method offers the potential
to increase mine production and profitability while reducing energy consumption and associated green-
house gas emissions.

1 INTRODUCTION to surrounding rock or infrastructure. While

In nonferrous metal mining operations it is gener-
ally necessary to crush and grind the ore to fine
particle sizes to achieve effective mineral libera-
tion. Usually, these comminution processes tar-
get particle sizes of the order of tens of microns.
Decreasing ore grades are driving the pursuit of
higher efficiencies in mineral processing, requir-
ing ever-finer comminution. This constrains mill
throughput and hence production rates, as well as
increasing the energy consumption and associated
Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions per tonne of
metal produced (Norgate & Hacque 2010).
Blasting is the first stage in the rock fragmenta-
tion process and the achievement of enhanced frag-
mentation is often a primary goal of blast designers.
Blast designers strive to provide finer fragmentation
outcomes while meeting environmental constraints
such as flyrock, vibration, airblast and damage
increasing the explosive energy or powder factor is
an obvious route to improving fragmentation, the
environmental constraints usually limit the powder
factor that can be safely used in the blast. Powder
factors in this work will be expressed in terms of
explosive mass per unit volume of unblasted rock,
or simply kg/bcm, where bcm refers to bank (solid)
cubic metres of rock.
Various mine-to-mill studies have measured
increases in mill productivity that are ascribed to
improved fragmentation from the blasting opera-
tions (Scott et al. 2002, Rantapaa et al. 2005).
Milling energy consumption, primarily based
on fossil-fuel derived electricity, dominates the
energy and emissions profile of mineral process-
ing operations (Norgate & Hacque 2010). Milling
electricity consumption is typically in the range
1040 kWh per tonne of ore milled (Chauvin
et al. 2000). Norgate & Jahanshahi (2007) report

163

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 163 10/3/2012 8:26:04 PM

 a production-weighted mean electrical energy
consumption of about 20 kWh per tonne of ore
for Australian base metal ores. Since Australian
electricity supply is largely derived from coal
power, this equates to GHG emissions of around
21 kg CO2-e/t ore milled (Australian Greenhouse
Office 2006).
Nielsen & Malvik (1999) indicated that energy
consumption in the fine grinding stage could be
reduced by 7.5% from 18.2 to 16.8 kWh/t for taco-
nite due to a 30% increase in powder factor.
Eloranta (1999), in reviewing work from a
number of authors, cited a 12% decrease in mill-
ing energy for a powder factor increase from
0.58 to 0.66 kg/bcm and another study showing
a 40% decrease in milling energy for an increase
in powder factor from 0.8 to 3.9 kg/bcm. Bye
(2005) also found increased milling rates of
platinum ore of up to 18% for increases in pow-
der factor of up to 45%. In the same study he
reported increases in ore and waste loading rates
of up to 13%.
Michaux & Djordjevic (2005) used the
JKSimMet model based on experimental results
of blasting lumps of rock to postulate a linear
increase in SAG mill throughput as explosive
energy per tonne of rock increased. Their
model indicated an increase of 360 t/h for every
kJ/kg increase in explosives energy over the range
(1.5 kJ/kg, 1430 t/h) to (2.7 kJ/kg, 1870 t/h). The
implication was that the SAG mill power draw
remained at 15.9 MW; hence energy consumption
fell from 11 to 8.5 kWh/t, a decrease of 23%. It
is noted here that increases in powder factor are
essentially analogous to increases in explosives
energy per tonne of rock for a given energy con-
tent or explosive formulation.
Two possible effects on the resultant rock could
be responsible for the increases in milling through-
put, or energy reductions, observed with increases
in explosive energy per tonne of rock blasted. The
physical reduction in particle sizes, or enhanced
fragmentation, is generally accepted as the first
effect of increased powder factor. A reduction in
the inherent strength, or improved grindability,
of the fragments has been proposed as a second
effect. This has also been termed enhanced micro-
cracking (Nielsen & Malvik 1999) or precon-
ditioning (Michaux & Djordjevic 2005). These
researchers reported both these effects in their
experimental work. Katsabanis & Kim (2011)
have recently also reported experimental verifica-
tion of both effects with increased powder factor.
They describe enhanced fragmentation along with
decreases in the impact energy required to break
the remnant fragments as powder factors were
increased in a range of rock types in small scale
blasting tests.
164
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 164
2 FRAGMENTATION AND
COMMINUTION MODELLING
Independent modelling was conducted under
the auspices of the Australian Minerals Industry
Research Association (AMIRA) and was reported
by Ziemski (2011). This work used the well-known
JKSimBlast and JKSimMet models to investigate
the use of high powder factors. The JKSimBlast
model showed significant improvements in rock
fragmentation, for example decreases in the 50%
passing size from 176 to 21 mm for hard ore and
from 81 to 4 mm for soft ore with an increase in
blast powder factor from 1.1 to 4.2 kg/bcm.
The JKSimMet model was then used for typical
comminution circuits and showed increases in the
grinding circuit throughput of 25% and 40% for
the hard and soft ores, respectively.
The report by Ziemski (2011) concluded that
the use of powder factors in the range 45 kg/bcm
could offer comminution energy savings in excess
of 25%, overall mineral extraction cost reduc-
tions of up to 20% and increases in comminu-
tion plant throughput in excess of 25%. It also
concluded that the overall benefits generated by
the increased throughput from increased revenue
and profit would be even greater than the cost
savings.
3 CONVENTIONAL BLASTING
TECHNIQUES
The top of Figure 1 shows a cross section of a base
case blast design that is reasonably typical of pro-
duction blasting in open cut metal mines. Here the
bench height is 12 m and the blasthole diameters
are 229 mm. The holes are charged with a heavy
ANFO at a density of 1300 kg/m3 on a burden and
spacing of 6.8 m and 7.8 m respectively with 2 m of
subdrill. A 4.6 m column of stemming is used. The
overall blast powder factor is 0.8 kg/bcm. The blast
is fired in a choked mode with previously blasted
material in front of the blast (shown in Figure 1 in
red to the right of the blasthole pattern). A rep-
resentative blast initiation sequence with inter-row
delays ranging from 42 ms to 150 ms is used. The
resultant maximum uplift during the blast and the
final blast profile as predicted by the SoH model
(Minchinton & Dare-Bryan 2005) are shown in the
central and lower parts of Figure 1. It is observed
that the rock lifts to about 60% of the original
bench height and then falls back into place within
the original blast footprint. This level of control is
required and is generally achieved in practice.
In order to utilize considerably higher powder
factors it becomes necessary to increase the explo-
sive charging. If blasthole diameters are fixed
10/3/2012 8:26:05 PM
 then the blasthole pattern needs to be tightened.
Here we model a blast with the same blasthole
diameters and explosive as before but with a pow-
der factor increased to 4.0 kg/bcm by utilizing a
burden and spacing of 3.1 m. The upper part of
Figure 2 shows the design, with two buffer rows
at the blast edge to minimize perimeter damage.
The lower part of Figure 2 shows a snapshot from
the SoH model prediction of the blast. The rock
is seen to be launched violently into the air with
large amounts of dangerous flyrock ejected from
the blast area. It is thus clear that conventional
blasting techniques cannot be utilized at these high
powder factors.

4 NEW ULTRA-HIGH INTENSITY

BLASTING METHOD

This paper now presents a novel blasting method

Figure 1. Conventional base case blast with a powder
factor of 0.8 kg/bcm.
Figure 2. Conventional blasting method with ultra-high
powder factor of 4 kg/bcm.
that has been invented (Brent et al. 2011) to
enable the utilization of powder factors that are
several times higher than those used convention-
ally, while safely containing the rock and limiting
vibration. This new method has the potential to
introduce a step-change in blasting practices lead-
ing to increased mine productivity. It has been
extensively modelled and is undergoing a program
of field trials that is demonstrating its success.
Here the method is termed Ultra-High Intensity
Blasting, or UHIB.
The UHIB method involves the principle of
blasting in multiple layers with electronic detona-
tors providing long multi-second delays between
the layers. In particular, the method utilizes an
upper layer that is charged at more conventional
powder factors overlying a lower layer that is
charged at ultra-high powder factors. The upper
layer is initiated first, breaking the rock which then
falls back to provide a static blanket covering the
ultra-high intensity layer. When the lower layer ini-
tiates several seconds later, the rock movement is
safely constrained by the upper blanket of broken
rock. Similar inter-hole and inter-row delays have
been employed to those used in the base case.
The upper part of Figure 3 shows such a UHIB
design, using the same rock, bench, blasthole,
pattern and explosive parameters as for Figure 2.
However, here the blastholes in the main blast, apart
from the two buffer rows for perimeter control, have
been loaded with two decks of explosives in every
alternate hole and only the lower deck in the other
holes. This provides an upper layer with a conven-
tional powder factor overlying a lower layer with a
powder factor in excess of 5.0 kg/bcm. The over-
all powder factor across both layers is 3.6 kg/bcm,
representing more than a fourfold increase on the
conventional blast base case of Figure 1.

165

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 165 10/3/2012 8:26:05 PM


Figure 3. New UHIB blasting method with ultra-high
powder factor of 5 kg/bcm in lower layer and 3.6 kg/bcm
overall.
The central part of Figure 3 shows the
maximum extent of rock uplift during the blast as
predicted by the SoH model, while the lower part
of the figure shows the final predicted rockpile. It
is observed that the rock movement with this new
method is safely contained during the blast and all
rock falls back within the blast footprint, in stark
contrast to Figure 2.
5 POTENTIAL ISSUES WITH THE NEW
METHOD
A number of potential concerns are raised with
this new method. The first is largely a resource
and cost concern around the requirements for the
additional drilling and explosives loading. These
needs may be reduced somewhat by using larger
blasthole diameters and higher energy explosives.
Both these routes are being actively pursued for the
deployment of this method. Drill and blast costs
will however increase more or less in line with
the increase in powder factor. However, this cost
increase will be more than offset with concomitant
increases in mill throughput. The work by Ziemski
(2011) showed a net decrease in overall mineral
extraction costs. Furthermore, where the increased
mill production can be utilized to increase mineral
166
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 166
production and sales revenue, economic modelling
shows enormous benefits and increased mine prof-
itability (Hawkes 2011).
Another concern is the possibility of damage
to highwalls or other structures due to excessive
blast vibration. A Monte Carlo statistical model
of blast vibration (Blair 1999) has been utilized
to test UHIB designs against conventional blast
designs. It has been found that, in general, the
UHIB method can actually decrease blast vibra-
tion. A case study is presented in the next section,
where the predicted lower vibration levels were
confirmed by actual measurements from the trial
blast. Perimeter damage to adjacent blast blocks
and potential interim walls can be limited by uti-
lizing lower explosive energy concentrations in the
perimeter rows, for example as shown in Figure 3.
Blasting against final walls might require normal
wall control practices, including presplitting.
Yet another concern is the possible malfunc-
tion of explosives or initiators due to excessive
pressures experienced in closely spaced blastholes.
Malfunctioning may include crushing and fail-
ure of detonators, explosive desensitization and
failure or sympathetic detonation (Nie 1993). All
these modes have been observed in various blast-
ing situations around the world where excessive
inter-blasthole pressures have been encountered,
apparently exacerbated by unfavorable conditions
such as highly jointed, heavily fractured, very soft
or saturated rock. This is a real concern for UHIB,
as the increased energy intensity increases the
chances of excessive pressures being experienced
in adjacent blastholes. In order to monitor and
control this phenomenon, a field-robust pressure
measurement system is under development and is
being deployed in ongoing UHIB field trials.
6 FIELD TRIALS
A field trial program has been underway at a large
copper mine in Chile since 2010. The Andina mine,
owned and operated by Codelco, uses 311 mm
blastholes for the hardest ore zones. The trials at
Andina have demonstrated that blasthole patterns
as tight as 4 m 4 m can be drilled, loaded and
fired successfully. To date no explosive or initiator
malfunctions have been observed.
Following extensive preliminary work, the first
field trial of a UHIB blast was conducted within
a conventional blast in the hardest ore regime in
late February 2012. Bench heights were 16 m with
a nominal 1 m of subdrill. The UHIB section com-
prised a blasthole pattern of 6 m 6 m while the
conventional blast pattern was 7 m 9 m. Both
blast designs used heavy ANFO explosives with
a top stemming column of 6.5 m. In the conven-
10/3/2012 8:26:06 PM
 tional blast, the explosive density was 1160 kg/m3
yielding charge masses of 930 kg and a powder fac-
tor of 0.8 kg/bcm. The UHIB blast section utilized
an explosive density of 1300 kg/m3. It comprised
upper explosives decks of 200 kg yielding a design
powder factor of 0.64 kg/bcm in the upper layer
and lower decks with a nominal mass of 630 kg
yielding a powder factor of 2.3 kg/bcm in the lower
layer; being three times the conventional pow-
der factor. The overall UHIB powder factor was
1.5 kg/bcm; almost twice that of the conventional
blast. Using electronic detonators, the upper layer
of the UHIB blast was initiated 5000 ms before
the lower layer and the conventional blast. Blast
initiation sequences comprised delays in the range
60130 ms along rows and 6080 ms between rows. Figure 5. Online Split analysis of fines in SAG mill feed
Primers were located about 1 m from the bottom from UHIB trial and conventional blast.
of each explosive deck in both blast sections.
Figure 4 shows images from a video of the blast.
The upper layer of the UHIB section is observed
to rise no more than a few metres and fall back
into place (frame 2) before the lower layer and the
conventional blast are initiated (frames 35). The
conventional blast is seen to eject at many places,
while the UHIB section does not show any rock
ejection, even from the lower layer which had three
times the powder factor of the conventional blast.
The ease of excavation of the UHIB section was
reported by the mine to be excellent and better than
that of the conventional blast. An online Split frag-
mentation vision system installed at the mines SAG
mill feed was used to measure the fragmentation.
Figure 5 shows these results. An increase of 7% in
the percentage of fines (less than 25 mm) entering
the mill was measured from the UHIB section.

Figure 6. Predicted vector waveforms from a generic

conventional blast (top) and a generic UHIB blast (mid-
dle) with twice the overall powder factor of the conven-
Figure 4. Video images from UHIB trial blast (marked tional blast and the measured VPPV from a UHIB blast
with polygon) within a conventional blast. trial section within a conventional blast (bottom).

167

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 167 10/3/2012 8:26:06 PM

 Vibration predictions (normalized Vector Peak
Particle Velocity or VPPV) for a generic UHIB
blast and a generic conventional blast in the same
area of the hard ore zone using the Monte Carlo
statistical model of Blair (1999) are shown in
Figure 6, which shows predicted levels for a point
of interest close to the modelled blasts. The predic-
tions show a reduction in vibration from a UHIB
blast when compared to the predicted levels from a
conventional blast which has half the overall pow-
der factor of the UHIB blast. Two key reasons for
this reduction are the lower maximum instantane-
ous charge in the UHIB blast, here 630 kg versus
930 kg in the conventional blast, as well as the
enhanced effect of screening, or attenuation due
to increased rock damage which arises from the
more closely spaced blastholes in the UHIB blast;
see Blair (1999).
The actual vibration levels measured at an ore-
pass are also shown in Figure 6 for the trial UHIB
blast section within the conventional blast. It is
seen that the vibration levels emanating from the
UHIB part of the blast are indeed lower than those
from the conventional blast, which form the latter
part of the vibration trace.
The trial program was expected to enter a phase
of progressively increasing the UHIB powder fac-
tor and measuring the impact on mill throughput
once the mine re-entered full production after the
winter.
7 CONCLUSIONS
UHIB is a new blasting method that, for the first
time, permits the use of powder factors that are
several times higher than those used convention-
ally in open cut blasting operations. Blast model-
ling studies have shown that this method can be
safely used without causing flyrock or increasing
vibration. Independent modelling studies have
also shown that the use of such high powder fac-
tors can improve fragmentation, increase mill
throughput and increase mine production and
profit.
Field trials have shown that blasts can be suc-
cessfully drilled, loaded and fired on the tight pat-
terns needed for UHIB. The trials have also shown
that UHIB blasts can control flyrock and vibration
better than conventional blasting methods that uti-
lize powder factors several times lower than UHIB.
First results from the field trials also indicate that
rock fragmentation from UHIB is indeed finer
than that from a conventional blast.
Overall mine energy consumption and GHG
emissions can thus also be reduced. Noting that,
on a life cycle basis, the GHG emissions associ-
ated with one kilogram of explosive manufactured
168
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 168
using modern N2O abatement technology
(Brent 2009) is approximately 1.7 kg CO2-e, then
a fourfold increase in powder factor from 1 to
4 kg/bcm increases GHG emissions by about
5 kg CO2-e/bcm of ore blasted, or at most 2 kg
CO2-e/t of ore. Using the average Australian elec-
tricity emissions of 21 kg CO2-e/t ore, it is clear
that any decreases in mill energy consumption in
excess of 10% would lead to an overall emissions
reduction. The modelled improvements in mill
throughput for fourfold increase in powder factor
(Ziemski 2011) indicated milling improvements
in the range 2540%, meaning net GHG reduc-
tions in the range 3.36.4 kg CO2-e/t of ore milled
(1630% overall decrease).
It is concluded that UHIB offers the potential
for an exciting new era in blasting, by safely and
controllably using considerably more explosive
energy to improve mine productivity and reduce
overall energy consumption and greenhouse gas
emissions. It is a development that truly epitomizes
the Fragblast goals.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors thank and acknowledge Codelco and
Andina Mine for their co-operation in conduct-
ing the field trials and permission to publish these
results. In particular, Ricardo Matus is thanked for
his management of the trials at Andina. We also
thank and acknowledge the assistance of many
Orica colleagues, including Stephen Boyce, Tapan
Goswami, Bernie De Aruago, Ricardo Gonzalez,
Jorge Valencia, Marco Arellano and the team in
Chile.
REFERENCES
Australian Greenhouse Office. 2006. AGO Factors and
Methods Workbook, V3. www.greenhouse.gov.au/
workbook, accessed June 2007.
Blair, D.P. 1999. Statistical models for ground vibra-
tion and airblast. FragblastInternational Journal of
Blasting and Fragmentation 3 (1999): 335364.
Brent, G.F. 2009. Greenhouse gas implications of explo-
sives and blasting. Proc. 9th Int. Symp. on Rock Frag-
mentation by Blasting-Fragblast 9, Granada. Leiden:
CRC Press/ Balkema.
Brent, G.F., Goswami, T., Noy, M.J. & Dare-Bryan, P.
2011. High Energy Blasting. International Patent Pub-
lication No. WO 2011/127540 A1.
Bye, A. 2005. Sandsloot open-pit applies 3-D geotechnical
modelling. Engineering & Mining Journal, July/August
2005: 4450.
Chauvin, J.P., Luinstra, W. & Cormier, J.A. 2000. Battle
Mountain Gold-Golden Giant Mine. In Damjanovic, B. &
Goode, J.R. (eds), Canadian Milling Practice, CIM
Special Volume 49, ISBN 1-894475-10-0.
10/3/2012 8:26:07 PM
 Eloranta, J. 1999. Downstream costs and their relation-
ship to blasting. Proc. MINNBLAST 99 Minnesotas
1st Int. Surface Blasting Conf., Duluth, June 711,
1999.
Hawkes, P. 2011. Unpublished economic modeling. Orica
Ltd.
Katsabanis, P.D. & Kim, S. 2011. Effect of blasting on
impact breakage of the resulting fragmentsresults
from small scale tests. FragblastInternational Journal
of Blasting and Fragmentation 5 (2): 87108.
Michaux, S. & Djordjevic, N. 2005. Influence of explo-
sive energy on the strength of the rock fragments and
SAG mill throughput. Minerals Engineering 18 (2005):
439448.
Minchinton, A. & Dare-Bryan, P. 2005. On the appli-
cation of computer modelling for blasting and flow
in sublevel caving operations. Proc. 9th Underground
Operators Conference, Perth, 79 March 2005.
Melbourne: AusIMM.
Nie, S. 1993. Pressure densensitization of emulsion
explosives. Proc. 4th Int. Symp. on Rock Fragmentation
by Blasting-Fragblast 4, Vienna. Rotterdam: Balkema.
169
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 169
Nielsen, K. & Malvik, T. 1999. Grindability enhancement
by blast-induced microcracks. Powder Technology 105
(1999): 5256.
Norgate, T. & Hacque, N. 2010. Energy and greenhouse
gas impacts of mining and mineral processing
operations. J. Cleaner Prod. 18 (2010): 266274.
Norgate, T. & Jahanshahi, S. 2007. Opportunities for reduc-
ing energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions
in mineral processing and metal production. Proc.
Chemeca 2007, 2326 September 2007. Melbourne:
IChemE.
Rantapaa, R., Mckinstry, R. & Bolles, T. 2005.
Drill-to-Mill: Efficient drilling and blasting resulting
in increased mill throughput at Barrick Goldstrike.
CIM Bulletin 98 (1085): 13.
Scott, A., Morrell, S. & Clark, D. 2002. Tracking and
quantifying value from mine to mill improvement.
Proc. AusIMM Value Tracking Symposium, October
2002. Brisbane: AusIMM.
Ziemski, M. 2011. AMSRI Project Report, AMSRI
Project 1.2bBlasting for Comminution. Brisbane:
AMIRA.
10/3/2012 8:26:07 PM
This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Development of engineering blasting techniques in China

X.G. Wang
China Society of Engineering Blasting, China

ABSTRACT: The current state of Chinese engineering blasting technology and their achievements
are discussed in this review of the development of Chinese engineering blasting. Looking beyond the
innovation and development of Chinese engineering blasting technology, the paper points out that the
Chinese engineering blasting industry needs further investigation, and stresses that four new concepts
(new techniques, new process, new equipment, new material) are the source and power for the promotion
the development of engineering blasting technology in China.

1 THE ACHIEVEMENTS OF CHINESE millisecond delay blasting, extrusion blasting, pre-

ENGINEERING BLASTING
TECHNOLOGY
The Chinese economy has been soaring since 1978,
when it began initiating several reforms and opening
up to global markets. With the construction of all
sorts of infrastructure, the blasting industry has
also developed a great deal. This development
has been especially pronounced in recent years,
with the construction of large facilities such as the
Guangzhou Baiyun International Airport, Beijing-
Shanghai High-Speed Railway, Yichang-Wanzhou
Railway and pump-storage power stations in
Xiluodu, Xiangjiaba and Qingyuan. On the one
hand, a number of new projects, including large
airports, freeways, ports, hydraulic and electric
power stations, reconstruction and extension
projects of cities, factories and mines have been
set-up or are commencing. On the other hand,
many subjects related to scientific research blasting
have been included in the national scientific
research plan. Presented below is the introduction
of the progress and achievements of Chinese
engineering blasting technology, including some
of the most widely used and the most important
blasting technology and equipment.
1.1 Open deep-hole blasting
and controlled rock blasting
Open deep-hole blasting technology is the main
direction that the development of modern engi-
neering blasting technology is taken. It is widely
used in China. Large quarries and railways, high-
way cutting, and foundational excavation of large
hydropower projects require deep-hole blasting.
According to the requirements of projects, deep-
hole blasting in mines has already developed into
split blasting, smooth blasting, and so on. With
the application of new equipment, open deep-hole
blasting is progressing towards larger apertures,
larger scales, higher platforms, and higher levels
of precision. An example is the controlled blast-
ing technique used in the Three Gorges Project,
which involved excavating the one hundred meters
of highly stable slopes for the permanent ship lock
chamber about 1000 104 m3 deep.
Smooth blasting and pre-splitting blasting tech-
nologies, as two forms of controlled rock blast-
ing, developed with the wide use of the deep-hole
blasting technology. Their successful application
guarantees structure quality and slope safety. Early
in the 1980s, the Gezhouba project used pre-split-
ting blasting technology to ensure the quality of
the slopes excavated on large areas of sandstone,
which shows the advanced level of Chinas pre-
splitting blasting technology. In the construction
of the Three Gorges Dam and many hydropower
stations, not only were vertical pre-splits widely
used, but so were horizontal ones, ensuring the
excavation quality of buildings of power plants.
In order to obtain high quality and neat slopes,
Chinas 8th Water Conservancy and Hydropower
Construction Bureau developed and promoted
presplit blasting with concentrated energy. After
using this technology in the complex geological
conditions at lime-rock area, slopes were stable and
neat, and the rate of half holds was up to 95%.
With modernization, more and more blast-
ing projects are located in urban areas and com-
plicated environments. Controlled rock blasting
thus receives further attention and development.
Since the 1980s, in the expansion projects of the
double-tracked Hengyang-Guangzhou railway
and electrified railways such as the Baoji-Chengdu
and Zhuzhou-Liupanshui railways, millions of

171

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 171 10/3/2012 8:26:07 PM

 the cubic meters of stonework were successively
blasted in a controlled manner without interrupt-
ing railway operations. The railway departments
have completed many blasting projects in compli-
cated environments, such as the Antuo Mountain
regulation project in the urban area of Shenzhen,
and the expansion project at the Chongqing North
Railway Station. Deep-hole blasting was also used
in the technological transformation projects at
Laiwu Steel Factory in Shandong, including the
steelmaking workshop, speeding up the project.
Foreign aid projects have been especially
successful. In the light rail project in Saudi (Gao,
2010), 200 104 m3 cuttings were safely blasted, dug
and shipped in a complicated environment in only
a little over two months. Among them, 26 104 m3
were on the 600 m long cutting close to the palace
walls, and 160 104 m3 were in the Jamarat Sta-
tion next to a large number of religious buildings
(including the famous ghost city). The use of this
safe and efficient technology not only produced no
damage to the palace and the ghost city, but also
shortened the working time by 10 months, as com-
pared to the ordinary blasting techniques.
1.2 Underground and tunnel blasting
In addition to the application of conventional shal-
low and deep-hole blasting in underground mines,
large-diameter deep-hole blasting has also been
promoted, and has developed into VCR, step
deep holes, bundle deep holes, high-stage
deep holes, stage of deep-hole equivalent spheri-
cal kits, and so on, with different features and use
conditions.
In 2011, Chinas coal production exceeded
3.5 billion tons, and this year, it is expected to
exceed 4 billion tons. Drilling and blasting are
applied to the excavation of shafts and tunnels.
Vertical shafts are the throat of the mine. The
blasting of the vertical hole with two-stage seg-
mentation or deep-hole millisecond cutting modes
not only resulted in higher utilization of boreholes,
it reduced the amount of chunks, increased the slot
cavity, and sped up the rock loading. This technol-
ogy has been promoted widely. In the late 1980s,
the technologies of shaft freezing blasting and
vertical shaft blasting with gas coal made break-
throughs. These two techniques had great signifi-
cance in guiding the development of the optimal
design of whole section blasting in frozen earth,
and blasting safety in mines.
One-time blasting, millisecond blasting, and
smooth blasting of whole section rocks mark three
important stages of the development of Chinese
rock blasting technology for coal mining. In the
1980s, China Mining University and other institu-
tions studied directional rock breaking controlled
172
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 172
blasting technology, which accurately controls dig
quantity, greatly reduces the cost of materials, and
confers considerable economic and social benefits.
China is a country with a lot of tunnels, espe-
cially railway tunnels, which rank first in the world.
With the improvement of Chinas drilling equip-
ment and machinery, and the unceasing innova-
tion of tunnel blasting technology, it took only
18 months to accomplish the Qinling II tunnel of
Xian-Ankang railway, which is 18.456 m long.
This was done by first breaking through the large
cross-section at the center, and then slashing holes
using deep-hole blasting on the full face of hard
rocks (Wang, 2008). The use of a variety of slotting
techniques, high strength water-binder explosives
and other measures, contributes to fast operation
technology for ultra-hard rocks and ultra-long
tunnels.
In recent years, small interval parallel tunnel
excavation blasting, blasting technology for shal-
low buried excavation of double-decked tunnel
in prosperous regions, shallow buried river tun-
nel blasting, underground excavation blasting in
prosperous regions, and tunnel blasting vibra-
tion control technology have experienced new
breakthroughs. Many city railway tunnels are bur-
ied only 10 to 30 m below city buildings, under-
water railway tunnels are buried at depths are less
than their diameters, and railway tunnel projects
whose net distance from existing structures or
buildings are less than 10 m appeared.
In water conservation and hydropower engineer-
ing, the excavation of the tunnel is difficult, but the
most difficult part is the vertical crossing under-
ground chamber group, composed of multiple
diversion tunnels, workshops, traffic holes, tailrace
tunnels, vertical shafts and so on. Chinas hydro-
power stations, such as Baishan, Dongfeng, Long-
tan, and Xiaowan already have such underground
chamber groups. The scale is very large and the
structure is complicated. For example, at Longtan
there are nine diversion tunnels, the main (deputy)
workshop, the main change hole, nine bus holes,
three surge shafts, tailrace tunnels, transport holes
and other auxiliary chambers. The main work-
shops excavation size is 398.9 m 30.7 m 77.6 m
(L W H). During construction, the complicated
geological conditions were overcome, and the sta-
bility of the blasting excavation was ensured.
1.3 Underwater blasting
Underwater engineering blasting technology is
mainly used in ports, waterway dredging rock
blasting, blasting demolition of cofferdams or rock
steps, underwater rock plug blasting of reservoirs,
reinforcement of silt and saturated sand founda-
tion through explosion, and so on.
10/3/2012 8:26:07 PM
 With the rapid development of the construction
of waterways and ports in recent years, China
annually explodes 500 104 m3 of reefs or breaks
underwater rocks using the underwater blasting.
To achieve the water storage target of 156 m,
the Three Gorges Project blasted 106 104 m3
of rock with underwater rock blasting in the
107 km channel from Fuling to Tongluo Gorge
on the Yangtze River. For the deepwater port of
Yangshan Shanghai, 10.3 104 m3 of reefs had
to be exploded with rock blasting on only the
north side of the waterway. In the rock blasting
for the security remediation of 300,000 tons of
imported crude oil at the terminal basin in Dalian
Port, the water depth was 30 m, the total area
was 23.4 104 m2, and the total cubic capacity is
49.3 104 m3 (Wang, 2009). At present, drilling
accuracy can be effectively controlled by the use of
GPS in the major underwater rock blasting.
To improve a reservoirs ability to control floods
or supply water downstream, discharge tunnels
need to be excavated at the bottom of the existing
reservoir. Rock plug blasting technology can avoid
building of a cofferdam, shorten the construction
period, and save investment. China has completed
rock plug blasting more than 20 times, and has rich
experience in the necessary blast design, blasting
ballast treatment, blasting safety control, and
so on. For example, rock plug blasting was used
in the construction of a water tunnel in Jiusong
Mountain, in the Beijing Miyun Resevoir, and the
damage rescuing of the discharge tunnel in the
landslide dam of Yinjing County, Guizhou.
The cofferdam project is the essential temporary
work of water conservation and hydropower
projects, ports, or the construction of the main
project of a large dock. Through over 30 demoli-
tion blasting projects, such as that of the concrete
core wall of the Gezhouba River cofferdam, the
Yantan RCC cofferdam, the concrete and rock cof-
ferdam of the tailrace tunnel of Dachao Mountain,
the concrete and rock cofferdam of the import and
export holes of the Xiaowan diversion tunnel, the
dock rock cofferdam of Qingdao Lingshan, and
the composite cofferdam of Zhoushan Yongyue
Shipyard, much experience has been accumulated,
making great contributions to the timely com-
pletion of these projects. The total length of the
upstream RCC cofferdam by demolition blast-
ing in the third stage of Three Gorges Project
of Yangtze River was 480 m, the removed cubic
capacity was 186,000 m3, and the maximum blast-
ing water depth was 38 m. The total charge of the
emulsion explosive mixed locally was 191.3 tons
(Wang, 2010).
Blasting technology for reinforcing weak foun-
dations is used mainly on the soft soil founda-
tion encountered in harbor construction projects.
173
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 173
If the stability of the foundation loading capacity
does not meet the requirements of the engineering
design, different procedures can be employed for
different conditions. These include the squeezing
silt method by underwater blasting, the displace-
ment method by blasting, and the explosion rein-
forcement method. These can be used to reinforce
the foundation, serving for the construction of har-
bor breakwaters, ports, and berths. After years of
theoretical study and field tests, engineering tests,
and engineering practice, a complete set of new
blasting technologies that dealt with soft mud
bases was summarized. The mud replacement
method has been used in the port construction
in Lianyungang, the coal wharf of the Shenzhen
power plant, the Gaolan port of Zhuhai, the
breakwaters of the ferry terminal port of the
Guangdong-Hainan railway channel, and other
similar projects. The total embankment length was
more than 60 km, making a significant contribu-
tion to coastal port constructions.
1.4 Demolition blasting technology
Demolition blasting technology refers to the con-
trolled blasting technology used for removing
abandoned structures and buildings. Demolition
blasting technology is different from general earth-
work blasting technology, which is developed
from the combination of explosion mechanics
and various engineering disciplines, such as mate-
rial mechanics, structural mechanics, and fracture
mechanics.
Because of the rapid development of Chinas
economic construction, rebuilding and removal
projects are increasing with the large-scale con-
struction of urban modernization and the tech-
nical transformation of factories and mines. The
main characteristics of this process are the increas-
ing height and area of the objects that need to be
removed, that the structure and the surrounding
environment of the buildings are more complex,
that the requirements of quality and safety are
higher, and that technology and process are more
advanced. In the past 30 years, a number of build-
ings in many cities in China have been demolished
by blasting technology.
China has successfully dismantled nearly 100
reinforced concrete chimneys higher than 100 m
using directional collapse, and bi-folding and tri-
folding controlled blasting methods in complicated
environments, of which nearly 10 were more than
200 m. China has also successfully removed dozens
of large cooling towers higher than 60 m. For tall
buildings, typical projects include the blasting dem-
olition of the Shiqi Peak Garden (high 104.1 m)
in Zhongshan, the Sino-Bank Building (93 m)
in Wenzhou, the Five Lakes Hotel (85.7 m) in
10/3/2012 8:26:07 PM
 Nanchang, the Liuyang River Bridge (total length
760 m) in Hunan, the comprehensive building that
is the Shanghai Changzheng Hospital, and so on.
The Shenyang Wulihe Stadium (building area was
104 m2) blasting demolition project simultaneously
detonated more than 12,000 blast holes, showing
a reliable and advanced detonation technology.
Guangdong Hongda Blasting Engineering Co.,
Ltd. achieved environmental protection blasting
for the first time in the blasting of the Xita build-
ing in Tianhe City, a feat that received the atten-
tion of scholars and the media both at home and
abroad, producing very large social benefits.
Controlled demolition blasting has been widely
applied in other areas of construction projects as
well. In the past 20 years, dozens of waste bridges
have been successfully dismantled using controlled
blasting, including the Bayi Bridge in Nanchang,
which was 1139.58 m long and had 30 piers, the
Mawu Bridge in Linfen, which was 604 m long and
had 28 piers, and the Qinghemen Bridge on the
Fuxin-Jinzhou Highway, which had a very compli-
cated structure.
1.5 Special blasting technology
The operation field of special blasting technology
is different from soil and rock blasting, and build-
ing (structure) demolition blasting, which is far
more professional, and involves techniques such as
explosive working, bursting of oil and gas wells,
seismic exploration blasting, and metal and other
special media blasting. The development of special
blasting technology reflects the wide application of
engineering blasting.
Explosive working technology is processing
technology, in which explosives are used as energy,
and the instantaneous high temperature and pres-
sure are applied to moldable-state metals, ceramics,
powder and other materials for several purposes,
such as to modify, optimize, shape, and compound
them. Explosive working technology (especially
explosive welding technology) is used in product
development and production, and widely used
tries in petroleum, chemical industries, metallurgy,
machinery, electronics, electricity, automobiles,
light industries, aerospace engineering, nuclear
industry, shipbuilding and other industrial areas.
Explosive working takes up about 70% of the total
composite panels. China has established and devel-
oped a professional team of explosive processing
technologies and a large quantity of equipment.
Explosive processing technology, especially weld-
ing technology, is at an advanced international
level. Chinas explosive welding composite board
products account for almost half of the composite
board market in the world. In addition, explosive
cutting technology has been used to dismantle the
174
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 174
thruster of a ship of a million tons, disintegrate
shipwrecks underwater, and cut the left wellhead
offshore.
At present, with the development of new
technologies such as oil-treatment of coal, desul-
furization and denitrification of power plants, and
desalination of sea water, composite materials have
more new markets. Because of the specialty of explo-
sive welding, scientists and scholars have paid more
attention to new technology and new ideas, such
as thin compound sandwich panels, thin coating
of titanium steel, shaped composite material, and
so on. In addition, new explosive working technol-
ogy continues to emerge and develop. This includes
underwater shaping in deep wells by blasting, under-
water explosive welding, explosive powder sinter-
ing, and compounding of super-hard materials and
nano-materials through explosion and detonation.
Oil and gas development is a complex, system-
atic project that involves many scientific fields.
Experience shows that engineering blasting plays
a crucial role in seismic exploration, well logging,
perforation, completion, fracturing stimulations,
oil and gas well plastic repair projects, and so on.
Oil and gas well perforation, in particular, is the
key technology related to the oil production of
oil and gas wells. To better meet the needs of the
development of terrestrial and marine oilfields,
Chinese scientists and technicians have been able
to independently design and implement jet per-
forating technology, high-energy gas fracturing
technology, explosive cutting technology, casing
explosive shaping, welding technology, sidewall
coring technology and plugging and casting kit
technology in bridges.
1.6 The research and development
of blasting theory
The advances in Chinese engineering blasting tech-
nology are associated with the needs of national
economic construction, which also promote inten-
sive research on blasting theory. Over the years,
many research institutions and universities have
worked on blasting theory with the implementa-
tion of large-scale national projects and the train-
ing of Ph.D and MS students. Such work has
achieved a great deal in the understanding of the
blasting mechanism, the spread of the blast wave,
the distribution of explosive energy, the bulging
movement in an explosion, the shapes of throwing
accumulation, the rock fragmentation mechanism
of pre-split blasting, the mechanism of rock break-
ing, blasting engineering geology, the grading of
rock blasting and the observation and analysis of
the effect of blasting vibration, optimizing blasting
design, the computer simulation of demolition
processes, and so on.
10/3/2012 8:26:07 PM
 Chamber blasting technology has been widely
used in China in the last century. The development
of the blast design theory was generated on the
basis of a large number of blasting practices and
cases. The relationship between blasting and the
condition of terrain and geology was summed up,
and a complete set of empirical formulae for direc-
tional blasting was proposed. Also, it was used
in some hydropower stations and mines to build
dams. China has already had nearly 60 reservoirs
constructed using this technique, and the Mining
and Metallurgical Sector has used it to build doz-
ens of tailing dams and protection dams for debris
flow. Drug package design of the bar is the third
stage of the development of the chamber blasting
technology. From the 1980s to the 1990s, after the
study of crater features and calculation methods
for strip charge blasting, and to carry out system-
atic research in order to reduce the damage to the
slope, the departments of railway, metallurgy, water
and electricity, roads, non-ferrous metals, building
materials, and others have successfully conducted
hundreds of large-scale strip charge chamber blast-
ing projects. The amount of explosives used for
these projects ranged from dozens to thousands of
tons, and achieved highly technical and economic
effects. The largest project was a reclamation blast-
ing project that 1.2 tons of explosives at Fortress
Mount in Zhuhai, Guangdong, at the end of 1992.
The exploded area amounted to 10.85 million
cubic meters, and the throwing rate was 51.8%.
Strip chamber kits and slope pre-splitting blast-
ing technology are used in the construction of new
highway and railway lines. Not only are the rapid
and low-cost features fully exploited, the damage
to slopes is also effectively controlled. Using this
technique, the stable slope of up to 92 m, in some
of the 170 m cutting of the Jiaozuo-Jinyang Free-
way, forms a beautiful landscape.
In the development of demolition blasting tech-
nology, many scholars in research institutions and
colleges have developed a large corpus of scientific
researches in the field of engineering construc-
tion. They use high-speed photography, stress
and strain, vibration testing and other means to
observe and analyze the instability, disintegration,
mechanisms of collapse, and crushing process of
components of different buildings (structures) in
the blasting effect. Using these, they put forward
different demolition blasting plans such as situ col-
lapse, directed dumping, and folding collapse, or
use water pressure in different structures and envi-
ronmental conditions.
According to incomplete statistics, in recent
years, many blasting monographs have been
published in China: The Blasting Manual, The
Emulsified Explosive, Design and Construction of
Large Blasting, Strip Charge Chamber Blasting,
175
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 175
The Simulation and Application of the Demolition
Blasting Number, Rock Breaking Mechanics,
Mine Blast Engineering, The Fine Blasting, The
Great Blasting in the Open Air, The Practical
Handbook of Engineering Blasting, The Design
and Construction of the Demolition Blasting,
Introduction to Fine blasting of Water Resources
and Hydropower Engineering, Safety of Engineering
Blasting, Modern Hydropower Engineering Blasting,
Engineering Blasting Terms, The Theory and
Practice of Blasting Demolition of Buildings, the
Blasting Demolition of the Hydraulic Cofferdam,
the Blasting and Impact Dynamics, Explosion in
the Shallow Water and Its Destruction Effect, The
Practical Manual of Coal Blasting, and so on. The
publication of these books reflects our further
understanding of the research and practice of
blasting, and simultaneously encourages Chinese
engineering blasting technicians to improve.
1.7 Industrial explosives and detonating
technology
The variety and quality of the blasting equipment
directly affects the results of blasting. China began
to develop emulsion explosives from the late 1970s,
not only having continuous automated production
technology, equipment and rock type and
coalmine permitted emulsion explosives, but also
creating powdery emulsion explosives; not only
having open-air mixing of emulsion explosives in
loading, but also developing the small diameter
underground emulsion explosives charge cars
using the drag reduction technology of the water
ring. The production technology of emulsion
explosives and charge cars not only meets domestic
needs, but are also exported to Sweden, Mongolia,
Russia, Vietnam, Zambia, and other countries.
Considering various emulsion explosives, powdery
emulsion explosives, the computer-controlled
continuous production line of emulsive granular
ANFO were developed.
In the late 1970s, China developed and produced
the plastic detonating tube and the supporting non-
electric millisecond detonators, which are widely
used in engineering blasting operations. Magnetic
electric detonators were developed according to
the principle of electromagnetic induction, and put
to use in blasting operations in oil and gas wells.
In recent years, 30 electric detonators with equal
intervals (25 ms) were successfully developed and
put to use, and a small number of products have
been exported to neighboring countries, Africa
and Hong Kong, China. A series of products of
low-energy detonating cords (3.0 g/m, 1.5 g/m),
high-energy detonating cords (34 g/m and above),
ordinary detonating cords and safety detonating
cords have been formed. Also, the processes of
10/3/2012 8:26:07 PM
 burning blasting of oil and gas wells, seismic explo-
ration blasting, and blasting materials required by
special blasting have been generated, providing a
larger variety of choices.
The digital electronic detonator is a new energy
detonating device that can set and achieve precise
firing extension of blasting, according to actual
needs. It is safe and reliable, can delay time accu-
rately, and can be flexibly set. Bangjie, Beijing in the
north of China, Beijing Jingmei chemical industry,
Jiulian Group, 213 institute and other units have
launched electronic detonators, which have been
applied initially in blast engineering. Digital elec-
tronic detonators have promoted the technological
progress of the blasting equipment and engineer-
ing blasting industries in China.
According to statistics from 2011, China has
produced 4.066 million tons of various types of
industrial explosives and 2.279 billion rounds of
a variety of industrial detonators and 3.21 billion
meters of a variety of industrial rope, class EED.
China produces and uses one of the largest quanti-
ties of industrial explosives and blasting equipment
in the world. It has established a rather complete
system of production, circulation and application
of the blasting materials, and has managed the
successful identification of producing informa-
tion about industrial explosives and detonators,
as well the whole process of dynamic tracking and
management of explosives from production, sale,
storage, transportation and application. In 2008,
China eliminated thermal detonators, fuses, and
ammonium nitrate explosives.
1.8 The technology and management
of blasting safety
The requirement for blasting security becomes
higher with the environmental conditions of
blasting becoming more and more complicated.
With societys increasing awareness of the need for
environmental protection, the impact of blasting
operations on the environment receives greater
attention. Besides the large body of research
on the technology of blasting vibration and
damping, blasting security monitoring is widely
used in many important blasting engineering
projects, and also in projects in the complicated
environments. In recent years, sophisticated
control of blasting effects has been achieved.
These include dust control technology for the
demolition blasting of buildings, reducing the
influence of underwater blasting on aquatic life,
noise control of explosions, and the prevention
of destruction of the ecological environment
brought by blasting, and other aspects that are
being actively explore. Significant achievements
and progress have been made.
176
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 176
China has enacted national standards such
as the Blasting Safety Regulations since 1986, in
order to provide laws and guidelines for blasting
safety management. In recent years, the China
Society of Engineering Blasting has organized
experts to revise these guidelines to better link
up with international standards. What is worth
noting is that in order to improve the quality
of Chinese blasting techniques, strengthen the
management of professional teams, the China
Society of Engineering Blasting, and other related
sectors, have trained, assessed and certified thirty
thousand blasting technicians since 1996, with the
support of public security departments. In order to
adapt to the development of the market economy,
strengthen the mechanism of competition,
develop the superior and eliminate the inferior,
the qualifications of the blasting companies and
the grade of blasting projects are evaluated, and the
safety of the design and construction of important
blasting projects are assessed. Implementation
safety supervision systems of the blasting projects
are then gradually carried out. The implementation
of these principles makes the management of
engineering blasting safety technology in China
more orderly and standardized.
2 THE FUTURE OF ENGINEERING
BLASTING TECHNOLOGY IN CHINA
Facing the future, China will use concepts of sci-
entific development to guide economic and social
development, and will continue to take economic
construction along a track that is comprehensive,
coordinated and sustainable. China will make
unremitting efforts to build a moderately prosper-
ous society, and maintain rapid economic develop-
ment and social harmony and progress. There will
be more blasting tasks and new fields of engineer-
ing blasting in China, expecting China to open up.
2.1 Exploring new ideas and new technologies
in controlling explosive energy, and striving
for finer engineering blasting
The China Society of Engineering Blasting
organized a seminar on fine blasting in 2008,
according to the developments of blasting theory,
numerical simulation of blasting and computer
assisted design, of reliable, safe and accurate
blasting equipment, test equipment and testing
technology, and the using of modern information
and control technology of drilling and blasting in
construction. In the seminar, Xianqi Xie, Wenbo
Lu and others first proposed the concept of fine
blasting, combining with the state of technological
development of the blasting industry at home
10/3/2012 8:26:08 PM
 and abroad. The concept, the core of which are
quantitative design, careful construction, real-
time monitoring and scientific management, and
which is an alternative to the traditional concept
of controlled blasting, represents the direction
of blasting technology development, and has far-
reaching significance.
Fine blasting, through quantitative design,
careful construction and refinement management,
is intended to control the release of explosive
energy and the breaking and casting of media to
predict the effects and control harmful effects.
Ultimately, it is intended to achieve safe, reliable,
advanced, environment-friendly and economic
blasting operations (Xie and Lu, 2008).
Fine blasting, put forward by the community
of Chinese engineers, focuses on the effects and
proceeds to accurately achieve expected blasting
results. It also achieves the goals of energy saving
and environmental protection, and pursues the
refinement of the design, construction, manage-
ment, and other aspects of blasting engineering.
As we know, digital electronic detonators, new
series of emulsion explosives, remote control deto-
nation and so on, provide favorable conditions for
the refinement of blasting technology. The appli-
cation of the digital electronic detonator, which is
a revolution in detonation technology, will change
the guiding ideology of blasting design. These
studies and practical results have drawn the atten-
tion of Chinese blasting.
At present, fine blasting meets the strategic goals
of China, which is to build a resource saving
and environment friendly society in the 21st
century. Fine blasting is expected to be one of the
important means of leading the blasting industry
to breakthroughs in science and technology, and
will play an important role in achieving sustainable
development of the blasting industry. It will have a
profound impact on the development of blasting
technology in China.
2.2 Further expansion of the applications
of blasting technology, and the development
of special blasting techniques
To further expand the applications of blasting
technology, special blasting techniques should be
closely followed and developed in China. In recent
years, foreign countries have been paying attention
to research and development of special blasting
techniques used for the seismic exploration of oil,
gas and the development of wells, which have been
developing rapidly. For example, small, high-energy
equipment used in three-dimensional seismic
exploration could greatly improve its quality and
safety and reduce costs. The newly developed,
special blasting techniques such as the casing
177
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 177
subsidies and shaping of explosions are used to
solve the problems in wells that could not be solved
by traditional and techniques. Perforation blasting
technology is developed and applied to heavy oil
formation and high dense, low-permeability strata,
and so on.
In addition, there has been great progress in urban
demolition blasting, especially in the directional
blasting of towering buildings (structures),
blasting processing technology in soft ground,
long-hole pre-splitting blasting, multi-hole charge
blasting, processing of explosives, micro-blasting,
and so on. Monitoring instruments are also
being automated, miniaturized and made multi-
directional to better meet the needs of blasting
technology. The Chinese blasting engineering
society should certainly pay close attention to the
development of foreign countries in these areas,
and develop their own special blasting techniques,
and form their own systems.
2.3 Developing the study of blasting theory
and simulation techniques to guide
blasting practice
It is a development strategy of the new century to
research precision control technology of the con-
version of explosive energy, improve the utiliza-
tion of explosive energy, and reduce the harmful
effects of engineering blasting. Through the study
of the constitutive relations of various media under
the impact of strong dynamic loads, of the suita-
ble selection of explosives to match the media, of
decoupling the charge, of controlling the influence
of boundary conditions, of the initiation of the seg-
mented sequence, and innovation, new measures are
developed to improve the utilization of explosive
energy, minimize the loss of the energy, and control
its impact on the surrounding environment.
New mathematical methods, observations, and
analytical techniques provide technical support
for the study of the complex process of blasting.
The natural structure of damaged or whole rocks
may be described through the application of the
mathematical method of fractals. Blast holes can
be located accurately by making use of satellite
positioning systems, and rock property data could
be obtained using rig operating parameters. The
use of new mining explosives makes it possible
to adjust the input of energy to break rocks, and
the use of electronic detonators makes it possible
to precisely control the timing. The optical
measurement of fragmentation distribution and
analytical techniques provide means to make a
quantitative and comprehensive assessment of
the effect of blasting. Large-capacity and high-
speed computers can meet the requirements of
fragmentation complex systems. High-tech methods
10/3/2012 8:26:08 PM
 allow researchers to fully examine the blasting
mechanism. Thus, open-air blasting design
should first be systematically optimized, and then
mathematical model should be used to guide a
variety of blasting practices so that the scientific,
digital blasting becomes a reality.
2.4 Enhancement of automation and
mechanization of blasting construction
Innovations must be made in Chinese blasting
equipment in order to change prevent Chinse
technology from lagging behind. Although Chinas
current operations in drilling, loading, packing,
shoveling, and transportation processes in medium-
sized open pits have been mechanized, rapid
development of satellite positioning systems, new
measurement technology to achieve supporting
promotion, and improvement in automation is
still required. Some major foreign mines have used
geological data collected by drilling to adjust the
design parameters and charge structure, and predict
fragmentation and harmful effects of blasting, with
the use of computer aided design. Chine should
learn from the advanced foreign technology used
for large-scale mine blasting production. It should
strengthen data acquisition of mining machinery,
improve running and computer processing, and
optimize blast scheme design to improve the
blasting effect. At the same time, China also needs
to speed up the technical renovation of blasting
machinery, and research and develop domestic
machinery to enhance the level of mechanization
and automation in blasting construction.
China should vigorously advocate and develop
the site mixed car for explosives transport, enhance
the level of mechanization in charge and filling,
promote the preloaded blasting technology, which
means filling holes by using the site mixed car
while the drill is working. For a number of special
blasting, we should research the new machinery
as soon as possible and use robot and remote
control technology to meet the effective and safe
requirements in the high-altitude, high temperature,
cold, deep, underground, underwater, poisonous
gas conditions. And we should accelerate the
technological progress and the level of security
technology management in blasting industry.
2.5 Give full play to the network to improve
the level of informatization
In order to further implement the requirements of
the Ministry of Industry, the blasting industry has
made progress in the construction of informatiza-
tion, such as the construction of Chinese blast-
ing nets and the development of remote vibration
measurement technology based on grids.
178
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 178
Chinese blasting nets cover the whole country,
linking all of the explosives industries (e.g.,
explosives, fireworks, dangerous chemicals),
including their employees, goods, and equipment.
It is a professional information network of security
and industrial management. The main purpose of
the net is the sharing and scheduling of national
blasting resources, provision of information
services for production, construction, scientific
research, education and industrial management.
It has become an integrated services platform
for public security, safety, supervision, and civil
explosives. The net is a powerful tool for China to
realize network monitoring and safety management
of the production, sale, purchase, transport and
use of dangerous explosive materials.
Remote verification and vibration measurement
systems based on grids combine blast vibration
mechanisms and data resources of vibration
measurement with a variety of vibration measuring
instruments, grid technology in computer field,
and parallel computing technology. Research on
existing blasting vibration measurement equipment
and its installation, calibration, checking, data
acquisition, transmission and processing methods,
brings about remote transmission of seismic signals
(incoming center library of test dater) or real-time
readings on-site and quick preliminary analysis on
the basis of the above to record seismic wave data
from the locales. Intervention and interference are
factored as well, and to increase the objectivity
and real-time nature of the test data, scholars
can conveniently refer outside of the vibration
measurement units.
The construction of Chinese burst nets should
be strengthened, and full play should be given
to the network to enhance informatization and
improve information management of the blasting
industry in China.
2.6 Development of higher quality, greater variety,
lower costs, safer production, and a continuous
process of blasting equipment
The quality and variety of blasting equipment
directly affects the development of engineering
blasting technology. China will apply new tech-
nologies and new processes to develop equipment
of higher quality, greater variety, lower cost, safer
production, and will form a continuous process of
blasting equipment.
In terms of industrial explosives, China
should develop ANFO, heavy ANFO, emulsion
explosives, powdery emulsion explosive and
expanded ammonium nitrate explosives to achieve
a variety of explosives in terms of density of
power and water-resistant performance. China
should actively develop latex remote distribution
10/3/2012 8:26:08 PM
 systems to implement mechanization of charges
and filling in open pit and underground blasting.
Finally, China should develop, and produce high
temperature, high pressure, high water-resistance,
and high-power explosives according to the needs
of specialty blasting.
In terms of detonating equipment, China should
rigorously develop the 30 interval millisecond delay
products of detonators, study different series of
digital electronic detonators, and promote their use
in order to achieve reliable initiation and accurate
delay in electric and non-electric initiation systems.
This helps realize the goal of each blast hole having
only one detonator. China should make efforts to
study the wide adaptability of remote detonation
systems to achieve remote blasting operations and
control security. Active research promotion of low-
energy detonating cords (0.5 to 1.5 g/m1 explosives)
initiation systems and miniature detonating grain
is also required.
2.7 Paying attention to the environmental
protection, and furthering the innovation and
development of blasting safety technology
In the new century, building a resource-saving
and environment-friendly society is an important
strategic objective. Blasting takes protection and
restoration of natural ecosystems and prevention of
soil erosion as important principles of design and
construction. Also, burst damage and interference
to the environment need to be controlled and
restrained. These include blasting earthquakes,
air shock waves, underwater shock waves, noise,
179
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 179
individual flying objects, rolling stones, dust,
harmful gases, slope sliding, and others. China will
rigorously develop blast effect monitoring, study
new test equipment to improve surveillance and
minimize harmful effects, in addition to studying
the control measures of lightning, stray current,
RF power and faradism. China needs to sum up
its practical experience from blasting projects,
engage in theoretical analysis, and absorb new
achievements in modern blasting technology.
These steps will improve the blasting technology,
security standards and specifications, and will help
blasting safety technology and management step
onto a new level.
REFERENCES
Gao Yintong & Liu Dianzhong. 2010. Development
Trend of Engineering Blasting Industry in China.
Engineering Blasting: 4.
Wang Xuguang. 2008. Emulsion Explosive. Beijing:
Metallurgical Industry Press.
Wang Xuguang. 2008. New Development of Engineering
Blasting in China. In Liu Dianshu (ed.), New Blasting
Technology in China II: 19. Beijing: Metallurgical
Industry Press.
Wang Xuguang. 2009. The State and Outlook of
Engineering Blasting and Explosive Materials in
China. In Jinquan Song (ed.), Collected Papers of
Xuguang Wang: 314. Beijing: Science Press.
Wang Xuguang. 2010. Blasting Manual. Beijing:
Metallurgical Industry Press.
Xie Xianqi & Lu Wenbo. 2008. Precise Blasting. In
Dianshu Liu (ed.), New Blasting Technology in China:
1016.
10/3/2012 8:26:08 PM
This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Investigation of blast design parameters to optimize fragmentation

S.P. Singh
Laurentian University, Sudbury, Canada

H. Abdul
Syncrude Ltd., Fort McMurray, Alberta, Canada

ABSTRACT: The approach to the goal of efficient blasting can be achieved by investigating the blast
design parameters and fragmentation during small scale and field blasting. The study involved small scale
blasting experiments on concrete samples which were followed by monitoring of several blasts in the
surface mines. Concrete samples with two, three and four holes were blasted in a box. Blasted material
from different blocks was collected in separate bags. Blasted fragments from each blast were sieved and
weighed. For each sample, mean particle size and index of uniformity were determined. The effects of
spacing to burden ratio, burden to hole diameter ratio and powder factor on mean particle size and index
of uniformity were examined. During field work several blasts were monitored in surface mining opera-
tions. Assessment of fragmentation for each blast was carried out by image analysis technique. Effects
of % stemming, Bench height to burden ratio and powder factor on size distribution of the blasted muck
were examined. In addition, effects of joint plane orientation factor and joint plane spacing factor on
the mean particle size were determined utilizing the raw data from a literature case history.

1 INTRODUCTION blast fragmentation is encountered. It is extremely

Rockfragmentation is an integral component
of mining process and it affects the efficiency of
the downstream operations. Rock fragmentation
depends upon two groups of variables: Rock mass
properties which cannot be controlled and blast
design parameters that can be controlled and opti-
mized. The costs of downstream operations can be
reduced by optimizing the blast design parameters
to provide target fragmentation. The parameters
of target fragmentation are equipment specific and
vary from mine to mine.
The objective of blasting in a mine is to generate
a muck pile that can be efficiently loaded, trans-
ported and milled (Singh et al., 2005) Rock frag-
mentation is considered one of the most important
aspects of blasting results. The goal of efficient
blasting can be achieved by investigating the rela-
tionship between blast design parameters and frag-
mentation during small scale and field blasting.
1.1 Desirable characteristics of fragmented muck
Although, optimization and cost reduction is the
prime goal of all mining operations, yet there are
a few mines where genuine efforts are made and
this goal is successfully achieved. There is no
other single unit operation in the mining system
that can affect productivity more than when poor
important to make the connection between rock
blasting results and their impact on the down-
stream operations. While it is well accepted that
fragmentation has a pivotal effect on the loading
operations, little quantitative information is avail-
able, upon which rational blasting strategies can be
formulated. A study was done by Singh (2004), in
which the desirable muck characteristics were iden-
tified as follows:
1.1.1 Mean fragment size
Significant gains in productivity can be achieved
by simply producing smaller fragments.
1.1.2 Index of uniformity, N
The desirable N value should be low (between
1.1 and 1.3). Materials with high N values have
a distribution of muck sizes which interlock and
result in tight muck pile that has a higher resist-
ance against penetration of the loaders bucket.
Chung et al. (1991) also found that optimum value
of index of uniformity for low dig cycle time was
1.04.
1.1.3 Minimum % of oversize
This has a most significant and inconsistent effect
and it is very difficult to quantify. The size of the
fragments produced by blasting must not only fit
into the bucket of the loading machine but must

181

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 181 10/3/2012 8:26:08 PM

 do so without unduly increasing the dig cycle time block. Two, three and four holes of 8 mm diameter
and reducing the fill factor. The oversize fragments were drilled. The burden and spacing of samples
not only reduce the productivity of the down- in three categories have been given in Table 1. The
stream operations but also increase the secondary samples were blasted with a detonating cord in a
blasting and equipment maintenance. closed wooden box (Fig. 1). Blasted material from
each blast was collected in separate bags, sieved
1.1.4 Reasonable % of fines
Reasonable % of fines ranges from 8 to 15,
depending upon the loading practice and nature Table 1. Burden spacing and number of holes for
of the material. Fine material acts as a lubricant concrete samples.
between the coarser muck and thus facilitates the
penetration of the bucket. Sample Number Spacing, Burden,
number of holes mm mm
1.1.5 Low water content 2.1 2 150 150
Excessive water content affects the bulk density 2.2 2 150 125
of the material and vehicle traction thus impeding 2.3 2 150 105
loading efficiency. In some cases, it may improve 2.4 2 150 95
diggability by reducing shear strength. 2.5 2 150 85
2.6 2 150 75
1.1.6 Low stickiness of the muck 3.1 3 100 100
This problem is more severe in soft and argilla- 3.2 3 100 80
ceous rocks under high saturation levels. 3.3 3 100 70
3.4 3 100 60
3.5 3 100 50
1.2 Size distribution of the muck
4.1 4 75 90
This study will mainly focus on the size distribu- 4.2 4 75 75
tion of the blasted muck. Desirable optimum frag- 4.3 4 75 60
ment size affects the mining operations as follows: 4.4 4 75 50
a. Low dig cycle time of the loading equipment.
b. High fill factor for the loading and hauling
equipment.
c. Reduced cycle time of the hauling equipment.
d. Reduced or no secondary blasting.
e. Less energy consumption during crushing.
f. Proper selection of the loading, hauling and
crushing equipment.

2 EXPERIMENTAL WORK

In order to investigate the effects of blast design

parameters on fragmentation, following approach
was used:
a. Small scale blasting
b. Monitoring of field blasts
c. Analysis of a case history from the literature

2.1 Small scale blasting

During normal blasting, it becomes difficult to com-
pute and examine the effects of individual factors.
Therefore small scale tests are a first step towards
understanding the effects of blast design param-
eters on the resultant fragmentation. Small scale
blasting experiments were conducted on concrete
samples. All concrete blocks were grouped in three Figure 1. (a) Concrete block in the blasting box.
categories to drill different number of holes in each (b) Closed box prior to blasting.

182

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 182 10/3/2012 8:26:08 PM

 and weighed. For each blast mean particle size and
index of uniformity were determined.

2.2 Field work

Several blasts were monitored in surface opera-
tions. For each blast bench height, sub-grade drill-
ing, stemming length, burden, spacing, charge
length, hole diameter, explosive type, quantity of
explosive per hole, rock type and density were doc-
umented. Assessment of fragmentation for each
blast was carried out by image analysis technique.
Figure 2. Spacing to burden ratio vs mean particle size.
2.3 Analysis of a case history from literature
Ozcelik (1998) stated that geological discontinui-
ties, such as joints and bedding planes have sig-
nificant influence on blasting performance and
economic, overshadowing or seriously altering
the expected effects of explosive and blast design
parameters. Data collected from Ozcelik (1998) is
further analyzed to examine the effects of geologi-
cal discontinuities on blast fragmentation.

3 ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

OF RESULTS
3.1 Small scale blasting experiments
The results of small scale blasting were tabulated and
the effect of spacing to burden ratio, burden to hole
diameter ratio on the mean particle size and uniform-
ity index of the blast fragmentation was examined.
3.1.1 Spacing to burden ratio
Spacing and burden are important parameters in
blast design and have a direct effect on rock frag-
mentation. Excessive burden resists penetration by
explosion gases to effectively fracture and displace
rock and will also produce large vibrations. Small
burden allows the gases to escape and expand with
high speed, pushing the blasted rock uncontrollably.
Small spacing causes excessive crushing between
the holes and superficial crater breakage. Excessive
spacing results in inadequate fracturing between
holes along with toe problems and irregular face.
The spacing to burden ratio is important as a blast
design parameter because these two parameters
should be adjusted in tandem. If burden is not com-
patible with spacing, the blastholes will not connect
resulting in inadequate use of explosive energy.
Normally, the spacing to blasting ratio varies
between one and two. Spacing and burden val-
ues for small scale blasting experiments have been
presented in Table 1. Mean particle size and Index
of uniformity (N) were plotted against spacing to
burden ratio in Figures 2 and 3 respectively. It is
Figure 3. Spacing to burden ratio vs index of
uniformity (N).
evident that mean particle size and index of uni-
formity decrease with the increase in the spacing
to burden ratio. It appears from the data for two
holes, that for adequate fragmentation, optimum
ratio lies in the range of 1.5 to 1.75 for simultane-
ous detonation of holes. In the case of four holes
the spacing was small therefore the results are not
as conclusive as for two holes.
3.1.2 Burden to hole diameter ratio
Hole diameter and burden are two important blast
design parameters. In these experiments hole diam-
eter was constant and the variation in burden to
hole diameter ratio was in fact the variation in bur-
den alone and the spacing was kept constant. It was
observed in Figure 4 that mean particle increases
with the increase in the burden to hole diameter
ratio. As a general rule, small diameter holes with
smaller burden and spacing produce smaller frag-
ments. Reducing the drill hole diameter without
changing burden and spacing, lowers the powder
factor, which in turn yields coarser fragmentation.
3.1.3 Explosive quantity
The main role of an explosive is to disintegrate the
material. Obviously higher the powder factor smaller
is the size of fragments as shown in Figure 5.

183

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 183 10/3/2012 8:26:09 PM

 size was examined for five different blasts in other
B/d ratio Vs MPS (four holes)
surface operations.
90
3.2.1 Stemming length
80
M e a n pa rtic le s ize m m

Stemming length is another blast design param-

70
eter that affects rock fragmentation. If the rock
60
has natural cracks in burden rock, long stem-
50
ming is recommended. For hard and massive rock
40
stemming column is kept short. For the blasts in
30
quartzite quarry, stemming length as a percentage
20
of bench height was plotted against mean parti-
10
cle size. It was observed that mean particle size of
0 fragmented muck increases with the % stemming
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
length. This increase was significant when % stem-
Burden to hole dia ratio ming length value exceeds 25.

3.2.2 Powder factor

Figure 4. Burden to hole dia. ratio vs mean particle size.
Powder factor or specific charge is the ratio between
the total weight of explosive and the amount of
rock broken. Powder factor is an important param-
Explosvie Vs X
eter of blast design and has a paramount influence
on the resultant fragmentation. Lower powder
140
mean particle size X mm

factor causes oversize and higher powder factor

120
100
results in crushed rock. Mean particle size was
80
plotted against the powder factor for ten blasts in a
60 quartzite quarry (Fig. 7). The data points are very
40 scattered but the general trend is that mean parti-
20 cle size decreases with the increase in the powder
0 factor.
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00
Explosive used gram s 3.2.3 Stiffness
Bench height is usually decided on the basis of
the working specifications of the loading equip-
Figure 5. Explosive quantity vs mean particle size. ment. Bench height should also be large enough
to achieve optimum burden spacing and powder
factor. Stiffness is the ratio of bench height and
S tem m in g V s D 50 burden and also influences the resultant fragmen-
140
tation. The mean particle size was plotted against
120 stiffness as shown in Figure 8. It was observed that
D 50 P assing (m m )

100
80
stiffness value around one gives coarser fragmen-
60 tation and the optimum value was around three.
40
20 When the stiffness is large, it is easy to displace and
0 deform rock especially at the centre of the bench
0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00
S te m m in g (%)
(Ash, 1985). When the bench height is small any

Figure 6. Stemming % vs 50% passing (D50).

P o w d er F acto r V s D 5 0

140
3.2 Field blasts 120
D 50 P assin g (m m )

100
Large scale blasts were monitored in a quartzite 80
60
quarry and other surface blasting operations. The 40
effect of stemming as a percentage of bench height 20
and powder factor on mean particle size was exam- 0
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
ined for eleven blasts in the quartzite quarry. The
P o w d e r fa cto r ( kg s/to n n e )
bench height in this quarry ranged from 21 to 40 ft
with an average value of 29 ft. The effect of stiff-
ness ratio (bench height/burden) on mean particle Figure 7. Powder factor vs 50% passing (D50) size.

184

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 184 10/3/2012 8:26:10 PM

 JPO(RMD = 20, JPS = 20) V S M e an Par ticle
Siz e

25
20

M ean Particle Siz e

15
10
5
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Jo in t p lan e o r ie n tatio n Facto r

Figure 8. Stiffness vs mean particle size.

Figure 9. Joint plane orientation factor vs mean parti-
cle size (after Ozcelik, 1998).
change in the burden or spacing has significant
effect on blast fragmentation. If the bench height
is large, there can be problems relating to blast hole
deviation. JPS (RMD=20,JPO=10) Vs Mean Particle
size
25
Mean particle size (cm)

3.3 Analysis of case history 20

Effect of discontinuities on fragmentation was
analyzed using data from a case history by Ozcelik
(1998). The effect of two parameters, joint plane
spacing and joint plane orientation from Lillys
blastability index (1986) on mean particle size was
investigated.
3.3.1 Joint plane orientation
Joint and bedding planes act as natural presplits
during blasting and if possible, should be used
to improve performance. For example, horizon-
tal bedding allows pull to be maximized and the
blasted rock will tend to split horizontally. The
mean particle size was plotted against Joint plane
orientation in Figure 9. Rock mass description and
joint plane spacing was same for the four different
values of joint plane orientation. It was observed
that mean particle size increases with the increase
in joint plane orientation factor.
3.3.2 Joint plane spacing
Spacing of joints within a rock mass will have a
significant impact on the size distribution of the
blasted muck.Mean particle size was plotted
against joint plane spacing factor (Fig. 10). Rock
mass description and joint plane orientation
factors were kept constant for three values of joint
plane spacing. As expected, mean particle size
increases with the increase in joint plane spacing
factor. It is suggested that in a rock mass with low
joint plane spacing, explosives with low VOD and
high gas pressure should be used. For rock mass
with large joint spacing, high VOD explosives with
high shock energy should be used for better shat-
tering effect.
15
10
5
0
0 20 40 60
Joint plane spacing
Figure 10. Joint plane spacing factor vs mean particle
size (after Ozcelik, 1998).
4 CONCLUSIONS
Optimum blasting should encompass the genera-
tion of fragment size distribution which is tailored
to suit the downstream operations. This study cen-
tered on the effect of blast design parameters on
the size distribution of the blasted muck. The main
conclusions of this study are:
a. Mean particle size and index of uniformity of
the blasted muck decrease with the increase in
the spacing to burden ratio. The optimum value
of spacing to burden ratio for simultaneous fir-
ing lies in the range of 1.5 to 2.
b. Mean particle size increases with the increase in
the burden to hole diameter ratio. This increase
was mainly due to the increase in burden as the
hole diameter was kept constant.
c. As expected, mean particle size decreases with
the increase in the powder factor during small
scale as well as field blast.
d. Mean particle size increases with the increase in
the stemming length as a % of the bench height.
This increase was significant when the % stem-
ming value exceeds 25.

185

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 185 10/3/2012 8:26:10 PM

 e. Stiffness value around one gave coarser frag-
mentation and the optimum value was around
three.
f. Mean particle size increases with the increase in
the joint orientation factor and the joint plane
spacing factor.
REFERENCES
Ash, R.L. 1985. Flexural rupture as a rock breakage
mechanism in blasting. In Fragmentation by blasting,
Ed. W. Forney, R. Boade and L. Costin, Soc. for Exp.
Mechanics, pp. 2429.
Chung, S.H., Lee, N.H. and Hunter, C.J. 1991. A blast
design analysis for optimizing productivity at INCO
Ltd.s Thompson open pit. In conference on explosives
and blasting techniques, Las Vegas, pp. 119127.
186
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 186
Lilly, P.A. 1986. An empirical method of assessing rock
mass blastability. In Large open pit mining confer-
ence, The Australian Institute of Mining and Metal-
lurgy, Melbourne, pp. 8992.
Ozcelik, Y. 1998. Effect of discontinuities on fragment
size distribution in open pit blasting-A case study. The
institution of mining and metallurgy, IMM, vol. 107,
pp. A146151.
Singh, S.P. 2004. Effect of rock fragmentation on the
productivity of the loading equipment. Collabora-
tive research and development grant project report,
funded by NSERC and mining industry, 49p.
Singh, S.P., Narendrula, R. and Duffy, D. 2005. Influence
of blasted muck on the productivity of the loading
equipment. In third EFEE conference on explosives
and blasting, Ed. R. Holmberg et al., pp. 347353.
10/3/2012 8:26:11 PM
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Causes of toe formation at dragline bench and its remedial measures

P.K. Singh, M.P. Roy & A. Sinha

CSIR-Central Institute of Mining & Fuel Research, Dhanbad, India

Bhola Singh
AES, Bhubaneswar, India

Vinay Kumar Singh

Northern Coalfields Limited, Singrauli, India

ABSTRACT: The paper deals with the causes of formation of toe of 6 to 9.5 m at dragline bench of
one of the coal mines in India and its plausible solutions. The bench height of the dragline face was in
the range of 36.5 to 43.5 m. The rock mainly consists of sandstone with compressive and tensile strength
around 33.15 MPa and 3.87 MPa respectively. Nine blasts were conducted to diagnose the causes of
formation of toe at the bottom level of dragline bench. The gassed emulsion explosives detonated in a
blasting round varied between 87,303 kg and 165,805 kg. The explosives in a hole were up to 3310 kg. The
numbers of holes detonated in a blasting round were 24 to 63. The in-the-hole velocity of detonation of
explosives had been tested for a few blasts to ensure the quality of explosives. The laser profiler was used
to profile the blast face and weak portion of the strata was identified. The impact of multi-point boosting
on the run-off of the VOD was also measured. The study revealed that back-up boosters should be placed
after loading of 1820 times drill diameter of gassed emulsion explosive in the column. The weak portion
of strata must have decked. The analysis indicated that the delay timing of 9.222.4 ms/m of effective
burden would yield optimum blast performance when the number of blast holes is restricted to 60. It was
also documented that half portion of the cut face should be blasted maintaining length and width ratio of
more than 2. The next blast at high wall side should be conducted by maintaining similar length and width
ratio. This practice yielded desired fragmentation and the concentration of horizontal stresses along high
wall side was addressed. The occurrences of toe were eliminated by optimised blast designs and explosives
loading configurations.

1 INTRODUCTION Blasting is an important activity in opencast

The mining industry is heading towards a tech-
nology driven optimization process. International
mining scenario, market trend and competitiveness
will prevail over and this process will continue and
accelerate in this century too. The development and
advancement of innovative technology is essential
for sustainable and cost effective mining vis-a-vis
and mitigation of various stake holders concerns
shall be of paramount importance.
Close on the heels, the last decade has also seen a
phenomenal progress in the advancement of blast-
ing technology, quality and performance of various
products used in blasting. Now monitoring instru-
ments, measurement technologies and computing
tools have been the capabilities of broad assumption.
The performance and reliability of explosives and
initiation systems are now at level that allows the
distribution and sequencing of explosive energy to
be carefully controlled (Singh & Vogt 1998).
mining and optimization of blasted rock fragment
are vital aspect for overall operational efficiency
and cost effectiveness. So far no other source of
concentrated energy has been found suitable to
replace chemical explosives for rock fragmenta-
tion and displacement. Blasting performance is
determined by the interaction of the detonation
products of an explosive and confining rock mass
(Watts 1999). Fragmentation is a key factor to con-
trol and minimize the loading, hauling, crushing,
classification and processing costs in aggregate and
industrial minerals operations (Sanchidrian, J.A.
et al, 2006). Rock mass properties dominate this
process. The blasting engineer is therefore, faced
with the challenges of determining the rock mass
properties which influence blasting performance
the most and commensurate blast designs to suit
different geological conditions.
Rock mass characteristics play an important
role in all aspects of blast performance. The use

187

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 187 10/3/2012 8:26:11 PM

 of standard designs without considering the varia-
tion in rock mass properties will lead to either over
blasting in some areas and under blasting in others
or more typically consistent over blasting (Scott,
1992).
Explosive energy level and explosive distribu-
tion must be matched to geologic conditions to get
desired blast results. Initiation and timing sequence
must be compatible with the rock mass response to
explosive loading (Singh 2002). It is important to
identify the rock mass properties, which influence
blasting performance and to modify blast designs
accordingly to suit different rock mass conditions.
However, certain properties of the rock mass have Figure 1. The rock formation of the dragline blasting
been found out valid with the mechanisms involved face.
in blasting (Scott, 1996 & Singh, 2000). They are as
follows:
Strong rock requires greater shock energy to
create new primary fractures.
The absence of fractures or discontinuities
increases the blasting effort required to achieve
a given degree of fragmentation.
Soft or plastic rock tends to absorb shock energy
and requires more heave energy to create a loose
muck pile.
High density rock requires more energy to loosen
and displace it than low density rock.
Figure 2. View of occurrences of toe above Turra seam
The paper deals with a systematic study con- at dragline bench.
ducted at Dudhichua opencast coal mine in India
which was facing toe formation in dragline blasting
which was causing re-drilling and blasting which
entails to loss of operational efficiency of dragline
operation and overall coal mining.

2 LOCATION AND GEOLOGY

Dudhichua opencast coal mine of Northern Coal-

fields Limited is located in the Singrauli Coalfields
of Singrauli district in India. It is surrounded by
Khadia mine to the East and Jayant mine to the
West. The area is well connected by rail and road.
The nearest railway head is Singrauli station about
30 km on East Central Railway. The rocks are of
Lower Gondwana formation. There are three coal
seams namely Turra, Purewa Bottom and Purewa
Top. The thicknesses of the coal seams are 1722 m,
912 m and 59 m respectively. The direction of
strike is towards E-W with broad swings. The dip
of the coal seam is 13 in northerly direction.
The total leasehold area of the mine is 2,464
Hectare. The mine produces 13.3 MT coal per
annum. The total overburden removal is about
35 Mm3 and the average stripping ratio is 1:2.6.
The rock formation of dragline bench is depicted
in Figure 1. The portion of toe left in the previous
blasts was photographed and documented (Fig. 2).
Figure 3. 3D-laser scanned view of rock formation at
dragline bench.
The laser profiler was deployed to scan the dragline
face to indentify the rock formation and the width
of loose/fractured layers in between the rock mass.
The recorded section of the rock formation and its
3D-scanned laser view are presented in Figure 3.
3 BLASTING DETAILS
Nine blasts had been conducted at Dragline bench
and the numbers of holes detonated per blast-
ing round were 24 to 63. The diameters of blast
holes were 311 mm. The depth of holes varied

188

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 188 10/3/2012 8:26:11 PM

 from 36.5 to 43.5 m and the explosive loaded in a
hole was around 3,310 kg.
In a typical blast hole configuration the gassed
emulsion explosives of 3000 kg was loaded in
a hole providing 1250 kg at the bottom and rest
1750 kg after deck of 3 m (Fig. 4a). The top stem-
ming was 6 to 6.5 m.
After analysing the rock characteristic of dra-
gline bench formation particularly at the bottom of
the bench and fragmentation result, it was decided
to put two decks and accordingly the 2nd blast
with two decks (Fig. 4b) were performed keeping
one deck of 2.5 m at 6 m and the second deck of
3 m was provided at 15 m from the bottom of the
hole respectively. The data of laser profiling indi-
cated that the loose/fractured portions are at 7 m
and at 16 m in few patches of the blasting bench.
The explosives loaded in holes were from 2960 to
3050 kg. The blast yielded good fragmentation.
The 3rd dragline blast was conducted at bench
height of 40 m with a sub-grade of 2 m. Two decks
of 2.5 m each at the location similar to previous
blast was provided in the hole. The only difference
was reduction in the deck length from 3 m to 2.5 m
in upper deck. The muck profile was excellent and
fragmentation was better than the previous blast.
The bench height for the 4th blast was 38.5 m.
Figure 4. Charging pattern of dragline bench blast
holes with one deck and 2 decks.
189
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 189
The sub-grade of 1.3 m was provided and only
one deck was provided at 5 m from the bottom of
the hole to take care of the disturbed strata. The
overall muck profile was good. The output of the
loading of the blasted muck was satisfactory in top
portion but the left out toe of 2 to 3.5 m were also
encountered.
It was decided to conduct a signature blast
(Fig. 5).The recorded data of signature blast were
analysed (Fig. 6). The linear superimposition tech-
nique was deployed to design the blast. It was
decided that the length of the blast should be more
than two times of the width of the blasting patch
to get good fragmentation.
In the subsequent blasting operations the 1st half
potion of the cut was taken for blasting maintain-
ing the length and width ratio of more than 2. The
designed charge factor was 0.63 kg/m3. The blast
yielded excellent result. Fragmentation analysis
was carried out which showed uniform muck pro-
file (Fig. 7). The blast conducted on the 2nd half
portion of high wall side with 64 holes designed
at powder factor 0.62 kg/m3 which yielded good
result (Fig. 8). The concentrated boosters at five
locations had been provided. The rest of the blasts
were conducted with placing concentrated booster
practices which gave good result. The established
blast design was re-validated with other blast which
resulted excellent blasting result.
Figure 5. View of signature blast hole and preparation
of placement of cast booster at dragline bench.
Figure 6. Time history of the signature blast in longi-
tudinal direction.
10/3/2012 8:26:12 PM

Figure 7. Overview of fragmentation resulted due to
5th experimental dragline bench blast.
Figure 8. Overview of fragmentation resulted due to
6th experimental dragline bench blast.
4 BLAST DESIGN OPTIMISATION
There is no single proven prescription to guide
blast design. Many practitioners delight in their
individual approach to this challenge and so there
are many correct approaches. Armed with a rea-
sonable description of the rock mass properties,
simple empirical models or thumb rules may be
used to evaluate alternative blast designs. The pro-
vision of more specific rock mass characteristics
usually adds little value as there are simply no for-
mulae available to incorporate these data in the
blast design process.
Attempts to approach blast design on a fun-
damental basis quickly becomes bogged down by
the complexity of the mechanism involved and the
difficulties experienced acquiring the specific rock
properties required to drive the calculations. These
approaches remain at the high end of blasting
research and have not yet found in practical appli-
190
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 190
cation within the mining industry. Blast design is a
more subtle process that depends heavily on quali-
tative experience and a simpler description of the
rock mass.
The physico-mechanical properties of rock mass
data were incorporated in the JKSimBlast model.
The laser profiler out-put was also incorporated
for identifying the weak zone and geologically
disturbed strata. The delay timing analysis was
done with the help of signature blast and recorded
time history of the signature blast is placed in
Figure 6.
The frequency spectra of the signature blast
was also analysed. Linear superposition of
the waves were done to simulate the waveform
characteristics. The analyses revealed that very
short delay time between the holes and very long
delay time between the rows should be avoided.
The analyses further confirmed that the mean time
needed to start the movement of rock face is 4.8
5.2 ms/m of effective burden. The dragline bench
thus needs the delay timing of 9.222.4 ms/m of
effective burden. Accordingly, the delay timing of
65142 ms between the rows, and 17 ms between
holes in a row were experimented.
4.1 Monitoring of in-the-hole VOD of explosive
The in-the-hole continuous Velocity of Detona-
tion (VOD) of gassed emulsion explosives was
recorded during dragline bench blasting. The in-
the-hole VOD was recorded for two holes. The
first hole was continuously loaded with emul-
sion explosive for 34 m and the required booster
charge (Pentolite) was placed at sub-grade level
and at 12 m from the bottom of hole. The second
hole was deck charged and the booster charge
was placed at two locations i.e. at sub-grade level
in bottom charge and at 0.5 m above the deck
in the upper deck portion. The recorded in-the-
hole VOD in the first and second hole had been
recorded 4701 m/s (Fig. 9) and 4730 m/s (Fig. 10)
respectively. This study confirmed that the per-
formance of explosives was uniform in all the
blasting situations.
4.2 Rock fragmentation analysis
The fragmentation analyses were carried out for
blasts conducted at dragline bench. The output of
the analyses are in the form of number of exposed
fragmented blocks, maximum, minimum and
mean size of the fragmented blocks, sieve analysis
as per the requirement i.e. at different percentile
size viz. D10, D25, D50, D75 & D90. (Percentile sizes:
for example D10 is the ten-percentile, the value for
which 10% by weight of the sample is finer and
90% coarser). In terms of sieving, D10 is the size of
10/3/2012 8:26:12 PM
 Figure 11. Netting and contouring of fragmented rock
blocks.

Figure 9. Recorded in-the-hole continuous VOD of

explosives at dragline bench when there was no deck and
the column of explosives was 34 m.

Figure 12. Histogram and cumulative size view of

blocks.

Figure 10. Recorded in-the-hole continuous VOD

of explosives at dragline bench in decked charge
configuration.

sieve opening through which 10% by weight of the

sample would pass.
The fragmentation resulted due to detonation of
holes at dragline bench for half of the cut with free
Figure 13. Netting and contouring of fragmented rock
face condition is presented in Figure 7. The process
blocks.
involved in analyses of fragmentation is shown in
Figures 11 and 12. The average mean size of the
blocks is 0.263 m (diameter of an equivalent sphere)
and the most common size of the block is 0.292 m.
The maximum size of the boulder is of 0.464 m.
Figure 8 represents the fragmentation resulted
due to detonation of holes at dragline bench at
high wall side. The process involved in analyses of
fragmentation is shown in Figures 13 and 14. The
average mean size of the blocks is 0.893 m (diame-
ter of an equivalent sphere) and the most common
Figure 14. Histogram and cumulative size view of blocks.
size of the block is 0.857 m. The maximum size of
the boulder is of 1.154 m.
presented in Figure 15 also yielded good blast
results but the muck pile in the high wall side was
4.3 Optimum blast designs for dragline blasting
very compact. The breaking of width of the blast-
Analyses of blast vibration signature revealed that ing patch of 80 m in two blocks (Figs. 16 and 17)
the delay timing of 9.222.4 ms/m of effective resulted to the desired fragmentation. The occur-
burden was the optimal delay interval for better rences of toe were eliminated and in subsequent
fragmentation which ultimately removed the toe blasting operations the deck of 2.5 m at two loca-
formation at the bottom portion of dragline bench. tions i.e. fractured portion encountered at 56 m
The said delay intervals provided adequate subse- and at 1516 m from the bottom of the bench was
quent relief for rock movement. The blast design provided.

191

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 191 10/3/2012 8:26:13 PM


Figure 15. Blast design and charging paptern for
dragline bench blast when full width is to be blasted.
Figure 16. Blast design when half part at free face side
of dragline bench is to be blasted.
Figure 17. Blast design when half part at high wall side
of dragline bench is to be blasted.
5 CONCLUSIONS
Fragmentation analysis studies and dragline oper-
ational efficiency in removal of blasted material
from 9 blasts revealed that for a maximum boul-
der size of 0.8 m, the dragline performance was
optimal whereas the bucket of dragline was 24 m3.
The presence of fractured zone in the rock mass
and subsequent decking at those locations; helped
enable in eliminating the chances of escape of
explosives energy through weaker zone. The length
and width ratio was found to be very important in
getting the desired blast results.
The width of dragline bench of 80 m was divided
into two parts. Three consecutive blasts in succes-
sion; along the free face were conducted maintain-
ing length & width ratio of 2.5:1.
The left out half portion of dragline bench
along the high wall was blasted in the similar man-
ner which resulted into improved fragmentation
and eliminated the occurrences of toe formation
along high wall. This practice of staggered blasting
192
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 192
of divided benches of dragline face yielded excel-
lent fragmentation and enhanced operational effi-
ciency of dragline. The delay interval between two
detonations in diagonal firing should start with
9.2 ms/m of effective burden and should end with
22.4 ms/m of effective burden. The deck length of
2.5 m at 56 m and at 1516 m in fractured zone
was found to be optimal and also contributed sig-
nificantly in controlling the escape of explosives
energy from the fractured zone. The placement of
booster charge at 5 to 6 locations helped in uni-
form run-off of the VOD and contributed in get-
ting the desired blast results.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors express their gratitude to the Direc-
tor, CSIR-Central Mining Research Institute,
Dhanbad, India for his encouragement and sup-
port during the field study. The authors are also
thankful to the officials of Dudhichua opencast
mine, Northern Coalfields Limited for providing
necessary facilities & supports during the course
of this investigation. The opinions are those of the
authors and not necessarily the organisations to
whom they belong.
REFERENCES
Sanchidrian, J.A., Segarra, P. & Lopez, L.M. 2006. It
is possible to assess fragmentation by blasting using
image analysis?, Proc. of 8th Fragblast International
Symposium, Santiago, Chile, pp 7379.
Scott, A., 1992. A technical and operational approach to
the optimization of blasting operations, Proc. MASS-
MIN 92 South African Institute of Mining & Met-
talurgy, Johannesburg.
Scott, A., 1996. Blastability and blast design. Proceed-
ings of Rock Fragmentation by Blasting, Mohanty
(ed.), 1996, Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 2736.
Singh, P.K., & Vogt, W., 1998. Effect of total explosive
fired in a blasting round on blast vibration. Coal Inter-
national, U.K., Vol. 246, No. 1, pp. 2022.
Singh, P.K., 2000. Rock fragmentation by explosives-an
overview. International Journal of Surface Mining
Braunkohle & Other Minerals, Trans Tech Publica-
tions, Germany. Vol. 52, No. 4, pp 401407.
Singh, P.K., 2002. Impact of initiation sequences in
opencast blasting on the intensity of vibration in
underground openings. The Journal of Explosives
Engineering, USA, Vol. 19, No. 2, March/April 2002,
pp 3639.
Watts, R.T., 1999. Choosing the correct bulk loading
equipment can help optimize your blasting program,
Proc. MINBLAST 99, Dulutch, Minnesota, USA,
pp 4763.
10/3/2012 8:26:14 PM
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Rockbursts provoked by destress blasting in hard coal longwall mining

P. Konicek, K. Soucek & L. Stas

Institute of Geonics AS CR, Ostrava-Poruba, Czech Republic

A. Przeczek
Green Gas DPB, Inc., Paskov, Czech Republic

ABSTRACT: Destress blasting is a very important proactive measure in areas of rockburst hazard in
many mining regions. However, among the hard coal mining industry in particular, it is still not a popu-
lar choice. Destress blasting is used as a standard proactive technique in areas of high rockburst risk in
longwall mining in the Czech part of the Upper Silesian Coal Basin (UCSB). Destress blasting is carried
out in rigid competent rocks adjacent to coal seams at depths of 700 to 1000 m below the surface. Groups
of boreholes (from 2 to 10) are fired with explosive charges of 500 to 4500 kg during longwall mining of
thick coal seams (thickness from 4 to 6 m) ahead of the longwall face. The main goals of destress blasting
are the softening of the competent rock layers for better caving, reduction of strain energy storage and
rock mass stress release. Induced rockburst can be provoked in favourable conditions and such cases from
locations in the USCB are described in the paper.

1 INTRODUCTION and combined formation of unfavourable stress

Rockbursts in the Upper Silesian Coal Basin
(USCB, see Fig. 1) have represented a very danger-
ous phenomenon for a long period of time (e.g.,
Straube 1972, Petuchov & Zamarski 1990, Takla &
Ptacek 1991, Holecko et al., 1999, Konecny 2005,
Dubinski & Konopko 2000, Drewiecki & Kabiesz
2008, Drzewiecki et al., 2011). The rockburst prob-
lem relates primarily to the existence of competent
rocks in the rock mass and to the irregular stress
fields induced by long-term excavation. The occur-
rence of a critical stress field leads to brittle failure
of not only the coal, but also adjacent rocks. Such
rockbursts are then, as a rule, a result of long-term
Figure 1. Location of the Upper Silesian Coal Basin
(USCB) and map of seismic networks in Karvina sub-
basin.
conditions in the specific geological structure
(Holeko et al., 1999, Konecny 2000). According
to their origin and mechanism, two main types
of rockbursts are distinguished in the Czech part
of the USCB. They are: rockbursts with the focus
in the coal seam or in its vicinity, and rockburst
with the focus outside the coal seam, mostly in the
sandstone competent roof. Differentiation of the
rockbursts and their classification into the two
main categories has a practical effect for the appli-
cation of efficient measures by which rockbursts
can be prevented or reduced (Konicek et al., 2011a)
To protect against rockbursts in the coal seam,
active technological measures are applied in the
vicinity of protected mine workings. However, to
eliminate unfavourable stress conditions outside
the coal seam, it is necessary to apply passive pro-
tection to potentially endangered mine workings.
It has emerged that destress blasting in overlaying
rocks is also a very useful measure in this case too.
The common active rockburst protection methods
are destress drilling and destress blasting in coal
seams and destress rock blasting in the wide sur-
roundings of the mine workings.
Destress rock blasting is focused in the regions of
expected high stress concentration. Destress blast-
ing is used as a rockburst control technique mostly
in the deep ore mines (e.g., Comeau et al., 1999,
Mitri et al., 2000, Saharan & Mitri 2009) despite
the fact that the idea comes from the coal mining
industry (Springhill Colliery, Canada in 1930s;

193

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 193 10/3/2012 8:26:14 PM

 McInnes et al., 1959). The presented system of
destress rock blasting to provoke rockburst, is a
unique European system used in the Czech part of
the USCB, in areas of high stress in the rock mass
(Dvorsky & Konicek 2005, Konicek et al., 2011b).
Rockburst can be provoked by destress blasting
in favourable conditions and two examples of
provoked rockburst from the USCB are presented
here.

2 NATURAL AND MINING CONDITIONS

2.1 Natural conditions

The USCB is a carboniferous multi-seam sedi-
mentary deposit (Namur E and Westphal A). The
sequence of competent sandstone beds and other
much softer rocks combined with the network of
faults forms a very complicated set of natural con-
ditions, which result in an irregular and anomalous
natural stress state. The greatest share of compe-
tent rigid rock between the seams is in the Sedlove
Member (from 50 to 90%) of the stratigraphic unit,
whereas other stratigraphic units, such as the Sucha
Member is in overburden and the Ostrava Member
is below (from 20 to 30%), (Dopita et al., 1997).
Currently, the coal seams of the Sedlove Member
are those that are mostly mined. Typical properties
and the lithological structure of the rock mass are
shown in Table 1 and Figure 2.
2.2 Mining conditions
Mining in the USCB started in the eighteenth
century. Irregular stress fields were induced by
long-term excavation and thus, the stress fields
are very complicated and in many cases they
are very dangerous for mining (from increased
rockburst risk). Also, coal seams with thick-
nesses between 1 and 3 m were mined irregu-
larly in the overburden of the Sedlove Member.
Mining conditions of the presented examples are
shown in the figures of destress blasting design in
chapters 4.1.1 and 4.2.1.
Table 1. Typical rock properties of Sedlove Members.
UCS RQD*
Rock MPa %
Coal 1030
Mudstone 3565
Siltstone 40150 6090
Sandstone 50170 7090
Conglomerate 40140 7090
*Only competent layers of rock.
Figure 2. Stratigraphic section of Sedlove Member.
3 CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF DESTRESS
BLASTING
The conceptual model of destress rock blasting
has been developed according to the rockburst
model (e.g., Konicek et al., 2011a, 2011b), which
was formed during the second half of the twenti-
eth century. Destress rock blasting appears to be
one of the best measures against these dangerous
events. The strength, rigidity and cohesion of rock
layers are influenced by the application of this con-
trol technique. The simplified conceptual model of
destress blasting application is shown in Figure 3.
Destress rock blasting is designed according to
natural and mining conditions (e.g., OKD, DPB,
a.s. 1995, Konicek 2009, Konicek et al., 2011).
Boreholes with diameters of 75105 mm are usu-
ally drilled from the gateways, with a borehole incli-
nation of up to 30 and length of 30120 m. The
spacing of parallel boreholes is usually between 5
to 12 m. Explosives are pneumatically charged into
the boreholes (in cartridges). The total amount
of explosive charges ranges from 400 to 4781 kg.
The predominant charge percentage of the length
of boreholes varies from 45 to 85% (increasing
according to the length of borehole). Explosives
are fired ahead of the longwall face, usually at a
distance of 30 to 100 m, in the region of expected
stress concentration (Konicek et al., 2011a,b).
4 PROVOKED ROCKBURSTS
Stress fields are very complicated in long-term
excavation areas and in difficult natural conditions.

194

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 194 10/3/2012 8:26:15 PM

 Figure 3. Simplified model of destress blasting
application.
Influencing local stress concentrations through
provoked rockburst is very difficult. Rockburst
can be provoked in isolated cases and examples are
presented below.
4.1 Case No. 1longwall No. 339 503j
Area of longwall No. 339 503j mining is situated
in the 5th mining block in Darkov Colliery (see
Fig. 1). The principal structures that influence the
stress state in the described area are tectonic faults
from a N-S to NNE-SSW direction (dip from 45
to 70, amplitudes up to 1.5 m). Sediment layer
formation is slightly folded (general dip 5 to NE).
Seam No. 39, with a thickness from 3.4 to 4.0 m,
was mined at a depth range of 820 up to 860 m
below the surface. Competent rigid rocks (sand-
stones and conglomerates) comprise the predomi-
nant part of the interbed of seams 39 and 38 (from
65 to 90%). The share of competent rigid rocks in
the upper overburden (up to seam No. 36) is also
large (from 40 to 60%).
4.1.1 Design and main goals
The first example of a provoked rockburst is dur-
ing the excavation of longwall No. 339 503j. The
design of destress blasting is presented in Figure 4
(Kratky & Smuz, 2008). The destress blasting
boreholes were drilled upwards (from +15 to +30)
from the coal seam level. The lengths of holes
varied from 47 to 85 m, borehole diameters were
75 mm. Borehole spacing was designed according
to the natural conditions and main goals according
to methodology (OKD, DPB, a.s. 2005) e.g., 6 m at
start area of logwall and from 10 to 12 m in area of
the longwall termination. The drill hole bottoms
were situated at a distance of 20 to 40 m above the
195
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 195
Figure 4. Scheme of destress rock blasting in area of
longwall No. 339 503j.
top part of coal seam No. 39. Plastic explosives
in cartridges as well as pneumatic sand stemming
were applied to the drill holes. The lengths of par-
ticular charges varied from 43 up to 61 m and the
lengths of sand stemming from 17 up to 22 m. All
charges in each stage were fired simultaneously
without using delays. Detonators DEM-ZB-S pro-
duced by Austin Detonator, Czech Republic were
used for ignition. The weight of particular charges
varied according to length of drill hole from 228
up to 316 kg per hole. In certain stages, groups of
3 to 12 drill holes with total charges of 768 up to
2496 kg were blasted. A gelatinous ammonium
nitrate explosive Ecodanubit (cartridges diameter
28 mm and length 200 mm) from Istrochem Inc.,
Slovakia was used. One stage of destress blasting
was realised before the provoked rockburst on
2 August 2008 (Table 2) during the extraction of
longwall No. 339 503j, i.e., from July 2008 until
August 2008. In all stages, relatively higher seis-
mic energy was released than would correspond
to workings performed by explosives with specific
physical-mechanical conditions.
The main goals of destress blasting in the area
of longwall No. 339 503j were the softening of the
competent rock layers and reduction of their effec-
tive modulus of elasticity for better caving in the
10/3/2012 8:26:15 PM
 Table 2. Destress rock blasting parameters conducted in longwall No. 339 503j in Darkov Colliery.

Load length Explosive Released seismic Seismic

Numbers of of borehole charge energy effect by (1) Seismic effect
Stage boreholes (%) (kg) (J) (J . kg1) evaluation

1 112 70 2496 2.68E+05 51.2 Excellent

2* 1315,2224 74 1752 1.47E+04 4.0 Very good
3 1618 68 768 5.79E+03 3.6 Very good
4 1921 72 792 3.87E+03 2.3 Good

*Provoked rockburst.

start area of the longwall and to decrease additional

stress levels in the unmined areas of coal seams in
the overburden. The success of stress release was
evaluated according to methodology (OKD, DPB
2005 and Konicek 2009) based on the data of seis-
mological monitoring and using the Seismic Effect
calculation (see chapter 4.2.3).
According to the site conditions the first stage
of the blasting project (borehole Nos. 112) were
fired before the start of longwall mining. Another
stage wase fired ahead of the longwall face accord-
ing to site conditions, longwall advance and regis-
tered seismic activity.
Destress blasting stage No. 2 that provoked
rockburst (marked in Table 2) comprised 6 bore-
holes fired on 2 August 2008 (marked in Fig. 4).
Three boreholes from basegate No. 339 560.1
(Nos. 1315) were situated opposite the longwall
face with characteristics: borehole lengths 60, 72
and 78 m, explosive charge 228, 290 and 320 kg,
length of explosive charge in boreholes 72, 76 and
78% to total length of borehole. Three boreholes
from talegate No. 339 543 (Nos. 2224) had char- Figure 5. Reconstruction of probably action of forces
acteristics:, borehole length 75, 80 and 80 m, with during provoked rockburst in basegate No. 339 560.1 in
explosive charge 282, 316 and 316 kg, length of stationing 136 m, crosssection DD (marked in Fig. 8).
explosive charge in boreholes 71, 73 and 73% to
total length of borehole. Distance of longwall face
from the bottom boreholes Nos. 1315 was 60 m at 4.1.3 Seismic activity and effectiveness
firing time. Explosive charges in all boreholes were of stress release
fired succesfully and all stemmings were held. Geophysical monitoring methods have been uti-
lised in the Czech part of the USCB for about 30
4.1.2 Provoked rockburst years. The current system of seismological moni-
Gate inspection after blasting verified a provoked toring is described by Holecko et al. (1999, 2011).
rockburst with impact in basegate No. 339 560.1. They include seismologic and seismoacoustic
The rockburst manifested itself as: deformation monitoring, which monitors the process of failure
of the main gate in stationing from 223 to 354 m within the rock mass during mining. These methods
(marked in Fig. 4) as a bottom swelling of up to have gradually become the key part of rockburst
1.5 m, deformation of steel arch, yeild of steel prognosis. The significance of these geophysical
arches up to 0.6 m, damage of conveyor belt and methods is in their utilisation for evaluating the
scatter of facilities. The probable action of force development of stress-deformation status in the
during rockburst was evaluated from deformation rock massif, formed by geological conditions and
of the roadway (Fig. 5). We can say generally that former/current mining. Since the 1990s, the cur-
the main action of the force was from the bottom rent system of seismologic monitoring has been
to the upper right side of roadway (from side of utilised with only minor adjustments. This includes
longwall face). a local seismologic network in each active mine

196

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 196 10/3/2012 8:26:16 PM

 in the Karvin subbasin; the network is equipped
with underground seismic stations in each mining
district. These stations observe the local seismicity
of each colliery and the surroundings. Wave records
from particular mines are transferred to the online
monitoring center, Green Gas DPB, Inc. (DPB) in
Paskov. In addition to data from local networks,
figures from the regional network (which encom-
passes the Karvin subbasin) are available too.
This network, belonging to DPB, comprises seven
three-component surface seismic stations and three
underground (see Fig. 1). In the DPB evaluation
centre all seismic data are continuously monitored
and evaluated. The interpreted data are transmit-
ted back to the underground seismic workplaces
where they are used for continuous prediction of
rockbursts. For selected zones of longwalls and
driving headings, the following particular tasks are
monitored and interpreted: the location of seismic
events within zone of mine working, the magnitude
of seismic energy of particular seismic events as
well as total irradiated quantity of seismic energy
per selected time interval, the changes in develop-
ment of seismic activity in a summary (Benioff)
graph and in its gradient within a selected interval
(daily increment, weekly line slope of summary
graph, etc.), changes in energy-frequency distribu-
tion and its time development. Analyses of volume
changes in the focal area of high energetic seismic
events are also carried out.
Registered sesimic events in the area of long-
wall No. 339 503j before the provoked rockburt
are described in Figure 6, which is a location
Figure 6. Location map of registered seismic events in
area of longwall No. 339 503j (energy in J).
197
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 197
map of registered seismic events in the area of
the longwall. Low energetic events (up to 103 J)
were predominantly registered during longwall
mining. Two seismic events correspond to destress
blasting stages (stages No. 3 and 4). Seven seismic
events with energy of about 104 J were registered;
one seismic event corresponds to the destress
blasting stage No. 2provoked rockburst. One
seismic event with energy of about 105 J was reg-
istered at destress blasting stage No. 1. The high
registered seismic energy of the 1st blasting stage
corresponds to the mining situation (mainly left
unmined pillar between previous longwall and
location of mined out part of overburden seams).
The greatest number of high energetic seismic
events (>104) were registered due to longwall
advances in the area of unmined parts of the
seams in the overburden. The focal area of the
seismic event that corresponds to destress blasting
stage No. 2 that provoked rockburst was located
ca 80 m above seam No. 39 (level of mined out
seams in overburden).
The efficiency of the adopted destress blasting
at the different mining stages is evaluated in terms
of Seismic Effect (SE), which is calculated through
the available seismic monitoring data and weight of
explosive charge. These technical evaluation meth-
ods provided satisfactory results for the destress
blasting design process. The release of local stress
concentration due to the blasting is estimated with
the help of Seismic Effect (SE), which is calculated
for every destress rock blasting stage. The evalua-
tion process of stress release from a rock mass by
the seismic effect is evolved by Knotek et al. (1983)
and verified by Konicek (2009). The seismic effect
of destress rock blasting is calculated by the fol-
lowing equation:
ESeis
SE = (1)
K .Q
where: ESeis = registered seismic energy in J;
K = constant expressed in J kg1 reflecting the
natural conditions (for conditions of the Czech
part of the USCB, K = 2.1); Q = weight of explo-
sive charge in kg. The assessment of effectiveness
(stress release succest) is evaluated according to
the volume of SE by the Konicek (2009) method-
ology (see Table 3).
Calculated seismic effects for each stage of
destress blasting are shown in Table 2. All seismic
effects were relatively high (see Table 2); good in
1 case, very good in 2 cases and excellent in 1 case.
This means that the stress releases were successful
in all stages of destress blasting, especially in case
of the 1st stage of destress blasting in the start area
of the longwall.
10/3/2012 8:26:17 PM
 Table 3. Seismic effect evaluation (Konicek, 2009).

Seismic effect Evaluation of seismic effect

SE < 1.7 Insignificant

1.7 SE < 3 Good
3 SE < 6 Very good
6 SE < 12 Extremely good
SE 12 Excellent

Figure 7. Analysed changes in focal area (rockburst

2.8.2012). Avolume changes, Bcontour diagram of
Volume changes and the range of shear planes pole of shear plane (equal angle projection, lower hemi-
shared in fracturing in the focal area was evaluated sphere, N = 135).
(Fig. 7). The development of volume change in the
focal area is typical for destress blasting (the first is
the registered explosion phase followed by implo-
sion phase). Total volume change increase in the
area of implosion showed two local maxima (up
to 2.2 m3 100 ms after start of event). Total vol-
ume changes are relatively small (up to 3 m3), but
the share of the volume changes are relatively high
(up to 27%). High share of shear volume changes
shows (besides calculated SE) the probable stress
release (e.g., Van De Steen et al., 2001). The con-
tour diagram of the shear plane (Fig. 7), indicates
a plane NNE and SSE in direction, which corre-
sponds to the tectonic fault directions in the area
of the longwall.

4.2 Case No. 2longwall No. 340 206

The area of longwall No. 340 206 mining is
situated to the east of the former safety shaft
pillar (see Fig. 11). The principal structures that
influence the stress state in the described area
are tectonic fault zone Gabriela in the West (dip
70, amplitude 80 m) and tectonic fault Lezata
in the North (dip 50, amplitude from 20 to
80 m). The Gabriela fault is a wide tectonic zone
(30100 m) with frequent opposite dip faults that
indicate tensile stress conditions at time of origin.
Sediment layer formation is slightly folded (general
dip from 5 to 8 to NNW). Seam No. 40 with a
thickness of 6 to 7 m is a basal seam of the Sedlove
Member. Competent rigid rocks (sandstones and
conglomerates) comprise the predominant part of
the interbed of seams 40 and 39 (from 60 to 90%)
and increase from East to West (safety shaft pillar
towards). The share of competent rigid rocks in
the upper overburden (up to seam No. 36) is also
large (from 44 to 64%).
4.2.1 Design and main goals
The second example of the provoked rockburst was
observed in the area of longwall No. 340 206 in the
Darkov Colliery. The design of destress blasting is
presented in Figure 8 (Kratky & Macura, 2011).
Figure 8. Scheme of destress rock blasting in area of
longwall No. 340 206.
The destress blasting boreholes were drilled
upwards (from +8 to +30) from coal seam level
No. 40. The lengths of holes varied from 30 to 90 m.
In light of the design parameters and the destress
blasting task, borehole diameters of 93 mm were
selected. Borehole spacing was designed according
to the natural and mining conditions and accord-
ing to methodology (OKD, DPB, a.s. 2005), e.g.,
8 m in the start area of longwall and from 10 to
12 m in the rest of the area of the longwall. The
drill hole bottoms were situated at a distance of
26 to 32 m above coal seam No. 40. Plastic explo-
sives in charges as well as pneumatic sand stem-
ming were applied to the boreholes. The lengths of
particular charges varied from 18 up to 70 m and
the lengths of sand stemming from 15 up to 30 m.
All charges in each stage were fired simultaneously
without using delays. Detonators DEM-ZB-S pro-
duced by Austin Detonator, Czech Republic were
used for ignition. The weight of particular charges

198

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 198 10/3/2012 8:26:18 PM

 varied according to the length of drill hole from
75 up to 600 kg per hole. In certain stages groups
of 2 to 10 drill holes with total charges of 800 up
to 4325 kg were blasted. A gelatinous ammonium
nitrate explosive Supergel 30 (cartridges diameter
28 mm and length 200 mm) from Maxam Deutsch-
land GmbH was used. 12 stages of destress blast-
ing were realised before the provoked rockburst
on 2 October 2011 (Table 4) during the extraction
of longwall No. 340 206, i.e., from July 2011 until
October 2011. In all stages a greater seismic energy
was released than would correspond to workings
performed with explosives with specific physical-
mechanical conditions.
The main goals of destress blasting in the area
of longwall No. 340 206 were the softening of the
competent rock layers and reduction of their effec-
tive modulus of elasticity ahead of the longwall face
and to decrease additional stress levels of unmined
areas of coal seams in the overburden. The success
of stress release was evaluated in the same way as
in the first example (see chapter 4.1.3).
According to the site conditions, the first
3 stages (Nos. 13) were fired before the start of
mining. Other stages were fired ahead of longwall
face according to site conditions, longwall advance
and registered seismic activity.
No. 13 destress blasting stage, which provoked the
rockburst (marked in Table 4) comprised 10 bore-
holes and was fired on 2 October 2012 (marked in
Fig. 8). Two boreholes from maingate No. 340 226
(Nos. 215 and 216) situated southward had char-
acteristics: borehole length 70 and 63 m, explosive
charge 400 and 325 kg, length of explosive charge in
boreholes 68 and 71% total length of borehole. Three
boreholes from middlegate No. 2090.3 (Nos. 108,
109 and 170) situated northward and southward
had characteristics: explosive charge 275, 450 and
250 kg, length of explosive charge in boreholes 67,
73 and 60% to total length of borehole. Two bore-
holes from middlegate No. 2090.3 (Nos. 142 an 143)
situated in stemming area of boreholes Nos. 108,
109 and 170 had characteristics: explosive charge
250 and 175 kg, length of explosive charge in bore-
holes 60 and 56% to total length of borehole. Three
boreholes from talegate No. 340 246 (Nos. 56, 57
and 91) situated northward in the area of the long-
wall panel and southward in the area of left pil-
lar between previous longwall panel and longwall
No. 340 206 had characteristics: explosive charge
576, 500 and 500 kg, length of explosive charge in
all boreholes was 75% to total length of borehole.
Distance of longwall face from the first borehole of
stage (No. 56) was 50 m at time of firing. Explosive
charges in all boreholes were fired succesfully and all
stemmings were held.
4.2.2 Provoked rockburst
Gate inspection after blasting verified a provoked
rockburst with impact in maingate No. 340 226.
The rockburst manifested itself as: deformation of
the main gate of length 131 m (marked in Fig. 8)
as a bottom swelling of up to 3.5 m, deformation
of steel arch, broken hydraulic probes, yeild of
steel arches up to 0.6 m, damage to conveyor belt
and scatter of facilities. Probable action of force

Table 4. Destress rock blasting parameters conducted in longwall No. 340 206 in Darkov Colliery.

Load length Explosive Seismic Seismic

of borehole charge energy effect by (1) Seismic effect
Stage Numbers of boreholes (%) (kg) (J) (J . kg1) evaluation

1 911 61 800 5,76E+03 3,4 Very good

2 1522 71 2550 1,51E+04 2,8 Good
3 3743,87 74 4000 7,07E+04 8,4 Extremely good
4 4649,88,97100 69 4025 8,98E+04 10,6 Extremely good
5 27,3136,45 66 2750 2,19E+04 3,8 Very good
6 1214,2326,2830,44 60 2875 1,50E+04 2,5 Good
7 197200,158161 69 2675 1,99E+04 3,5 Very good
8 206,207 67 825 4,60E+03 2,7 Good
9 201,101,103,104,163, 73 4325 7,76E+04 8,5 Extremely good
164,138,50,89,208
10 165,139,51,52 75 1475 3,35E+04 10,8 Extremely good
11 211,212,105,166,140,53, 66 2800 7,11E+04 12,1 Extremely good
54,90
12 213,214,204,205,55,90 74 2850 5,76E+04 9,6 Extremely good
13 215,216,108,109,170,142
14* 143,56,57,91 68 3700 9,70E+06 1248,4 Excellent

*Provoked rockburst.

199

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 199 10/3/2012 8:26:19 PM

 during rockburst was evaluated from deformation
of roadway (Fig. 9). Generally, we can say that the
main action of the force was from the bottom of
roadway about 3 m left of the coal.
4.2.3 Seismic activity and effectiveness
of stress release
The geophysical monitoring system is described in
chapter 4.1.3, as well as the methodology of stress
release evaluation by the seismic effect calculation.
The development of registered sesimic activity in
the area of longwall No. 340 206 is described in
Fig. 10. It shows a weak line slope of a summary
graph of the registered seismic energy and longwall
advance during mining of longwall No. 340 206.
Regular longwall advance is clearly evident (3.2 m
per day) and The period of longwall mining from
the start to the provoked rockburst can be divided
into 4 parts. The first sub-period is the start part of
Figure 9. Reconstruction of probably action of forces
during provoked rockburst in main gate No. 340 226 in
stationing 260 m, crosssection DD (marked in Fig. 8).
Figure 10. Seismic activity registered during longwall
No. 340 206 advanceweekly slope of registered seismic
energy and logwall advance (from start of mining to 20
October 2012).
200
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 200
the longwall before the end of July 2011 (ca. 50 m
longwall advance) with increasing sesimic activity
(partial maximum weak slope of registered seismic
activity = 340 J per day). The second sub-period
before the middle of September (ca. 195 m long-
wall advance) with oscillations of registered seis-
mic activity in the range of 150 to 430 J per day.
The third sub-period before the provoked rock-
burst shows decreasing registered seismic activity
up to 260 J per day before destress blasting on the
2 October 2011. The forth sub-period is after the
provoked rockburst when mining was stopped and
seismic activity decreased to a minimum level. The
location of the seismic event provoked by destress
basting was in the area before the longwall face,
about 20 m above coal seam No. 40 (see. Fig. 8).
The calculated SE for each stage of destress
blasting is shown in Table 4. All SE were high,
excellent in 1 case (provoked rockburst), extremely
good in 6 cases, very good in 3 cases and good in
3 cases. This means that stress release in all stages
of destress blasting were very succesfull. The SE
of the provoked rockburst was 1248, which is the
biggest SE caclulated from the destress blasting
during the 1980s.
Volume changes and the range of shear planes
shared in fracturing in the focal area was evaluated
(Fig. 11). The volume change in the focal area is not
typical for destress blasting. The explosion phase is
completely missing at the beginning. Total volume
change increase in the area of implosion was up to
a maximum of 180 m3 260 ms after the start of the
event. Total volume change is extremely high (maxi-
mum 380 m3); it is commonly only up to about 50 m3.
Intensive movement on tectonic faults are probable.
The shear volume changes are relatively small (up
to 10%) with respect to the high registered energy
of the sesimic event. The distribution of volume
changes corresponds to the type of regional event
with high movement on tectonic fault structures.
A contour diagram of the shear plane (Fig. 8) indi-
cates a plane in a NNE and SSE direction (direction
Figure 11. Analysed changes in focal area. Avolume
changes in focal area, Bcontour diagram of pole of
shear plane (equal angle projection, lower hemisphere,
N = 197).
10/3/2012 8:26:19 PM
 of Albrechtice fault zone and direction of longwall
face) and considerable subvertical direction (move-
ment in direction of coal seam position).
5 CONCLUSIONS
Destress rock blasting plays a significant role in
the system of rockburst prevention and it is a very
useful rockburst prevention technique, mainly with
the rockburst focus in the overlying competent roof
strata. This technique of a proactive rockburst
measure decreases the risk of rockburst occurrence
in high risk areas. Over 30 years of experience of
destress rock blasting in hard coal longwall mining
in the Czech part of the USCB, have shown that
it is a very useful method of rockburst control in
difficult stress conditions.
More than 2000 cases of destress rock blast-
ing have been realised since the 1980s (Konicek
et al., 2011a). Many of the cases that have been
carried out show high seismic effects (very good
to excellent according to Table 3), which docu-
ment stress release in the rock mass. Rockburst
can be provoked in specific conditions as shown
by the cases presented. However, problems such as:
the distribution of stress fields in the vicinity of the
boreholes after blasting, the range of the resulting
rock deformation and more precise determination
of the stress concentration area must be resolved
in the future. Nevertheless, destress rock blasting
contributes to safe longwall mining of hard coal in
conditions of substantial rockburst risk, especially
due to stress reduce without employees in under-
ground openings.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research is financially supported by a Grant of
the Ministry of the Interior of the Czech Republic
(project No. VG20102014034).
REFERENCES
Comeau W., Mitri H. S., Marwan M. M. & Baoyao T.
1999. World-wide survey of destress blasting prac-
tice in deep hard rock mines, In: Proceedings of the
25th Annual Conference on Explosives and Blasting
Technique, Vol I, pp. 189205, 710 February 1999,
Nashville, USA.
Dopita M. et al. 1997. Geology of the Czech Part of the
Upper Silesian Coal Basin (in Czech). Ministry of the
Environment of the Czech Republic, Prague.
Drzewiecki J. & Kabiesz J., 2008. Dynamic events in roof
strataoccurrence and prevention, Coal Science &
Technology Magazine, No. 235 Huaihai Road (W)
Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China, 221006, pp. 55 57.
201
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 201
Dubinski J. & Konopko W. 2000. Rockbursts
Assessment, Prediction and Control (in Poland), Cen-
tral Mining Institute, Katowice.
Dvorsky P. & Konicek P. 2005. Systems of Rock Blast-
ing as a rock burst measure in the Czech Part of the
Upper Silesian Coal Basin. In Proceedings of the Sixth
International Symposium on Rockburst and Seismicity
in Mines, Australian Centre of Geomechanics, Perth,
pp. 493496.
Holecko J., Ptacek J., Takla G. & Konecny P. 1999. Rock
bursts in the Czech part of the Upper Silesian Coal
BasinFeatures, theoretical models and conclusions
for practice, In Proceedings 9th International Congress
on Rock Mechanics, Paris, France, 2528 August, A.
A. BALKEMA.
Holecko J., Morkovska E. & Suchanek E. 2007. Induced
seismicity in the Czech part of the Upper Silesian Coal
Basin (in Czech), In Proceedings of the 1st Traditional
International Colloquium on Geomechanics and Geo-
physics, Green Gas DPB, Inc., Paskov, pp. 98107.
Holub K, Ruajov, Holeko J. Particle velocity gener-
ated by rockburst during exploitation of the longwall
and its impact on the workings, Int. J Rock Mech Min
Sci 2011, 48(2011): 942949.
Knotek S. et al. 1985. Research into Geomechanics Eval-
uation of Rock Mass Due to Geophysical Methods (in
Czech): Final Report of Research SP ZV II-6-1/2.09
11 381, VVUU, Ostrava.
Konecny P. 2005. Changes of nature of rockbursts with
increasing mining depth in Czech part of Upper Sile-
sian Coal Basin. In: Proceedings of the Fifth Inter-
national Symposium on Rockburst and Seismicity in
Mines, South African Institute of Mining and Met-
alurgy, Johanesburg, 2005, pp. 331336.
Konek P. 2009. Evaluation of Effectivness of Rock
Blasting for Stress Release in Rock Mass (in Czech).
Documenta Geonica 2009/1, stav geoniky AV R,
v.v.i., Ostrava, 2009.
Konicek P., Konecny P. and Ptacek J. (2011a) Destress
Rock Blasting as a Rockburst Control Technique, In
Proceedings of the 12th International Congress on Rock
Mechanics, Bejing, 1821 October 2011, Taylor &
Francis Group, pp. 12211226.
Konicek P., Saharan M. R. & Mitri H. (2011b): Destress
Blasting in Coal MiningState-of-the-Art Review, In
Proceedings of the First International Symposium on
Mine Safety Science and Engineering, part B, Beijing,
2728 October 2011, China Academy of Safety Sci-
ence and Technology, Proceedia Engineering 2011, pp.
158173.
Kratky D. & Smuz V. 2008. General design of destress
blasting in area of longwall No. 339 503j (in Czech),
unpublished, Darkov Colliery, pp. 10.
Kratky D. & Macura M. 2011. General design of destress
blasting in area of longwall No. 340 206 (in Czech),
unpublished, Darkov Colliery, pp. 20.
OKD, DPB, a. s. 2005 Methodical instructions of rock
burst control in OKRRock blasting (in Czech),
Paskov, unpublished.
OKD, DPB, a. s. 2005. Working rules of rock burst con-
trol in OKR (in Czech), Paskov, unpublished.
Petuchov I. M. & Zamarski B. 1990. Rockbursts and
their Prevention in Hardcoal Mines (in Czech), SNTL,
Prague, pp. 192.
10/3/2012 8:26:20 PM
 Saharan M. R. & Mitri H. 2009. Numerical Simulations
for Rock Fracturing by destress blasting, VDM Verlag
Dr. Mller Aktiengesellschaft & Vo. KG, pp. 224.
Stec K. & Drzewiecki J., 2012. Mine Tremor Focal
Mechanism: An Essential Element for Recognising
the Process of Mine Working Destruction, Acta Geo-
physica Vol. 60, No. 2, Apr. 2012, pp. 449471.
Straube, R. et al. 1972. Rockburst in Carboniferous Rock
Mass (in Czech), SNTL, Prague.
202
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 202
Steen V., Vervoort A., & Napier J.A.L. 2001. Numerical
modelling of fracture initiation and propagation in
biaxial tests on rock ssmples. Int. J. fracture. Vol. 108,
165191.
Takla G. & Ptacek J. 1991. Analysis of roadway supports
deformations infolved by rockbursts. Geomechanics
91, A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 5355.
10/3/2012 8:26:20 PM
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Burden and spacing influence in ground vibration attenuation at coal

overburden blast

V.L. Rosenhaim & J.F. Feij

Copelmi Minerao Ltda, Buti, RS, Brazil

E. Munaretti & J.F. Koppe

Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil

ABSTRACT: Coal mine overburden blasting in Brazil is characterized by a high degree of confinement.
Overburden is mainly composed by sedimentary rocks, such as siltstones. These types of rock do not need
much energy to be broken and excavated and usually the powder factor is low, in the order of 150 g/m3,
resulting in large burden and spacing. Coal blasting is different as coal shots have higher powder factor
and tighter burden and spacing to ensure coal fragmentation. For the new B3 Copelmis Mine Project, this
situation could induce an environmental impact with the possibility of generation of higher vibration close
to a large community. Attenuation equations were obtained for siltstone overburden and coal using seismo-
graph monitoring. The results showed that coal blasting produced much less vibrations then overburden,
resulting in lower attenuation equation slope and confinement coefficient (y-intercept) when compared
to overburden blasts. It was assumed that because coal shots are less confined the resultant vibrations
are lower as less energy is transferred to the rock mass. After this assumption, changes in the blast design
geometry were applied and several tests were conducted in the siltstone overburden and the resultant atten-
uation equations were compared to the previous equations obtained. This paper presents the blast geom-
etry design changes and the optimum results obtained simply modifying the blast confinement.

1 INTRODUCTION falls because the material is too hard to be dug

there is need of drilling and blasting. The layers
Like for many mine operations around the world, to be drilled and blasted are previously deter-
vibration and air-overpressure levels generated dur- mined and can vary in thickness as overburden
ing blasting activities are a major issue. Copelmi increases.
Minerao Ltda operates the B3 Mine, located at
Butia in the southernmost state of Brazil. Blasting
operations, in the near future will be as close as
100 meters from the neighboring residential area
and for this reason it was decided to test different
blast geometries and changes in the blast design
to reduce vibration levels as much as possible and
avoid complaining from the community.
The coal deposit in the mine is characterized by
the presence of many coal seams intercalated by
siltstone layers. Mined coal thickness ranges from
0.30 m to 2.5 m with interburdens ranging from a few
centimeters to more than 12 m. Overburden thickness
averages 40 m. Materials composing the overburden
are soil, red and yellow claystone and siltstone. The
siltstone thickness averages 25 m and only a por-
tion of about 6.5 m need to be drilled and blasted,
as shown in Figure 1. The remaining portion of the
overburden is mechanically excavated.
Usually the need of drilling and blasting is
determined whenever the excavators cannot dig the
material too easily, or else, whenever production Figure 1. Coal deposit profile.

203

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 203 10/3/2012 8:26:20 PM


With the approximation of the mine to the
nearby residential area, blasting at the top most
siltstone overburden bench will be approximately
100 meters from the structures and vibration at
this distance tend to be high, generating many
complaints from the neighborhood. With this
problem in mind, is mandatory to define the best
blast design plan that will reduce vibrations to the
minimum possible with the lowest impact in the
drilling and blasting operation cost.
2 BLAST DESIGN OVERVIEW
Blastholes are drilled 76 mm in diameter and
length varies according to coal or siltstone thick-
ness, for the overburden test bench hole lengths
vary from 5.0 to 6.5 m. Burden and spacing are 4.0
by 5.0 m for overburden and interburden siltstone
layers and 3.0 by 4.0 m for coal blast. Holes are
drilled vertically in a staggered pattern. Explosives
used are emulsion cartridges and bulk ANFO.
Emulsion cartridges are used as primers to initiate
the ANFO column; usually one quarter (15 cm) of
a 2.5 24 emulsion cartridge is used to initiate b the slope of the attenuation line. The a fac-
the explosive column, Munaretti (2002).
Shock tubes with and without delay periods
are used to initiate the explosive columns and on
surface connections. Delay periods used have low
accuracy, between 23% and 46% scatter, making
maximum number of holes per delay difficult to
predict. More precise delays are available in the
Brazilian market but they cost 3 to 4 times more.
Siltstone and coal do not require great amounts
of energy to be excavated. For that reason, powder
factors used in blast designs are very low, resulting
in very confined shots with little rock movement.
A minimum amount of energy is used just to induce
fractures in the rock mass in order to facilitate the
excavation. Another reason for the low powder fac-
tor and little movement of the material is to pre-
vent coal dilution which may occur when too much
energy is used and there is excessive vertical and
horizontal movement. Powder factors range from
70 to 170 g/m3 for overburden and interburdens and
160 to 280 g/m3 for coal. Coal shots use higher pow-
der factor to ensure good coal fragmentation and as
the overburden material goes to the waste pile, there
is no need to be well fragmented as long as the exca-
vator presents good productivity during operation.
The fragments are no larger than the bucks. This also
keeps cost with overburden blasts to a minimum.
Because of the high confinement, vibrations
levels generated can be high at close-in distances.
Attenuation equations were obtained from data
gathered during previous vibration monitoring for
coal and overburden blasts and are presented in
Figure 2 (Rosenhaim et al. 2012).
204
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 204
100
SILTSTONE
COAL
PEAK PARTICLE VELOCITY (mm/s)
10
SILTSTONE
PPV = 774 SD-1.67
1 R = 0.94
COAL
PPV = 132 SD-1.32
R = 0.93
0.1
1 10 100 1000
SCALED DISTANCE (m/kg1/2)
Figure 2. Attenuation equations for overburden and
coal blasts.
The attenuation equations represent de best-fit
lines through the data and are obtained using a
power curve of the form:
PPV = a*SDb (1)
where, a is the y-intercept at SD equals to 1 and
tor measures the intensity of the seismic energy
that is transferred into the ground and is propa-
gated away. It is a function of confinement, explo-
sives density and energy. The slope term b is
related to the geology through which the seismic
wave passes and is a measure of the decay of the
velocity intensity with distance, Dowding (1985).
The equations show that overburden blasts have
a higher confinement coefficient (y-intercept) then
coal shots, as already mentioned, this is a result of
large burden and spacing, resulting in lower powder
factors and high blast confinement. Coal shots also
have a lower attenuation due to the depth of the
shots, besides attenuation of ground motions with
distance there is attenuation with depth as coal shots
are located approximately 40 m from the surface.
3 RESULTS
Different drill pattern geometries were tested for
overburden blast to determine the best design that
would result in good rock breakage with lower costs.
In addition, vibration levels within the safe limits set
by the Brazilian standards (15 to 20 mm/s from 4 to
15 Hz, 20 to 50 mm/s from 15 to 50 Hz and 50 mm/s
above 40 Hz) at close-in distances. For the current
blast, vibrations levels are lower than the set limits
of 15 mm/s, but mine management wants to reduce
vibration lower than the limits to ensure that com-
plaints will be to a minimum. Peak frequencies are
usually between 4 and 15 Hz and are assumed to be
result from the influence of an underground mine in
10/3/2012 8:26:21 PM
 the area. The delay period combination used results current drill pattern geometry and when burden
in high frequency, in the order of 32 Hz. was reduced.
In the initial tests, small changes in the drill pattern Table 1 is a summary of average powder
geometry were done, from a squarer pattern, 4.0 factor, average and maximum charge weight
5.0 m, to more rectangular or elongated patterns, per delay and confinement coefficient (a) of the
3.5 5.5 m and 3.5 6.0 m. Later on, the same attenuation equations for each blast design tested.
geometry used in the coal blast design was tested, Figure 5 shows that, disregarding the booster test,
3.0 4.0 m. Even thought it was known would the lower the powder factor is, the higher will be
result in higher costs, the intention was to evaluate the blast confinement.
the results regarding vibration levels.
The last test conducted was the introduction of
a 150 g booster as initiation charge to the explosive
column instead of the quarter part of an emul-
sion cartridge. Boosters are not commonly used in
Brazil to initiate small diameter blasthole, mostly
because the cost was historically higher than the
emulsion cartridges.
For each change in blast design a series of blasts
vibration monitoring was carried out. Attenuation
equations were obtained from the data gathered
are compared in Figure 3.
As it was expected a decrease in confinement
coefficient can be seen as burden and spacing are
reduced. When using the same blast design as coal
shots, vibration levels produced by the overburden
blast were not reduced as much as expected. This is Figure 4. Brazilian standard limits for ground vibrations
from blasting, data at stand-of-distance of 100 m.
associated to different rock types and the depth of
the blast benches. Even thought there is a decrease
in the attenuation level, the introduction of a new Table 1. Summary of powder factor and confinement
blast geometry will result in an increase in cost of coefficient for the blast designs tested.
55% to overburden blast costs.
The use of boosters with the current blast geom- Powder Charge Weight
etry presented the best results regarding vibration factor per delay (kg) Confinement
levels. With the introduction of boosters cost will Blast design (kg/m3) ave. max. coeficient
increase around 12% and the confinement coeffi-
cient reduces 63%. 4.0 5.0 m 0.140 126 81 285
(Booster)
Figure 4 shows the Brazilian standards limits
3.0 4.0 m 0.247 181 118 430
for vibration where data recorded at a stand-of-
4.0 5.0 m 0.14 213 114 774
distance of 100 m for the tests realized are plotted.
3.5 5.5 m 0.151 201 124 787
The graphic in Figure 4 confirms that the best
3.5 6.0 m 0.133 168 93 1472
results were obtained when using boosters in the

1600
4.0 x 5.0 m
4.0 x 5.0 m (BOOSTER)
1400 3.5 x 5.5 m
3.5 x 6.0 m
1200 3.0 x 4.0 m
CONFINEMENT COEFICIENT (a)

1000

800

600

400

200

0
0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0
POWDER FACTOR (kg/m3)

Figure 5. Graphic comparing powder factor and con-

Figure 3. Attenuation plot comparing test results. finement coefficient.

205

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 205 10/3/2012 8:26:21 PM

 4 CONCLUSIONS
After a series of tests the mine management was
able to reduce vibration levels without increasing
drilling and blasting costs. The initial drill pattern
tested presented small changes in burden and spac-
ing with low cost variations and improvements in
blast vibration. Applying the same drill pattern
used in coal blasts resulted in lower vibrations but
with a higher cost. Overburden blast represents
40% of the total drilling and blasting operation
costs and 55% cost increase in the overburden blast
will result in 22% increase in the total operation
cost.
The use of booster charges presented the best
results regarding vibration levels, reducing 63%
confinement with low cost increase. The introduc-
tion of the booster charges will be extended to
the entire operation as it will result in much bet-
ter fragmentation in the coal blast as more energy
is introduced in the explosives column initiation.
Furthermore, costs will increase around 12%
206
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 206
for the operation, however it can be reduced as
changes to the coal blast design can be applied
without impairing fragmentation.
New changes will be applied to blast design with
the application of booster to evaluate how much
more vibration levels can be lowered and the impact
this changes will have in the operation cost.
REFERENCES
Dowding, C.H., 1985. Blast Vibration Monitoring and
Control. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ,
USA.
Munaretti, E., 2002. Desenvolvimento e Avaliao de
Desempenho de Misturas Explosivas a Base de Nitrato
de Amnia e leo Combustvel. PhD Dissertation.
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil.
Rosenhaim, V.L. & Munaretti, E. & Feij, J.F. & Koppe,
2012. Blast Optimization and Vibration Control at a
Multi-Seam Coal Mine, Brazil. Proceedings of the
ISEEs 38th Annual Conference on Explosives &
Blasting Technique. Nashville, TN, USA.
10/3/2012 8:26:21 PM
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

The effects of delay time sequence and charge per delay on ground
vibration: A case study

Umit Ozer, Abdulkadir Karadogan & Ulku Kalayci

Mining Engineering Department, Engineering Faculty, Istanbul University, Avcilar, Istanbul, Turkey

Zafer Guclucan & Mustafa Akgul

NTF Construction Co., Istanbul, Turkey

ABSTRACT: This paper presents the analysis of environmental effects of blast-induced ground vibra-
tions and air shocks on the excavation of Beykoz-Istanbul-Turkey waste water tunnel and branches
construction. Within the scope of the study, 161 events in 127 shots at S2 branch tunnel were recorded.
The particle velocity components and air shocks associated with 127 shots during the advancement of
the tunnel were monitored and analyzed by vibration monitors at the test site. The studies were per-
formed in two stages in the field mentioned. At the first stage, blasting pattern, blasthole design and
explosive charges of shots were observed without intervention. At the second stage, some amendments for
used blasthole geometry, delay time sequence and quantities of explosive were suggested and performed.
Results obtained from the vibration measurements recorded by the vibration monitors during the blast-
ing operations, and analyses and evaluations conducted on those results are explained. Also, the particle
velocities and frequency values of all blast events were evaluated according to German DIN 4150 Norms
in order to predict, and compare the influence grades to the neighboring buildings, and structures.

1 INTRODUCTION 2 TEST SITE

In various sectors where blasting is inevitable, such
as quarrying, mining, construction, infranstruc-
ture, shafts and tunnels, pipelines excavations,
environmental problems caused by blast-induced
ground vibrations and air shock were frequently
encountered and discussed. As a result of these
discussions, various systematic research programs
were introduced for solution to these issues
and establishment of some standards on the
subject. Then, Principles of Controlled Blasting
Techniques were presented. (Ozer et al., 2007;
Dowding, 1985; Jimeno et al., 1995; Oriard, 2002;
Olofsson, 2002).
The aim of this study is to measure blast-induced
ground vibrations generated during the excavation
of Beykoz Istanbul Turkey waste water tunnel and
branches, and explain the applied surveys con-
ducted in order to keep the blast induced ground
vibrations at a level which they will cause no dam-
age to the surrounding buildings and structures.
Excavation by blasting in Wastewater Tunnel
is a part of Kucuksu Environmental Protection
Project. The objective is to prevent the waste waters
of neighboring districts contaminate Kucuksu and
Goksu creeks and Istanbul Bosphorus, and dis-
charge collected waste waters after reconditioning
in treatment plant.
In this study, blast-induced vibration analysis was
performed in S2 branch tunnel. The technical and
geometrical properties of the project structures
were given in Table 1.
The locality map of the study area is shown in
Figure 1. The plan view of S2 shaft and branch
tunnels and the vicinity could be seen in Figure 2.
2.1 Geology
In the route which is in Beykoz coast that lies in
the north of Bophorus, stanbul. The forma-
tion in which the tunnel excavations took place
is limestone and shows some complex fractures
and curved forms due to the multi-phase tectonic
effects. The branch tunnel was excavated in lime-
stone formation (Glcan et al., 2007).
3 INVESTIGATION METHOD
The studies were performed in two stages in the
field. At the first stage, blasting pattern, blast-
hole design and explosive charge of shots were
observed without any intervention. Blasting pat-
tern and other properties of shots were shown in
Table 2. Although cut hole and empty hole were

207

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 207 10/3/2012 8:26:21 PM

 Table 1. The technical and geometrical properties of the S2 branch tunnel.

Starting depth Final depth Diameter Ground elevation at

(m) (m) (mm) starting (m)

19,6 7 2200 17.00

Ground elevation Flow elevation at Flow elevation Notes
at final (m) starting (m) at final (m)

9.1 4.80 0.10 135 m tunnel connection

In each stage of the study, charges per delay were

determined. The distance between blasting points
and the vibration monitor stations were measured
by topographic devices. Particle velocities were
measured by ground vibration monitors.

3.1 The evaluation of the shots

Figure 1. The satellite view of Beykoz Istanbul waste-
water tunnel direction.
Figure 2. The plan view of S2 shaft and branch tunnel
and the vicinity.
recommended at the beginning of the study, how-
ever, those proposes could not implemented until
3rd shot.
At the second stage, some amendments for
hole geometry, ignition sequence and quantities
of explosives were suggested and performed. The
amendments were shown in Table 2.
In the studied wastewater tunnel, cross-sectional
area was 4 m2, blasthole diameter was 42 mm,
blasthole length was 1,5 m. And the type of explo-
sive used was emulsion.
At the earlier shots, 100 and 300 ms delay times
were used as an ignition system, at the follow-
ing shots 25 ms delay time was proposed by the
research team. The holes numbers which shows
ignition sequence were given in Figure 3.
A representative vibration monitor device report
from measured vibration data in the first stage of
the study was given in Figure 4 ab. As shown in
Figure 4 ab, vibration durations were longer than
3 seconds.
Because of the long delay time interval, received
vibration waves behaved as a different shot and
created long-term vibrations consecutively.
Because of long duration vibrations, ground
vibration monitor devices recorded a new data
from the same shot after 2 seconds. It was men-
tioned that structures were grappled by these
successive vibrations. They also physiologically
affected people living nearby.
At the second stage, instead of 100 and 300 ms
delays intervals, the propesed delay interval of
25 ms was used with non-electrical detonators.
Also, all the holes were detonated seperately and
charges per hole were reduced for every hole.
Applied blasting pattern and firing sequences of
observed shots at the second stage of the study, is
shown in Figure 5. The hole pattern was changed
and the number of the holes were reduced. Also,
the cut hole method with two empty holes was pro-
posed and applied.
Sample vibration monitor reports from meas-
ured vibration data from shots after the interven-
tion of research team are shown in Figure 6 ab.

208

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 208 10/3/2012 8:26:22 PM

 Table 2. The variations of blasting pattern and other properties (Kalayci et al., 2011).

Hole number Delay time (ms) Total charge (kg) Charge per hole (gr)

Before intervention 25 100300 13,33 465620

After intervention 232 25 13,021 620310
Charge per delay (kg) Hole length (m) Cut hole Empty hole

Before intervention 2,48 1,5

After intervention 1,240,31 1,50,8 04 02

Figure 3. The blasting pattern and firing sequence of

the earlier shots.

Figure 4 ab. Vibration monitor reports of before

intervention.

Figure 5. The blasting pattern and firing sequences of Figure 6 ab. Vibration monitor reports of after
the subsequent shots. intervention.

209

CH024_Paper 228.indd 209 10/4/2012 3:14:09 PM

 Table 3. Modified pattern, charges, delays and vibration results.

Air Total Charge

Shot (PPV) Frequency shock charge per delay Distance
number (mm/s) (Hz) (dB) (kg) (kg) (m) Comments

1 5.46 100 * 13.33 2.48 30.02 Observed shot before intervention

3.17 56.9 129.7 13.33 2.48 28.51
2 6.73 100 128.8 13.02 1.24 30.23 Charges per hole were reduced
and All holes were detonated
separately
11 4.06 100 127.2 14 1.24 32.95 All holes were detonated separately
1.9 100 129.4 14 1.24 29.44 All holes were detonated separately
30 1.78 100 127.3 14 1.24 37.41 All holes were detonated separately
51 25.00 73 116.4 14 1.24 17.61 All holes were detonated separately
58 20.20 85 116.9 14 1.24 19.24 All holes were detonated separately
88 11.00 57 116.7 13 0.93 20.68 Charges per hole were reduced
94 4.57 85.3 88 10 0.93 30.30 Number of holes were reduced
98 18.80 64 113.1 8 0.47 11.56 Charges per hole were reduced
104 25.40 73.1 110.2 6 0.47 17.94 Number of holes were reduced
107 14.50 85 122 6 0.38 9.52 Charges per hole were reduced
108 17.40 85 120.9 6 0.31 9.57 Charges per hole were reduced
118 18.00 51 118.1 6 0.31 9.32 Charges per hole were reduced
122 10.80 100 119.4 5 0.31 10.27 Number of holes were reduced
127 16.30 100 117.5 4 0.31 11.11 Number of holes were reduced

In the study, 127 shots were observed and

161 records were obtained by ground vibration
monitor devices.
At first, the delay intervals were reduced. Then
charges per delay were also reduced because the
tunnel depth was decreasing with the ground incli-
nation. Modified pattern, charges and delays can
be seen in Table 3. The vibration results recorded
according to those variations also can be seen in
Table 3.
In the study, there were no change of hole diam-
eters. At first, without any changing of hole num-
bers, only delay intervals and charges per delay
were reduced. In the following shots, quantity of
charges was reduced step by step. After a while, Figure 7. The evaluation of PPV and frequency in
both the numbers of holes and charges per delay accordance with German DIN 1450.
were reduced.
For vibration measurements, 12 piece of
8-channel ground vibration monitor device were
used by the research team at different times. In the
absence of research team, the measurements were
taken by authorized company engineers with one
piece of 4 channel ground vibration monitor. In
total, 13 devices were used in this study.
For the buildings which are located around S2
shaft and connection tunnel route, vibration meas-
urements were taken at pre-determined stations
located inside the buildings when it is permitted by
the residents or in other cases located right next to
the buildings.
All obtained PPV and frequency values were
evaluated in accordance with German DIN 1450. Figure 8. The relation of PPV versus SD.

210

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 210 10/3/2012 8:26:23 PM

 This evaluation in graphic view can be seen in
Figure 7.
When the graphics obtained after this shot were
studied, a behavior which seems like there is more
than one shot being blasted during the recording
process was observed due to the long delay inter-
vals which also caused consecutive long term vibra-
tions which effects buildings. Due to the length of
the delay intervals, vibration monitors were began
to record the same shot as a new shot after two sec-
onds. It was thought that those consecutive vibra-
tions were exhausting buildings mechanically.
PPV-SD graphics were generated by using the
vibration measurements recorded during the study.
The graphic shows the PPV-SD relations both
before and after the intervention (Fig. 8).
As seen in Figure 8, the PPV-SD relation after
the intervention shows good correlation (r = 0.77)
and the recorded measurements consistently repre-
sent the field of study.
4 CONCLUSIONS
In this study blast-induced ground vibrations
measurements for the tunnel excavation and S2
shaft branches of Beykoz Istanbul Turkey waste
water tunnel were recorded and evaluated.
The studies were conducted in two stages for the
mentioned field. In the first stage, blasting param-
eters such as blasting pattern, hole orientation and
charges of the first shot which were conducted sys-
tematically by the authorized company engineers
was observed without any interventions.
Due to the length of the delay intervals, vibra-
tion monitors were began to record the same shot
as a new shot after two seconds. It was thought
that those consecutive vibrations were exhausting
buildings mechanically. At the same time, consecu-
tive and long term vibrations and air shocks caused
a psychological disturbance upon the people.
For this reason in the second stage of this study,
each hole was detonated with a different delay
interval, and in the following shots the above men-
tioned problems were solved by decreasing the time
intervals from 100 and 300 ms to 25 ms.
Because of the distance between surface and
the tunnel direction was decreasing due to the
211
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 211
ground elevation during the excavations, charges
per hole were reduced step by step. Vibration val-
ues were aimed to stay constant with the decreasing
distance.
In the final stages of tunnel excavation, both
the number of the holes and charges per hole were
reduced, thus the tunnel excavation was success-
fully completed without any damage to surround-
ing buildings.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This study was conducted under Istanbul University.
Engineering Faculty Revolving Fund, Project Date/
Number, 21.09.2010/5565. The authors would like
to thank Istanbul University Engineering Faculty,
NTF Construction Trade Limited Company and
workers, and local community.
REFERENCES
Dowding, C.H, 1985, Blast Vibration Monitoring and
Control, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ, pp.
119126.
Glcan, Z., Meri, S., Grsoy, C., Algan, M., Bilgin, N.,
Balc, C., Tuma, D., 2007. The Use of a TBM in
Difficult Ground Conditions in BeykozKavacik
Sewerage Tunnel, Proceedings of the 2th Symposium
on Underground Excavations for Transportation, 1517
Kasm, stanbul, s. 8391. (In Turkish).
Jimeno C.L., Jimeno E.L., Carcedo F.J.A., De Ramiro Y.V.,
1995, Drilling and Blasting of Rocks, A.A Balkema,
392 pages.
Kalayci, U., Ozer, U., Karadogan, A., Guclucan, Z.,
Akgul, M., 2011, Ground Vibration Analysis Caused
by Blasting at Beykoz Waste Water Branch Tunnel, Pro-
ceedings of the 4th Mining and Environment, June 0203,
2011 Izmir, Turkey, pp 133142. (In Turkish).
Olofsson, S.O., 2002, Blasters Manual Saudi Chamical
Company, 267 pages.
Oriard, L.L., 2002, Explosives Engineering, Construc-
tion Vibrations and Geotechnology, ISEE, 680 pages.
Ozer, U., Kahriman, A., Adiguzel, D., Aksoy, M.,
Karadogan, A., 2007. The Investigation of Ground
Vibrations Induced by Bench Blasting at Different
Quarries at atalca District in Turkey, The Thirty-Three
Annual Conference on Explosives and Blasting Technique,
January 2831, 2007 Nashville, Tennessee, USA.
Volume I. pp 241253.
10/3/2012 8:26:24 PM
This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Numerical simulation for the influence of delay time on the rock

fragmentation

C. Yi, D. Johansson & U. Nyberg

Lule University of Technology, Lule, Sweden

J. Sjberg
Itasca Consultants AB, Lule, Sweden

ABSTRACT: With the application of electronic detonators and with short delay times, it may be pos-
sible to achieve improved fragmentation through stress wave superposition. This hypothesis was studied
through a series of small scale laboratory tests. The results from these tests have subsequently been mod-
eled using the numerical FEM code LS-DYNA and the RHT (Riedel-Hiermaier-Thoma) material model,
applying a newly developed methodology for three-dimensional computer simulation of blasting. This
work also involved simulating initial damage to the rock through previous blasting, and analyzing the
resulting effects. The effect of different delay times showed that through a properly chosen delay time,
improved fragmentation could be inferred. Moreover, the initial damage (from the previous row) clearly
affected the fragmentation; however, the results indicated that longer delay times (in which the stress wave
would have passed the boreholes) also resulted in improved fragmentation, implying that stress wave
superposition may not be the primary factor governing fragmentation.

1 INTRODUCTION were used compared with pyrotechnics, when time

Blasting technology is widely employed in mining
in order to fragment the rock into smaller pieces to
facilitate subsequent handling (mucking, haulage,
crushing, etc). The optimum delay time to improve
fragmentation has been studied by e.g., Tatsuya
et al. 2000; Aldas et al., 2001; Shi et al., 2011; and
Petropoulos et al., 2012, but different conclusions
were obtained. With the application of electronic
detonators and with short delay times, the hypoth-
esis of achieving improved fragmentation through
stress wave superposition has been proposed by
Rossmanith (2002, 2004). In these papers, a model
was proposed to describe the stress wave superpo-
sition between adjacent boreholes with Lagrange
diagrams, which reveals how a positive effect
of wave interaction could be achieved with the
assumption of an infinitely long charge length.
Vanbrabant and Espinosa (2006) chose the delay
times to match an overlap of the negative tail of
the particle velocity and conducted a series of
field tests. They claimed the average fragmentation
improved by nearly 50%. On the other hand, Blair
(2009) stated that the delay accuracy and timing are
typically not the major variables that govern blast
vibration and fragmentation. Ouchterlony et al.
(2010) have reported on some unexpected results in
full-scale experiments. It was found that the frag-
mentation was coarser when electronic detonators
intervals were 10 ms and 5 ms between the holes
in a row. Katsabanis et al. (2006) shot a series of
small-scale blocks of granodiorite with very short
delays. The results showed that fragment size
decreases with delay time, from a maximum size,
during simultaneous initiation of all charges, to an
approximately constant size, for delays up to 1 ms.
When larger delays are used, fragmentation suffers.
Johansson et al. (2012) have investigated the
influence of delay time on the fragmentation with
a series of small-scale tests. Their results showed
no distinct differences in fragmentation when the
delays were in the time range of shock wave inter-
actions compared to no shock wave interaction;
Schill (2011) studied the influence of delay times
on the blasting effect of two holes model with
the LS-DYNA (Hallquist, 2007) computer code
and the RHT (Riedel et al, 1999) material model
and concluded that there was an effect of inter-
acting stress waves. However this effect was local
around the interaction plane, implying that precise
ignition will not generate a dramatic increase in
fragmentation contrary to what was proposed by
Rossmanith. The results also indicated that longer
delay times (in which the stress wave would have
passed the neighbouring boreholes) also resulted
in improved fragmentation.
To further study the influence of delay time
on blasting effect and fragmentation, a series of

213

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 213 10/3/2012 8:26:24 PM

 numerical simulations of previously performed initiation sequence to row #1 shot. Eight delay
small-scale tests (Johansson & Ouchterlony, 2012) time schemes were designed and tested. The nomi-
were conducted. These simulations were carried nal delay times were 0 s, 28 s, 37 s, 46 s, 56 s,
out using the same methodology as Schill (2011), 73 s, 86 s, and 146 s respectively.
i.e., applying the LS-DYNA computer code and
the RHT material model.
2.2 Modeling approach
Simulation of blasting in concrete structure is
2 SIMULATION OF SMALL-SCALE TESTS highly complicated because it involves an explo-
sion causing shock wave propagation, thus requir-
2.1 Description of small-scale tests conducted ing simulating the dynamic behavior of concrete
under the shock loading. A computational tool
To test the hypothesis that the short delay
needs to incorporate adequately these challeng-
can improve the blasting effect, Johansson &
ing factors. LS-DYNA software is a suitable code
Ouchterlony (2012) carried out a series of small
currently available for this application. The LS-
scale tests. The tests were made on magnetic
DYNA software has powerful capacity for Fluid/
mortar blocks. The blocks used had a size of
Structure Interaction (FSI) and several material
660 205 300 mm (L W H) with two rows
models including concrete and explosives. To study
with five 10 mm blastholes in each row. The
the effect of stress wave superposition on the frag-
spacing and burden was 110 mm and 70 mm
mentation, The LS-DYNA code was employed
respectively. To minimize reflecting waves and to
to model the fragmentation with different delay
emulate full-scale geometry, the block was confined
times.
by a U-shaped yoke (Fig. 1).
Several methods in LS-DYNA can be employed
The explosive source was decoupled PETN-cord
to model blasting. A three-hole model was devel-
with the strength of 20 g/m, giving a specific charge
oped in LS-DYNA as a test case to compare dif-
(q) of 2.6 kg/m3 and a coupling ratio of 2.4 (based
ferent simulation methods. The results indicated
on an explosive density of 1400 kg/m3). The delays
that the ALE (Arbitrary Lagrangian Eulerian)
were set by using different PETN-cord lengths to
method was the most suitable of these. According
adjust the delay times between the blastholes.
to the requirement of the ALE method, the explo-
Above each blasthole, a 59 mm high cylindri-
sive and air materials were defined with Eulerian
cal initiation mounting block of plastic was posi-
spatial description and the concrete and yoke were
tioned. After the blasting, the fragments were
defined with Lagrangian spatial description.
sieved and the fragment size distribution was taken
The FE discretization is performed using hexa-
as the evaluation indicator for the blasting effect.
hedron elements only. In the concrete part, an ele-
The model set-up made it possible to shoot two
ment size of 3 3 3 mm was used. The yoke was
rows per mortar block. The initiation sequence of
discretized with coarse mesh because it was defined
row #1 is from left to right. After row #1 shot of
as a rigid body in which the mesh density does not
one mortar block, row #2 was initiated with the
influence the results. The detonation point of each
same delay time as row #1 shot but the opposite
hole is at the top of the mortar block.

2.3 Material models

The concrete was modeled with the RHT material
model, which is an advanced plasticity model for
brittle materials such as concrete and rock. The
RHT model was developed by Riedel, Hiermaier
and Thoma (Riedel et al., 1999) for dynamic load-
ing of concrete and implemented in LS-DYNA in
2011 (Borrvall et al., 2011). The material model is
composed of three pressure dependent surfaces
the failure surface, the elastic limit surface and the
residual surfacecombined with EOS (Equation
Of State). The RHT model includes a damage
model based on continuum damage theory. The
basic mechanical parameter values for the concrete
material were described in Johansson (2008) and
Figure 1. The set-up for the tests (Johansson et al, the remaining parameter values were chosen to be
2012). same as those given in Borrvall et al. (2011).

214

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 214 10/3/2012 8:26:24 PM

 The explosive source in the tests was decoupled
PETN-cord; hence an equivalent explosive was
used in the calculation with an equivalent charge
diameter of 4.3 mm. The explosive was modeled
with the explosive material in LS-DYNA com-
bined with the JWL (Jones-Wilkins-Lee) equa-
tion of state, which is perhaps the most common
equation of state for hydrodynamic calculations of
detonation product expansions. The parameters
for PETN were obtained from the AUTODYN
material library (ANSYS, 2007).
Because the charge structure is decoupled, there
is air between the explosive and the blasthole wall.
The air was modeled with the null material com-
bined with the linear-polynomial equation of state.
The parameters for air were described in Chafi
(2009).
The yoke was modeled as a rigid material dur-
ing the simulation, because the yoke is much stiffer
than the concrete material.
after the elements with a damage level above 60%
have been blanked out. This can be considered to
reflect the damage degree in the cross-section and
the overall damage degree respectively. The frag-
ment area was then analyzed for each case. The
evaluation procedure is shown in Figure 2.
2.5 Simulation results for row #1 shots
The calculation model is shown in Figure 3. To
study the fragment area distribution after blast-
ing and the influence of row #1 shots on row #2
shots, the block was divided into three parts but
with the same material parameters. Here, the red
one is defined as block 1, the blue one (the mid-
dle one) is defined as block 2 and the green one is
defined as block 3.

2.4 Evaluation method

A continuum simulation approach was used;
hence, it was not possible to model explicitly crack
formation and propagation in the model. There-
fore an alternative approach was used in which the
level of damage in an element is considered. First,
a threshold value was set to correspond to a fully
crushed rock fragment. In this study, a damage
level of 60% was taken to indicate complete crush-
ing. Next, an algorithm was developed, in which
fragments delineated by cracks (= fully crushed ele-
ments) were identified, and the area of each such
fragment determined.
This fragment identification procedure is not
easily done in 3D, but in 2D it is fairly straight
forward and a routine was implemented in LS-
PREPOST (which is the pre and post processor for
LS-DYNA). Then by measuring the fragments in a
number of vertical and horizontal cuts through the
model it was possible to evaluate the fragment area Figure 2. Remaining area, remaining volume and frag-
(Schill, 2011). ment area calculation procedure.
Using this method it is possible to study the
accumulated area for different fragment areas
and compare the fragmentation between different
cross-sections and simulations. The accumulated
area plot should resemble the mass passing plot
(sieve curves) which is commonly used in frag-
mentation analysis. The drawback of the method
is that it is mesh size dependent and due to the
limited level of discretization, it is not possible to
determine fragments less than the element size.
To evaluate the blasting effect, the remaining
area and remaining volume were first studied.
The remaining area and remaining volume is
defined as the residual area of the cross section and
the corresponding residual volume respectively Figure 3. The calculation model for row #1 shot.

215

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 215 10/3/2012 8:26:25 PM

 To evaluate the blasting effect of each case, four
cross-sections were taken as shown in Figure 4. The
X12 in Figure 4 means the second cross-section
with x-normal direction in block 1, and the rest
may be deduced by analogy. Each X1-section is at
the exact middle of the two adjacent blastholes.
Then the remaining area of each cross-section
was calculated and compared where elements with
damage levels above 60% were blanked out. The
damage levels were evaluated at 1000 s for all sim-
ulations and then the fragment area distribution of
each cross section is calculated and compared.
For example, the overall crack pattern for the
28 s delay case is shown in Figure 5.

2.5.1 Evaluation of remaining area and volume

Figure 6 presents the fragment area pattern for
X12 and X14 vertical cross sections (Fig. 4) for the
28 s delay case. Figure 7 presents the remaining
area of X1-section with different delay times.
In Figure 7, DT0 means the delay time is 0 s,
and the rest may be deduced by analogy. The
figure also indicates that the remaining areas at Figure 6. Fragment area pattern at the cross section.
X11-section show a decreasing tendency with the
increasing of delay time.
The remaining areas at X12-section also show
the same tendency apart from the 146 s delay case.
Figure 7 shows the remaining area at X12-section
for the 146 s delay case is greater than those for
the 73 s and 86 s delay cases.
For the X13-section, the remaining area
decreases with the increase of the delay time when
the delay time is less than 56 s. When the delay
time is longer than 56 s, the change of remain-
ing area is more complex. Figure 7 indicates
the remaining area for the 73 s delay case is
minimal. Figure 7. The remaining area of X1-sections.

For the X14-section, Figure 7 shows that the

remaining area for the 86 s delay case is minimal.
Figure 7 also shows that simultaneous initiation
induces the largest remaining area at each cross-
section compared to the initiation with delay time.
Figure 4. The position of X1-sections in block 1.
Figure 8 presents the remaining volume of
block 1 with different delay times. It indicates that
the 73 s delay case has the minimal remaining
volume, which implies most elements for the 73 s
delay case were damaged above the 60%-level com-
pared to the other cases.

2.5.2 Analysis of fragment area

Using the fragment area evaluation method
described before, the typical fragment area dis-
tribution results for row #1 shots are shown in
Figure 9.
Figure 9 shows that the last three cases have the
Figure 5. Overall crack pattern for the 28 s delay case. finer fragmentation compared to the other cases.

216

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 216 10/3/2012 8:26:25 PM

 The fragment area distribution results also show
that the fragmentation for the case of simultane-
ous initiation is coarsest.
The same results are evident from Table 1, which
presents the maximal and average fragment area at
evaluation cross-section for all cases. It indicates
that the longer the delay time is, the less the aver-
age fragment area is at the X11-section. Both 73 s
and 86 s delay cases have the minimal average
fragment area at the X12 and X13-section. At the
Figure 8. The remaining volume versus delay time. X14-section, the fragmentation is finer for the lat-
ter three cases than for other cases.
By and large, Both Figure 9 and Table 1 show
a general tendency of fragmentation to decrease
with increasing delay time over the interval 0 t
146 s, which is in agreement with the conclusion
from the small scale tests (Johansson et al, 2012).
By comparing the remaining volumes, the
remaining areas and the fragment area distribu-
tion of each cross-section, the results show that
the short delay time can improve the blasting effect
compared to simultaneous initiation. However, the
results also indicate that the relatively long delay
times induce the finer fragmentation. According to
the simulation results, the optimal delay time may
be in the interval between 73 to 86 s for row #1
shot.

2.6 Simulation results for row #2 shots

To test the initial damage influence on the
fragmentation, row #2 shot was modeled with
the initial damage caused by row #1 shot. After
the calculation for row #1 shot, the stress and
damage results of model except for block 1 at the
last state were written in an output file. This file
was then rewritten back into the model and only
the damage value of each element of block 2 and
block 3 were kept as the initial condition for row
#2 shot simulation.
Figure 10 presents the position of evaluation
Figure 9. The typical fragment area distribution. cross-sections in block 2. It should be noted that

Table 1. Comparison of Xmax and X50 results for each X1-section after row #1 shots.

X11 X12 X13 X14

Delay time [s] Xmax [cm2] X50 [cm2] Xmax [cm2] X50 [cm2] Xmax [cm2] X50 [cm2] Xmax [cm2] X50 [cm2]

0 24.3 2.90 29.6 3.79 26.5 3.80 23.9 2.89

28 19.8 2.48 21.5 2.28 20.5 1.31 19.6 2.04
37 20.3 1.10 21.3 1.03 14.6 0.76 11.1 0.52
46 18.7 0.86 14.2 0.64 16.2 0.47 16.4 0.50
56 16.4 0.81 12.2 0.42 10.4 0.20 13.5 0.32
73 13.7 0.49 2.80 0.15 6.90 0.16 6.30 0.16
86 12.8 0.43 4.50 0.14 3.10 0.18 1.50 0.19
146 11.0 0.26 5.00 0.21 4.80 0.24 5.00 0.16

217

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 217 10/3/2012 8:26:26 PM


Figure 10. The position of X2-sections in block 2.
Figure 11. The damage distribution before and after
row #2 shot for the 28 s delay case.
Figure 12. The remaining area of X2-sections.
the detonation sequence of row #2 was from right
to left, which is opposite to that of row #1 shot.
As an example, the initial damage distribu-
tion and the ultimate damage distribution for the
28 s delay case are shown in Figure 11. The red in
Figure 11 means the full damage.
2.6.1 Evaluation of remaining area and volume
The remaining areas of each section after row #2
shots are shown in Figure 12.
Because of the effect of initial damage and
the opposite initiation sequence to row #1 shots,
Figure 12 shows the change of remaining area at
218
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 218
each cross-section is more complex compared to
the corresponding cross-section in block 1.
Figure 12 shows that the 73 s and 86 s delay
cases have less remaining areas than other cases at
X2-sections.
Figure 13 shows the remaining volume of
block 2 for different delay times before and after
row #2 shot. Figure 13 indicates that the 86 s
delay case has the minimal remaining volume
after row #1 shot and the 73 s delay case has the
minimal remaining volume after row #2 shot. It
can also be observed (in Fig. 13) that the change of
remaining volume for different delay times is small
after row #2 shot.
2.6.2 Analysis of fragment area
The typical fragment area distribution at the
cross-section is shown in Figure 14 after row #2
shots. Figure 14 indicates there is not a definite
relationship between the fragmentation and the
delay times probably due to the effect of initial
damage and the opposite initiation sequence to
row #1 shots. It also shows that simultaneous
initiation induces the lowest fragmentation.
The Xmax and X50 results for each cross-section
are listed in Table 2. Table 2 shows the Xmax and X50
of each cross section are small compared to that in
Table 1, which implies that the fragmentation of
Figure 13. The remaining volume of block 2 for delay
times.
Figure 14. The fragment area distribution of X21-
section.
10/3/2012 8:26:27 PM
 Table 2. Comparison of Xmax and X50 results for each X2-section after row #2 shots.

X21 X22 X23 X24

2 2 2 2 2 2
Delay time [s] Xmax [cm ] X50 [cm ] Xmax [cm ] X50 [cm ] Xmax [cm ] X50 [cm ] Xmax [cm2] X50 [cm2]

0 7.55 0.305 5.57 0.316 6.80 0.268 5.95 0.152

28 2.17 0.125 3.59 0.176 3.87 0.186 1.79 0.182
37 2.45 0.093 0.85 0.095 1.60 0.104 1.60 0.122
46 0.47 0.090 4.63 0.138 1.42 0.096 1.32 0.099
56 1.42 0.102 8.97 0.169 1.89 0.127 2.93 0.130
73 0.47 0.093 3.30 0.119 1.42 0.090 0.66 0.094
86 1.51 0.092 0.66 0.090 0.57 0.090 0.38 0.093
146 2.17 0.094 1.42 0.090 0.57 0.090 1.60 0.093

block 2 is finer. The same conclusion was found by ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Johansson (2012).
Table 2 indicates that the tendency of Xmax and
X50 with the increase of delay time is fluctuant,
which implies that the initial damage has a signifi-
cant effect on the fragmentation.
3 CONCLUSIONS
The work was funded by Vinnova (the Swedish
Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems),
together with the mining companies LKAB and
Boliden Mineral AB, and Lule University of
Technology. The project was initiated by Professor
Emeritus Finn Ouchterlony, formerly at Lule
University of Technology.

To evaluate the influence of delay time on the REFERENCES

fragmentation of rock mass, a series of numerical
simulations were conducted. Three indicators
remaining area, remaining volume and fragment
area distributionwere used to evaluate the blast-
ing effect. The combined influence of the initial
damage of the rock mass and the delay time on
blasting effect was also studied.
Based on the simulations it can be concluded
that:
1. The fragmentation for simultaneous initiation
is always coarser than for initiation with delay
times between the blast holes.
2. The delay time has a clear effect on the rock
fragmentation. Although a short delay can
improve the fragmentation compared to
simultaneous initiation, the highest fragmen-
tation was found for relatively long delay
times implying that stress wave superposi-
tion may not be the primary factor governing
fragmentation.
3. The simulation results showed that the optimal
delay time may be in the interval between 73 to
86 s for row #1 shot in the small scale tests.
4. The initial damage has a significant effect on
the rock fragmentation. The simulation results
showed that the fragmentation of row #2 shot
is finer than that of corresponding row #1 shot
probably due to the initial damage in block 2
and block 3 induced by the row #1 shot in the
small scale tests.
Alda, G.G.U, Bilgin, H.A. & Esen, S. 2001. Timing
simulation for the selection of optimum delay time.
In E. Unal, B. Unver & E. Tercan (eds), 17th Inter-
national mining congress and exhibition of Turkey:
317322, Ankara, Turkey.
ANSYS/Autodyn version 11.0. 2007. User documentation,
Century Dynamics Inc. a subsidiary of ANSYS Inc.
Blair, D.P. 2009. Limitations of electronic delays for the
control of blast vibration and fragmentation. In: J.A.
Sanchidrin (ed.), Fragblast 9. Proc. 9th Intnl Symp
on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting: 171184. Boca
Raton: CRC Press.
Borrvall, T. & Rediel, W. 2011. The RHT concrete
model in LS-DYNA. 8th European LS-DYNA users
conference. Strasbourg. 23rd24th May 2011.
Chafi, M.S., Karami, G. & Ziejewski, M. 2009. Numeri-
cal analysis of blast-induced wave propagation using
FSI and ALE multi-material formulations. Interna-
tional Journal of Impact Engineering. 36:12691275.
Hallquist, J. 2007. LS-DYNA keyword users manual.
Livermore software technology corporation, LSTC,
Vol. 1 & 2.
Johansson, D. & Ouchterlony, F. 2012. Shock wave inter-
actions in rock blastingthe use of short delays to
improve fragmentation in model-scale. Rock Mechan-
ics and rock engineering. (Accepted).
Katsabanis, P., Tawadrous, A. & Braun, C. 2006. Timing
effects on the fragmentation of small scale blocks of
granodiorite. Fragblast, Int J Blast Fragm 10(12),
8393.
Ouchterlony, F., Nyberg, U. & Olsson, M. et al. 2010.
Optimal fragmentation in quarries, field tests at
Lngsen. Swebrec report, No. 2010:2.

219

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 219 10/3/2012 8:26:28 PM

 Petropoulos, N., Johansson, D. & Ouchterlony, F. 2012.
Fragmentation under different confinement condi-
tions and the burden behaviorsmall scale tests.
Fragblast 10. Proc. 10th Intnl Symp on Rock Fragmen-
tation by Blasting, New Delhi, India (submitted).
Riedel, W., Thoma, K., Hiermaier, S. & Schmolinske, E.
1999. Penetration of reinforced concrete by BETA-B-500,
numerical analysis using a new macroscopic concrete
model for hydrocodes. In SKA (ed.), Proceedings of
the 9th International Symposium on Interaction of the
Effects of Munitions with Structures: 315322, Berlin.
Rossmanith, H.P. 2002. The use of Lagrange diagrams
in precise initiation blasting. Part I: Two interacting
blastholes. Fragblast, Int J Blast Fragm 6(1): 104136.
Rossmanith, H.P. & Kouzniak, N. 2004. Supersonic det-
onation in rock mass: Part II: Particle displacements
and velocity fields for single and multiple non-delayed
and delayed detonating blastholes. Fragblast, Int J
Blast Fragm 8(2): 95117.
220
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 220
Schill, M. 2011. Finite element simulations of blasting
and the effects of precise initiation on fragmentation.
DYNA more report, No. 110211.
Shi, X.Z. & Chen, S.R. 2011. Delay time optimization in
blasting operations for mitigating the vibration-effects
on final pit walls stability. Soil Dynamics and Earth-
quake Engineering, 31: 11541158.
Tatsuya, H., Gento, M. & Kou, S.Q. 2000. Optimum
delay interval design in delay blasting. Fragblast, Int J
Blast Fragm 4(2): 139148.
Vanbrabant, F. & Espinosa, A. 2006. Impact of short
delays sequence on fragmentation by means of
electronic detonators: theoretical concepts and field
validation. Proc. 8th Int. Symp. on Rock Fragmen-
tation by Blasting- Fragblast 8: 326331. Santiago:
Editec SA.
10/3/2012 8:26:28 PM
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Effect of production blasts on waste dump stability

P.K. Singh, M.P. Roy, Ranjit K. Paswan, V.K. Singh & A. Sinha
CSIRCentral Institute of Mining & Fuel Research, Dhanbad, India

Vinay Kumar Singh, P.K. Sinha & C.P. Singh

Northern Coalfields Limited, Singrauli, India

ABSTRACT: The mechanized open-pit mining methods have been extensively adopted by Indian mines
to meet the increasing demand of coal which results into major disposal problem of large volume waste
material generated from mining operations in open-pit mines. The stability of waste dump slope depends
on a number of geological and mining factors. In this paper, analyses were done for the data collected to
study the influence of production blasts in terms of blast vibrations on dump stability. The ground water
and geo-technical properties also influence the stability of waste dumps which were also documented.
Blast induced vibrations were recorded at various locations at waste dump with the existing blast
designs practiced in the mine as well as with modified blast designs. Altogether, 34 blasts were conducted
and 123 blast vibration data were recorded at different locations of the waste dump. The total explosive
weight detonated in the blast round varied between 561 and 136,559 kg whereas explosives weight per
delay was 120 to 7800 kg. Maximum vibration recorded at waste dump was 74.4 mm/s with dominant
peak frequency of 13.6 Hz. Maximum change in the reading of slope monitoring was 23 cm in the dump.
There was no major damage to the waste dump. Only local dislodgements in the loose materials of the
dump were recorded.

1 INTRODUCTION material or spoil. The storage of waste materials

Mineral share in Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
of India is around 2.1%. The contribution of min-
erals in the GDP of other mineral producing coun-
tries is 46%. The government of India and private
sectors are infusing huge capital in this sector. It
is expected that there will be three-fold increase
in share of contribution from mineral sector in
GDP by 201617. Globally, coal accounts for 26%
of the primary energy consumption whereas it
accounts for 56% of Indias total energy supply.
The Integrated Energy Policy (IEP) of India had
re-affirmed dominance of coal in the coming dec-
ades (Indian Budget, 2008). India will need 905
MT of coal by the financial year 201617 to meet
the energy demand. Open cast mining plays a vital
role in meeting of this huge demand. Coal produc-
tion from open-cast mines have increased phe-
nomenally and presently about 90% coal is being
produced from opencast mining to meet the energy
demand. The integrated energy policy of India has
also indicated that in years to come the coal will be
major contributor in energy supply. This indicates
that large volume waste material will be generated
from mining operations in opencast coal mines.
One of the major problems in opencast mining
is disposal of a large volume of overburden waste
from mining operations should be done keeping
in view the danger to men and machines due to
failure of waste dumps. The overburden material
around the world has been traditionally disposed
off in most economic way with little considera-
tion given to technical and environmental aspects
(Hoek & Londe, 1974). The random disposal of
spoil material has resulted in disruption of water
courses, stream pollution, slope stability etc.
(Hoek & Brown, 1998).
It has been estimated that over 70% of the larger
mining operations had waste dump failures of
some kind or others (CMPDIL, 2007; Upadhyay &
Singh, 1994). Despite the fact that the parameters
like resources recovery, mining cast, safety and
environment affects stability of waste dumps. Very
little work has been done in this area. Very lim-
ited published information is available on spoil
dumps stability. The physical and strength prop-
erties of spoil, appropriate field and laboratory
tests procedure or appropriate methods of stability
analysis are not published regularly (Tiwari, 1990).
Economically, stable outside and backfilled dumps
will have to be designed to address on-going issue
of dump failure in big opencast mines. Assessment
of the primary factors and techniques for evalu-
ating slope stability is a necessary step in the

221

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 221 10/3/2012 8:26:28 PM

 development of suitable procedures for predicting
and enhancing spoil stability.
Ground vibrations are an inevitable, but unde-
sirable by-product of opencast blasting operations.
The vibration energy that travels beyond the zone
of rock breakage is wasted and can cause dam-
age to structures (including rock mass and waste
dump) and annoyance to the residents in the vicin-
ity of the mines (Siskind et al., 1980; Valdivia et al.,
2003). The undesirable known side effects of deto-
nation of explosives are vibration, noise/air over-
pressure, flyrock, dust and fumes (Singh et al.,
1996; Singh et al., 2003). The paper deals with a
systematic study conducted to evaluate the impact
of blast vibration generated due to big blasting
operations on the safety and long term stability of
waste dump.
2 EXPERIMENTAL SITE DETAILS
Field study was carried out at Jayant opencast coal
mine of Northern Coalfields Limited in India.
The area geographically lies between latitude of
240 to 2412 and longitudes 8230 to 8245 area-forming escarpment is very steep and traverses
and comprises Gondwana rocks covering about
312 km2 of which coal bearing Barakars occupied
225 km2. Typical overviews of the waste dump is
shown in Figure 1. The total mineable coal reserves
are 348.93 MT and volume of the overburden is
Figure 1. Overview of the waste/spoil dump of Jayant
opencast coal mine.
222
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 222
907.20 million cubic metres. The average stripping
ratio is 2.6 m3 of overburden per tonne of coal.
The direction of strike is towards E-W with broad
swings. The main working seam is Turra seam.
The coal is non-coking type. The dip of the coal
seam is 13 in northerly direction. The mining
is being done with 10 m3 shovels and 85 T/120 T
dumpers. Three 24/88 R and one 15/83 R draglines
operates for removal of over burden. The dumpers
are dumping the overburden over dragline heaps
at least two dragline cuts away from present one.
The total length and width of the one cut, by dra-
gline, are about 1800 m in length and 80 m in width
respectively. It takes about one and half years to
complete one cut.
The overburden rocks in the area are mostly
medium to coarse grained sandstone, carbonaceous
shale and shaley sandstone. The mine area stands
out as a plateau overlooking the northern flange.
The southern flange at the foot of the plateau area
is 280 m above MSL. The surface RL varies from
300 m in the south-east to 500 m above MSL in
north-west portion of the mine. Major part of the
area is 400 m above MSL. The southern part of the
by a number of nalas and the tributaries forming
deep ravines and gorges thus presenting a rugged
topography. The average annual rainfall is 900 mm
out of which 95% is during monsoon from June to
September only. There have been failures of dumps
in the mine. Study regarding dump management
gather momentum after three major dump failures
in 1994 (2 failures) and 2008 (1 failure) at Jayant
opencast mine.
3 EXPERIMENTATION AND
MONITORING DETAILS
Blast induced vibrations were recorded at the vari-
ous locations at waste dump of the mine with the
existing as well as with modified blast designs.
Altogether, 34 blasts were conducted and 123 blast
vibration data were recorded at waste dump of the
concerned mine.
The field trials were conducted at coal, shovel
and dragline benches and its drill diameters were
of 159, 259/269 and 311 mm. The hole depths var-
ied from 4 to 40 m. The burden was in the range
of 4 to 10 m. Similarly, spacing varied between
4 and 12.5 m. The number of holes detonated in
a blast round varied from 3 to 78 holes. The Site
Mixed Emulsion (SME) explosives detonated in a
blast round was from 560 to 136,559 kg whereas the
explosive detonated in a delay was 120 to 7,800 kg.
The blasts were initiated with detonating cord as
well as Nonel initiating system. The delay interval
between the holes in a row (17 ms or 25 ms) and
10/3/2012 8:26:28 PM
 between the rows (65 ms to 142 ms) was provided rib roof and at dragline sitting level of the mine.
by MS connector, cord relays and trunk line delays. The monitoring was done with the help of elec-
The distance of the monitoring points at dump from tronic distance meter and laser profiler in overbur-
the blasting face varied from 150 to 910 m. Drilling den dump.
patterns at shovel bench is depicted in Figure 2. The The samples of dump material were collected
summarised blasting details are given in Table 1. from different parts and depth of the existing
Geo-technical study was carried out at the mine dumps. The specimens were tested. The cohesion,
to determine the optimum internal dump and its angle of internal friction and bulk density of dump
overall slope angle. It was also aimed to know the material, interface material, coal rib and floor
interplay and effect of the input parameters of material of coal rib have been tested and presented
slope design on the factor of safety, which tells the in Table 2.
importance of the parameter in the slope. Wipjoint and Wipfrag software were also uti-
Slope monitoring observation stations along lised to document the blast face condition before
with base stations were constructed along the coal and after blasts. Figure 3 depicts the monitoring
of dump movement with EDM device (Electronic
distance measuring device) at Jayant opencast coal
mine.
A dragline blast of 44 holes were detonated
with explosives weight of 1,36,559 kg. The maxi-
mum explosive weight per delay was 3,300 kg.
There were 13 rows and the designed duration of
the blast was 1383 ms. The blast layout is depicted
in Figure 4. The blast resulted with excellent frag-
mentation (Fig. 5) and the recorded blast vibration
at 675 m on the dump was only 20.2 mm/s (Fig. 6).
The Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) analysis of
the blast wave signature presented in Figure 6 is
depicted in Figure 7. There was minor failure in
the coal rib portion (Fig. 8). The stability analyses
show that the factor of safety decreases due to the
Figure 2. Typical drill pattern at Jayant opencast coal presence of wet interface material and rainwater at
mine.
the toe of the dump. In the absence of coal rib, the
dump material stands at an angle of repose, which
Table 1. Summarized blast details of the experimental increases the stability of the dump.
sites. The small-scale dump failures are common just
after the blasting in the coal rib. The percolation
Blasting details Details of data of rainwater to lower levels also causes unavoidable
small-scale failures. The failure recorded in Figure 8
No. of blasts 34 near coal rib of the mine may be due to blasting
No. of PPV data recorded 123 or due to release of rainwater from the toe due to
Range of total explosive weight 560136,559 onset of cracks in the bottom of the coal rib.
detonated (kg) The fragmentation resulted from this blast
Range of explosive weight per delay 1207800 were analysed. The process involved in analyses
detonated (kg)
of fragmentation is shown in Figures 9 and 10
Range of distance (m) 150910
respectively. The average mean size of the blocks
Range of recorded PPV (mm/s) 1.0374.4
is 0.893 m (diameter of an equivalent sphere) and
Range of dominant peak 2.6913.6
frequency (Hz) the most common size of the block is 0.857 m. The
maximum size of the boulder is of 1.154 m.

Table 2. Geotechnical parameters for dump design.

Floor of the quarry

Strength parameters Dump material Interface material Coal rib (sandstone)

Cohesion (kPa) 74 40 265 230

Angle of internal frition (degree) 25 21 26 29
Bulk density (kg/m3) 1830 2240 1410 2020

223

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 223 10/3/2012 8:26:28 PM

 Figure 3. Monitoring of changes after blasting with the
help of EDM at Jayant opencast coal mine.
Figure 7. FFT analysis of the blast wave signature
recorded at 675 m on the dump.

Figure 4. Lay-out of blast conducted at dragline bench

at Jayant opencast coal mine.
Figure 8. Small scale dumps failure near coal rib.

Figure 5. View of the blasted material resulted due to Figure 9. Netting and contouring of fragmented rock
the designed dragline bench blasting. blocks.

Figure 6. Blast wave signature recorded at 675 m on the Figure 10. Histogram and cumulative size view of
dump. blocks.

224

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 224 10/3/2012 8:26:30 PM

 Table 3. A few slope monitoring observations recorded at the mine.

Instrument Station Horizontal Changes in horizontal

locations no. distance (m) distance (cm) Remarks

CM 4 CM 4 52.052 +0.7 Reading were taken at an

6 177.680 19.5 interval of one month
7 182.177 17.9
8 185.930 22.5
9 192.957 22.8
CMW 1 CMW 2 44.257 0.4 Reading were taken at an
1 187.144 1.8 interval of one month
2 175.175 2.6
3 169.462 4.1
4 162.384 1.2

4 RESULTS AND ANALYSES

The maximum change in waste dump was 23 cm

Figure 11. Observed changes for the readings taken at
an interval of one month at respective stations.
3.1 Waste dump slope monitoring
Slope monitoring method allows failures to be pre-
dicted and safe working conditions. Slope moni-
toring can be used to confirm failure mechanisms.
The review of monitoring results, visual inspection
and regular briefing of field people help to detect
the onset of failure.
The monitoring of waste dump slope to record
its movement was performed with the help of total
station. The observation is taken on monthly basis.
Initially the monitoring stations were installed
along the coal rib roof and dragline sitting level.
A few slope monitoring observations are presented
in the Table 3. Figure 11 depicts the observed
changes in the readings taken at an interval of one
month at respective stations.
The monitoring reading is showing a maxi-
mum change of about 23 cm, which was followed
by small-scale failure subsequently. The observed
changes up to 1 cm are related with personal and
instrumental errors usually involved with the slope-
monitoring job. The accuracy of the instrument
was 5 mm.
after the 31st blast. This blast was conducted on
combined bench of 3rd & 4th. The view of the
bench to be blasted from the dump site is pre-
sented in Figure 12. The joint orientation and
in-situ block sizes are shown in Figure 13. The
apparent block sizes (diameter of an equivalent
sphere) were recorded. The minimum in-situ
block size is of 0.215 m whereas the maximum
in-situ block size is of 5.995 m. The mean in-situ
block size is of 4.099 m. The maximum spacing
of the joints is 1.347 m. Figure 14 represents the
3D scanning view of the blasting face just before
the blast.
The maximum vibration recorded was 74.4 mm/s
with dominant peak frequency of 13.6 Hz. The
vibration recording station was at 350 m on the
waste dump from the blasting face. In the same
blast, vibration recorded at 450 m at the other part
of the dump was 31.7 mm/s. The total explosive
weight and explosive weight per delay were 23,870
and 4,340 kg respectively. The blast wave signa-
ture recorded at 350 m and its Fast Fourier Trans-
form (FFT) analysis of frequency is depicted in
Figures 15 and 16 respectively. The deformation/
failure in the dump was recorded (Fig. 17) after the
above mentioned blast.
The continued study of two years indicated
that maximum changes of only 23 cm were only
recorded. Although there were local failure due
to deep hole blasting in a number of blasting
operations.
4.1 Blast vibration analyses
The recorded blast vibration data at the differ-
ent locations in the waste dump were grouped
together for statistical analysis. Propagation plot

225

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 225 10/3/2012 8:26:32 PM

 Figure 12. The view of the purewa bottom coal and
3rd & 4th combined bench.

Figure 16. FFT analysis of the frequencies of the blast

wave signature presented in Figure 9.

Figure 13. Rock joint analyses output at purewa bot-

tom coal and 3rd & 4th bench combined of east section.

Figure 17. Deformation occurred in the dump due to

3rd & 4th bench blasting.

Figure 14. View of the 3D-laser scanning of the dump

face just before the blast.

Figure 18. Propagation plots of ground vibration

data recorded at various locations on waste dump with
their respective scaled distances at Jayant opencast coal
mine.

of recorded vibration data on the waste dump

with their respective scaled distance is presented
Figure 15. Blast wave signature recorded at waste dump in Figure 18. Plot of recorded dominant peak fre-
due to the blast conducted on 3rd and 4th combined quency with respect to distance are plotted and it
bench of the mine. is presented in Figure 19.

226

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 226 10/3/2012 8:26:32 PM


Figure 19. Plot of dominant peak frequencies recorded
at various locations on waste dump of Jayant opencast
mine.
4.2 Waste dump stability analyses
The stability analysis was done with the help of
GALENA software based on limit equilibrium
method with the following considerations:
The overburden rocks in this area are mostly
medium to coarse-grained sandstone, carbona-
ceous shale and shaly sandstone. Though, the
spoil dump by dragline stands on shale and shaly
sandstone, which provides a competent founda-
tion, the floor of the dragline dump is covered
with a thin layer of wet mixture of coal dust,
carbonaceous shale and sandstone.
The failure will be in dump material only. Hence,
the mode of failure in the slopes of the inter-
nal dumps was categorized as circular type of
failure.
For the dragline dump, 91 m height is considered
for the stability analysis based on the following
details.
From coal floor to coal roof (coal
thickness) = 18 m,
Coal roof to dragline sitting level = 38 m,
Dragline sitting level to dump top = 35 m.
The region falls under the earthquake zone-II.
So a horizontal seismic coefficient value of
0.02 was taken during slope stability analysis
(IS:18931975). The ground acceleration gener-
ated within the slope mass due to ongoing blast
vibration was measured in the field and it is
envisaged that the horizontal co-efficient of 0.04
will take account of ground acceleration gener-
ated within the slope mass both due to seismicity
and blast vibration on slope mass.
There is a variation in the seam floor inclination
within the mine property from 2 to 4. Dump
floor inclination of 3 is considered here for sta-
bility calculation.
The most likely geo-mining condition of the
dump was adjudged to be a 3 m high phreatic
surface at the toe of the dump, based on the
field observations. It is because of the fact that
227
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 227
the rainwater will percolate into the dump in
rainy season and all the water may not seep out
from dump to its toe drain. However, analy-
sis with 6 m high water table was also done to
know its adverse effect of un-drained condi-
tion on the stability of the dump slopes. This
situation is possible during the extraordinary
rainfall when the collection of water within the
dump exceeds the seepage of water from the
dump.
The cut-off value of safety factor was selected to
be 1.2 for the internal dump slope design.
The results of the analyses of the stability
of dump in different condition are presented in
Table 4. The analyses of dump slope with coal rib
in dry condition (Factor of safety 1.27) and with-
out coal rib and wet interface material in untrained
condition (factor of safety 1.14) are presented in
Figures 20 and 21.
The stability analyses clearly show that the
factor of safety decreases due to the presence of
Table 4. Stability analyses in different dump slope
conditions.
Dump slope condition Factor of safety
Dump slope with coal rib and wet 1.20
interface material in drained
condition
Dump slope with coal rib in 1.24
drained condition
Dump slope with coal rib in dry 1.27
condition
Dump slope with coal rib and wet 1.14
interface material in un-drained
condition
Dump slope without coal rib and 1.27
wet interface material in dry
condition
Dump slope without coal rib and 1.22
wet interface material in drained
condition
Dump slope without coal rib and 1.14
wet interface material in
un-drained condition
Figure 20. Slope stability analysis of dump slope with
coal rib in dry condition.
10/3/2012 8:26:34 PM
 Figure 21. Slope stability analysis of dump slope without coal rib and sludge in un-drained condition.
wet interface material and rainwater at the toe of
the dump. So, dump should be kept in drained
condition. In rainy season, the factor of safety
decreases in un-drained condition. In the absence
of coal rib, the dump material stands at an angle of
repose, which increases the stability of the dump.
The small-scale dump failures are common just
after the blasting in the coal rib. The percolation of
rainwater to lower levels also causes unavoidable
small-scale failures.
The continuous mining operation, blasting and
changes in groundwater conditions continuously
disturb the existing stress condition in the field.
The whole system tries to come into equilibrium by
stress redistribution and adjustment, which results
into movement of the slope. The impact of blast-
ing in the dump analysis was taken into considera-
tion and accordingly safety factor was calculated.
5 CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
The dragline blasting at the mines yielded excel-
lent fragmentation and the operational efficiency
of the dragline was exceptionally good which indi-
cates that the blast designs finally implemented
were optimum for the mine. The continued blast
vibration and slope monitoring on the waste dump
indicated that the maximum changes of 23 cm
were recorded in the dump when the peak parti-
cle velocity reached at a level of 74.4 mm/s. The
localized failures were recorded due to onset of
such vibration levels in the dump. The other dra-
gline bench blast had generated vibration level of
46.3 mm/s which caused minor failure in the waste
dump. Although, the explosives detonated in the
blasting rounds were more than 50,000 kg in most
of the blasting rounds. The study concluded that
228
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 228
only local dislodgements in the loose materials of
the dump were recorded. The impact of dragline
blasts were documented on the nearby operating
pit-walls too. Fractured rock mass due to previous
blasting got detached from the pit-wall and top-
ping of boulders were recorded.
The stability analysis had shown that with the
adopted parameters, the 90 m high internal dump
is stable in drained condition. The lower portion
of the dump, including the left out coal rib, may
have slope angle of 70 to the height of the coal
seam. The middle portion of the dump with a
height of 38 m can have 40 slope angle. The top
portion of the dump (35 m) can have a slope angle
of 37 which was considered as angle of repose
for the dump material. Two corridors of 10 m
each should be formed, one at the level of coal rib
top and another at the dragline sitting level. The
lower and middle portion of the dump will get
consolidated under its own weight and have more
strength.
It is recommended that during dragline blasts
the heavy machinery should be placed at least
15 m away from the operating pit-walls in the close
proximity to the dragline blast face. The presence
of sump water at the toe of dump may cause high
water pressure at the toe of the dump. The sump
and drain should be in hard and in-situ natural
ground mass. The sump/drain should be at least
5 m away from the toe of the dump to avoid liq-
uefaction of the dump material near the toe due to
its continuous contact with water. The water accu-
mulation in the de-coaled floor of the mine should
be checked/minimized by ensuring natural gravita-
tional drainage of water towards the main sump. It
will prevent the dumping in water to increase the
dump slope stability condition. The interface layer
i.e. debris of coal dust, fragmented rock, soil mixed
with water should be cleared as far as possible from
10/3/2012 8:26:34 PM
 the de-coaled floor before dumping of overburden
by draglines.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors express their gratitude to Direc-
tor, CSIR-Central Mining Research Institute,
Dhanbad, India for his encouragement and sup-
port during the field study. The authors are also
thankful to the officials of Jayant opencast mine
for providing necessary facilities during the course
of this study. The opinions are those of the authors
and not necessarily the organisations to whom
they belong.
REFERENCES
CMPDIL project report for Jayant opencast mine, Sin-
grauli (M.P.), 2007.
Galena, Slope Stability Analysis Software, Clover Tech-
nology, Australia, Version-3.1, copyright, 19822006.
Hoek, E. and Londe, P., 1974. The design of rock slopes
and foundations, General Report for 3rd Cong. ISRM,
Denver: 140.
Hoek, E. and Brown, E.T., 1998. Practical estimates of
rock mass strength, Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci.,
Vol. 34, No. 8, pp. 11651186.
229
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 229
Indian Budget, 2008.
Singh, P.K., Vogt, W., Singh, R.B. and Singh, D.P.,
1996. Blasting side effectsinvestigations in an open-
cast coal mine in India. Int. J. of Surface Mining
Reclamation and Environment, The Netherlands, Vol.
10, pp. 155159.
Singh, P.K., Roy, M.P., Singh, R.K. and Sirveiya, A.K.,
2003. Impact of blast design and initiation sequence on
blast vibration. Proc. National Seminar on Explosives
and Blasting, DGMS, Dhanbad, India, pp. 118126.
Siskind, D.E., Stagg, M.S., Kopp, J.W. and Dowding, C.H.,
1980. Structure Response and Damage Produced by
airblast from Surface Mine Blasting. U.S. Bureau of
Mines, RI 8485, 111 p.
Tiwari, S.N., 1990. Waste control in Mines, Jou. of
Indian Min. and Engg. pp. 1619.
Upadhayay, O.P. and Singh D.P., 1994. Different factors
affecting stability of slope in opencast mines Nat.
Symp. Emerging Mining and Ground control Tech.,
BHU. Varanasi.
Valdivia, C., Vega, M., Scherpenisse, C.R., and
Adamson, W. R., 2003. Vibration simulation method
to control stability in the Northeast corner of
Escondida Mine. Int. J. of Rock Fragmentation by
Blasting, FRAGBLAST, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 6378.
10/3/2012 8:26:35 PM
This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Blast optimization at Sindesar Khurd underground mine to improve

productivity with reduced level of vibration

A.K Lal, Malay Daripa, Arun Kumar & Vekesh Chittora

Sindesar Khurd Mine, Hindustan Zinc Limited, India

M.P. Roy & P.K. Singh

CSIRCentral Institute of Mining & Fuel Research, Dhanbad, India

ABSTRACT: Ground vibrations from blasting have been a continual problem for the mining and con-
struction industries, the public living near the mining activities and the regulatory agencies responsible for
setting safety and environmental standards. Questions frequently arise about blast vibration effects and
specifically about whether vibrations can or could have caused cracking and other damage in homes and
other structures. The answer depends primarily on vibration levels and frequencies and to a lesser degree
on site and structure specific factors.
All available technical knowhow and knowledge is being incorporated to improve the blasting prac-
tices at Sindesar Khurd underground lead-zinc mine in India. Eighty two blasts were conducted and 347
blast vibrations data were collected in the adjoining village. Initially the nonel initiation system was used
but subsequently the electronic delay detonators were also used to get desired blast results. Initially, the
blasts were performed with 100 kg of emulsion explosives distributed in 4 holes and were detonated with
explosives weight per delay of 25 kg. Subsequently, the maximum explosives fired with electronic delay
detonator was 792 kg and the explosives weight per delay was also enhanced to 56 kg which contributed
in speedy recovery of mineral to meet the demand. The vibration data recorded in the village were less
than 10 mm/s. The recorded VOD of cartridge emulsion explosives were 48385104 m/s. The optimized
blast designs yielded excellent fragmentation. The technique of taking two rings together and another
technique of taking bottom slice first and then the top slice (after deck ore body) was very successful at
the said mine.

1 INTRODUCTION The rock mass inputs are a function of the

Blasting is a complex process that involves the
interaction between three dominant aspects:
the geology of the rock mass; the geometry of
the exposed surfaces and the boreholes; and the
explosives and initiation sequence. The rapid
release of energy is used to fragment and move
rock from its geological setting and make the bro-
ken rock available for excavation, transport and
further, mechanical comminution. The chemical
energy of the explosives used in blasting does
not all do useful worksome of it is converted
to seismic energy (ground vibrations), acoustic
energy (noise or airblast), and heat (Singh & Vogt
1998). A blast produces fine material of limited
utility, unwanted gasses and air-borne dust. At
some level all of the results of a blast have an
economic effect to the mining, quarrying or con-
struction project.
Little and Van Rooyen (1988) produced a use-
ful summary of a blast which they describe as the
explosives-rock mass interaction.
geological setting of the ore body. The explosives
characteristics are chosen by the blasting engineer
based on the rock mass properties and the desired
blasting objectives. The blast design implements
the explosives and initiation sequence given the
geology and the available geometry (blasthole
diameter, blasthole length, number and length of
decks etc.) to focus the available energy on the
blasting objectives.
Blasting engineer needs to have confidence in
the outcome of their design. The primary blast
outputs may be identified visually by a casual
observer at the draw point (loading point) i.e. from
a safe position. These are fragmented rock, the
disposition and location of that fragmented rock,
environmental outputs including ground vibration.
Although due to practical difficulty, the inspection
is only possible in face blast only, rather in the
ring blast area in underground operations. While
such observations are needed and important is the
feedback to the blaster for each blast, it is essential
to have quantitative information to ensure that a

231

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 231 10/3/2012 8:26:35 PM

 rigorous process of blast control and improvement Khurd village in Rajsamand district of Rajasthan
occurs. The challenge is formidable given the vio- state in India. The mine is trackless operation using
lent release of energy in a blast and the engineering 50 tonne LPDTs & 17 tonne LHDs and mecha-
properties of the rock being broken and moved. nized development techniques. In the uppermost
Harries (1988) gives a non-exhaustive list of block of mine, blasthole open stoping method is
over fifty variables involved in managing a blast practiced with rib pillars but in the subsequent
and opines that while some of the variables may lower blocks mining will be done by sublevel stop-
be controlled this leaves an uncomfortably large ing method with post filling in primary-secondary
number of variables whose effect on blasting and sequence. The mine is a dry mine with minimal
subsequent operations has to be assessed. encounter of water.
The major concern in underground metal mine The whole area is covered with 2030 m thick
blasting is the ground vibration reaching to the alluvium. The deposit comprises an assemblage of
houses of the nearby population. The real cause of medium to high grade metamorphic equivalents
complaints by people about blasting is related to of ortho-quartzites, carbonates and carbonaceous
structural response due to ground vibrations and facies flanked by meta-argillites of pre-Cambrian,
air overpressures. All blast vibration complaints pre-Aravalli age. The structural imprints of the
are due to how much complainants houses shake, rocks suggest atleast four stages of deforma-
not how much the ground shakes. The three factors tion giving rise to a doubly plunging synform (or
of ground vibrations that determine the degree of basin) with its axis trending N-S to approximately
shaking are ground vibration amplitude (peak par- NE, with a steep dip towards east. The rock types
ticle velocity; PPV), its duration and its frequency generally encountered are Calc-Biotite Schists,
(Singh et al., 2008). Human beings notice and Calc-Quartzite/Siliceous Dolomites, Graphite
react to vibration at levels much lower than the Mica Schists, Calc-Silicate bearing Dolomites and
levels established as structural damage thresholds Quartzite veins. The Calc-silicate bearing Dolo-
(Singh & Roy, 2010). Previous studies on human mitic lens, present within the Mica Schist-Chert
response to transient vibrations have established horizon, forms the principal host rock for the
that human tolerance to vibration decreases the sphalerite-galena mineralisation. The Carbonif-
longer the vibration continues. erous Schist forms the subordinate host in terms
The mining industry needs realistic design levels of grade. The strike of ore body is north south &
and also practical techniques to safe guard the struc- length around 2.3 km with westerly dipping with
tures in their periphery. At the same time, mines 5065 dip. The ore body is concealed at 120 m
safety control agencies responsible for blasting depth from surface.
and explosives need reasonable, appropriate and The total reserves & resources stands at 81.34
technologically established and supportable blast million tonnes as on 01.04.2012. A production
vibration damage criteria on which to base their shaft of +1000 m is planned for developing lower
regulations. Finally, neighbours around the min- mining blocks.
ing operations require really protection of their The ground at SK Mine falls in good ground
property and health. Last but not the least the conditions with the RMR of 70. Stopes of 7585 m
mining operations should not be stopped only due height and width varying from 1550 m have been
to apprehension of the damage to the structures/ mined out successfully. There are presently 4 sets
buildings. of joints. The details of geotechnical parameters
This paper investigates the issue of ground vibra- are presented in Table 1.
tion complaints at Sindesar Khurd village due to
blasting at Sindesar Khurd underground mine and
its plausible solutions. Attempts were performed Table 1. Geotechnical information of the rock mass.
through systematic steps by changing blast design
viz; amount of explosives in a round or in a delay, Ore Hanging
position and timing of deck, firing sequence, hole Parameter Footwall body wall
diameter & length and by means of various initia-
tion systems in order to get desired blast results. Density (t/m3) 3.02 2.97 2.79
Uniaxial compressive 121 117 149
strength (MPa)
Youngs modulus (GPa) 63 69 71
2 EXPERIMENTAL SITE & GEOLOGY
Poissons ratio 0.21 0.20 0.20
Cohesion (MPa) 23 20 24
Sindesar Khurd Mine (SKM) is an underground Friction angle () 47 51 52
Lead-Zinc operation of Hindustan Zinc Limited mi 18 23 22
with designed ore production capacity of 2 million Tensile strength (MPa) 13 12 18
tonne per annum. This mine is located at Sindesar

232

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 232 10/3/2012 8:26:35 PM

 General topography level is around 530 mRL Table 2. Australian standards (Ca-23-1967) (Just and
and the ore body is concealed below 120 m depth Chitombo, 1987).
from surface. Ore body is explored from surface up
to the depth of 1200 m and still the ore body is Type of structures Maximum values
open. The mine is divided into several blocks of Historical building and 0.2 mm displacement for
which 425 mRL315 mRL and 290 mRL-215 mRL monuments and frequencies less than
blocks with sublevels at 400 mRL, 375 mRL & buildings of special value 15 Hz
350 mRL and 265 mRL & 240 mRL respectively Houses and low rise 19 mm/s resultant ppv
are under production and 195160 mRL block is residential buildings, for frequencies greater
under development. commercial buildings than 15 Hz
not included below
Commercial buildings and 0.2 mm maximum
3 EXISTING BLAST VIBRATION industrial buildings or displacement corre-
STANDARDS structures of reinforced sponds to 12.5 mm/s
concrete or steel ppv at 10 Hz and
construction 6.25 mm/s at 5 Hz
Different countries have set their own standards
on the basis of their extensive field investigations
carried out in their mines for several years. There
Table 3. USA standard after Siskind et al. (1980).
is a plethora of standards available world-over
based on various aspects of ground vibrations e.g. Peak particle velocity
amplitude, peak particle velocity, frequency, accel- (mm/s)
eration, etc. These parameters are used either as a
single criterion or in combination; sometimes fre- Frequency Frequency
quency is combined with amplitude and velocity. Type of structures (<40 Hz) (>40 Hz)
Peak particle velocity has been traditionally used
in practice for the measurement of blast damage Modern homes, dry wall 18.75 50
interior
to structures.
Older homes, plaster on 12.5 50
United States Bureau of Mine (USBM) pub- wood lath construction
lished RI 8507 in 1980 and recommended blasting
level criteria which set a peak particle limit based
upon predominant frequency of the seismic wave.
A further review of limits imposed, raise question levels from where the slot & access cross cuts are
about how relatively small limits, such as 0.25 inch/s developed all across the width of the ore body
can be technically justified. Several researchers and the drill drives are developed along ore body.
stated that no engineering study or research jus- Slot is drilled with 165 mm diameter holes and
tified such limits. But when such restrictive levels charged with 125 mm emulsion cartridge explo-
are imposed, they are more of a political limits sive. Earlier production rings were drilled using
intended to reduce or eliminate public complaints. 115 mm holes but now to reduce charge density it
The obvious intent of regulations is to reduce pub- is drilled with 102 mm/89 mm depending upon the
lic annoyance and the corresponding complaints. vertical level difference between levels. Blast holes
The effectiveness of such arbitrary limits in reduc- with 115 mm/102 mm diameter are loaded with
ing complaints is highly suspect, but their economic 83 mm/76 mm emulsion cartridge explosive. Trough
impact can be substantial. Criteria applied, as law rings are drilled with 64 mm diameter holes and
should be based upon solid research conducted by also loaded with emulsion cartridge explosives.
a well-recognized and accepted authority. The raise is opened in the slot x-cut in the hang
Good legislation will set limits that balance the wall by drop raising method using vertical retreat
costs and benefits to all stakeholders, based upon method. After which the holes are stripped against
standards grounded in good science and justice. the raise. Once the slot is opened, all across the
An overview of few vibration standards imple- width of the ore body, one or two trough rings
mented by various counties is given in following are blasted against the free face of blasted slot.
Tables 26. This creates 2 free faces for production rings in
the direction of slot and bottom free face in the
direction of trough rings. Trough rings are spaced
4 BACKDROP OF THE MINING in such a manner that each ring of production ring
OPERATIONS is blasted after two trough rings.
Emulsion explosive in cartridge form is used
In each mining block of the SK Mine, footwall to charge the blast holes of slots and production
drives are developed at respective levels & sub rings. Slot and production rings blasting are done

233

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 233 10/3/2012 8:26:35 PM

 Table 4. USSR standard. Table 6. Permissible peak particle velocity (PPV) in
mm/s at the foundation level of structures in mining area
Allowable PPV (DGMS circular 7 of 1997).
(mm/s)
Dominant excitation
Type of structures Repeated One fold frequency, Hz

Hospitals 8 30 <8 Hz 825 Hz >25 Hz

Large panel residential 15 30
buildings and childrens (A) Buildings/structures not belong to the owner
institutions 1. Domestic houses/ 5 10 15
Residential and public 30 60 structures (Kuchcha,
buildings of all types brick & cement)
except large panels, office 2. Industrial buildings 10 20 25
and industrial buildings 3. Objects of historical 2 5 10
having deformations, importance and
boiler rooms and high sensitive structures
brick chimneys
Office and industrial 60 120 (B) Buildings belonging to owner with limited
buildings, high reinforced span of life
concrete pipes, railway 1. Domestic 10 15 25
and water tunnels, houses/structures
traffic flyovers 2. Industrial buildings 15 25 50
Single storey skeleton 120 240
type industrial buildings,
metal and block reinforced
concrete structures, soil up to the bottom of the holes while in the exposed
slopes which are part hole it is loaded with plug at 11.5 m above bot-
of primary structures, tom hole collar and then charged with explosive
primary mine openings and detonators and then stemmed with stemming
(service life upto 10 years) material.
pit bottoms, main
entries, drifts
5 EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS

Extensive blast vibration monitoring was carried

Table 5. German standard After German DIN4150 out in Sindesar Khurd village due to blasting at
(1986). Sindesar Khurd underground mine. In this study,
Peak particle velocity (mm/s) vibration generated from the blasting of devel-
at foundation opment faces were not taken for analyses due to
meager level of ground vibration. Blast vibration
Type of structures <10 Hz 1050 Hz 50100 Hz generated due to 82 ring blasts has been taken
for analyses in this paper out of which 38 blasts
Offices and industrial 20 2040 4050 were performed by electronic delay detonators and
premises rest 44 blasts were performed by nonel initiation
Domestic houses and 5 515 1520 system. Blasts were performed in BH-1, BH-3,
similar constructions BH-4, BH-5 stopes and in North ventilation raise
Buildings that do not 3 38 810 between 315 and 400 mRL. The number of holes
come under the
above because of
detonated in a blast round varied from 2 to 16. The
their sensitivity total explosives weight detonated in blast around
to vibration varied from 82 to 792 kg. The maximum explo-
sives weight per delay varied between 17 and 75 kg.
The diameters of the blast holes for rings were of
89 mm & 115 mm. The numbers of deck between
using spherical charging and cylindrical charging explosives were sometimes 1 and sometimes 2 of
method respectively. Middle initiation is being 1.8 to 2 m depending on the size of the blast. Two
practiced using boosters of 250 g. Nonels and elec- signature blasts were conducted at 400 mRL and
tronic detonators are used in different stopes as per 350 m RL to observe the actual natural wavelength/
blast size. In trough rings cap sensitive explosive frequency of the rock transmitting media between
is charged using electric delay detonators. In the the blast face and concerned monitoring points in
blind holes of production rings, explosive is loaded the village.

234

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 234 10/3/2012 8:26:35 PM

 Four to five seismographs were deployed to
record the vibrations for each blast at various loca-
tions. The locations of the seismographs for three
sites were fixed for all the blast vibration monitor-
ing. Rest two locations were varying as per the
complaint from the resident of the houses. The
depth of cover of the monitoring locations var-
ied between 100 and 198 m. The blast monitoring
locations were at 99 m at the village boundary and
up to 456 m in the village. The radial distances
between the blasting locations and monitoring
points were from 142 to 467 m. Recorded blast
vibration were in the range of 2.34 to 14.6 mm/s.
Structures response were also recorded for few
houses of village.
6 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES
The blast vibration monitoring has been started
since inception of production in mine in 2006.
Recorded blast vibration data were analyzed at an
regular interval. In this paper only important 82
blasts have been considered for analyses. Based on
the recorded blast vibration data predictor equa-
tion has been established. The regression plot of
blast vibration data has also presented in Figure 1.
The established equation for the mine is:
2.278
R
v = 23497
Q max
Correlation co-efficient = 70.5%
Where, v = Peak particle velocity (mm/s)
R = Distance between vibration monitoring point
and blasting face (m)
Qmax = Maximum explosive weight per delay (kg)
Figure 1. Regression plot of recorded PPV at their
respective scaled distances at Sindesar Khurd Mine.
235
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 235
The above equation has been used to compute
the predicted level of vibration at various locations
in the village and accordingly the explosives weight
per delay were practiced. The recorded dominant
peak frequencies of vibration were in the range
of 26249 Hz (Fig. 2) whereas the most common
range was 54 to 129 Hz. Hence, the safe limit of
ground vibration (PPV) for the safety of houses
and other structures of Sindesar Khurd village
has been taken as 15 mm/s as per Indian Standard
(Table 6).
Natural frequency of various houses/struc-
tures were recorded which were in the range of
13.616.8 Hz. The reduction in vibration level
was recorded in the structure at different floor lev-
els which ranges from 1.8549%. The higher fre-
quency of vibration caused reduction of vibration
in the structures at various floor levels.
Initially, the blasting operation started with
100 kg of emulsion cartridge explosives distributed
in 4 holes and were detonated with explosives weight
per delay of 25 kg. After that, continuous experi-
ments were performed to increase the size of the
Figure 2. Plot of recorded dominant peak frequency of
vibration at village at various radial distances from the
blasts.
Figure 3. Processing of blast wave signature for deter-
mination of natural frequency of a typical house of the
village.
10/3/2012 8:26:36 PM
 blast in order to improve productivity keeping the
vibration level within 15 mm/s. Figure 4 depicts the
view of blast holes and its connection with elec-
tronic delay detonators. The typical blast design
and delay sequence is presented in Figure 5.
In few blasts at BH-4 & BH-5 stopes, vibrations
were recorded in higher side. The rock fragmenta-
tion was not good at 300 mRL draw point. This
may be due to excessive scattering in the nonel
delay detonators. Subsequently, the scattering tests
were conducted for all the available nonel detona-
tors with the mine.
Figure 6. Recorded percentage scattering of nonel
The recorded scattering percentage were found
delay detonator.
in some nonel tubes up to 45.6% (Fig. 6). The
existing products of nonel tubes were replaced and
other make nonel tubes were used in the blasting
operations. The issue of excessive scattering was
minimized when the other make nonel tubes were
used.
One of the blasts conducted at 300 mRL and
fragmentation achieved were analysed with the
help of Wipfrag software for its size analysis. Laser
scale was used to scale the size of the fragmented
block (Fig. 7). The detail fragment size analysis for

Figure 7. Fragmented block observed at draw point

(300 mRL).

Figure 4. View of the blast holes and its connection

with electronic delay detonators.

Figure 8. Netting and contouring of block sizes of rock

fragments at 300 mRL of Sindesar Khurd Mine.

the blast is depicted in Figures 8 and 9. The aver-

Figure 5. Typical blast Ring design blasted in multi-
stage at 350 mRL in BH-5 stope.
age mean size of the block is 0.264 m (diameter of
an equivalent sphere) and the most common size
of the block is 0.191 m. (diameter of an equivalent
sphere). The maximum size of the boulder found
in the analysis is of 0.6 m (diameter of an equiva-
lent sphere).
The in-the-hole continuous velocity of detona-
tion of emulsion explosives was also recorded for
three holes of Ring (R-8) at 400 mRL of BH-4
Stope. Out of three holes two holes were deck

236

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 236 10/3/2012 8:26:37 PM

 Figure 9. Histogram and cumulative size curve view of
fragmented block sizes at 300 mRL of Mine.
Figure 10. In-the-hole VOD trace of PG-2 cartridge
explosives of M/s IEL, Orica.
charged. The amount of explosives detonated in
1st hole was 50 kg whereas in 2nd hole and 3rd
hole it was 94 kg (44 kg in bottom deck & 50 kg
in top deck) and 47 kg (19 kg in bottom deck &
28 kg in top deck) respectively. The delay timing
provided in 1st hole, 2nd hole and 3rd holes were
0 ms, 15/165 ms and 45/150 ms. The recorded in-
the-hole VOD of explosives were in the range of
48385104 m/s (Figure 10).
7 OPTIMISATION OF BLAST DESIGN
PARAMERES
Based on the analysis of the recorded data due to
implementation of various blast design param-
eters and recorded vibration data, it was recorded
that whenever the scattering in nonel tubes were
more than 10% excessive vibration were recorded.
Hence, nonel detonators having scattering percent-
age within 10% are only utilized in ring blasting.
The delay intervals were selected in such a manner
which will not overlap considering the scattering
percentage of 10%.
Two signature blasts (single hole blast) were
conducted at 400 mRL and 350 mRL to optimise
the delay interval between the holes and in the deck
for reduction of vibration level in the village.
Signature blast analyses were carried out for the
blast conducted at 350 mRL-BH-5/HW/R-5 and at
400 mRL-BH-5/FW/R-2. Figures 11 and 12 depict
237
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 237
Figure 11. Blast wave signature recorded at sindesar
khurd village due to the single hole blast conducted at
350 mRL-BH-5/HW/R-5.
Figure 12. Blast wave signature recorded at Sindesar
Khurd village due to the single hole blast conducted at
400 mRL-BH-5/FW/R-2.
the blast wave signature recorded at Sindesar
village due to signature blasts.
The implemented delay interval between the
holes are 37 ms and 56 ms whereas the delay inter-
vals between decks is 15 ms for the blast conducted
at 350 mRL, whereas for the blast conducted at
400 mRL, the delay interval between the holes are
29 ms and 52 ms whereas the delay interval between
decks is 15 ms.
A few blasts were taken with electronic delay
detonators to eliminate the chances of scattering
in delay timing in those blasts where explosives
of more than 550 kg were detonated in a blast-
ing round. Additional sub level interval was also
planned to be reduced in further stope to 25 m
from 50 m. Blasthole diameter was also reduced
from 102 mm & 89 mm from 115 mm in produc-
tion rings in order to obviate excessive charge den-
sity in a particular hole.
In few blasts, sympathetic detonation was also
one of the reasons of excessive blast vibration
levels in the village (Figs. 13 & 14). It has been
verified with the help of VOD of explosives trace.
10/3/2012 8:26:39 PM
 Figure 13. In-the-hole VOD trace showing sympathetic
detonation of upper deck due to bottom deck blasting
(Deck size = 1.2 m i.e.11D).

Figure 14. In-the-hole VOD trace showing sympathetic

detonation of upper deck due to bottom deck blasting
(Deck size = 1.0 m i.e. 9D).

Subsequently, the deck length was standardized

which was in the range of 1217 D, where D is
the hole diameter. In case of nonel, it is very dif-
ficult to maintain the delay interval of 17 or 25 ms
between the decks in all the blast holes due to
non-availability of suitable nonel detonators in
the Indian market. Electronic detonators are being
used in deck blasting to get desired fragmentation
and obviate excessive generation of vibration.
In case of deck blasting, two methodologies
were adopted, taking hole one by one (bottom
deck & top deck fired with 15 ms delay interval) or
taking bottom slices first and then top slices. The
deck materials between the holes were withheld by
using plastic tag anchored to bolted rod. This con-
cept was used to eliminate the damage of the top
deck explosives column due to detonation of bottom
explosive. These two ways placement of deck were
experimented in few blasts at 350 m-BH-5/FW/R-5,
R-8 & R-9 using electronic delay detonators and
the results were encouraging in both the conditions
but latter condition showed better results. Figure 15
depicts the of deck blasting used at mine.
Using this concept, the maximum explosives
fired with electronic delay detonator was 642 kg
and was detonated with the explosives weight per
Figure 15. Blast hole delay sequence and delay timing
of decks taking concept of one by one hole blasting or
taking bottom slice first then top slice.
delay of 56 kg. The vibration data recorded in
the village by detonation of these two blasts were
lower in comparison to those recorded in earlier
using the same quantity of explosives in nonel ini-
tiation system.
Further blasts were conducted for two rings
together (partially) with electronic delay detona-
tors for distributed charge concentration and to
increase the size of the blast to meet the targeted
production of the mine, but it is always not fea-
sible because of site constraints. Such types of
seven blasts were conducted at R-8 & R-9 rings
of BH-4, BH-5 and N-1 Stopes at 400 mRL
(Table 7). The delay arrangements were set in both
the rings in a way that the blast wave signatures
of both the rings are not producing constructive

238

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 238 10/3/2012 8:26:39 PM

 Table 7. Details of blast design parameters and recorded PPV when two rings were blasted together at BH-5, BH-4
and N-1 400 mRL and 350 mRL.

Total explosives Explosives Recorded PPV

Location Delay timing weight weight/delay range value
of blast Ring no. [ms] [kg] [kg] [mm/s]

BH-5 stope R-8 0, 15, 30, 45, 60 & 75 604 50 4.886.24

Hang wall (6 holes)
400 mRL R-9 90, 105, 120, 135, 150,
(9 holes) 165, 180, 195 & 210
BH-5 stope R-8 0, 15, 30, 45, 60 & 75 649 50 3.059.02
Hang wall (6 holes)
400 mRL R-9 90, 105, 120, 135,
(8 holes) 150, 165, 180 & 195
N-1 stope R-8 0, 15, 30, 45, 60, 75, 698 50 6.659.71
Hang wall (11 holes) 90, 105, 120, 135, 150
400 mRL R-9 165/180, 195 210, 225,
(9 holes) 240, 255, 270, 285 & 300
BH-5 stope R-8 0, 15/105, 30, 45, 60/120, 716 50 4.69.8
Foot wall (8 holes) 135, 150 & 165
400 mRL R-9 210/270, 225, 240,
(5 holes) 255 & 285
BH-5 stope R-8 0, 15/75, 30, 45 & 60 577 50 5.977.10
Hang wall (5 holes)
400 mRL R-9 90/195, 105/210, 120,
(11 holes) 135, 150, 165, 180/270,
225, 240, 255 & 270
BH-5 stope R-8 0/90, 15, 45, 60, 75, 708 50 3.2210.4
Foot wall (10 holes) 105, 120, 135/180,
150 & 165/195
400 mRL R-9 210, 225, 240, 255,
(7 holes) 270, 285 & 300
BH-4 stope R-8 0, 15/165, 30, 45/150, 736 56 5.710.1
Foot wall (12 holes) 60, 75, 90, 105/135, 120,
180, 195, & 210/225
400 mRL R-9 270, 285, 300, 315,
(6 holes) 330 & 345

8 CONCLUSIONS

Sindesar Khurd Mine is continuously working on

Figure 16. Blastwave signature recorded at village due to
the blast conducted at 400 mRL-BH-5/R-8& R-9 Ring.
impacts. Figure 16 depicts the recorded blast wave
signature at village due to the blast conducted at
400 mRL-BH-5/R-8& R-9 Ring which shows that
the blast waves of both the rings are independ-
ently recorded.
blast design to keep vibration within acceptable
limits in nearby village and to achieve optimum
fragmentation.
The delay interval between the holes of 37 ms
and 56 ms and detonated with delay interval
between decks of 15 ms for the blast conducted
at 350 mRL yielded excellent fragmentation and
reduced level of vibration. The blast conducted at
400 mRL with delay interval between the holes of
29 ms and 52 ms and detonated with delay inter-
val between decks of 15 ms also gave desired blast
results. The delay intervals between the two rings
were provided in such a manner that the higher
depth rings should be blasted first.
The concept of taking two ring together and
another technique of taking bottom slice first and

239

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 239 10/3/2012 8:26:40 PM

 then the top slice (after deck ore body) was very
much beneficial. The results were very encourag-
ing and recorded vibration data in the village and
achieved fragmentation was acceptable. Big size
blast of 792 kg were performed and the recorded
vibration levels were below 10 mm/s. Further, it
has been also planned to take blasts with 900 to
1100 kg in those stopes which are at far-off dis-
tances from the village.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors express their gratitude to Direc-
tor, CSIR-Central Mining Research Institute,
Dhanbad, India for his encouragement and sup-
port during the field study. The authors are also
thankful to the mine personnel of Sindesar Khurd
Mine for providing necessary facilities during the
course of this investigation. The opinions are those
of the authors and not necessarily the organiza-
tions to whom they belong.
REFERENCES
DGMS (Tech) S&T Circ No. 7 of 1997. Subject: Damage
of the Structures due to Blast Induced Ground Vibra-
tion in the Mining Areas.
240
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 240
Harries, G & Beattie, T. 1988. The Underwater Testing of
Explosives and Blasting, Explosives in mining Work-
shop, The Australian Institute of Mining and metal-
lurgy. 9p.
Just, G.D. and Chitombo, G.P., 1987. The Economic
and Operational Implications of Blast Vibration
Limit Mining and Environmental, The Aus IMM,
pp. 117124.
Little, T.N. & Van Rooyen, F. 1988. The Current State
of the Art of Grade Control Blasting in the Eastern
Goldfields. Proceedings of the Aus. IMM Explosives
in Mining Workshop. Aus. IMM. Melbourne, Victoria.
pp. 8795.
Singh, P.K. & & Vogt, W. 1998. Ground vibration: Pre-
diction for safe and efficient blasting. International
Journal of ERZMETALL, GDMB publication,
Germany, Vol. 51, No. 10, pp. 677684.
Singh, P.K., Mohanty, B. & Roy, M.P., 2008. Low fre-
quency vibrations produced by coal mine blasting
and their impact on structures. International Journal
of Blasting and Fragmentation, USA, Vol. 2, No. 1,
pp 7189.
Singh, P.K. & Roy, M.P., 2010. Damage to surface struc-
tures due to blast vibration. International Journal of
Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences, Vol. 47, No. 6,
pp 949961.
Siskind, D.E., Stagg, M.S., Kopp, J.W. and
Dowding, C.H, 1980. Structure Response and
Damage Produced by Ground Vibration from Sur-
face Mine Blasting. U.S. Bureau of Mines, R.I.
8507, 74 p.
10/3/2012 8:26:41 PM
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

ECOFRO, an eco comparison tool for methods of rock fragmentation

http://ecofro.synduex.com
By SYNDUEX, French Union of Explosives Engineers

Jean-Franois Couvrat & Jean-Renaud Dernoncourt

ALPHAROC Drilling and BlastingEPC Group, France

Frdric Martareche
RAZEL-BECFayat Group, France

ABSTRACT: The French Union of Explosives Engineers, Synduex, has commissioned an environ-
mental impact study regarding the use of industrial explosives in quarries and construction sites. Based
on the results, which cover everything from the greenhouse gas emission of explosives to their levels of
energy consumption, a tool has been designed to compare the various fragmentation methods used by
professionals.

1 INTRODUCTION environmental impact of the use of explosives in

The common definition of drilling usually implies
a drilling machine, the use of explosivesand the
resulting pollution.
Due to such negative representation, rock blast-
ing tends to be seen as a last resort for fragmen-
tationonly used once hydraulic rock breakers,
rippers, planing machines, among other mechani-
cal equipment are rendered ineffective against a
rock. However, this profession has made signifi-
cant progress in recent decades. The art of rock
fragmentation now follows precise techniques,
especially thanks to new types of explosives (bulk
emulsions carried by mobile explosive manufac-
turing units), new priming methods (electronic
detonators) and new measuring equipment (laser
readings of the rock face, deviation measuring
probes, GPS site positioning). These techniques
enable the assessment of any potential damage
caused by the use of explosives and help contribute
to establishing rock blasting as a preferred method
for open-pit blasting and earth works.
However, should this technical expertise be suf-
ficient to elect drilling as the leading method of
rock fragmentation, especially in view of new envi-
ronmental constraints?
2 ENVIRONMENTAL APPROACH
Faced with new environmental problems such
as global warming, eutrophication and soil
contamination, French explosives engineers
requested in 2008 from Synduex an analysis of the
quarries and public works sites (reference 1).
Whilst aware of the advantages of this power-
ful, effective and cost-efficient rock fragmentation
method, the engineers wished to also assess any
known impact from chemical pollution as well as
define its carbon footprint and energy efficiency.
This venture was achieved through a research
project called Environmental impact of industrial
explosives on quarries and public works sites
carbon and energy footprints. With the support
gathered from publicly presenting the research
findings at the European explosives conference
staged by the EFEE in Budapest in 2009, Synduex
decided in 2010 to pursue its work on the green-
house gas emissions produced by drilling com-
pared with its energy efficiency, by producing a
practical eco-comparison tool for rock fragmenta-
tion methods, ECOFRO.
A first version of ECOFRO has been presented
in 2011 in Lisbon for the 6th EFEE conference
(reference 2).
The ultimate goal for Synduex is to eventually
design a tool capable of producing a complete
environmental comparison of all the various
methods used for rock fragmentation in quarries
and public works sites. This tool would include a
greenhouse gas as well dust, noise and vibration
impact analysis.
This article describes the conclusions of the
first study carried out by Synduex, as well as the
function and aims of its eco-comparison tool
ECOFRO. It also outlines the opportunities that
a greater use of explosives in quarries and public
infrastructures works sites could create in relation

241

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 241 10/3/2012 8:26:41 PM

 to carbon and energy footprints for the production To increase the share of renewable energy by
stages which follow quarrying. 20% of consumption.

3 CURRENT AND FUTURE 4 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES OF EXPLOSIVES

Rising awareness of the new environmental stakes 4.1 Composition of explosives

and new regulations to limit and reduce the impact
In order to reflect the French and European market
of industry on the environment have created a new
accurately, the explosives studied here are cartridge
criterion in companies choice of techniques and
emulsions, ANFO or ammonium nitrate-fuel oils,
tools, now taking into consideration their environ-
dynamite and bulk emulsions or ballasted ammo-
mental impact.
nium nitrate fuel oils. The total mass of civil explo-
The public infrastructure building sector has
sives used in France is 45, 000 tonnes per annum.
always been under close scrutiny in regards to its
This amount varies slightly from year to year,
environmental impact and any potential harm or
depending on the large public works sites in France
damage caused to the environment. Many sites are
requiring use of explosives (large-scale earth work
therefore currently designated High Environmen-
sites to build motorways, TGV lines etc.). Overall,
tal Quality or even Very High Environmental
the amount of explosives used to blast rocks in
Quality or Green sites. Quarries regulations
quarries remains stable over time.
aim to minimise their impact on the environment
The use of civil explosives can be broken down
and cement plants are particularly affected by these
into:
new restrictions in terms of greenhouse gases.
To sum up, as a main source of industrial pol- 10% dynamite
lution, the manufacture and use of explosives can 40% ammonium nitrate-fuel oils
negatively impact on: 30% bulk emulsion (or slurry)
20% cartridge emulsion
The greenhouse or global warming effect, which
is linked to the production of CO2, NO, NO2, Modern civil explosives are chemical com-
N2O and other gases. pounds combining oxidant and fuel, made up of
The phenomenon of eutrophication, which the following basic atoms:
consists of excessive discharges of phosphates
Carbon: C
or nitrates (primarily in water) and can signifi-
Oxygen: O
cantly reduce biodiversity.
Nitrogen: N
The acidification of water through the emis-
Hydrogen: H
sion of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides that
damages flora and the wider ecosystem. Aluminium, found in numerous explosives,
does not actually play a direct part in the chemi-
However these environmental hazards have
cal reaction causing the explosion, but acts as a
vastly improved these past few years, especially
catalyst. Theoretically, an explosive formula aims
through the implementation of a national green-
for a carburant-combustible balance, known as
house gas quota plan (PNAC) policy which aims
the oxygen balance, which should be nil. However,
to limit and reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
it is actually preferable to have a slightly negative
Without directly tackling the source of the pollu-
oxygen balance in order to limit the production of
tion, this policy has greatly limited the greenhouse
gaseous oxides such as NOx nitrogen oxides.
gas emissions of the most polluting companies.
Numerous dynamite formulas are in use. The
The number of companies affected will increase
most widely used is a mixture of nitroglycerogly-
with each new quota acquisition plan. Companies
col (nitro-glycerine + dinitroglycol), ammonium
which exceed the quotas face financial penalties or
nitrate, nitric cotton, wood flour, dinitrotoluene or
have to purchase additional quotas from the CO2
trinitrotoluene, peat, salt and aluminium.
BlueNext exchange.
Ammonium Nitrate-Fuel Oil (ANFO) includes
In a wider context, the European Union ratified
technical ammonium nitrate, domestic fuel oil or
in December 2008 the Climate-Energy pact, also
other fuels such as nitro paraffin and, occasionally,
called the 20-20-20 objectives:
aluminium and anticaking agents. The ideal propor-
To reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 20% tions are 96% ammonium nitrate to 4% mineral oil.
relative to their 1990 level by 2020. Cartridge emulsions contain a high proportion
To reduce energy consumption by 20% (i.e. of ammonium nitrate, mineral or organic nitrates,
increase energy efficiency). mineral oil or wax for fuel, tension-active agents,

242

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 242 10/3/2012 8:26:41 PM

 water and various additives such as aluminium.
Bulk emulsions or ballasted ammonium nitrate
fuel oils share the same components, while their
proportions differ.
Detonators comprise more powerful and
more sensitive compounds (detonation speeds
of 8,000 m/s compared with 6,000 m/s for dyna-
mite and cartridge emulsions and a minimum of
3,000 m/s for ammonium nitrate fuel-oils). They
contain penthrite (or PETN), hexogen, octogen
and hexolite, glass fibre and carbon.
4.2 Component toxicity
The study of explosive components chemical
properties has allowed us to define various degrees
of pre-blast toxicity, depending on its environmen-
tal impact:
Components with no effect on the environment:
water, aluminium, wax.
Components with an immediate impact, with-
out affecting living organisms: nitro-glycerine,
low-dose ammonium nitrate.
Components with an irreversible effect on the
environment and on living organisms: trinitro-
toluene, dinitrotoluene.
This last category is no longer a cause for con-
cern in France as these components are no longer
used to manufacture dynamite.
The impact of pre-blast explosives is non-exist-
ent in explosives currently in use (see: Other forms
of pollution).
4.3 Pollution produced by the blast and its impact
Bibliographical research and the study of chemical
reactions which occur in a detonation have enabled
a definition of the gaseous residues emitted dur-
ing this detonation. These differ in terms of their
impact on the environment:
1. Inert gases, whose only potential hazard occurs
through excessive concentration levels that
could result in asphyxia:
N2nitrogen
H2hydrogen
CH4methane
O2oxygen
CO2carbon dioxide or carbonic gas
H2Owater vapour
Al2O3
Na2O.
2. Short-term harmful gases, without any cumula-
tive effect:
NH3 (irritation)ammonia
CO (toxic)carbon monoxide
NOx (toxic)nitrogen oxides
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 243
3. Gases which become harmful when accumu-
lated in the environment (greenhouse gases):
CO2
CO (also hazardous when accumulated in the
organism)
CH4
NOx,
Despite the lack of scientific research on over-
all emissions from explosive detonations, it would
appear that gas levels and concentrations observed
during experiments or predicted by thermochemis-
try do not pose any particular threat to humans or
the environment under average use such as in open
quarries and sites, if a delay is observed before any
immediate activity surrounding the blast zone.
4.4 Second-degree contamination
Identifying the direct residues of the blast allows
the identification of any potential leftover residues,
which could have formed from gases emitted dur-
ing the blast.
These new products are:
N2O (powerful greenhouse gas and toxic to
humans)nitrogen protoxide
NH4 NO3
NH4-CO3H
Al2O3-Na2O.
Although we do not yet know how to exactly
evaluate the components' concentration, we can
say they remain at very low levels, since these
byproducts are limited in quantity by the gases
emitted by the blast.
The prediction of new complex detonation resi-
dues could justify a comprehensive experimental
study of the gases resulting from explosions. Based
on our knowledge to date, we can nevertheless say
that these concentrations remain at levels that are
not harmful to man or the environment.
4.5 Other forms of pollution
Potential forms of pollution other than those from
the blast have been identified:
The dissolution of ammonium nitrate or oil
in water can occur in a mine shaft containing
water.
The inadequate disposal of explosives' packag-
ing after the blast
The inadequate disposal of the detonator after
the blast.
In addition to its limited environmental
impact, dissolution of compounds in water can
only occur in cases of improper use of explosives
and only affects a few pollutants. Other forms
243
10/3/2012 8:26:41 PM
 of contamination do not have a deep impact on
the environment: explosive packaging is made
of plastic and cardboard, therefore non-toxic
materials.
5 CARBON AND ENERGY FOOTPRINTS
OF DRILLING/BLASTING ACTIVITY
5.1 CO2 equivalent of explosives
Greenhouse gas emissions during the blast have
been specifically researched. Based on available
theoretical and experimental data, a method has
been designed for calculating the CO2 equivalent
of an explosive. It requires the average mass of
each gas emitted during the blast. Previous studies
measuring these gases and the software designed
to calculate gaseous residues from nitro-chemical
Detheocalc98 (reference 4) detonations established
a relationship between the theoretical and experi-
mental values, thus enabling an estimate of the
amount of gas emitted. Since the mass of each gas
is already known, in order to obtain the carbon
footprint of each explosive (by type, weight in kg
and MJ of explosive), only the calculation of the
CO2 mass equivalent using the PRG (Total Radia-
tion Power) was needed.
The residual compounds contributing to the
greenhouse effect, as identified earlier, are:
CO2
NOx (NO and NO2)
CH4
N2O
CO (which is not directly classified as a green-
house gas but which tends to turn into CO2 over
time)
The results obtained are as follows: 1 Kg of
explosive produces on average 539 grams of CO2,
and while blasting, 1 MJ of explosive energy,
141 grams of CO2 are emitted.
5.2 Results for quarries and sites
Calculating the carbon equivalent for explosives
has enabled us to define the amount of CO2 emis-
sions of the overall drilling-blasting in quarries
and public works sites.
The figures for the carbon footprint of quar-
ries include the internal transportation system via
dumper, excavator and loader as well as the elec-
tricity consumption of the crushers and the con-
veyor belts.
For the drilling-blasting station, it includes the drill-
ing, the transport of cartridge explosives, the amount
of explosives, transport for the drilling machine and
the mobile explosive manufacturing unit.
244
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 244
To go beyond the in situ greenhouse gas emis-
sions, it seems necessary to consider the carbon
footprint of prior stages of the activity involved in
the quarry or the public works site itself:
Any ammonium nitrate production
Any upstream diesel-fuel emissions
Any manufacturing of machinery and
infrastructure
Two types of rock have been considered in this
study: hard rock like granite and softer types like
limestone. This distinction is based on the different
requirements in terms of drilling time and amount
of explosive used in each case.
Drilling: 20 m/h for granite, 30 m/h for
limestone
Explosives: 131 g/T for granite,100 g/T for
limestone
Electricity consumption (crushers): 2,000,000
kWh/year for granite, 1,400,000 kWh/year for
limestone
The electricity consumption study requires to
draw a specific distinction between French quarries,
for which electricity production is mainly nuclear,
and thus emits little CO2, compared to other coun-
tries still relying on gas, coal or oil to produce elec-
tricity. In France, 1 kWh electric results in emission
of 0.084 kg of CO2 equivalent, while the European
average is estimated at 0.352 kg of CO2 equivalent
(reference 5).
Regarding public works sites, the main differ-
ences are:
A higher amount of explosives used as a conse-
quence of the lack of an immediate facade for
blasting.
Longer trips for the dumper, compared with the
average journey in a quarry.
To summarise, the extraction of a tonne of
granite-type rock in a quarry generates an aver-
age of 3.53 KgCO2 (4.87 in Europe because of the
difference in sources of electricity) and consumes
44.54 MJ.
To extract a tonne of limestone-type rock, a
quarry produces an average of 3.33 KgCO2 (4.26 in
Europe) and consumes 38.58 MJ.
For a public works site, the maximum amount
of CO2 emitted is 3.58 KgCO2 and a consumption
of 55.6 MJ.
In terms of greenhouse gases, the drilling-
blasting station represents about 10% of CO2 emis-
sions, whilst explosives represent 2.5%.
In terms of energy, the drilling-blasting sta-
tion represents no more than 6.5%, whilst
explosives amount to less than 1.5% of the total
consumption.
10/3/2012 8:26:41 PM
 6 THE ECO-COMPARISON TOOL ECOFRO
After the initial research led in 2008, it became
clear that a calculation tool enabling different per-
mutations to be quickly assessed was necessary.
As a result, in 2010, ECOFRO was born: an
eco-comparison tool for rock fragmentation meth-
ods in quarries and public works sites.
Developed in partnership with SFEPA, the
French Union of explosives, powder and pyrotech-
nics manufacturers, ECOFRO not only calculates
greenhouse gas emissions according to a chosen
method, but also narrows down the share of a
specific task within the whole quarry or site. This
evaluation also allows the assessment of the impact
of the fragmentation method on subsequent tasks.
A first version of the tool was published in
French in 2011. An English version of the software
has recently been conceived, with features includ-
ing the actual environmental impact of the electric-
ity consumption depending on a selected country,
including conversions to Imperial Measuring Units.
The comparison between different fragmenta-
tion methods can therefore be made using various
permutations taking into account the effects of
each subsequent stages.
The tool is available on the Unions websites,
Synduex and Sfepa, and is designed for the use of
contractors who specialise in drilling-blasting activ-
ities, engineering firms, site superintendents, etc.
It is available online, in French or in English, on
http://ecofro.synduex.com.
6.1 Instructions for use
ECOFRO appears as a spreadsheet displaying a
chronological description of the quarry or public
works site. Results and reminders of the underly-
ing assumptions derived while entering data are
gathered on the last two tabs. ECOFRO is an
eco-comparison tool and therefore does not aim
Figure 1. ECOFRO welcome page.
245
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 245
to establish exhaustive carbon balance for quar-
ries and public works sites. However, the tool is
not limited to description and comparison of frag-
mentation methods greenhouse gas emissions:
it is also able to evaluate the impact of various
methods on subsequent stages of the production
process. Therefore, it allows the overall greenhouse
gas emissions in a quarry or public works site to be
studied according to a chosen method.
The first Welcome tab contains the main infor-
mation about either the quarry or the public works
site: volume extracted, machinery and equipment
lifespan, site name.
Four tabs then detail the tasks in four successive
stages of the rock treatment process:
Fragmentation: choice of fragmentation
method(s): drilling-blasting, ripper, hydraulic
rock breaker, planing machine.
Extraction: choice of machinery used to carry
the rocks from the blast zone to the crushing sta-
tion, such as loaders, dumpers.
Crushing: two methods are available, electric
and thermal (crusher with heat engine).
Dispatching: transport of material to stores or
direct loading of trucks.
Several fragmentation methods can be selected
at the same time. Details for the drill are requested,
such as weight, motor consumption or power,
capacity, types of explosives, carriage frequency
(for the drill and the explosives), distance covered
and consumption or power of the vehicles used.
The methodology remains identical for the
next three tabs: weight, power or consumption of
machinery, its output or duration in use enable to
calculate the fuel, the amount of kWh and steel
needed to produce the plant and equipment.
The latter data (fuel volumes, kWh, amount
and type of explosives, weight of machinery and
equipment), allows the greenhouse gas emissions
to be assessed, using constants.
6.2 Constants
Value and origin of these constants are detailed in
a separate tab.
Four types of constants can be distinguished:
Physical constants, established by definition.
The French official data for calculating green-
house gases emissions, as given in the Green-
house Gas Emissions guide published by the
Agency for the Environment and Energy Effi-
ciency (ADEME) (reference 3).
Values obtained from the Synduex study of 2008.
This research is the sole attempt ever made to
evaluate the carbon footprint of known indus-
trial explosives. (reference 1).
10/3/2012 8:26:42 PM
 The evaluation of actual electricity greenhouse
impact depending on the chosen country.
(reference 5).
These constants are built into the eco-compari-
son tool and cannot be modified by users. The tool
has, however, been designed to allow updates of the
values, in case of changes to the ADEME guide
or new research on the gas emissions of industrial
explosives.
6.3 Calculations
The detailed calculations made by ECOFRO can
be viewed in the Calculations tab. These cannot
be altered by the user, but provide origins for all the
values produced.
6.4 Results
Once the necessary data has been entered, two tabs
describe the simulations outcome.
The first one displays:
A reminder of all the input data entered for the
simulation.
A breakdown of the consumed energy on site
depending on its origin: thermal, electrical and
explosive.
A breakdown of the greenhouse gas emissions
according to the different rock treatment phases:
fragmentation, extraction, crushing and dispatch.
Figure 2. Example of results obtained with ECOFRO.
246
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 246
A breakdown of the energy consumption and
greenhouse gas emissions for each individual work
station and for the whole site, provided in tonnes.
The second tab provides general information
and the estimations made for the simulation,
therefore enabling it to be compared with another
simulation. ECOFRO aims to facilitate the com-
parison of different energy consumption and
sources (and therefore energy efficiency), which
would offer a tool to compare the overall amount
of emissions for the whole site.
6.5 Future development of the tool
ECOFRO is designed to be an evolving eco-
comparison tool:
The database of site equipment and its character-
istics is not set in stone. It is possible to add new
models, types of machinery and, most impor-
tantly, the users can modify their consumption
data. Thus, ECOFRO can account for the aging
of the equipment, any specific environmental
conditions and the perpetual modernisation of
site machinery, which directly affects its energy
consumption.
The constants used for the evaluation can be
changed rapidly by an administrator to update
the calculations. The tool can be modified and
kept up to date with future editions of the
ADEME greenhouse gas emissions guide, as
well as any new data regarding carbon footprint
equivalencies for explosives.
7 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPROVEMENTS
TO DRILLING/ BLASTING
Synduex is currently investigating two main areas
of development regarding the environmental impact
of explosives in quarries and public works sites. The
first falls within technology management and
involves the development of an analytical, com-
prehensive comparison tool for the environmental
impact of the rock fragmentation process. The sec-
ond is based on the hypothesis that an increase in
the explosive energy during the blast can affect the
overall emissions balance of the system in question.
7.1 A comprehensive comparison tool
Synduex hopes to extend the ECOFRO tool in
order to evaluate the full range of environmen-
tal pollution that explosives or any other rock
fragmentation method can cause. In its current
stage of development, ECOFRO studies green-
house gas emissions and the energy efficiency of
10/3/2012 8:26:42 PM
 the fragmentation processes. However a more
comprehensive tool could look into recognised,
standard pollution such as dust, vibration, as
well as issues linked with the growing regulatory
constraints for excessive acoustic pressure.
7.2 Greater energy efficiency
The second axis of development originates in the
theory that the quality of the blast has an influence
on subsequent stages of the rock treatment. In other
words, using extra explosive energy to improve rock
fragmentation can have significant consequences
on the rock extraction and crushing process.
This potential area for improvement requires on-
site experiments to assess its validity, but it makes
sense to formulate some working hypotheses:
Better rock fragmentation and therefore more
standardised grading of the blasted rock (fewer
large and small pieces) would facilitate the sub-
sequent extraction: the loader bucket and the
dumper would be better stacked, the tasks of
the shovel and loader would be simplified in
the absence of large blocks of rock that require
greater manipulations by the machinery. This
would also mean less fuel consumption per
tonne produced as well as reduced greenhouse
gas emissions.
A more standardised grading would also improve
the work of the crusher(s). The absence of large
rock pieces will save time on important mechani-
cal work and avoid halts in the production. The
attrition effect would also improve the efficiency
of the crusher and reduce the number of replace-
ment parts needed. This improvement should
help reduce energy consumption per tonne.
Figure 3. Energetic impact of explosives and interac-
tion between the various types of energy.
247
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 247
Estimates based on these hypotheses pro-
vide a helpful picture of the effects of additional
explosive energy on the quarrys carbon footprint.
The results account for the abovementioned reduc-
tions but also additional emissions from the extra
explosives and associated drilling for the set up
and the manufacturing of the explosives.
The estimated reductions for subsequent stages
after blasting are still to be corroborated. However,
based on these estimates, a 50% increase of explo-
sive energy (from an average of 300 g/m3 to 450 g/m3
of explosives) would reduce overall greenhouse gas
emissions for quarries and public works sites from
4% to 6%.
In France for instance, this energy efficiency
would enable the production of heavy rock aggre-
gates, which is estimated at 250 million tonnes/
year, entailing about 750 million KgCO2 of green-
house gas emissions; that is to say, savings prob-
ably greater than 45 million KgCO2. Moreover, the
advantages of a better use of explosives could be
even greater in other countries that do not rely on
low-carbon electricity.
Appropriate use of explosive energy could there-
fore enable an overall reduction in greenhouse gas
emissions by means of a substantial cut in thermal
and electric energy consumption.
8 CONCLUSION
The research carried out by Synduex demonstrates
that, contrary to common belief, drilling is a rock
fragmentation method that in fact produces little
pollution, particularly in terms of greenhouse gas
emissions.
Moreover, explosives appear to be a more effi-
cient energy source than electricity and fossil fuels.
Explosives combine combustives and combustibles
in the same product. Their high energy potential
manifests itself in microseconds during the reac-
tion known as the detonation, during which the
initial conditions (thousands of degrees and bars)
enable maximal energy to be released from the
molecules involved. In addition to the high output
of this chemical reaction, blasting has the advan-
tage that it releases energy at the very heart of the
rock, therefore avoiding the waste caused by super-
ficial fragmentation operations.
Along the same lines as the study conducted by
Synduex and SFEPA, the EE-Quarry European
project (EE stands for Energy Efficient), sup-
ported by the European Commission, develops
a new and highly effective modelling and moni-
toring Energy Management System technique to
improve Energy Efficiency and achieve a low CO2
emission rate in the energy intensive non-metallic
mineral industry.
10/3/2012 8:26:42 PM
 Within this global quarry project, blast design,
as the first link in the chain, has to be optimized in
order to satisfy the requirements of downstream
operations. An operational methodology has been
developed and drives the drilling and blasting proc-
ess, aiming at a more energy efficient and environ-
mentally aware operation.
The EE-Quarry project is currently developing
a global model which will include each step in the
quarry operation and their interactions. This will
greatly contribute in demonstrating that, beyond
improving the efficiency of the production proc-
ess, improving the blasting methods can lead to
a reduction in the global carbon footprint of
quarry work.
In the race to reduce greenhouse gas emis-
sions, improve energy efficiency and reduce overall
environmental impact, the drilling-blasting tech-
nique features several strong points which make
it the most efficient rock fragmentation method
at present and the best in terms of sustainable
development.
REFERENCES
1. SYNDUEX (2008): study of the environmental
impact of industrial explosives in quarries and public
works, carbon and energy balances.
2. EFEE 1820 sept 2011 (Synduex 2011): Environmental
impact of blasting in quarries and public works .
3. ADEME: Guide des facteurs dmissions V6.1Juin
2010, Entreprises et Collectivits
4. Code de calcul DETHEO CALC 098 Nitro-Bickford
(EPC-Group).
5. CO2 emissions per kWh from electricity and heat
generation:CO2 EMISSIONS FROM FUEL COM-
BUSTION Highlights (2010 Edition) page107) from
IEA Statistics
OTHER REFERENCES
Dangers of Toxic fumes from Blasting, International
Society of Explosives Engineers (ISEE) 2007 in
Nashville USA, R.J. MainieroM.L. HarrisJ.H.
Rowland III.
Fields Studies of CO Migration from Blasting, Inter-
national Society of Explosives Engineers (ISEE)
2005 in Orlando USA, M.L. HarrisM.J. Sapko
R.J. Mainiero.
Blasting-Related Carbon Monoxide Incident in
Bristow, Virginia, International Society of Explosives
Engineers (ISEE) 2004 New Orleans USA, R.J.
MainieroJ.H. Rowland IIIM.L. Harris.
Analytical Measurements in Cast Blasting to Identify
the Cause and Cure for Orange Smoke Formation,
International Society of Explosives Engineers (ISEE)
2004 in New Orleans USA, C.R. Barnhart.;
248
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 248
CO Migration from Trench Blasting in Amherst, New
York, International Society of Explosives Engineers
(ISEE) 2004 in New Orleans USA, M.L. HarrisR.
Mainiero.
Factors affecting ANFO Fumes Production, Interna-
tional Society of Explosives Engineers (ISEE) 2000 in
Anaheim USA, J.H. Rowland IIIR. Mainiero.
Work Principle for Predicting Explosive Toxic Fumes,
International Society of Explosives Engineers (ISEE)
1998 in New Orleans USA, M.S. Wieland.
A Technique for Measuring Toxic Gases Produced
by Blasting Agents, International Society of Explo-
sives Engineers (ISEE) 1997 in Las Vegas USA,
R.J. Mainiero.
Environmental effects of blasting and their control,
International Society of Explosives Engineers (ISEE)
1997 in Las Vegas USA, D.E. SiskindM.S. Stagg.
A study on post blast generation of nitrogen dioxide,
International Society of Explosives Engineers (ISEE)
1996 in Orlando USA, L.D. Lawrence
A laboratory study of explosives malfunction in blast-
ing, International Society of Explosives Engineers
(ISEE) 1995 in Nashville USA, P.D. Katsabanis
A. Ghorbani.
The large chamber test for toxic fumes analysis of
permissible explosives, International Society of
Explosives Engineers (ISEE) 1995 in Nashville USA,
L.D. SantisJ.H. Rowland IIID.J. Viscusi
M.H. Weslowski.
Safety aspects of permitted explosives for use in
underground coal mines, World Conference on Explo-
sives and Blasting Technique 2003 Munich, Roger
Holmberg, R. Zimmermann.
Emissionen von Sprengstoffen, 1st World Conference
on Explosives and Blasting Technique 6-8/08/2000
Munich, Roger Holmberg
A comparison of methods for thermodynamic calcula-
tion of explosives used in Europe, 1st World Confer-
ence on Explosives and Blasting Technique 6-8/08/2000
Munich, R. HolmbergJ.A. Sanchidrian, L.M. Lopez
N. FiederlingS. MencacciH.J. Verbeek.
The influence of the oxygen balance on the chemical
reaction of explosives, European Federation of Explo-
sives Engineers in Vienna (2007), G. Kamburova
I. Rilski.
Performance Parameters of Explosives: Equilibrium
and Non-Equilibrium Reactions, Propellants Explo-
sives, Pyrotechnics (2002), F. VolkH. Bathelt.
Some Factors Influencing Toxic Fumes Generation
by NG-based Semi-gel Explosives in Laboratory
Studies, Propellants Explosives, Pyrotechnics (2001),
M.M. BhattacharyyaP.K. SinghP. Ram
R.K. Paul.
Chemical and physical factors that influence NOx
production during blastingExploratory study,
M. SapkoJ. RowlandR. ManieroI. Zlochower.
Technical books CATERPILLAR.
10/3/2012 8:26:43 PM
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Controlling vibrations caused by underground blasts

in LKAB Malmberget mine

Z.X. Zhang
LKAB, Sweden

ABSTRACT: Ground vibrations at the Malmberget town had reached 1819 mm/s from year 2000
to 2002. From 2004 to 2010 the maximum vibrations had been reduced to 9 mm/s and most vibrations
reduced to about 5 mm/s, indicating that the technical measures used in the mine are effective in vibration
control. These measures include (1) Stress Wave Superposition, (2) Changing Initiation Sequence (CIS in
short), and (3) Dividing Ring Blasting (DRB in short). All three methods were proved to be successful in
vibration reduction, but the last two are more effective and they do not need additional costs according to
the tests in the mine. Because of the two methods, both maximum vibrations and average ones have been
reduced by around 50% since 2004.

1 INTRODUCTION regular single shot from production blasts, mean-

LKABs Malmberget mine is a large scale under-
ground mine that produces 16 million-ton crude ore
per year. In order to meet the requirement for large
scale production, a large and long blasthole is used in
the mine, giving rise to much explosive to be charged
in a single hole. In addition, one of the production
areas in the mine is very close to the Malmberget
town. For example, the shortest distance between a
production ring and the nearest house in the town
is only 250300 m during a number of years. The
above factors make the ground vibrations induced by
production blasts reach a high level. The maximum
vibrations were up to 19 mm/s from 2000 to 2002.
Those maximum vibrations, received at Malmberget
town, usually come from the production blasts at two
driftsNo. 3 and No. 6 (for some levels No. 8)on
each mining level in Johannes area. This is because
these two drifts are nearest to the town, compared
with other production drifts. Very seldom, do some
mistakes in blasting operation cause the high vibra-
tions at the town. For example, a wrong initiation
plan in open cut, a simultaneous initiation of two
rings close to each other, or a wrong slot drilling
in open cut may result in high vibrations. Anyway,
how to reduce vibrations from the two drifts No. 3
and No. 6 (or 8) becomes a major task for vibration
reduction in Malmberget.
In 2002, LKAB started to try an internationally-
known technique which can be called Stress Wave
Superposition by using electronic detonators at
Malmberget. The test results indicated that by
using this method the vibrations had been reduced
by 10%. But the reduction was not enough for
Malmbergets situation and the method required
ing the disturbance to mining production could
be often, and the cost would be high. Accord-
ingly, a new method was developed which is called
Changing Initiation Sequence in Ring Blasts
(CIS). The test results indicated that this method
was efficient in vibration reduction. In addition,
the third method, named Dividing Ring Blasting
(DRB), was developed and then applied to some
particularly-large rings with a success. All of the
three methods have been reported by Zhang et al.
(2004) and Zhang & Naarttijrvi (2005).
Since 2004 the CIS method has been used in all of
production rings in the two drifts from which vibra-
tions are always very high. In some special cases, the
method was modified according to the specific con-
ditions concerning vibrations. For most large rings
the DRB method was applied so as to reduce vibra-
tions. During the whole process of vibration con-
trol, we have also found some problems or mistakes
that affect ground vibration reduction in practice.
On the basis of the above background, this paper
will in brief introduce the CIS and DRB method
first, present the results for vibration reduction in
the Malmberget mine, and discuss the problems
found during the vibration control in the mine.
2 PRINCIPLES FOR VIBRATION
REDUCTION
2.1 Basic methods
The source of ground vibrations caused by blasting
is the original stress waves that were transmitted
into rock mass from detonation waves or borehole

249

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 249 10/3/2012 8:26:43 PM

 D
C
II
A Hole A
I III
Blasting source
B
Hole B
IV
Figure 1. General methods for ground vibration reduction.
pressures. The original stress waves propagate
out of the blasting holes and further into the rock
mass in the far field. During propagation, the
original stress waves are mainly dissipated in the
following forms: (1) rock fracture, damage, and
fragmentation, (2) fragment movement or throwing,
(3) rock heating, friction between mineral grains and
other forms of energy consumption. Apart from
these forms of energy consumption, the remained
part of the original stress waves is the ground vibra-
tion waves or seismic waves. In order to reduce the
ground vibrations caused by blasting, basically
there are four general technical methods available,
as shown in Figure 1.
1. To reduce the original stress waves by charging
less explosive in a single hole;
2. To reduce the final vibration waves by making
use of wave superposition;
3. To make the vibration waves damped;
4. To prevent the original stress waves from propa-
gating into an inhabitant area.
Figure 1 shows the above four methods for vibra-
tion reduction. The left side is the first method by
which vibrations can be reduced by taking various
measures such as employing a small hole instead of
a large one if the explosives and blast parameters
are all the same in both cases. The second method is
indicated in the upper part of the figure, where two
delayed waves from two holes (or decks) go together,
250
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 250
E
F
Fractured area
Slot
and some parts of the waves are overlapped. The
third method is on the right side, where a vibration
wave is attenuated after it goes through a fractured
area. The lower part shows the fourth method, for
example, a slot is made. As mentioned above, the
second method, i.e. the Stress Wave Superposition,
was tested in Malmberget and the vibration reduc-
tion due to this method was limited, so it was given
up. The fourth method is not considered feasible
for the situation in Malmberget, so it will not be
employed. Therefore, we will focus on the first and
third methods.
The first method consists of a number of meas-
ures such as choosing smaller blast hole, using
smaller burden, choosing a shorter blast hole, divid-
ing one blast into multiple blasts, avoiding simul-
taneous initiation, employing decoupling charge,
using air-spaced charge, and using explosive with
low detonation velocity. In the Malmberget mine,
if a ring is very large, we use the DRB method to
divide such a ring into two parts in blasting. Other-
wise for a normal ring, we only use the CIS method
to control vibrations. In the following we will in
brief introduce them.
2.2 The CIS method
This method is based on a theoretical model of
a one-dimensional elastic wave propagating in
three different materials M1, M2 and M3 (Zhang &
10/3/2012 8:26:43 PM
 Direction of wave propagation

M1 M2 M3
A B
I1 , I1 I2 , I2
T2 , T3 , T3
R1 , T2 R 2 , R2
R1

1 A 2 B 3 C3
C1 C2

Figure 2. Stress wave propagation in three materials.

6 Section A-A
5 A
7
Ore body R1 R2 R3
Hanging wall
4
8 4
(solid rock)
Town Upper part of R2
9 2 3 5

10 1st
2 6
Upp er parts of rings
3 Vibration to the town
11
1 D 7
B E
C

Lower pa rts of rings

Drift G
F
Lo we r part of R1

Figure 3. The initiation sequence in the CIS method.

Drift Drift

Naarttijrvi 2005), as shown in Figure 2. As a A

wave propagates from M1 to M2 then to M3 and as

1 = 4500 kg/m3, 3 = 2800 kg/m3 and C1 = C3, if the Figure 4. Dividing a sublevel caving ring blast into two-
time blasts.
following condition is satisfied, i.e.

2C2 < 0.61C1 (1) 2.3 The DRB method

the final particle velocity and stress in M3 will be Sometimes, a production ring is very large, mean-
reduced, compared with the case where the wave ing that the blastholes including the blasthole 3
directly propagate from M1 to M3 (or in this case indicated in Figure 3 are very long. In this case, the
we can say M1 = M2), According to Zhang & CIS method is limited in vibration reduction. In
Naarttijrvi (2005). order to effectively reduce vibrations, we can divide
As stated previously, the maximum vibrations a large ring blast into two or more blasts in blast
received by the Malmberget town always come operation. Thus, one single blast with long holes
from two drifts 3 and 6 on each level of Johannes can be separated into two- or multi-time blasts with
area. Both drifts stand within two single ore bod- short holes. Finally, the ground vibrations can be
ies, and the town is located on the sides of their reduced. This is called DSB method, i.e. dividing a
hanging walls, as shown in Figure 3. The hanging single blast into multi-blasts. The DSB method is
walls are composed of bedrock. introduced by Zhang & Naarttijrvi (2005).
Now we simplify a ring blast in Figure 3 as a one We take a production ring from sublevel caving
dimensional stress wave problem in the horizontal as an example. The left side of Figure 4 shows a sec-
direction. As shown in the figure, after the first hole tion of a production drift with three rings R1, R2,
indicated by 1st in the ring is initiated, a fractured and R3, and the right side indicates a production
zone surrounding the hole is formed, i.e. a certain ring. In a normal case, a ring is blasted once with a
number of cracks are produced. Then when the sec- certain delay time between the holes of the ring. In
ond hole indicated by 2 is blasted, to the direction other words, all of the boreholes in the ring in the
of the town, some of the stress or vibration waves right side of Figure 4 are completely blasted one by
caused by blasting of hole 2 must traverse the frac- one with a delay time. However, in order to reduce
tured zone around hole 1, and further pass through ground vibrations caused by blasting, we now do
the hanging wall. Thus, the vibrations from all of the as follows: we separate each ring into two parts
other holes, except for hole 3 in the figure from the lower part and upper partduring blasting. In one
hanging wall side, can be reduced. blast, we blast the lower part of the previous ring

251

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 251 10/3/2012 8:26:43 PM

 (the upper part had already been blasted) and the often originate in the mine. For a normal ring, the
upper part of the present ring together. As shown charge length of the middle hole is often two times
in Figure 4 we blast the lower part of R1 and the longer than that of the 1st hole in Figure 3, so
upper part of R2 together, and the former is initi- the vibrations can be reduced by around 50% with
ated first and then the latter. All of boreholes in the CIS method. The measured vibrations (verti-
each part will be initiated one by one with a delay cal particle velocity) at the Malmberget town from
time. The separation of the blast operation can be 2000 to 2010 are shown in Figure 6. This figure
made from a broken line FDG shown in the fig- indicates that the maximum vibration is more than
ure. Figure 5 indicates the initiation sequence in 19 mm/s from 2000 to 2002, but it is smaller than
the DRB method combining with the CIS method, 10 mm/s from 2004 to 2010. We note that most
meaning that both methods are applied together in vibrations are lower than 5 mm/s after 2004, a
vibration reduction. large reduction from a high level about 10 mm/s
before 2004.
The CIS method has following advantages:
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
It costs nothing, i.e. no additional cost is needed;
It is easy to apply in practice since only initiation
3.1 The CIS method
sequence is to be changed;
Since the spring of 2004 the CIS method has been It is flexible, i.e. it can be applied together with
used in all of rings where maximum vibrations the DRB method.
R1 R2

3.2 The DRB method

Upper part of R2
The DRB method was first applied to 10 large rings
10
11 9 in a drift named JH415-6 from the end of 2003 to
12 the beginning of 2004, as shown in Figure 6. Since
D D 7
13 then the method has been used in the large rings
8
3 2
on each production level in the Johannes ore body.
4
F 5 0
G
F
G If the drilling plan of a large ring is well planned,
6 1
the DRB method can be used to not only reduce
Lower part of R1 vibrations but also improve fragmentation and
Drift Drift
ore recovery, as reported by Zhang & Naarttijrvi
(2005). We may see that several large rings with
Initiation sequence from the lower part of R1 to the upper part of R2:
0-1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8-9-10-11-12-13
star-symbols in Figure 6 give rise to high vibra-
tions over 7 mm/s in 2009 since they were blasted
Figure 5. Initiation sequence in the DRB method com- as a normal ring, i.e. the DRB method was not
bining with the CIS method. used in the rings. After recognised this mistake, we
Vertical velocity measured at Malmberget (2000-2010)
20
CIS method starts
19 Simultaneous initiation of two rings
18 Mistake in open cut of JH4376 & 5258
17 Large rings with normal blasting
16 Large rings with DRB method
15
14
Vertical Velocity (m m/s)

13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
8/12/00 4/19/01 12/25/01 9/1/02 5/9/0 3 1/14/04 9 /20/0 4 5/28/05 2/2/06 10/10/06 6/17/07 2/22/08 10/29/08 7/6/09 3/13/10 11/18/10
Date (M /D /Year)

Figure 6. Vibrations measured at Malmberget (20002010).

252

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 252 10/3/2012 8:26:44 PM

 had applied the DRB method in the rest large rings
immediately. As a consequence, the vibrations from
the rest large rings were reduced to around 5 mm/s.
Since 2010 the DRB method with electronic deto-
nators has been used to improve fragmentation in
Malmberget mine. The first tests in a narrow ore
body have produced a good result in fragmentation
and given rise to higher ore extraction.
3.3 Some practical problems
in vibration reduction
There are a number of factors affecting vibration
reduction in practice such as simultaneous ini-
tiation, delay time, burden, charge plan, detona-
tor placement, etc. Here we just discuss some of
them.
3.3.1 Simultaneous initiation
As shown in Figure 6, there are two blasts after
2004 that cause very high vibrations marked with
simultaneous initiation of two rings in the same
production level in Johannes ore body. Definitely,
an effective vibration superposition occurred in
the instantaneous initiation of the two rings, mak-
ing the vibrations very high. Therefore, in order to
control vibrations, an instantaneous initiation of
two rings close to each other should be avoided.
Similarly, an instantaneous initiation of two blast-
holes in a same ring should be also forbidden.
3.3.2 Delay time
Rock fracture takes time in rock blasting. If a delay
time between two neighbouring blastholes is too
short, the cracks initiated by the first-initiated hole
will not have enough time to propagate. In this
case, the rock fracture induced by the first hole will
not be much enough to make a vibration damped
as it goes through the fractured region. As a con-
sequence, the CIS method will not be effective.
According to the practice in the Malmberget mine,
we have found that when a delay time between
two neighbouring holes is equal to or greater than
100 ms, the CIS method works very well. However,
as the delay time is smaller than 25 ms, it did not
work. For other mines, a proper delay time should
be determined on the basis of their own param-
eters in blasting and their own tests.
3.3.3 Mistakes in open cut blast
Some mistakes in open cut blast can result in
very high vibrations. The first mistake met in
Malmberget was a wrong drilling in which sev-
eral boreholes are connected with each other in
some places. This made the amount of explosive
in one or more delay times increased largely. As a
result, the vibrations were increased markedly, as
shown in Figure 6 where such a mistake occurred
253
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 253
in year 2004. The second mistake is a too short
delay time between blastholes in an open cut blast.
The example for this kind of mistake is an open cut
blast in year 2009 indicated in Figure 6. Obviously,
such mistakes should be avoided.
4 CONCLUSIONS
The CIS method has been shown efficient in vibra-
tion reduction in Malmberget mine. In a normal
case or for a sublevel ring with a normal shape,
the vibrations can be reduced by around 50%
if a proper delay time is given. In addition, the
CIS method is cost free, or no additional cost is
required. In many cases, this method should be
valid if the geographical conditions concerning
blasts and the place where the vibrations must be
controlled are suitable for the CIS method. In the
case of that the geographical condition is not suit-
able for the method, a change in drift placement
(or blast plan in open pit) can be made. Otherwise,
another method for vibration reduction has to be
used. When the CIS method is employed, another
method for vibration control, such as the DRB
method may be applied together.
The DRB method is another efficient method
for vibration reduction. If properly designed, the
method can be also used to improve rock fragmen-
tation and ore extraction according to the tests in
Malmberget. In order to apply this method in min-
ing production so as to improve fragmentation and
extraction, the drilling plan, charge plan and delay
time must be carefully determined, and a series of
production tests are necessary.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to thank Torbjrn Naart-
tijrvi, Carlos Quinteiro, Anders Nordqvist, Egon
Sundling, Kjell Harnesk, Bengt-Olov Kristensen
and chargers in Malmberget for their support.
REFERENCES
Zhang, Z.X., Lindqvist, P.-A., Naarttijrvi, T. & Wikstrm,
K. 2004. A feasibility study on controlling ground
vibrations caused by blasts in Malmberget underground
mine. FragblastInternational Journal for Blasting and
Fragmentation, 8(1): 119.
Zhang, Z.X. & Naarttijrvi, T. 2005. Reducing ground
vibrations caused by underground blasts in LKAB
Malmberget mine. FragblastInternational Journal
for Blasting and Fragmentation, 9(2): 6178.
10/3/2012 8:26:44 PM
This page intentionally left blank
 Section 4 - Blast Modelling

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 255 10/3/2012 8:26:44 PM

This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Application of stochastic approach to predict blast movement

W.D. Rogers
JKTech Pty Ltd, Indooroopilly, QLD, Australia

S.S. Kanchibotla
JKMRC and JKTech Pty Ltd, Indooroopilly, QLD, Australia

ABSTRACT: In open pit mining operations, blast-induced rock mass displacement can have a signifi-
cant impact on ore recovery due to mischaracterization of grade boundaries. It is therefore necessary to
understand blast movement dynamics so that appropriate adjustments can be made to minimise blast
induced ore loss and dilution. The magnitude and direction of blast movement are site-specific and
depends on blast confinement conditions, energy intensity and geology. Since most of these inputs param-
eters are variable, a stochastic approach is considered more appropriate and this paper gives a description
of such an alternative stochastic approach to predict blast movement. The value of the new approach is
demonstrated using the data from an open pit metalliferous mine.

1 INTRODUCTION (Shaw & Khosrowshahi, 1992; McKenzie, 1998;

Drilling and blasting is required in open pit min-
ing to fragment and loosen the in-situ rock mass.
The nature of blasting results in movement of the
rock mass and this can be detrimental to the accu-
rate delineation of grade boundaries within the
resulting muck pile. The consequence of this can
be blast-induced ore loss & dilution. Ore loss takes
place when valuable mineral is sent to the waste
dumps and ore dilution occurs when waste material
is miscategorised as ore and sent for processing.
Extensive research has been conducted at the
University of Queensland, Australia over the last
fifteen years to understand the impact of blast
movement on ore loss and dilution. Recent out-
comes of this research have developed innovative
tools and techniques to measure and model blast
movement.
The magnitude and direction of blast movement
are site-specific and depends on blast confinement
conditions, energy intensity and geology (Tordoir
2009). Since most of these inputs parameters are
variable, a simple deterministic approach to pre-
dict blast movement may not be ideal.
This paper gives a description of an alternative
stochastic approach to predict blast movement.
Data from an open pit metalliferous mine is used
to apply the modeling framework and demonstrate
its effectiveness in predicting grade boundary
displacement.
The research case studies in blast movement have
indicated that the impact of ore loss & dilution on
the profitability of mining operations is significant
Floyd, 1998; Shaw et al., 2002; Firth et al., 2002;
Thornton et al., 2005 & 2009; and Rogers et al.,
2012). These have led to the realisation of the
importance of quantifying blast-induced rock
mass displacement in order to minimise the impact
on ore loss and dilution.
For many years, several methods have been
used to measure rock mass displacement during a
blast and to make adjustments to the ore blocks to
account for this movement.
2 METHODS OF MEASURING BLAST
MOVEMENT
Methods used to measure blast movement have
ranged from passive visual indicators such as sur-
face markers, PVC pipes and sand bags to more
sophisticated remote transmitters such as radioac-
tive, magnetic and electronic targets.
The simplest method is the use of visual sur-
face markers. This involves marking out areas of
interest on the bench surface prior to blasting with
paint, chalk or flagging tape (Davis et al., 1989;
Morely & McBride, 1995; OBrien & Cutts, 2000).
Other methods involve installing passive visual
markers such as poly-pipe, chains or wooden stakes
into specially drilled monitoring holes or into the
stemming regions of blast holes (Davis et al., 1989;
Zhang et al., 1994; Morely & McBride, 1995; Scott
et al., 1996; McKenzie et al., 1998). These methods
are quick, low in cost and cause minimal disrup-
tion to the production process. Their limitations

257

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 257 10/3/2012 8:26:44 PM

 are often poor recovery of markers and failure to
measure sub-surface movement below the surface
of the muck pile.
Coloured sand bags are used by a number of
authors (Zhang, 1994; Gilbride, 1995; Taylor, 1995).
This method involved placing a surface marker and
up to five marked bags filled with rock chippings
into specially drilled monitoring holes located
throughout the blast pattern. The main limitations
of this method are reported to be; the poor recov-
ery of sand bags (only 3550%), the sandbags have
to be excavated before their position is known, and
the labor intensive nature of the process. Despite
these limitations, the one advantage of this method
is that it could measure sub-surface movement.
The use of electronic methods including ground
penetrating radar, magnetometery, and metal
detection attempted to overcome the limitations of
these visual methods. Gilbride et al., (1995), trialled
the use of magnetic targets that could be identified
by a magnetic survey. This work was continued by
Harris et al., (1999, 2001) with the use of caesium
vapour magnetometer and GPS receiver to deter-
mine the magnitude and direction of target dis-
placement during the blast. The main limitations
reported with these methods include; limited range
(targets must be placed close to the surface), only
one magnetic target can be used per hole, and the
operations must not be susceptible to damage from
magnetic targets (i.e. crushers).
A review of the literature has shown that the
majority of these measurement techniques dis-
cussed are potentially inaccurate, unreliable, time
consuming and resource intensive.
More recent developments in the measuring
and modeling of blast movement involve the Blast
Movement Monitor (BMM). The BMM is a system
developed and patented by the JKMRC, University
of Queensland and commercialised under licence
by Blast Movement Technologies (La Rosa et al.,
2004). It consists of electronic transmitters placed
within the blast volume prior to blasting which are
then located after the blast with a special receiver.
The BMM system has improved the ease and
reliability of blast movement measurement in the
production environment.
Table 1. Design parameters of monitored production blasts.
Blast Id 1 2
Bench height (m) 8 8
Hole diameter (mm) 165
Face confinement Choked
Burden & spacing (m) 3.5 & 4
Stemming (m) 3.5
Powder factor (kg/m3) 1.0
258
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 258
3 CASE STUDYMEASURING BLAST
MOVEMENT
In this study, five blasts were monitored at Ahafo
open pit gold mine in Ghana to understand the
blast movement dynamics and quantify its effect
on ore loss and dilution (Rogers et al., 2012).
Design parameters of the five trial blasts were
similar and are given in Table 1. All blasts had
similar blast energy and rock mass properties
(strength, structure).
Each blast had 16 additional monitoring holes
to place Blast Movement Monitors (BMMs) and
coloured lengths of PVC pipes to measure blast
movement (Fig. 1). A total of 128 Blast Movement
Monitors and 181 lengths of PVC pipe, were installed
at varying depths and positions to understand the
blast movement dynamics in the five blasts.
Displacement of the top red pipe was used to
measure surface movement.
A combination of the yellow pipe & the top
BMM was used to measure movement in the top
flitch.
A combination of the green pipe & the bottom
BMM was used to measure movement in the
bottom flitch.
The bottom red pipe was used to measure move-
ment at the toe level.
This study revealed the magnitude and direc-
tion of rock movement in a blast is influenced by
the energy concentration, confinement, quality of
free face, timing and initiation pattern. Inconsist-
ent and uncontrolled blast movement were found
to be caused by uneven free faces, poor stemming
practices and excessive confinement along the cen-
tre lines and at the back of the blast (Fig. 2).
The effect of uncontrolled movements is iden-
tified in Figure 3 which shows, for the top flitch
(yellow pipe & top BMM), measured horizontal
movements against the distance behind the active
face. If all measurements are considered, the total
range of horizontal movement varies anywhere
between 123 meters.
However, if only bulk movements are consid-
ered (i.e. removing uncontrolled movements as
3 4 5
8 8 8
165 165 165 165
Choked Choked Choked Choked
3.5 & 4 3.5 & 4 4&4 4&4
3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3
1.1 1.1 0.9 0.9
10/3/2012 8:26:44 PM
 Figure 3. Horizontal movements measured for the top
flitch including uncontrolled movements.

Figure 1. Blast movement trial setup.

Figure 4. Histogram of horizontal blast displacement

of all five trial blasts without outliers.

outliers), than the range of movements is reduced

and much more consistent. Variability associated
with the remaining bulk movement vectors is con-
sidered inherent and due to the variable nature of
rock mass properties, blast implementation, con-
finement conditions and explosive properties.
Minimising uncontrolled movements (cratering,
edge effects etc.) is therefore the first step in reduc-
ing the impact of ore los and dilution.
Removing the uncontrolled movements as out-
liers, the resulting data set consists of only the bulk
movements measured in the body of the blast. This
is shown in Figure 4 with the measured horizontal
movements near the surface, the top flitch and the
bottom flitch.
The measurements from Figure 4 indicate that
the bottom half of the bench moves more than
the top half of the bench. The most common
horizontal movement near the surface is between
35 m, top flitch is 79 m and in bottom flitch is
1113 m.
The direction of blast movement is shown in
a histogram of the variation from the theoreti-
Figure 2. High speed video observations of the blasts. cal as designed timing contours for all monitors

259

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 259 10/3/2012 8:26:45 PM

 located after the five blasts (Fig. 5). The effect of
uncontrolled movements is evident with direction
of surface movement (top red pipe) highly variable
due to cratering and less than ideal confinement
conditions. Rock movement near the edges, high
walls and back of the blast are also variable due to
inconsistent movement in these regions.
Identifying and removing these uncontrolled
movements as outliers, shows the general direction
of blast movement vectors is perpendicular to the
timing contours with a degree of variation typically
within 20 (Fig. 6). This result is similar to the
observations made by previous authors; (Zhang,
1994; Taylor et al., 1996; McKenzie et al., 1998;
Adam and Thornton, 2004; and Tordoir, 2009).
Rogers et al (1)., 2012 demonstrated that the
direction and magnitude of movement in the body
of a blast is consistent when the edge effects and
uncontrolled movements (such as cratering) are
minimised.
Therefore, by minimizing uncontrolled and
inconsistent blast movement, it is possible to pre-
dict blast movements by using historical measure-
ment data acquired from systematic trial blasts.
This method would alleviate the necessity to con-
tinually measure blast movements for every blast.
This is valuable as regular measurements of blast
movement can become constrained by the com-
plexity and time consuming nature of the process
Figure 5. Variation in displacement direction with
outliers.
Figure 6. Variation in displacement direction without
outliers.
260
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 260
(Chiappetta et al., 1983; Zhang, 1994; Taylor, 1995;
Harris, 1997).
A method of using blast movement measure-
ments to estimate average movement vectors or
movement templates for various regions of the
blast has been discussed previously by Rogers
et al (2)., 2012. In this method, ore polygons are
adjusted for blast movement by applying the most
common horizontal movement vector in the most
common direction measured during the trials (i.e.
direction perpendicular to the timing contours).
This ore polygon adjustment method is shown in
Figure 7. The black lines in this figure represent
the timing initiation contours and the blue lines
represent pre-blast ore boundaries.
This movement template approach has been
implemented by the Ahafo gold mine as a standard
operating practice. The experience from the mine
suggests that the template approach is a practical
and reliable method of accounting for blast move-
ment and in controlling blast induced dilution and
ore loss (Rogers et al (2)., 2012).
Data from Ahafo mine (Fig. 8) showed a better
reconciliation between the mine to mill grade and
Figure 7. Ore polygon adjustment method using aver-
age movement templates.
Figure 8. Reconciliation datareduction in variation.
10/3/2012 8:26:46 PM
 a reduction in diluted tonnes after the implementa-
tion of movement templates derived from the blast
movement study.

4 STOCHASTIC APPROACH TO PREDICT

BLAST MOVEMENT

The stochastic approach uses the movement tem-

plate method but it takes into account the vari-
ability associated with the measured movement
vectors. In this approach, the magnitude (horizon-
tal movement) and direction of blast movement
are described as statistical functions based on
measured data.
Simulations are run using the Monte Carlo
technique and samples are generated from
the range of possible values defined by the
distribution functions. Simulations can run for any
defined number of iterations; typically less than
500 iterations. The simulation outputs are used to
Figure 10. Determining primary displacement
predict grade boundary displacement envelopes
direction.
for different confidence limits.
A schematic of the stochastic approach is shown
in Figure 9.
The model is currently implemented in an excel
spreadsheet format and uses the @RISK software
package from the Palisade Corporation (Ithaca,
NY, USA).
First the pre-blast ore boundaries are imported
and used to determine primary displacement direc-
tions as calculated perpendicular to the timing
contours (Fig. 10).
Figure 11a and 11b shows the variation in
the magnitude of horizontal displacement and
direction in the top flitch measured at Ahafo.
Horizontal movement data is fitted with a normal
distribution and direction angle is fitted with a log
logistic distribution. Monte Carlo simulations are
then run and basic trigonometry is used to predict
the extent of grade boundary displacements.

Figure 11a & b. Examples of input parameter

Figure 9. Stochastic model framework. distributions.

261

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 261 10/3/2012 8:26:47 PM

 Figure 12a and 12b demonstrates the concept
using a single point as an example. The post
blast position of the point is calculated by
the Equations 1 and 2. The shaded area in
Figure 12b represents all possible positions of
the point after the blast with an 80% confidence
interval.
X1 = X + Magnitude * cos( ) (1)
Y1 = Y + Magnitude * sin( ) (2)
Figure 13 is an example of post blast ore bound-
aries envelope with 80% confidence interval. The
dashed lines represent the upper and lower 80%
confidence intervals for the predicted grade bound-
ary displacement. The solid line represents the pre-
blast ore boundaries.
Figure 12a & b. Single point example of post blast
displacement.
262
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 262
Figure 13. Example post blast ore boundaries output.
Figure 14. Comparison between 2DMove & stochastic
model predicted output.
4.1 Preliminary validation of stochastic approach
To validate and confirm the accuracy of the sto-
chastic approach, actual post blast ore boundary
positions, measured using BMMs and modeled
with 2DMove, are compared against the sto-
chastic model outputs in Figure 14. The figure
shows outputs of the two models overlaid for
comparison. 2DMove is represented by a black
solid line and the stochastic approach by colored
dashed lines.
2DMove is a blast displacement model developed
at the WH Bryan Mining and Geology Research
Centre, the University of Queensland. Details of
the 2DMove model can be seen in Tordoir, (2009)
and Rogers et al., (2012). The model estimates
grade boundary displacements from known meas-
ured vectors.
A comparison of grade boundary enve-
lopes with the 2DMove predictions shows good
agreement between the two (e.g. less than a bucket
10/3/2012 8:26:48 PM
 widthFig. 14). It is noted however, that further
field work and data is required for a more complete
validation of this approach.
5 ECONOMIC IMPACT OF ORE LOSS AND
DILUTION
Determination of the most economic post
blast ore boundary (upper, lower) to excavate
is an economic decision and is site specific. The
economic impact of dilution is the extra cost
associated with mining and processing waste
that is treated as ore and can be calculated using
Equation 3.
Cost of dilution ($/t) = Mining costs
+ Processing costs (3)
The economic impact of ore loss is the rev-
enue lost when ore is sent to the waste dumps
and never recovered and is calculated using
Equation 4.
Cost of ore loss ($/t) = Grade * Recovery
* Metal price (4)
The economic impact of misclassified ore is the
opportunity cost when low grade material is proc-
essed through the mill instead of high grade ore
(Equation 5).
Cost of misclassified ore ($/t)
= [(High grade * Recovery) (Low grade
* Recovery)]* Metal price (5)
The overall economic impact of dilution, ore
loss and misclassified ore is therefore the sum of
equations 3, 4 and 5. The most economic post blast
ore boundary to excavate is the one which mini-
mizes this economic impact.
Figure 15 shows an example of post blast ore
boundary envelopes with 80% confidence intervals
for one blast at Ahafo. The dashed lines represent
the upper and lower (80%) confidence intervals for
the ore boundaries which consist of sections of
High Grade (HG), Low Grade (LG) and Waste
(W). The solid black line represents post blast
ore boundary positions estimated by 2DMove
using field measurements. It is assumed that the
2DMove prediction of post blast ore boundaries
is accurate. A section of this figure is magnified to
demonstrate how, in this example; mining to the
lower confidence interval may result in ore loss
(highlighted in orange).
Similarly, in some cases, mining to the upper
confidence interval may result in sections of dilu-
tion or misclassified ore. Hence, the most economic
263
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 263
Figure 15. Example of stochastic post blast ore bound-
aries output vs. 2DMove prediction.
post blast ore boundary (envelope %) to excavate
is the one which minimizes the overall economic
impact. This decision will be based on site specific
parameters including; grade, mining & processing
costs, metal price and recovery.
The use of stochastic approach is demonstrated
using two mining scenarios. The assumptions used
in each scenario are given in Table 2. In all scenar-
ios, recovery and price of gold are assumed as 80%
and $1100/oz.
The cost of dilution, ore loss and misclassified
ore for each scenario is calculated using the equa-
tions 3, 4 and 5 and shown in the Table 3.
Scenario 1 represents a high grade deposit with
relatively low mining and processing costs. In this
case, the costs of ore loss and misclassification
have a bigger impact than the cost of dilution;
hence, it may be preferable to accept more dilution
than ore loss and misclassification. In Scenario 2,
which is a low grade deposit, the cost of dilution
has a greater impact than the cost of ore loss
and misclassification; hence, it may be preferable
to accept more ore loss to minimize the cost of
dilution. Total economic impact for each post
blast ore boundary envelope (%) in each scenario
is shown in the Figure 16.
Using this approach, optimal site specific
grade control and excavation strategies can be
developed.
In scenario 1, the overall economic impact
is minimized by excavating to the upper enve-
lopes (7080%) thus minimize the cost of ore
loss and misclassification at the expense of some
dilution.
In scenarios 2, it is more preferable to excavate
to the middle envelopes (4060%) due to higher
dilution costs.
10/3/2012 8:26:49 PM
 Table 2. Grade and cost parameter assumptions. specific blast movement mechanisms. Future work
of this approach includes:
HG LG Mining Processing
grade grade cost cost Development of a blast movement model based
Scenario (g/t) (g/t) ($/t) ($/t) on blast movement dynamics that are derived
from site specific field measurements.
1 4 0.8 5 20 As blast movement is a 3d problem; future work
2 0.8 0.4 5 50 needs to take this into account. UQ has been
conducting research to develop 3d blast move-
ment prediction models.
Introduction of rock mass and blast design vari-
Table 3. Cost of dilution, ore loss and misclassified ore. ability in model predictions.
Dilution Ore loss Misclassified
Introduction of site specific data such as grade
Scenario cost ($/t) cost ($/t) ore cost ($/t) and cost to estimate the economic impact.
Improve the model interface with the aim to
1 25 150 120 establish it as a site based tool for blast design
2 55 30 15 and grade control optimization.

REFERENCES

Adam, M. and Thornton, D. 2004. A new technology for

Figure 16. Determination of the most economic post
blast ore boundary (envelope %).
6 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
The aim of the paper is to introduce a stochas-
tic approach to estimate the post blast ore/grade
boundaries and its impact on mine economics.
A case study was used to demonstrate that, if
consistent blast movement can be achieved, pre-
viously monitored movement vectors (along with
their inherent variability) can be used to estimate
the post blast ore/grade boundaries and hence
minimise the necessity to continually measure blast
movements for every blast.
It was shown that a stochastic approach to pre-
dict blast movement is a quick and effective method
for ore boundary adjustment and can be imple-
mented by site engineers/geologists even before
blasting.
This approach is in its inception and has a
number of limitations. For example, it does not
account for variability in blast design inputs, rock
mass conditions and does not take into account
measuring blast movement. Innovative mineral devel-
opments symposium. Australasian Institute of Mining
and Metallurgy, Shore School, North Sydney, NSW,
Australia, pp. 8796.
Chiappetta, R.F., Bauer, A., Dailey, P.J. and
Burchell, S.L. 1983. The use of high-speed motion
picture photography in blast evaluation and design.
In: C.J. Konya (Editor), Proceeding of the Ninth
Conference on Explosives and Blasting Technique.
Society of Explosives Engineers, Dallas, Texas, USA,
pp. 258308.
Davis, B.M., Trimble, J. and McClure, D. 1989. Grade
control and ore selection practices at the colosseum
gold mine. Mining Engineering, pp. 827830.
Firth, I.R., Mousset-Jones, P. and Daemen, J. 2002. Blast
movement measurement for grade control. Proceedings
of the 28th Annual Conference on Explosives and
Blasting Technique. Annual Conference on Explosives
and Blasting Technique. International Society of
Explosives Engineers, Las Vegas, Nevada, USA,
pp. 5568.
Floyd, J. 1998. Improving low-grade ore recovery with
the use of efficient blasting techniques. Mine to Mill
Conference. Australasian Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy Publication Series. Australasian Institute
of Mining & Metallurgy, Brisbane, QLD, Australia,
pp. 191197.
Gilbride, L., Taylor, S. and Zhang, S. 1995. Blast-induced
rock movement modeling for Nevada gold mines. In
Mineral Resources Engineering, 4(2)175193.
Harris, G.W. 1997. Measurement of blast-induced rock
movement in surface mines using magnetic geophysics.
M.Eng.Sc Thesis, University of Nevada, Reno,
251 pp.
Harris, G. W., Mousset-Jones, P. and Daemen, J. 1999.
Measurement of blast-induced rock movement in sur-
face mines by application of magnetic geophysics. In
Transactions of the Institutions of Mining and Metal-
lurgy, Mining Technology, 108:A172180.

264

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 264 10/3/2012 8:26:49 PM

 Harris, G. W., Mousset-Jones, P. and Daemen, J. 2001.
Blast movement measurement to control dilution in
surface mines. CIM Bulletin, 94(1047)5255.
La Rosa, D., Thornton, D., and Wortley, M. 2004. Blast
movement monitor and method for determining
the movement of a blast. Patent number 7367269,
Brisbane, Australia.
McKenzie, C.K., Geddes, P., Grohs, K. and Morrish, M.
1998. Blasting trials to control and monitor displace-
ment of narrow vein gold ore. Proceedings of The
Twenty-Fourth Annual Conference on Explosives and
Blasting Technique. Annual Conference on Explo-
sives and Blasting Technique. International Society of
Explosives Engineers, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA,
pp. 145164.
Morely, C. and McBride, N. 1995. Keeping geologists,
production personnel and contractors happyan inte-
grated approach to blasting at boddington gold mine,
WA. Explo 95. The Australasian Institute of Mining
and Metallurgy, Brisbane, QLD, Australia, pp. 2934.
OBrien, V.M. and Cutts, T. 2000. Evolution of grade
control at KCGM, 4th International Mining Geology
Conference. The Australasian Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy Coolum, Qld, Australia, pp. 229237.
Rogers, W., Kanchibotla, S., Tordoir. A., Ako, S.,
Engmann, E., Bisiaux, B. 2012. Understanding blast
movement and its impacts on grade control at Ahafo
gold mine in Ghana. Proceedings of 38th Annual
Conference on Explosives and Blasting Technique.
International Society of Explosive Engineers, Nashville,
TN USA.
Scott, A., Cocker, A., Djordjevic, N., Higgins, M.,
La Rosa, D., Sarma, K. S. and Wedmaier, R. 1996.
Open pit blast designanalysis and optimisation.
JKMRC Monograph Series in Mining and Mineral
Processing No. 1. Julius Kruttschnitt Mineral Research
Centre, Brisbane, Australia, 342 pp.
Shaw, W.J. and Khosrowshahi, S. 1992. Optimising
grade control procedures in large and small open pit
mines, Third Large Open Pit Mining Conference. Large
Open Pit Conference. The Australasian Institute of
Mining and Metallurgy, Mackay, QLD, Australia,
pp. 251254.
265
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 265
Shaw, W.J., Khosrowshahi, S., Bertinshaw, R., Weeks, A.
and Church, P. 2002. Beyond grade controlbroken
links in the chain of value. Value Tracking Symposium,
Proceedings Tracking Value from Resource to Point
of Sale, Oct 78 2002. Australasian Institute of Mining
and Metallurgy Publication Series. Australasian Insti-
tute of Mining and Metallurgy, Carlton, Australia,
Brisbane, QLD, Australia, pp. 8589.
Taylor, S.L. 1995. Blast induced movement and its effect
on grade dilution at the Coeur Rochester Mine. M.Eng.
Sc. Thesis, University of Nevada, Reno, 237 pp.
Taylor, S.L., Gilbride, L.J., Daemen, J.J.K. and Mousset-
Jones, P. 1996. The impact of blast induced move-
ment on grade dilution in Nevadas precious metal
mines. In: B. Mohanty (Editor), Proceedings of the
Fifth International Symposium on Rock Fragmentation
by BlastingFragblast-5. A.A. Balkema, Montreal,
Canada, pp. 407413.
Thornton, D., Sprott, D. and Brunton, I. 2005. Measur-
ing blast movement to reduce ore loss and dilution.
Proceedings of the Thirty-First Annual Conference
on Explosives and Blasting Technique. International
Society of Explosives Engineers, Orlando, FL, USA,
pp. 189200.
Thornton, D. 2009. The implications of blast-induced
movement to grade control. In Seventh International
Mining Geology Conference. Perth WA, Australia.
Tordoir, A.E. 2009. 2DMove Blast Displacement
Modelpreliminary users manual. University of
Queensland, Brisbane, Australia.
Tordoir, A.E. 2009. A Study of Blast Induced Rock Mass
Displacement Through Physical Measurements and
Rigid Body Dynamics Simulations. Ph.D. Thesis,
University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia.
Zhang, S. 1994. Rock movement due to blasting and its
impact on ore grade control in Nevada open pit gold
mines. M.Eng.Sc Thesis, University of Nevada, Reno,
155 pp.
10/3/2012 8:26:50 PM
This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Modelling the extent of damage from fully coupled explosive charges

I. Onederra
CRC Mining, The University of Queensland, Australia. Formerly of the WH Bryan Mining and Geology
Research Centre, The University of Queensland, Australia

J.K. Furtney
Itasca Consulting Group, MN, USA

E. Sellers
AEL Mining Services, South Africa

ABSTRACT: Over the years there have been several attempts to model the explosive rock interaction
problem both empirically and numerically. Efforts have mainly focussed on our ability to estimate the
extent of damage induced by an explosive charge beyond an excavation boundary such as a final pit
wall or beyond a tunnel or stope perimeter. This paper describes the latest developments of the Hybrid
Stress Blasting Model (HSBM) and demonstrates the ability of the code to predict the three dimensional
extent and shape of the damage zone from fully coupled explosive charges. Data obtained from controlled
experiments and modelling results reported in this paper indicate that the zone of damage can be influ-
enced by the points of initiation of the explosive charge, its length and proximity to free face boundaries.
Simple simulations of the potential damage envelopes from large diameter blastholes applying single and
dual priming initiation are performed. The simulations included both confined and unconfined free faced
conditions. Results show that the three dimensional damage envelopes are influenced by the direction of
propagation and subsequent interaction of stress waves between initiation points. For example, the extent
of surface damage from single toe initiation extends further behind the blasthole and this can be explained
by a stress propagation broadening effect due to the close impedance matching between the explosive and
the simulated rock mass. Under similar conditions, when a mid and toe primer are fired simultaneously,
the charge is dynamically split and the interaction between the two shorter detonation fronts causes an
increase in the damage zone between these two primers. Further work is required to fully quantify the
degree of damage within the predicted envelopes, in particular with regards to potential impacts on intact
rock material properties, existing discontinuities and overall weakening effects of the rock mass.

1 INTRODUCTION tool that was able to consider explosive detona-

Blasting in the mining industry is being trans-
formed, and can no longer be treated as an art form
or a practice purely dependent upon experiences
of individual miners. Examples of key drivers that
have demanded consistent and more accurate blast
results are initiatives to control pit wall damage to
help mine steeper pit slope angles, to control dam-
age to underground excavation boundaries dur-
ing tunnel development and stope mining, and to
reduce reinforcement requirements and minimise
local instabilities and dilution. Through this proc-
ess there have been attempts to model the explo-
sive rock interaction problem both empirically and
numerically (e.g. Blair & Minchinton 1997; Donze
et al., 1997; Holmberg & Persson 1980).
In 2001 a consortium of companies acknowl-
edged the need to develop an advanced modelling
tion, initial shock, fracturing, damage, fragmenta-
tion, and rock mass movement. The main objective
was to develop a modelling tool that could be used
as a virtual blasting laboratory. Designated as
the Hybrid Stress Blasting Model (HSBM), this
project has involved principal researchers and
consultants from the University of Queensland,
Itasca Consulting group, and UK-based detona-
tion experts from academia including Cambridge,
Imperial, and Leeds Universities. The project has
also collaborated and shared experiences with
external institutes such as the National Institute
for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) in
Spokane, Washington, USA.
This paper describes some of the latest devel-
opments of the Hybrid Stress Blasting Model
(HSBM) and demonstrates the ability of the code
to predict the three dimensional extent and shape

267

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 267 10/3/2012 8:32:55 PM

 of the damage zone from fully coupled explosive
charges.
2 THE HYBRID STRESS BLASTING
MODEL
The Hybrid Stress Blasting Model (HSBM) can
be described as a sophisticated blast modelling
research tool. The code has been under develop-
ment and testing for over 10 years through an inter-
national collaborative research project funded by
a consortium of companies acknowledged in this
paper, comprising explosive and equipment sup-
pliers and major mining houses. Over the course
of its development, several improvements and
modifications have been made to both the deto-
nation and geomechanical modelling components
in order to improve calculation speed and the size
of problem that could be modelled. A description
of the original HSBM framework has been given
by Ruest et al., (2006) and has been updated by
Furtney et al., (2009, 2011). The main components
and software links that have not changed since the
inception of the project include:
Ideal and non-ideal detonation models used
to model explosive detonation characteristics
for fully coupled and decoupled conditions
(Braithwaite et al., 2009).
Blast layout and discontinuity software tools.
A rock breakage engine designated as Blo-Up
which uses a lattice scheme (Cundall 2011).
The breakage engine or Blo-Up consists of a
three-component coupled model. The three com-
ponents are (i) a continuum geomechanics model
for the early-time detonation and near-field crush-
ing, (ii) a brittle discrete element model for stress
wave propagation, fracturing and burden move-
ment and (iii) a gas product model for burden
acceleration by gas expansion, fracture flow and
atmospheric venting. In addition to the breakage
engine, Blo-Up provides the interface for configur-
ing models and displaying specific outputs. These
include 3D graphical representations of dynamic
fracturing, fragment size distributions, internal
fragment damage, pressure histories, and velocity
histories.
3 EVALUATION AND VALIDATION OF
HSBM THROUGH CONTROLLED
EXPERIMENTS
Data from controlled blasting experiments in large
concrete blocks was made available to the HSBM
group by a research team at the Spokane Research
Laboratory (SRL) Office of Mine Safety and
268
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 268
Health Research (OMSHR), part of the National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
(NIOSH) in the U.S.A. Part of this experimen-
tal program has been published by Iverson et al.,
(2009). Two controlled blasting experiments were
conducted to support the evaluation and valida-
tion stages of the HSBM.
Within the context of this work it is important
to define the difference between evaluation/cali-
bration and final validation. Evaluation/calibra-
tion involves estimating the values of constants
and parameters in the model structure. Once sat-
isfactory estimates of the parameters have been
obtained, the models must be checked to ensure
they perform the functions for which they are
intended. This is referred to as validation and this
process establishes the credibility of the model.
3.1 Evaluation/calibration case
The first fully instrumented test consisted of a
concrete block 3.0 m wide by 3.0 m long and 1.5 m
high. A blasthole was drilled at a burden distance
of 0.457 m and charged with an emulsion product
that was gently tamped into the hole to achieve
full coupling (i.e. Dyno AP, Dyno Nobel). The
charge length was 1.2 m at a density of 1.15 g/cc.
The model configuration and key input param-
eters of this evaluation/calibration test are given
in Figure 1. In this particular case, data from the
strain gauge nearest to the blasthole were used
to calibrate the near field response of the model.
During this calibration phase, a simple iterative
process was adopted to gain a good understanding
of the sensitivity of final results to model solution
parameters. The aim of this calibration stage was
to achieve a close match between direct measure-
ments and model predictions and have a better
understanding of the impact of model solution
and rock material input parameters on final results.
The model (lattice resolution) was 38 mm with a
default damping coefficient of 0.1 and strength
attenuation parameters M = 10 and b = 1.5. These
parameters are included in the HSBM framework
to emulate the complex dependency between strain
rate and strength.
Figure 2 gives plan view sections sliced along the
centre of the blasthole displaying velocity fields.
The velocity field helps describe the propagation
of the primary stress wave initiated by the detona-
tion of the explosive charge. The graph of parti-
cle velocity versus time identifies the arrival of the
stress wave at the assigned history points as well as
the peak particle velocity experienced in the radial
direction at the nearest and furthest history point
in the model (A and E respectively). In this case,
the peak particle velocity of approximately 17 m/s
closely matches the documented 18.5 m/s value
10/3/2012 8:32:55 PM
 Figure 1. Configuration of evaluation/calibration case.

obtained from direct strain measurements at the

same location.
Figure 3 shows an isometric view of the result-
ing fracture pattern and damage extent after 20 ms.
Note that the damage extent depends clearly on
the direction of propagation and interaction of the
stress wave with respect to the initiation point and
the block boundaries. Figure 4 gives the maximum
extent of internal damage for a section located at
a distance equivalent to the inspection hole drilled
in the physical experiment. As shown, the radius of
damage is of the order of 0.60 m from the centre
of the borehole. This compared remarkably well
with direct measurements. Physical evidence indi-
cated that the model appeared to overestimate the
degree of damage in the far corner of the block.
This was attributed to a limitation in the current
attenuation logic of the lattice, associated with a
constant damping coefficient. This is reinforced by
the peak particle velocity predicted by the model
at the furthest measuring point (i.e. 2 m/s). Strain
gauge data at this location indicated a peak value
of approximately 0.7 m/s. Despite of this current
limitation, the damage extent in the immediate
vicinity of the blasthole was well described by the
modelling results. Using the model solution param-
eters defined in this test, a second experiment was
conducted to validate the HSBM.

3.2 Validation case

Figure 2. Plan view of slices along the blasthole charge
The validation experiment conducted and reported showing contours of velocity fields representing the propa-
to the HSBM group by NIOSH (Iverson 2012) con- gation of the primary stress wave together with peak radial
sisted of a block 3.7 m wide by 2.4 m long and 1.8 m velocity at strain gauge positions A and E respectively.

269

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 269 10/3/2012 8:32:56 PM

 high. As before, a 38 mm diameter blasthole was images describe the complex shape of the dam-
drilled from the front to the back of the block. The age zone associated with the influence of point of
hole was collared at block mid-height with a burden initiation and boundary conditions. As shown on
of 0.152 m and charged with an emulsion product the plan view section, the extension of damage is
(i.e. Orica Senatel Magnafrac). The basic properties
of the explosive charge included a density of 1.11 g/cc
and a measured velocity of detonation of 5050 m/s.
Model solution parameters were similar to the cali-
bration test, with a model resolution of 38 mm, a
damping coefficient of 0.1 and strength attenuation
parameters M = 10 and b = 1.5. The full configu-
ration of the model and key input parameters are
summarised in Figure 5. It is important to note that
the results from this validation experiment were not
available to the HSBM project team until model
predictions were made and reported. The aim was
to test the ability of the model to predict, a priori,
the extent of breakage and damage for a new set of
charging parameters in a concrete block with slightly
different geometry and mechanical properties.
Figure 6 gives a summary of the results of this
validation case for a simulation time of 20 ms. At
this time, the burden volume was fragmented and
ejected. Major fractures (in black) and internal
damage (in red) are also plotted in this Figure. The Figure 5. Configuration of validation case.

Figure 3. Isometric view of the resulting fracture pat-

tern and damage extent after 20 ms.

Figure 4. Maximum extent of damage for a section

located at a distance equivalent to an inspection hole Figure 6. HSBM damage predictions from validation
drilled in the physical experiment. test.

270

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 270 10/3/2012 8:32:56 PM

 greater near the hole collar than at the toe (point
of initiation) of the explosive charge. Fractures
extending towards free faces are apparent in the
modelling output and match those mapped after
the physical experiment. The maximum extent of
visible damage from the model and the experiments
was on the order of 1.4 m. Table 1 summarises
both predicted and measured particle velocities
in the near field, indicating a relative difference
of only 1.59% at the nearest history point (i.e. 0.3
from the explosive charge). Discrepancies become
larger further away from the charge with relative
differences of 22.4% and 42.9% at distances of
0.46 m and 0.61 m, respectively. The model clearly
overestimated peak radial velocities further away
from the blasthole, however as discussed in the
calibration stage this deficiency was expected. The
lack of attenuation produces an overestimation of
the expected damage at the corner of the block.
However, the extent of visible damage next to the
charge adequately matched direct measurements.
The ability of the HSBM to estimate the extent
and shape of the damage zone using commercial
mining explosives was confirmed through this
targeted validation case study. The following sec-
tion discusses a more practical application of the
HSBM by evaluating the ability of the model to
describe the shape and extent of damage in pro-
duction scale conditions.
4 DAMAGE ENVELOPES FROM LARGE
DIAMETER BLASTHOLES
This section provides a demonstration of how the
HSBM can be applied to estimate the shape and
extent of damage envelopes in production scale
blastholes. One of the practical implications of the
modelling work discussed in this section is associ-
ated with the application of precise initiation (e.g.
using electronic detonators) at single or multiple
locations; and its impact on the overall damage
envelope.
In this case, four simple scenarios are analysed. All
modelling scenarios are assumed to be in a rela-
tively competent rock mass charged with an emul-
sion product at a density of 1.15 g/cc and with a
Table 1. Predicted vs measured peak radial velocity.
Relative
Distance Measured Predicted difference
m m/s m/s % 2
0.3 25.1 24.7 1.59
0.46 9.88 12.1 22.4
0.61 4.9 7.0 42.9
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 271
confined VOD or 5500 m/s. Table 2 gives a sum-
mary of the model configuration parameters.
Figure 7 shows the results of scenario 1. From
this three dimensional model, a section is taken
along the blasthole to describe the shape and the
extent of the damage envelope. A grid of 1 m 1 m
is superimposed to help quantify the extension of
fracturing in this 2D plane. It should be noted
that this analysis only focusses on stress induced
damage, and for this reason simulations were run
to approximately 7 ms. This time was sufficient
for transient stress waves to propagate, reach the
boundaries of the model and interact within the
volume of interest. The model resolution was
150 mm and the 7 ms simulation took approxi-
mately 15 minutes in a standard notebook with an
Intel core i7 processor with 8 G of RAM.
As shown in Figure 7 when the charge is initi-
ated at the toe (i.e. 11 m of charge are detonated),
modelling results indicate that for the combined
influence of charge length, VoD and attenuation
characteristics of the rock mass, there is an effec-
tive superposition of wavelets leading to higher
stresses reflecting from the top and free face sur-
faces. In this case, the potential extent of damage
extends to 7 m behind the blasthole on the surface
and approximately 4 m at the centre of the charge.
Note that the envelope includes both fracturing
and disturbed zones.
In contrast, when dual primers are simultane-
ously initiated (Figure 8), the explosive charge can
be dynamically split. The guitar shaped envelope
can be explained by the interaction of the detona-
tion fronts propagating in opposite directions and
superimposing approximately midway between
the primers. The modification and increase in
the dynamic stress field between this two priming
positions is reflected by a higher degree of dam-
age from reflections at the free face and near the
toe burden. In this case the extent of damage at
the surface is 3.5 m behind the blasthole and at the
interaction point is approximately 4.5 m.
Under confined conditions similar results are
obtained, however the stress field is only influ-
enced by the interaction of stress waves with the
Table 2. Configuration parameters of production scale
models.
D Length Charge
ID mm m m Explosive Priming Confinement
1 250 17 11 Emulsion t free face
250 17 11 Emulsion t&c free face
3 250 17 11 Emulsion t confined
4 250 17 11 Emulsion t&c confined
D: Diameter; t: toe priming; t & c: toe and centre
priming.
271
10/3/2012 8:32:57 PM
 6m

17 m

Toe and centre

priming
11 m

3.5 m
Grid size 1m x1m

6m

17 m

4.5 m
Toe priming
11 m

Figure 8. Modelling results of scenario 2.

7m
Grid size 1m x1m
6m

17 m

Toe priming
11 m
4m

13 m

Figure 7. Modelling results of scenario 1.

surface boundary. Given that the assumed rock

mass conditions are homogenous, there is sym-
metry along the blasthole with respect to the 8m
overall shape and extent of the damage envelope.
Figure 9 and 10 summarise the results of the
confined models (scenarios 3 and 4). In the toe
priming case, the diameter of the damage enve-
lope at the surface is approximately 13 m, almost
twice the size of the damage envelope of scenario
4 (i.e. 7 m). Figure 9. Modelling results of scenario 3.

272

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 272 10/3/2012 8:32:57 PM


6m
17 m
Toe and centre
11 m priming
7m
8m
Figure 10. Modelling results of scenario 4.
5 CONCLUSIONS
This paper discussed recent developments of the
Hybrid Stress Blasting Model with emphasis on its
ability to predict the extent and shape of the dam-
age envelope from fully coupled explosive charges.
The ultimate end is to provide meaningful input
into geotechnical models with regards to blast
induced rock mass damage.
Controlled blasting experiments were used to
evaluate and validate the HSBM code. Results
showed that the code is capable of adequately pre-
dicting both the extent and shape of the damage
zone in the near field, including the influence of
point of initiation and free face boundary condi-
tions. Radial fractures extending towards free
faces were well described in the model output and
matched those mapped in the physical experiments.
The code predicted peak radial velocities within a
relative difference of only 1.59% at the nearest his-
tory point (0.3 m from the explosive charge) with
discrepancies becoming larger further away from
the charge. The model is limited in this regard by the
implemented stress attenuation logic of the lattice
scheme. Ongoing work includes further develop-
ments of the near field and gas logic and additional
sensitivity analysis to better understand the influ-
ence of model solution parameters on attenuation.
273
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 273
This paper also provided a demonstration of
how the HSBM can be applied to estimate the
shape and extent of damage envelopes in pro-
duction scale blastholes. Four simple scenarios
were analysed and results showed the influence of
point of initiation and boundary conditions on
the overall extent and shape of the damage enve-
lope. Further work is required to fully quantify the
degree of damage within the predicted envelopes,
in particular with regards to the potential impact
on intact rock material properties, existing discon-
tinuities and overall weakening effects on the rock
mass. This would then provide the necessary input
into excavation stability models.
It is important to reiterate that the analysis
discussed above is only considering the damage
envelope caused by induced stresses in a homog-
enous rock mass. The influence of gas penetration
through fractures and rock mass discontinuities will
be investigated further as more validation experi-
ments are conducted during the HSBM project
and beyond. Nevertheless, these simple scenarios
gave an insight into the potential of precise initia-
tion in controlling or tailoring breakage and dam-
age within specific regions of a rock mass. These
concepts could be applied not just in damage con-
trol strategies but also in fragmentation improve-
ment and/or fragment conditioning strategies.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank the sponsors
of the HSBM project who are currently African
Explosives Limited Mining Services, De Beers,
Anglo American, Codelco Chile, LKAB, Sand-
vik Mining and Construction, Dyno Nobel Asia
Pacific and Rio Tinto.
REFERENCES
Blair, D. & Minchinton, A. 1997. On the damage zone
surrounding a single blasthole. Fragblast: Inter-
national Journal for Blasting and Fragmentation.;
2:5972.
Braithwaite, M., Sharpe, G. & Chitombo, G. 2009. Simu-
lation of real detonations as an energy source term for
the Hybrid Stress Blasting Model. In: Sanchidrin JA,
editor. 9th International Symposium on Rock Frag-
mentation by Blasting. Granada, Spain. p. 32733.
Cundall, P. 2011. Lattice method for modeling brittle,
jointed rock. In: Sainsbury H, Detournay & Nelson,
editor. Continuum and Distinct Element Numerical
Modeling in Geomechanics, FLACDEM. Melbourne,
Australia: Itasca International Inc., Minneapolis; p. 19.
Donz, F.V., Bouchez, J. & Magnier, S.A. 1997. Mod-
eling fractures in rock blasting. International
Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences;
34:115363.
10/3/2012 8:32:58 PM
 Furtney, J.K., Cundall, P.A. & Chitombo, G.P. (2009).
Developments in numerical modeling of blast induced
rock fragmentation: updates from the HSBM project.
9th International Symposium on Rock Fragmenta-
tion by Blasting. Granada, Spain: Taylor & Francis
Group; p. 33542.
Furtney, J.K., Cundall, P.A., Onederra, I. & Sellers, E.
(2011). Numerical modeling of rock blasting: Valida-
tion tests for Blo-Up 2.5. In: Sainsbury H, Detournay
& Nelson, editor. Continuum and Distinct Element
Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics. Melbourne,
Australia: Itasca International Inc; p. 29.
Holmberg, R. & Persson, P.A. (1980). Design of tunnel
perimeter blast hole patterns to prevent rock damage.
Transactions of the Institute of Mining and Metal-
lurgy, 89: A37A40.
274
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 274
Iverson, S.R., Hustrulid, W.A., Johnson, J.C., Tesarik, D.
& Akbarzadeh, Y. (2009). The extent of blast damage
from a fully coupled explosive charge. 9th International
Symposium on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting. Gra-
nada, Spain: Taylor & Francis Group; p. 45968.
Iverson, S.R. (2012). Personal communication.
Ruest, M., Cundall, P., Guest, A. & Chitombo, G. (2006)
Developments Using the Particle Flow Code to Simulate
Rock Fragmentation by Condensed Phase Explosives.
8th International Symposia on Rock Fragmentation by
Blasting. Santiago, Chile: Editec. p. 14051.
10/3/2012 8:32:58 PM
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Simple models for the complex process of rock blasting

J.K. Furtney
Itasca Consulting Group, Minneapolis, USA

E. Sellers
AEL Mining Services, Johannesburg, South Africa

I. Onederra
CRC Mining, Brisbane, Australia

ABSTRACT: Numerical modeling of rock blasting is being investigated actively by many groups in
the mining and explosives industries. The physical processes occurring in rock blasting span six orders
of magnitude in length-scale, time-scale and pressure. The interactive-physical processes involved are
time-dependent, non-linear, difficult to quantify experimentally and occur in a discontinuous, hetero-
geneous medium. These factors present a significant challenge to the modeler. As a compliment to the
complex-numerical models being developed, we present a simple model of the blasting process with the
objectives of (i) aiding in the understanding of the physical mechanisms occurring during rock blasting
and (ii) helping in the development and interpretation of more complex numerical models. The model
illustrates the time scales involved and the distribution of the chemical energy of the explosive. The model
compares well with published rock blasting experiments.

1 INTRODUCTION the interpretation and development of more com-

Many groups in the explosive and mining
industries are working on numerical models
of blasting. Examples include: the Distinct
Modeling Code (DMC) (Preece 1993), the work
of Yang & Wang (1996), the ELFEN/MBM/SoH
(Minchinton & Lynch 2006), the work of the
HSBM project (Furtney et al. 2009) and many
others. All of these efforts have the common goal
of predicting the outcome of blasts. The benefits of
these numerical modeling approaches are consider-
able and many. Models open the possibility of opti-
mizing blasts to specific geological settings without
conducting costly field trials. New explosive for-
mulations can be evaluated. Possible methods to
optimize fragmentation, minimize vibrations and
reduce wall damage can be investigated by varying
blast parameters in a numerical model.
The numerical models mentioned above track
detonation, fracturing and movement over the
course of a blast. These models are all consider-
able in their complexity, but share the disadvantage
of not always illustrating the underlying physical
principles clearly. In order to compliment more
complex numerical models, we present a simpli-
fied model of blasting. The purpose of the work
is to provide a clear view into the complex-coupled
processes occurring during blasting and to help in
plex numerical models.
A single-hole model is presented, which represents (i)
crushing in the explosive near-field, (ii) burden acceler-
ation by gas cavity expansion, (iii) gas flow in the stem-
ming and (iv) gas flow in the newly created fractures.
The model is deliberately simple, as the objective is not
to create a highly accurate predictive model, but rather
to get order of magnitude estimates for the behavior of
explosives and rock during blasting. As such, known
physical effects are excluded from the model. We seek
to answer the following questions: What are the rel-
evant timescales for the processes occurring during
blasting? How is the chemical energy of the explosive
partitioned during blasting? How do these quantities
depend on the explosive and rock properties?
The model directly calculates the partition of
energy in rock blasting which has been measured
and discussed by other researchers (Udy & Lownds
1990, Spathis 1999, Ouchterlony et al. 2004 and
Sanchidrian et al. 2007). This work is presented in
three parts (i) an overview of the model (ii) a param-
eter study and (iii) a comparison with field tests.
2 MODEL OVERVIEW
Our model has two components as shown
in Figure 1. A near-field deformation model
represents the detonation along with the plastic

275

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 275 10/3/2012 8:32:58 PM


Figure 1. A schematic of the two-component simple
model. The left side shows the FLAC near-field model
grid before detonation and at the equilibrium pressure
state. The right side shows a schematic of the burden
movement and gas flow model.
and elastic deformation occurring in the rock near
the explosive. This model reaches a steady state
when the pressure of the reaction products is bal-
anced by the elastic and plastic deformation in the
rock near the hole. This pressure can be interpreted
as the equilibrium pressure of the explosive rock
combination. Although this continuum model
has a tensile failure criterion, it does not model
the propagation of discrete fractures. In order to
keep the present modeling simple, fracturing is not
explicitly represented. The equilibrium pressure
and expanded-hole diameter are used as initial
conditions for a simple model of burden move-
ment and gas flow.
2.1 FLAC near-field model
Vixen2009, a non-ideal detonation program, and
realistic explosive data are used in this work to
describe explosive products (Braithwaite & Sharpe
2009). Vixen2009 outputs the product Equation
of State (EoS), the Velocity of Detonation (VoD),
and the heat of reaction. The Williamsburg EoS is
used to describe the gas products (Byers-Brown &
Braithwaite 1994).
A simple 1D axisymmetric model of the reac-
tion product gas, the borehole and the near-field
rock is constructed using the EoS, heat of reac-
tion and VoD from Vixen2009. The continuum
geomechanics code FLAC (Itasca 2011) is used
in dynamic mode with a Mohr-Coulomb consti-
tutive model to describe the near-field rock. The
rock is represented as a cylindrical annulus with
an inner diameter equal to the borehole diam-
eter and an outer radius of 10 m. The borehole
gas pressure, starting at the explosion state, is
276
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 276
applied to the inside surface of the annulus. The
pressure is adjusted using the EoS as the bore-
hole expands, assuming the gas products expand
isentropically. A more detailed description is
given in Furtney et al. (2012). The data file for
this analysis is given in the appendix. The left of
Figure 1 shows a FLAC grid before detonation
and at the equilibrium pressure state.
2.2 Burden movement and gas flow model
Starting with the equilibrium pressure and final
borehole diameter from the near-field model, we
develop a simple model for burden movement. We
idealize the rock mass to be a 10-m high bench
with a wedge shaped burden separated from the
main rock mass by two fractures. The right side of
Figure 1 shows the geometry of the simple model.
The gas cavity, at equilibrium pressure, has con-
siderable potential energy to do work accelerating
the burden. Before the gas products can complete
the burden acceleration, energy is lost by the vent-
ing of the gas into the atmosphere. Gas flow to the
atmosphere occurs by two principle mechanisms:
(i) flow into the newly created fractures and (ii)
flow through the stemming region. To study bur-
den acceleration and to account for these losses,
we employ a one-dimensional model. The gas cav-
ity applies a force to the burden causing it to accel-
erate. As the burden moves the fractures, which
separate the burden from the bench, grow allow-
ing for faster gas flow. Similarly, gas flow into the
stemming is accounted for as the burden moves.
The gas cavity volume increases as the burden
moves and the pressure drops as gas vents. The
gas cavity pressure is adjusted according to the
equation of state. The formulation for this model
is summarized in the appendix and a more detailed
description is given in Furtney et al. (2012).
2.3 Time scales and energy partition
The output from the model described here is the
rock stress, borehole pressure and burden posi-
tion as a function of time. From this output, the
time-scales of these processes can be extracted.
Further, the distribution of the chemical energy of
the explosive into different forms can be extracted.
Part of the chemical energy present in the explo-
sive is converted into heat energy in the reaction
products. This heat energy is typically assumed
to be unavailable for doing mechanical work
(Fickett & Davis 1979). In this work, we focus on
the partition of the expansion work done by the
reaction products. Figure 2 shows the model system
energy before and 2 seconds after detonation in the
form of a stacked bar chart. The figure on the left
represents the original state where 100% of the
10/3/2012 8:32:59 PM

Figure 2. Bar chart showing model predictions of the
distribution of energy into different forms.
model system energy is in the form of potential
expansion work. The figure on the right shows the
partitioning of this energy into energy lost in plas-
tic flow (crushing), energy stored as strain energy
(elastic), kinetic energy in the blast induced stress
wave, energy lost in fracture and stemming venting
and finally in kinetic energy of the moving burden.
This distribution of energy is for a 7 m long, 10 cm
diameter charge of ANFO explosive in the weak
rock described in the next section. In summary
about 40% of the expansion energy is lost in the
near-field, and only about 10% of the energy con-
tributes to burden acceleration. The next section is
a parameter study of different explosive types and
rock types, which looks at this energy distribution
in more detail.
Figure 3 shows this energy distribution and the
gas cavity pressure as a function of model time.
The dashed line shows the separation in time of

Figure 3. Model predictions of energy distribution and borehole pressure with time. The upper plot shows the distribu-
tion of the expansion energy of the explosive into different forms as a function of time. The dimensionless energy is given
relative to the total expansion work. A dashed line separates the output from the FLAC near-field model (left) from the
burden movement model which is shown on the right. The lower plot shows borehole pressure at the same times.

277

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 277 10/3/2012 8:32:59 PM

 the near-field model from the burden movement
model. From this view of the system a sequence of
relevant time-scales can be discussed.
In this model system, conversion of chemical
energy into the gas cavity potential energy takes
on the order of 10 s1. During the first 10 s, the
expansion energy of the explosive is converted into
strain energy, converted into kinetic energy and lost
to plasticity in nearly equal amounts. Beyond 10 s
and into the 100 s of microseconds, the majority
of the expansion work of the gas cavity is lost
to plasticity and the energy in the form of strain
energy and kinetic energy of the stress wave remain
roughly constant. Around 500 s the equilibrium
pressure state is reached and the stresses around the
hole begin to go into tension. In the present model
this corresponds to the switch between the near-
field model and the burden movement model.
In keeping with the aim of simplicity, this model
assumes an instant transition from the equilibrium
pressure state to a fully fractured burden ready
to be accelerated by the gas pressure. The model
assumes the strain energy and stress wave kinetic
energy are lost at this transition. In reality, from
the equilibrium pressure state to the beginning
of burden movement, time-dependent fracturing
processes occur which further fragment the burden
and surrounding rock.
From 500 s to 1 ms, the burden accelerates
rapidly as a result of the high borehole pressures.
During this interval relatively little energy is lost, pri-
marily by flow into the stemming. Between 1 ms and
10 ms, the burden acceleration decreases as the pres-
sure drops. By this time, the fracture apertures have
increased and gas is flowing faster into the fractures.
By 100 ms, the burden acceleration is finished and
the portioning of energy does not change.
The lower plot in Figure 3 shows the correspond-
ing gas cavity pressure over the same time interval.
An inflection point occurs at the equilibrium pres-
sure state. Before the equilibrium pressure state
is reached the time-scale of the borehole pressure
decrease is controlled by the inertial of rock in the
crushed zone. After the establishment of the equi-
librium pressure state the time-scale of the pressure
decrease is controlled by the burden inertia.
1
Locally, pressurization due to detonation occurs on
a time-scale of microseconds or less. The shock driven
von Neumann spike, the CJ pressure and the explosion
pressure all occur on a time-scale over which a very small
amount of work is done on the rock. Clearly, it is impor-
tant to understand the details of these early time processes
and the resulting shock front curvature to understand the
non-ideal detonation. However, it has been shown that
the near-field rock response can be modeled adequately
with loading occurring over longer time periods (Furtney
et al. 2009).
278
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 278
3 PARAMETER STUDY
To gain insight into the role of rock properties
and the behavior of different explosive types, a
simple parameter study is presented here. Four
explosives are compared: an 0.8 g/cc ANFO, a
1.15 g/cc emulsion, a 1 g/cc heavy ANFO and a
1.2 g/cc doped emulsion. Three sets of rock proper-
ties are used. The base rock properties are: density
of 2,800 kg/m3 a Youngs modulus of 35 GPa, Pois-
sons ratio of 0.3, a UCS of 100 MPa and a friction
angle of 50. Two stronger and stiffer rocks are
considered with Youngs moduli and UCS values of
50 GPa and 200 MPa, and 70 GPa and 300 MPa.
Each of the four explosive types is run with each of
the three rock types leading to 12 cases. The explo-
sive mass is kept constant across all the cases by
varying the charge length and keeping the burden,
bench height and breakout angle constant.
Figure 4 shows the difference between the
four explosives considered. The upper plot in
Figure 2 shows the reaction product pressure as a
function of volume as predicted by Vixen2009.
The highest pressures correspond to the explo-
sion pressure of the explosive. The lower plot in
Figure 4 shows the explosive pressure relative to the
pressure of ANFO at the same volume. Before any
results are discussed, it is worth noting that the shape
of the P-V curves for the different explosives is differ-
ent; this has an important influence on the results.
The results of the parameter study are shown
in Figure 5 in graphical form. The following
intermediate conclusions can be drawn: weaker,
softer, rocks lead to lower equilibrium pres-
sures, which, in turn, lead to lower face velocities.
Explosives with higher peak pressures (the emul-
sion and doped emulsion) dissipate more energy
Figure 4. A comparison of the pressure-volume curves
of four different explosives. The lower plot shows the
explosive pressure relative to ANFO for greater detail.
The isentropes for this plot are from the Vixen2009 ideal-
detonation software.
10/3/2012 8:32:59 PM
 Figure 5. A summary of the parameter study conducted with the model presented in the work. The stacked bar charts
in the center show the energy distribution predictions for the four explosives and the three rock types considered. The
figure is annotated further with the model predictions of burden velocity and equilibrium pressure.
in the near-field region and result in lower equilib-
rium pressures. The shape of the P-V curves, shown
in Figure 4 influence the model results. Explosives
which are proportionally stiffer at higher volumes
(ANFO and doped emulsion) release more energy
at later time leading to higher face velocities.
4 FIELD TEST COMPARISON
In order to validate the present model, a compari-
son is made with two published studies of field
blasting experiments.
4.1 Bairnsdale tests
Beattie & Grant (1988) report on a series of small
single and multiple hole trial blasts in jointed gran-
ite undertaken in a quarry in Bairnsdale, Victoria,
Australia. The aim of their testing was to provide
data for understanding the effect of inter-hole tim-
ing. However, we can consider that their very slow
timing reflects holes that are firing independently,
and hence, consider those face velocities as being
equivalent to the present single-hole model. We
have applied two different burden breakout angles
of 90 and 120 for comparison.
In the experiments, 75 mm holes were drilled on
a square pattern at burden of 1.8 m and spacing of
2 m. The holes were filled with surface emulsion
with a Relative Effective Energy (REE) of 73% and
a density of 1.15 g/cc (Beattie and Grant, 1998). The
AEL surface emulsion considered in this work has
a REE of 83% at 100 MPa and 73% at 20 MPa at a
density of 1.15 g/cc, and hence, is considered to be
a suitable approximation of the unknown product
used at Bairnsdale. The FLAC model of the rock
mass was created with a Youngs modulus of
279
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 279
70 GPa, UCS of 300 MPa, Poissons ratio of 0.3
and a density of 2,600 kg/m3 to represent the very
strong granite rock (Boland, 1988). The predicted
equilibrium pressure of 686 MPa is high due to the
high rock stiffness and strength.
With this equilibrium pressure the model pre-
dicts face velocities ranging from 8.87 m/s with a
120 breakout angle to 18.9 m/s with a 90 break-
out angle. These values neatly fall within the range
of face velocities measured on site. The lower value
of face velocity is closer to, but still a little higher
than, the average face velocity of 7.1 m/s produced
in the experiments with the very long delay timings.
The higher value from the model with the 90 angle
burden is a lower bound to the higher timings. This
could suggest a mechanism for the change in face
velocity with timing. As the timing becomes faster,
the holes maintain similar equilibrium pressures
and act together, so the effective angle over each
hole needs to act reduces, and therefore, the overall
face velocity increases.
In order to compare the effects of ANFO and
emulsion, the tests conducted by Sheahan & Beattie
(1990) are considered as they were conducted at
the same site, albeit with a different blast geometry.
In these tests, the bench height was reduced to 5 m
with a 1.5 m stemming, and three holes were fired
simultaneously. Two ANFO shots with burdens of
1.8 m and 2.3 m provided face velocities. A number
of different explosives were used including ANFO
and a number of mixes of low density products. In
the simple model, the 90 breakout angle was used.
The equilibrium pressure increases to 773 MPa
and the model with 1.8 m burden produces a face
velocity of 17.2 m/s, in comparison to the measured
value of 15.8 m/s. When the burden was increased
to 2.3 m, the predicted face velocity falls to 12.5 m/s
in comparison with the observed 10.3 m/s.
10/3/2012 8:33:00 PM
 4.2 Concrete cube tests
Four, large scale, calibration test blasts have been
performed for the HSBM project by constructing
concrete cubes of 3 m side length to provide a uni-
form material for comparison with model results
(Sellers et al. 2009). In each block, 600 g of AEL
SDS emulsion explosive at a density of 1.18 g/cc
was used in a borehole of 33 mm diameter to repro-
duce realistic non-ideal detonation response in the
explosive column and cause significant fracturing,
but not total destruction. The holes were cast in
situ to a depth of 1.3 m to allow for 70 cm of stem-
ming and 60 cm charge length. The heat of reaction
is 3.0 MJ/kg and the ideal velocity of detonation is
calculated to be 6200 m/s using the Vixen2009 code
(Braithwaite & Sharpe 2009). A VoD of 4,500 m/s
was measured in a 25 mm cardboard pipe.
The concrete has an average strength of 45 MPa,
the Youngs modulus ranges from 23 GPa to
37 GPa, and Poissons ratios were from 0.1 to 0.23.
Tensile strengths varied from 2.9 to 6.5 MPa. Sonic
wave velocities on the concrete were measured in
the laboratory to be 3,316 1,120 m/s and calcu-
lations from the measured elastic properties gives
4,014 455 m/s. For the simple model, the concrete
is modeled with a density of 2,500 kg/m3, Youngs
modulus of 25GPa, Poissons ratio of 0.25, UCS
of 45 MPa and tensile strength of 4 MPa.
The average velocity of the top of the cube 1 was
8.6 m/s and for cube 3 it was 8.5 m/s. The velocity
of the same point in cubes 2 and 4 is only 3.4 m/s.
There is, however, a difference in the curvature of
the face in the early stages of heave. Cubes 1 and
4 showed relatively high velocities at the base of
the charge near the middle of the block, but the
center of cube 4 moved faster than the top. Thus,
it appears that the selected burden of 0.8 m is just
on critical and this provides another constraint on
the modeling. The reason for the two different face
velocity responses was that in two cases, difficulty
of charging of the stiff micro-balloon emulsion in
the small hole resulted in only the lower part of the
charge detonating properly.
The model was parameterized for the concrete
blocks. Some assumptions are needed in terms of
the structure of the block that is ejected. In the
experiments, the breakout is at an angle of about
90 with a conical breakout below the charge. In
the present modeling, only the burden in front of
the charge at a height of 1.3 m is considered. The
breakout angle is considered to vary between 90
and 120. The Vixen2009 code was run to create a
pressurevolume expansion curve for the SDS
emulsion explosive at a density of 1.18 g/cc. This
was input into the FLAC near-field model and an
equilibrium pressure of 158 MPa was found. The
model was run was with this equilibrium pressure
280
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 280
to compare the effect of the different explosive
charging performance. A comparison is made
between the results using a full charge of 60 cm
and a half-length charge of 30 cm to correspond
to observations by Sellers et al. (2009) that only the
lower part fired in two cases.
The results provide surprisingly good compara-
tive face velocities. With a 90 breakout and 60 cm
charge length, the predicted face velocity is 9.5 m/s.
Reducing the charge length to 30 cm decreases the
face velocity to 4.95 m/s. For the full charge, the
predictions are within 10% of the measured values
of 8.5 m/s, which is remarkable considering the
number of variables. For the half charge the differ-
ence is 45%; by considering that only 20 cm fired,
the face velocity prediction is improved to 3.4 m/s.
5 CONCLUSIONS
A simple modeling approach is presented which
represents detonation, near-field rock deforma-
tion, burden movement and gas flow. The model
shows the time-scales involved in blasting and sug-
gests how the chemical energy of the explosive is
distributed during blasting. A parameter study is
presented which shows the influence of rock type
and explosive type on the system behavior.
This study shows the equilibrium pressure state
as a boundary between energy lost to near-field
crushing and energy available for accelerating the
burden. This pressure is shown to be sensitive to
the rock properties and explosive type. Both the
gas pressure and the shape of the reaction prod-
uct isentrope influence the distribution of energy
between crushing and burden movement. The
model predicts an inflection point in the pressure-
time curve to occur at the equilibrium pressure
state. Explosive performance is a function of both
the rock and explosive properties. The model pro-
vides limiting cases which serve as valuable tests
for more complex numerical models of blasting.
Although developed to provide insight and
understanding, the simple model presented here
reproduced the trends observed in field blasting
tests as explosive type, rock type and burden length
are varied. The model seems able to predict the face
velocities using generic rock property inputs to a
reasonable degree of accuracy. This model does
not use empirical factors which are typically deter-
mined by fitting models outputs to observations.
The model is kept deliberately simple. Limitations
include not modeling fracturing, ideal-detonation,
and the use of simple gas flow model. Each of
these areas could be improved in future work. The
processes occurring after reaching the equilibrium
pressure, but before burden movement begins, will
be the subject of future investigation.
10/3/2012 8:33:00 PM
 6 APPENDIX The FLAC datafile given here corresponds to the
weak rock ANFO cases given in the parameter study
6.1 FLAC 7.0 data file for near-field model and is the basis of Figures 2 & 3. For the purpose
of brevity this data file has a simplified equation of
state given in the form of a table. In our study the
more detailed isentropes from Figure 4 are used.

6.2 Summary of burden movement model

This section describes the burden movement model
discussed in this work. More discussion of the model
is given in Furtney et al. 2012. This model takes
as input the equilibrium pressure from the FLAC
nearfield model and the blast geometry. We start by
writing an equation for burden displacement,

2rllp
x=
m

where x is the burden displacement, p is the gas

cavity pressure, r is the borehole radius at equilib-
rium pressure, le is the charge length and m is the
burden mass. The gas cavity pressure p is known
as a function of volume via the reaction product
EoS (from Vixen2009). The gas cavity pressure
decreases as the burden moves outward and as gas
vents to the atmosphere via the fractures and the
stemming. We describe this relationship with,

V 2rllx + lwu f + ( r 2 + 2rx )us

where V is the gas volume, the fracture gas flow

velocity, uf, and stemming gas flow velocity, us, are
given as a function of fracture aperture, w, by the
following,

2.4 2 3 ( p patm )rs

us =
ls f (1 )

Uf = c (1+ Qexp (B(log(w) m)))v

where is the stemming porosity,

r(1 0 )
=1
x+r

and 0 is the stemming initial porosity, w is the

fracture aperture in meters,

w x sin
2

where is the breakout angle, rs is the average stem-

ming aggregate radius, ls is the stemming length,
f is the gas density, atm is atmospheric pressure,
c is the sound-speed in the gas (approximately

281

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 281 10/3/2012 8:33:00 PM

 350 m/s), and Q, B, M and are constants with the
values: 0.124, 3.68, 0.85 and 0.34.
Along with the reaction product equation of
state these ordinary differential equations are easily
solved via an iterative method.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are grateful to the following people
in preparing this paper: Peter Cundall, Branko
Damjanic, Yhanui Han, Gideon Chitombo, David
Gribble and Martin Braithwate. The authors
would also like to thank the anonymous reviewers
for the helpful comments.
REFERENCES
Beattie, T. & Grant. J. 1998. The effect of -interhole
timing on heave. Explosives in Mining Workshop.
Melbourne, Vic. AUSIMM.
Boland, J.N., 1988. Physical Properties of Bairnsdale
Rock, CSIRO Reports.
Braithwaite, M. & Sharpe, G. 2009. Simulation of real
detonations as an energy source term for the Hybrid
Stress Blasting Model. In J.A. Sanchidrian (ed.), Proc.
9th Int. Symp. On Rock Fragmentation (Fragblast 9),
Grenada, Spain, 1317 September.
Byers-Brown W. & Braithwaite M., 1994, Williamsburg
Equation of State for Detonation Product Fluid,
Shock Compression of Condensed Matter, AIP, 1994.
Fickett, W. & Davis, W.C. 1979 Detonation: theory and
experiment. UCLA press, Berkeley.
Furtney, J.K, Cundall, P.A & Chitombo, G.D., 2009.
Developments in numerical modeling of blastin-
duced rock fragmentation: Updates from the HSBM
project., in FRAGBLAST-9, 9th International Sym-
posium on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting, Granada,
Spain, September 2009, 335342.
Furtney, J.K., Sellers, E. & Onederra, I. 2012. Simple
Models for Gas Flow and Burden Movement During
Blasting, International Society of Explosive Engi-
neers, Nashville.
282
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 282
Itasca Consulting Group, Inc., 2011. FLAC (Fast
Lagrangian Analysis of Continua), Version 7.0.
Minneapolis: Itasca.
Minchinton, A. & Lynch, P.M. 1996. Fragmentation
and heave modeling using a coupled discrete element
gas flow code. In B. Mohanty (ed.), FRAGBLAST 5;
Proc. 5th intern. symp., Montreal, August 1996: 7180.
Rotterdam: Balkema.
Ouchterlony, F. Nyberg, U. Olsson, M. Bergqvist, I.,
Granlund, L. & Grind, H. 2004. Where does the
explosive energy in rock blasting rounds go? Science
and technology of energetic materials. 65:5463.
Preece, D. 1993. Momentum transfer from flowing
explosive gases to spherical particles during computer
simulation of blast-induced rock motion. In Proc. 9th
Ann. ISEE Symp. Explosives & Blasting Research, San
Diego, JanuaryFebruary 1993: 251260. Cleveland:
ISEE.
Sanchidrian, J.A., Segarra, P. & Lopez, L.M. 2007.
Energy components in rock blasting. International
Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Science,
44(1):130147.
Sellers, E., Kotze, M., Dipenaar, L., & Ruest, M., 2009.
Large scale concrete cube blasts for the HSBM
model, In J.A. Sanchidrian (ed.), Proc. 9th Int. Symp.
On Rock Fragmentation (Fragblast 9), Grenada,
Spain, 1317 September.
Sheahan & Beattie, T. 1990. Effect of explosive type on
fines generation during blasting. FRAGBLAST90.
413416.
Spathis A.T. 1999 On the energy efficiency of blasting.
In: Proceesings of the sixth international symposium
on rock fragmentation by blasting, Johannesburg,
812 August. Johannesburg: The South African Insti-
tute of Mining and Metallurgy; p. 8190.
Udy, L.L. & Lownds, C.M. 1990. The partition of energy
in blasting with non-ideal explosives. In Proc. 9th Int.
Symp On Rock Fragmentation (FRAGBLAST-90)
Brisbane, Australia.
Yang, J. & Wang, S. 1996. A new constitutive model
for rock fragmentation by blastingFractal damage
model. In B. Mohanty (ed.), FRAGBLAST 8; Proc.
8th intern. symp., Montreal, August 1997: 95100.
Rotterdam: Balkema.
10/3/2012 8:33:04 PM
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Computer modelling of cast blasting to calculate the variability

of swell in a muckpile

P.C. Dare-Bryan
Orica Mining Services, Australia

B. Pugnale
University of Queensland, Australia

R. Brown
Leightons Contractors, Australia

ABSTRACT: The movement of overburden by cast (or throw) blasting is common for many open cut
coal operations around the world. The amount of material deposited in the final spoil position is calcu-
lated as a percentage of the total muckpile volume, where the portion of the muckpile remaining on the
bench usually has to be moved by machinery. Traditionally the percentage cast to final spoil calculation
assumes a constant muckpile density or swell. A study was conducted at a mine in the Bowen Basin,
Queensland, Australia, where cast blasts were measured and then modelled, ensuring that the muckpile
profiles predicted from the modelling matched the field results. Analysis of the particle packing simulated
by the model determined the variability of the swell through the muckpile, which allowed the calculation
of the actual distribution of material measured in bank (solid) cubic metres through the muckpile and the
identification of muckpile regions with very little swell as areas where lower dig rates could be expected.

1 INTRODUCTION post-blast survey data as well as face velocity

Worldwide many open cut coal operations adopt
cast blasting for the movement of overburden.
The use of explosive energy as the primary mover
of overburden to uncover coal can be very effi-
cient, and can significantly reduce the amount of
material that has to be moved by machinery. As
such, much work has been completed on increas-
ing cast through the use of more or higher energy
explosives and electronic initiation (Brent & Noy
2005). Further work has highlighted the fact that
the productivity of muckpile excavation requires
consideration well beyond just the percentage cast
to final spoil, and that the whole muckpile pro-
file needs to be considered, particularly in multi-
ple pass dragline operations (Brent & Noy 2009).
However, as these authors point out, the swell has,
up to now, been assumed to be constant through
the muckpile. With the current modelling capabili-
ties demonstrated in this paper it is now possible
to determine how the swell changes through the
muckpile, further enhancing the potential to opti-
mise muckpile excavation.
Two cast blasts from an operation in the Bowen
Basin, Queensland, Australia were measured for
this study. The blasts had different bench heights,
blasthole patterns and void geometries. Pre- and
measurements were collected to set up the heave
models, which were then analysed to determine the
variability of the swell throughout the muckpiles.
2 HEAVE MODELLING
Evaluation of the swell through a simulated muck-
pile requires accurate modelling of the explosive
loading of the rock mass and the subsequent move-
ment of that rock mass to its final resting place.
Latham et al. (2000) present a comprehensive anal-
ysis of the state of rock particle packing based on
predictions across a range of modelling platforms
for different particle surface properties and size dis-
tributions. They conclude that numerical modelling
is critical for accurate analysis of particle interac-
tion and the resulting swell. However, to date, most
numerical modelling in this area has used idealised
simple shapes such as discs, spheres and ellipsoids
due to their computational efficiency. In order to
more accurately simulate both the particle move-
ment and the packing it is ultimately necessary
to consider irregular 3D discrete elements with
dynamic force interactions.
One of the most mature heave models to
employ discs in 2D and spheres in 3D is the

283

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 283 10/3/2012 8:33:04 PM

 Distinct Motion Code (DMC) which simulates
swell through the use of aspect ratio, using tied
spheres with friction and rotation-induced dilation
which expands the radius of the sphere (Preece
1990, Preece & Taylor 1990). Through these bulk-
ing mechanisms DMC has been shown to be able
to reproduce a muckpile profile in bench blasting
(Preece et al. 1993) however, the results were not ana-
lysed for variations in swell. A more recent model
using bonded spheres is the Particle Flow Code
(PFC) 2D and 3D, which has been used to simulate
the flow behavior in sublevel caving (Sellden 2004)
but has not been used in a surface bench blasting
environment. Moving away from spheres, a new 3D
heave model combining rigid body dynamics and
empirical relationships for ore movement has been
reported by Tordoir et al. (2010). Through the use
of rigid cubes to represent the rock mass a whole
bench blast can be simulated. However, the cubes
are relatively large to keep the model run times
tractable and, critically, the individual loading of
the rock mass by explosive charges is represented
by a spatial energy distribution.
2.1 SoHheave modelling
The SoH heave modelling for this work is
based upon the finite/discrete element fracture
Mechanistic Blasting Model (MBM) (Minchinton &
Lynch 1996). To model the heave process a vertical
two-dimensional section is taken through the bench;
the section of bench that contains the blast is defined
as the blast domain and is filled with rectangular
particles that are tightly tiled. These discrete parti-
cles are fully deformable finite elements that support
stress and strain, so when set face-to-face they sup-
port stress waves. Zones of different rock types can
be applied to the blast domain.
Blastholes are overlaid on the particles, based
on the blast design, and face (pressure) loads
are applied to the particles that surround the
blastholes. The pressure loads are obtained from
a code derived from the original non-ideal detona-
tion code developed by Kirby & Leiper (1985). This
code models the reactive flow of the detonation
products, both before and after the sonic (CJ) plane,
as well as the influence of the rock confinement
and blasthole diameter on the resulting Velocity of
Detonation (VoD) and blasthole wall pressure-time
profile. Therefore, the loading naturally includes
the influence of the VoD and the stress wave
velocities of the rock.
After the initial explosive loading phase in the
model is complete, the discrete elements can be
converted to rigid (distinct) elements (which do not
support stress waves) to facilitate more rapid cal-
culation during the heave phase. Since the particles
in the blast domain are tightly packed, translation
284
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 284
and rotation of the particles naturally induces
porosity and thus swell.
The heave model has previously been shown to
be capable of modelling the draw and flow char-
acteristics in underground sublevel cave operations
(Minchinton & Dare-Bryan 2005). By treating the
rock adjacent to the blast domain as a fracturing
medium with the motion of the discrete particles,
the compound model has been used in studies for
controlling damage in the rock mass surrounding a
bench blast (Dare-Bryan et al. 2010).
3 FIELD DATA
3.1 Blast 1
The first blast measured had a total bench height of
70 m. The top 50 m was fired as a cast blast into the
void. Figure 1 shows the free face viewed from the
low wall (spoil), the arrow indicates the corner of
the bench and the free end while the other end of the
blast was constrained by the solid bench. The coal
seam below the blast dipped back into the bench
at 6 such that, for a constant standoff to coal, the
holes at the back of the blast were longer than those
at the crest. The overburden consisted of medium
grained sandstone and siltstone. Analysis of core
sample data for this study produced an average for
the rock elastic properties given in Table 1.
3.1.1 Blast design
The blast was drilled on a staggered pattern,
with a burden of 7.3 m and spacing of 8.5 m.
Figure 1. Free face of blast 1 bench with the corner and
free end indicated by the arrow.
Table 1. Overburden rock properties.
Rock Silt/sandstone
Density (kg/m3) 2500
Youngs modulus (GPa) 15
Poissons ratio 0.33
P-wave velocity (m/s) 2982
S-wave velocity (m/s) 1502
10/3/2012 8:33:04 PM
 The blastholes were 251 mm in diameter, drilled
at 70 and stood off 3 m from the coal seam. The
holes were loaded with a 5 m toe charge of heavy
ANFO, and the rest of the explosive column was
ANFO, with 5.5 m of stemming on top. The shot
was 8 rows deep, with a 2 m standoff from the pre-
split, producing a nominal shot width of 60 m. The
pattern was 350 m long with an average powder
factor of 0.6 kg/m3. It was fired with non-electric
initiation, using 17 ms delays along the control row,
100 ms delays along the echelon for the first 5 rows,
and then 150 ms delays for the last 3 rows.
3.1.2 Blast measurements
Prior to the blast, a radar system PowerwaveTM,
was set up facing the highwall to measure the
velocity of the free face during the heaving process
(Fig. 2). The PowerwaveTM radar unit uses a
K-Band Doppler RF Transceiver Module to trans-
mit a radio signal and to receive its reflection. If
the rock mass is moving the reflected signal returns
at a slightly higher frequency than the transmitted
signal. The difference between the transmitted and
received frequencies is the Doppler shift, and is
proportional to the velocity of the rock.
The output from the radar is shown in
Figures 3 and 4. Figure 3 is the velocity profile for
Figure 2. PowerwaveTM radar setup on the low wall,
directed towards the face of blast 1.
Figure 3. Radar velocity profile for blast 1.
285
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 285
Figure 4. Radar velocity spectrogram for blast 1.
the 10, 50, 90 percentile of the total rock mass, and
the average. It can be seen that the rock starts to
move at 1 second; this is an arbitrary starting time
as the unit is set recording prior to initiating the
blast. The 90 percentile (blue) curve reads a peak
velocity of approximately 17.5 m/s at just before
2 seconds; this means that 90% of the returned
signal is from material travelling at less than
17.5 m/s. Figure 4 is a plot of the velocity spectro-
gram, showing the distribution in intensity of the
returned signal across the velocity range against
time. This shows that the majority of the rock mass
is initially accelerated up to approximately 15 m/s,
with some rocks travelling up to 20 m/s.
However, care must be taken in interpreting
these results as the radar will only record the por-
tion of any objects velocity that is moving directly
towards the unit. Therefore, rock fragments that
are travelling at an angle to the direction the unit
is facing will record a lower velocity than their true
velocity. Also, the radar will record the velocity of
anything that returns the signal. This means that
during the blast event the velocity record can be
affected by dust, possibly causing spurious high
velocities. This effect is evident in Figures 3 and 4-
note the velocity peaks at 5, 7 and 12 seconds.
Pre- and post-blast surveys were combined and
sectioned perpendicular to the highwall along the
blast length. Sections were not taken at the free
end of the blast as the material movement is com-
plicated by the movement parallel to the highwall
(Fig. 5). The sections for the central region of the
blast were compared and found to provide very
similar bench and muckpile profiles. This is due
to the smooth highwall (Figs. 1 and 2), regular
void geometry and location in the bench away
from the ends of the blast (Figs. 5 and 6). Figure 7
shows Section 1, used to represent the central sec-
tion of the bench. These dimensions were used to
construct the bench and void geometry in the first
10/3/2012 8:33:05 PM

Figure 5. Blast 1 muckpile for the half of the bench
with the free end.
Figure 6. Blast 1 muckpile for the half of the bench
with the constrained end wall.
Figure 7. Cross-section 1 of pre- and post-blast 1
survey, taken from the central region of the bench.
heave model, Blast 1 Section 1; note the step-out of
the highwall at the top of coal.
Towards the constrained end of the blast, the
sections showed more material remaining on the
bench (Fig. 6) and a reduced percentage cast to
final spoil. Therefore, a second section, Blast 1
Section 2, was considered to analyse this region of
the bench (Fig. 8). Section 2 was taken 70 m from
the constrained end of the blast to ensure the mate-
rial spreading out along the void at the very end of
286
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 286
Figure 8. Cross-section 2 of pre- and post blast 1 sur-
vey, taken 70 m from the constrained end wall.
the blast was not affecting the muckpile shape in
the cross-section.
3.2 Blast 2
For the second measured blast the bench height
was 53 m, of which 38 m was blasted into the void
(Fig. 9). As with the first blast the highwall steps
out by approximately 10 m at the top of coal. This
blast was constrained at both ends of the bench,
and the coal seam was not dipping. The overbur-
den rock properties were taken to be the same as
the previous blast (Table 1).
3.2.1 Blast design
The second blast was drilled on a 8.1 m by 9.1 m
staggered pattern. The holes were 251 mm in diam-
eter, drilled at 70 and stood off from the coal by
3 m. The holes were loaded with a 3 m toe charge
of heavy ANFO, and the rest of the explosive col-
umn was ANFO with 5.0 m of stemming on top.
The blast was 7 rows deep, with a 2 m standoff
from the pre-split, producing a nominal blast width
of 60 m. The pattern was 320 m long with an aver-
age powder factor of approximately 0.5 kg/m3. It
was fired with non-electric initiation, using 17 ms
delays along the control row, 100 ms delays along
the echelon for the first 5 rows, and then 150 ms
delays for the last 2 rows.
3.2.2 Blast measurements
The radar was set up facing the highwall and
recorded the data shown in Figures 10 and 11. The
velocity profile (Fig. 10) shows that 90% of the mate-
rial is travelling at less than 16 m/s, and the spectro-
gram (Fig. 11) shows that most of the highwall is
travelling between 12 and 16 m/s. It is interesting to
note that despite Blast 2 having a lower powder factor
and smaller bench height, the average face velocity is
only 1 or 2 m/s less than that achieved in Blast 1.
The muckpile is shown to have a consistent
shape along the majority of its length (Fig. 12).
This was confirmed when the survey data was
sectioned. Figure 13 is typical of the sections taken
10/3/2012 8:33:05 PM
 Figure 9. Highwall of blast 2, note the fine material on Figure 13. Cross-section 1 of pre- and post-blast 2
the step-out at the coal seam. survey, taken from the central region of the bench.

and was used to dimension the bench and void for

the modelling.
It is clear that despite the two blasts both having
similar designs and face velocities the resulting
muckpiles are very different. Overall, Blast 2 has
greater swell and less cast to final spoil than Blast 1.
This is surprising as generally one might equate
high percentage cast to final spoil with significant
movement of material and so increased swell.
In Blast 2, despite the reasonable face velocities
recorded, a high proportion of the material has
remained on the bench; as such it has not travelled
Figure 10. Radar velocity profile for blast 2. far and yet has achieved very high swell. This tells
us that face velocities alone cannot be used to
dictate heave and swell.
The main factors that distinguish the two blasts
are their bench heights, void depths and how the
benches were constrained at either end. Blast 2
has a significantly smaller bench height and void
depth, and therefore less cast to final spoil is
expected than Blast 1. Also, Blast 2 was not only
constrained at both ends, but the length of the void
was not much greater than the blast length. This
means that there is very little space at the ends of
the blast for the material to spread along the void.
This would contribute to measured swell from
cross-sections in Blast 2, and conversely movement
of material along the void reduces the measured
Figure 11. Radar velocity spectrogram for blast 2. swell from cross-sections in Blast 1.

4 BLAST SIMULATIONS

Three models were constructed, one for each of the

cross-sections.

4.1 Blast 1 section 1

Figure 14 shows the blast domain for Blast 1
Section 1 consisting of discrete elements with
blastholes overlaid. Note that although the blast-
hole pattern is staggered the holes are moved
onto a common plane, with an appropriate energy
Figure 12. Blast 2 muckpile. distribution modification, for the 2D model.

287

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 287 10/3/2012 8:33:06 PM

 Figure 15. Blast 1 section 1, at 0.5 seconds with colour
contours of particle velocity with range 020 m/s.

Figure 14. Blast 1 section 1, blast domain of discrete

particles, with the blastholes overlaid.

The filled particles indicate the loading region

around each blasthole and the cross in the loading
region denotes the primer location in the explo- Figure 16. Blast 1 section 1, at 3.0 seconds with colour
sive column with the delay in milliseconds indi- contours of particle velocity (020 m/s).
cated for each primer. In this case each blasthole
has two primers because within the model differ-
ent explosive types have to be initiated separately,
even though they are part of the same explosive
column.
Figure 15 shows the blast domain set in the
finite element mesh, and the simulation at 0.5
seconds after blast initiation. Since in these simula-
tions the fracturing of the rock is not considered,
the detonation pressures acting on the particles
have to be reduced. To calculate the amount by
which the pressures need to be adjusted from first
principles is fraught with problems, and the most Figure 17. Comparison of the survey and model post-
reliable means is to match the face velocity with blast muckpile profiles for Blast 1 section 1.
field measurements. Hence, the face velocities in
Figure 15 (1322 m/s) match closely with those
from the radar (Figs. 3 and 4). The particle veloci- Figure 17 shows the comparison of the survey
ties show increased heave near the toe where the and simulation muckpile profiles. The simulation
holes are charged with heavy ANFO. This is even profile does not quite fit the survey data in the
more pronounced at the free face because of the middle portion of the profile because the model
reduced burden in the toe of the front row. cannot achieve the same angle of repose as the
Figure 16 shows the simulation at 3 seconds rock mass in the field. The survey muckpile swell
after initiation. There is a clear difference in parti- is 25.4% and the cast to final spoil is 37.6%, while
cle velocities between those still on the bench and for the simulation the swell is 26.0% and the cast to
those forward and free of the bench and moving final spoil is 34.7%. This shows that the results for
further into the void. Also at this time a signifi- the simulation are comparable with the field data.
cant proportion of the particles at the back of the The simulation can be analysed to determine
blast and on top of the coal have already come to how the packing density of the particles changes
rest. Note how at 3 seconds the peak particle veloc- between the material left on the bench and the
ity in the model is approximately 35 m/s, however, material cast to final spoil. This data may provide
these velocities are not recorded by the radar more accurate information than assuming a con-
(Figs. 3 and 4) as the particles have accelerated stant swell factor to calculate the bank cubic metres
under gravity and are no longer travelling directly of material in final spoil or that requiring move-
towards the radar unit. ment by machinery. It could also highlight specific

288

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 288 10/3/2012 8:33:06 PM

 areas of tightly packed material, which can result
in hard digging and low dig rates. Figure 18 shows
the regions either side of the new spoil line ana-
lysed separately to determine their packing densi-
ties. Figure 19 is the same muckpile divided into
four sections, two on the bench, one between the
original bench highwall line and the new spoil line,
and the final region is the final spoil. The analysed
data is in the next section.
Figure 20. Blast 1 section 2 at 0.5 seconds after initiation
with colour contours of particle velocity (020 m/s).
4.2 Blast 1 section 2
The blast domain for Section 2 is very similar to
Section 1 (Fig. 14) as it is from the same blast.
The initial heave velocities, 1120 m/s (Fig. 20),
are less than those in Section 1 (Fig. 15), as the
radar heave velocities (recorded at the other end of
the bench) produced too much cast to final spoil
for this section and so did not match the survey
data. The particle velocities at 3.0 seconds (Fig. 21)
show that more particles have come to rest by this
time than in the Section 1 simulation (Fig. 16).
A comparison of the survey and simulation Figure 21. Blast 1 section 2 at 3.0 seconds after initiation
muckpile profiles (Fig. 22) shows that they are very with colour contours of particle velocity (020 m/s).
similar. The survey muckpile swell is 22.0% and
the cast to final spoil is 28.8% and for the simula-
tion the swell is 25.8% and the cast to final spoil is
28.1%. While the cast to final spoil percentages are
comparable the simulation overestimates the swell.
As with the previous Section the simulation was
analysed for differences in packing density through
the muckpile, with one split line and three split
lines with the latter shown in Figure 23.

Figure 22. Comparison of the survey and model post-

blast muckpile profiles for blast 1 section 2.

Figure 18. Blast 1 section 1packing density either side

of one split line at the new spoil line. Packing density (%)
for the regions displayed top right in figure.

Figure 23. Blast 1 section 2packing density of regions

between three split lines.

4.3 Blast 2 section 1

The blast domain (Fig. 24) shows the reduced
bench height and design changes of increased bur-
Figure 19. Blast 1 section 1packing density of regions den, reduced number of rows and smaller 3 m toe
between three split lines. charge of heavy ANFO compared to Blast 1.

289

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 289 10/3/2012 8:33:07 PM


Figure 24. Blast 2 section 1blast domain of discrete
particles,- with the blastholes overlaid.
Figure 25. Blast 2 section 1, at 0.5 seconds with colour
contours of particle velocity (020 m/s).
Figure 26. Blast 2 section 1at 3.0 seconds with colour
contour of particle velocity (020 m/s).
The initial particle velocities at the free face,
1016 m/s (Fig. 25), were calibrated to the radar
data (Figs. 10 and 11). The heave motion at
3.0 seconds after initiation (Fig. 26) shows the
affect that the smaller void depth and the step-out
in the coal seam has by reducing particle velocity at
the free face, which then impacts the particle veloc-
ity of the rows behind.
Figure 27 compares the muckpile profiles of
the survey and simulation. The simulation does
not achieve the same angle of repose as the field,
and the simulation line sits below the survey line
between on-bench and final spoil. This produces a
muckpile swell of 26.1% versus 35.0% swell for the
survey profile. The cast to final spoil for the simu-
lation is 24.3% against 22.3% for the survey.
290
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 290
Figure 27. Comparison of the survey and model post-
blast muckpile profiles for blast 2 section 1.
Figure 28. Blast 2 section 1packing density of regions
between three split lines.
As with the previous simulations the final
muckpile was sectioned by one and three split lines
(the latter shown in Fig. 28) to evaluate differences
in packing density.
5 RESULTS AND DISSCUSION
For the three sections the measured and simulated
percentage cast data compared well (see Table 2)
but there was considerable variation between the
measured and simulated percentage swell despite
the fact that the respective muckpile profiles were
similar, particularly Blast 1 Section 2 (Fig. 22) and
Blast 2 Section 1 (Fig. 27). This shows that rela-
tively small differences in muckpile profile can pro-
duce significant differences in percentage swell and
so reinforces the need for accurate survey.
The fact that the model swell results showed such
variability compared to the measured data is prob-
ably due to the fact that the actual fragmentation size
distribution is not correctly represented in the initial
model particle size. Applying an appropriate distri-
bution to the complete particle ensemble would be
relatively straightforward but deciding the topolo-
logical distribution is difficult. This could be achieved
by using the complete (3D) fracture code but would
result in excessive and impractical runtimes.
Table 3 shows a more detailed analysis of the
simulations with respect to swell through the
muckpiles. The final areas are normalised to pre-
blast section areas and are presented in bank m2,
to present all the data on the same basis.
10/3/2012 8:33:08 PM
 Table 2. Measured and modelled swell and cast.

Blast Section Swell % measured Swell % model Cast % measured Cast % model

1 1 25.4 26.0 37.6 34.7

1 2 22.0 25.8 28.8 28.1
2 1 35.0 26.1 22.3 24.3

Table 3. Comparison of constant swell (average) and variable swell from the simulations for the three sections modeled.

Variable Area based on

Area of Region % Variable particle area constant swell Difference Difference
Region region (m2) of total area swell (%) (bank m2) (bank m2) (bank m2) (%)

Blast 1 section 1one split line

1 2577.2 65.3 25.2 2058.1 2045.7 12.4 0.60
2 1367.3 34.7 27.4 1072.9 1085.3 12.4 1.16
Total 3944.5 100.0 26.0 3131.0 3131.0 0.0 0.00
Blast 1 section 1three split lines
1 968.8 24.6 22.8 788.7 769.0 19.7 2.50
2 730.2 18.5 25.8 580.6 579.6 1.0 0.17
3 878.2 22.3 27.5 688.8 697.1 8.3 1.20
4 1367.3 34.7 27.4 1072.9 1085.3 12.4 1.16
Total 3944.5 100.0 26.0 3131.0 3131.0 0.0 0.00
Blast 1 section 2one split line
1 2793.9 71.9 24.7 2241.1 2220.4 20.7 0.93
2 1090.5 28.1 28.9 845.9 866.6 20.7 2.45
Total 3884.4 100.0 25.8 3087.0 3087.0 0.0 0.00
Blast 1 section 2three split lines
1 1099.7 28.3 20.9 909.9 874.0 35.9 3.95
2 802.6 20.7 25.0 642.0 637.8 4.2 0.65
3 891.6 23.0 29.4 689.2 708.6 19.4 2.81
4 1090.5 28.1 28.9 845.9 866.6 20.7 2.45
Total 3884.4 100.0 25.8 3087.0 3087.0 0.0 0.00
Blast 2 section 1one split line
1 2016.6 75.7 25.2 1610.2 1599.1 11.1 0.69
2 647.2 24.3 28.9 502.1 513.2 11.1 2.21
Total 2663.8 100.0 26.1 2112.3 2112.3 0.0 0.00
Blast 2 section 1three split lines
1 880.7 33.1 22.0 721.8 698.4 23.4 3.25
2 628.3 23.6 26.4 497.0 498.2 1.2 0.25
3 507.6 19.1 29.7 391.4 402.5 11.1 2.84
4 647.2 24.3 28.9 502.1 513.2 11.1 2.21
Total 2663.8 100.0 26.1 2112.3 2112.3 0.0 0.00

Interestingly, Blast 1 Section 1 has the small-
est variation in percentage difference between the
regions and so has the least variability in swell
through the cross-section while having the highest
percentage cast.
The sections with only one split line (Fig. 18),
which effectively compare the material in the final
spoil with that to be moved with machinery, show
that the simulated variable swell on the bench
(region 1) is never more than 1% less than the
swell calculated using a constant swell factor. This
means that for the sections simulated, with swell at
26% and cast to final spoil above 24%, a constant
swell factor is a good approximation of the actual
bank cubic metres to be moved by machinery. The
reason for this becomes clear when the muckpiles
are divided into four regions, with three split lines.
Region 1, against the new highwall has up to 4%
less swell compared to using an average. Region 2
is close to the average, and region 3 has up to 3%

291

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 291 10/3/2012 8:33:09 PM


Figure 29. Colour contour of particle displacement
(01 m) for blast 1 section 1 (top), blast 1 section 2
(middle) and blast 2 section 1 (bottom), showing wedges
of tightly packed material in the key cut zones.
more swell than the average and consistently more
swell than region 4 in the cast to final spoil. This
means that the lack of swell in region 1 is offset by
the significant swell in section 3, where regions 1, 2
and 3 need to be moved by machinery.
The key cut against the new highwall on top
of the coal seam often produces low dig rates for
draglines due to the confinement of the rock mass
and the resulting lack of movement. Figure 29
shows that there is a wedge of particles on top of
the coal seam against the highwall that have moved
very little in all three simulations. However, it is
also apparent that this wedge is smallest for the
Blast 2 Section 1 simulation and largest for Blast 1
Section 2. This indicates that Blast 1 Section 2 would
produce the lowest dig rates if the blasts were exca-
vated by dragline. It is proposed that the model-
ling can be used to simulate different blast designs
to minimise this wedge of particles that have not
moved.
Neither of the blasts were excavated by dragline,
instead bulldozers were utilised in the movement
of overburden, therefore, dig rates could not be
recorded.
6 CONCLUSIONS
The SoH heave model has been shown to be effec-
tive in simulating the muckpile profiles measured
in the field. Moving from 2D to 3D modelling
292
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 292
would eliminate the current limitations of repre-
senting the movement of blasted material across
and along the void.
For the three heave simulations analysed a con-
stant swell factor is within 1% of the simulated
material that is not cast to final spoil and has to
be moved by machinery. This is because there is
variation in swell either side of the constant swell
factor within the material not cast to final spoil.
The simulations highlight that the least amount of
swell in the muckpile is at the new highwall on top
of the coal seam.
It is common for open cast dragline operations
to employ dragline simulation software to optimise
the movement of material from the bench to spoil.
Generally these programs do not take into consid-
eration the different dig rates that can be expected
when moving through the muckpile. By analys-
ing the swell in a muckpile and correlating it with
the dig rates in the field, a database of expected
dig rates for different swell can be produced. This
could then be used to more accurately evaluate the
total dig time for a given simulated blast design.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge Dr. Alan
Minchinton, the developer of the heave model, who
also wrote the program to assess the swell through
the simulated muckpiles. Also, Aaron Wyatt and
the late Michael Wheatley are acknowledged for
developing the current generation PowerwaveTM
radar system.
Also, Leighton Contractors Pty Ltd their con-
tribution and permission to publish this work.
REFERENCES
Brent, G.F. & Noy, M.J. 2005. Matched pairs blasting tech-
nique to quantify the benefits of the i-konTM electronic
initiation system, Proc. 3rd EFEE World Conference
on Explosives and Blasting. Brighton, UK, European
Federation of Explosives Engineers, pp. 481488.
Brent, G.F. & Noy, M.J. 2009. Throw blasting analysis
a focus on coal uncovery and recovery rates, Proc.
9th. Int. Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting,
Granada, Spain, 1317 September, A.A. Balkema,
Rotterdam, pp. 717722.
Dare-Bryan, P., Byers, T. & Theobald, A., 2010,
Numerical modelling and electronic initiation to
assist blasting in heavily jointed rock, Proc. of the
36th Annual Conference on Explosives and Blasting
Technique, Orlando, Florida, 710 February, Int.
Society of Explosive Engineers, pp.
Kirby, I.J. & Leiper, G.A. 1985. A small divergent
detonation theory for intermolecular explosives, 8th
Int. Symp. on Detonation, Albuquerque, NM, USA,
1519 July, Office of Naval Research, Report NSWC
MP 86-194, pp. 176186.
10/3/2012 8:33:09 PM
 Latham, J-P, Munjiza, A & Lu, Y. 2002. On the prediction
of void porosity and packing of rock particles, Powder
Technology, Vol. 125, No. 1, Elsevier, pp. 1027.
Minchinton, A. & Lynch, P.M. 1996. Fragmentation and
heave modelling using a coupled discrete element gas
code, Proc. 5th. Int. Symp. on Rock Fragmentation
by Blasting, Montreal, Canada, 2529 Aug,
A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 7180.
Minchinton, A. & Dare-Bryan, P. 2005. The applica-
tion of computer modelling for blasting and flow in
sublevel caving operations, Ninth Underground Opera-
tors Conference, Perth, WA, 79 March, pp. 6573.
Preece, D.S. 1990. Rock motion simulation and predic-
tion of porosity distribution for a two-void-level
retort, Proc. of the 23rd Annual Oil Shale Symp., Ed.
Gary J.H., Golden, Colorado, Colorado School of
Mines Press, pp. 6267.
Preece, D.S. & Taylor, L.M. 1990. Spherical element
bulking mechanisms for modelling blast iInduce rock
motion, Proc. 3rd. Int. Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by
Blasting, Brisbane, Queensland, Soc. of Experimental
Mechanics, pp. 189194.
293
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 293
Preece, D.S., Burchell, S.L. & Scovira, D.S. 1993. Coupled
explosive gas flow and rock motion modelling with
comparison to bench field data, Proc. 4th. Int. Symp. on
Rock Fragmentation by Blasting, Ed. Rossmanith, H-P.,
Vienna, Austria, A.A. Balkema, pp. 239245.
Sellden, H. 2004. PFC3D Modelling of flow behaviour in
sublevel caving, Proc. MassMin 2004, Ed. Karzulovic, A.
and Alfaro, M.A., Santiago, Editec, pp. 189194.
Tordoir, A., Weatherley, D., Onederra, I. & Bye, A.
2010. A new 3D simulation framework to model
blast induced rock mass displacement using physics
engines, Proc. 9th. Int. Symp. on Rock Fragmenta-
tion by Blasting, Granada, Spain, 1317 September,
A.A. Balkema, Roterdam, pp. 381388.
10/3/2012 8:33:09 PM
This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

A study of the effect of rock bridges on blast-induced wave

propagation in jointed media

A. Mortazavi & M. Sharafisafa

Department of Mining & Metallurgical Engineering, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran

ABSTRACT: Rock mass consist of intact rock and discontinuities such as faults, joints and bedding
planes. The presence of such discontinuities in rock mass dominates the response of jointed rock mass to
static and dynamic loading. These structural weak planes seriously hinder and affect the propagation of
stress waves in rock mass. The joints parameters such as persistence, orientation, distribution patterns,
spacing and filling material have a significant effect on the response of rock mass against wave propaga-
tion. In most studies of blast-induced wave propagation in jointed rock mass, it is assumed that the joints
are continuous. In many situations the rock mass consists of non-continuous joints and rock bridges.
Rock bridges and discontinuous joints have a different effect on wave and fracture propagation in the
blasting process. With regard to the complexities associated with rock blasting, in particular in jointed
media, numerical tools are viable alternatives for rock blasting analysis. In this study the DEM method
was employed to investigate the effects of rock bridges on blast-induced wave propagation. A plain strain
2D scenario was assumed and a single blasthole explosion was simulated. The analysis results show that
the stress concentration at the rock bridge location leads to excessive fracturing. This effect is more visible
at the free face where the stress wave reflection occurs.

1 INTRODUCTIONS rock mass under blast loading [7,8]. However,

The destruction of hard rocks by means of
blasting usually involves the drilling of a borehole
and the placement of an explosive charge and
stemming prior to detonation. When the explosive
is detonated, an extremely high pressure pulse is
generated which is transmitted into the rock mass
adjacent to the borehole, producing a dilatational
wave that propagates away from the charge. This
may cause damage to rock and, furthermore, when
the compressive stress wave reaches a free face or
fissure, it will be reflected and converted into tensile
wave, which may produce tensile cracking or cause
spalling of surficial slabs if the tensile strength of
the rock is exceeded [13].
Some researchers [4,5] believe that cracking is
mainly caused by the incident dilatational wave and
any reflected waves, while other investigators [6]
consider the action of the compressed gases forcing
its way through the cracks from the borehole more
important. Until recently, it is generally agreed that
both stress wave and gas pressure loadings play an
important role in the process of rock fracture and
fragmentation.
The last few decades have seen a variety of stud-
ies on the blast-induced waves and their propaga-
tion in rock mass with much efforts being placed
on the study of dynamic responses of continuous
rock mass encountered in reality generally contain
geological discontinuities (e.g., joints, faults and
bedding planes). The properties of rock mass are
determined by both the properties of the intact
rock and the discontinuities. There have been some
studies on the effect of joints on wave propagation
in rock mass in recent years [813]. The presence
of the discontinuities has significant influence
on the responses of the rock mass to either static
or dynamic loading, and renders the numerical
simulations more complicated [9]. Persistence of
discontinuities is one of the most important rock
mass parameters. Discontinuous joints and rock
bridges in rock mass have significant influence on
the fracture pattern and wave propagation in blast-
ing process. A rock bridge acts as intact rock and
the adjacent joint acts as a discontinuity. There-
fore, the wave propagation is very complicated in
such rock mass.
The focus of this study was the fracturing of a
jointed rock mass consist of discontinuous joints
and rock bridges. A typical pattern of rock bridge
and discontinuous joint sets was considered. The
stress distribution and fracturing pattern were eval-
uated to compare the effects of joint orientation
and bridge pattern on fragmentation. The effect of
gas propagation into the rock mass and associated
fracturing was not considered in this study.

295

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 295 10/3/2012 8:33:10 PM

 2 MODELING STRATEGY AND INPUT
DATA

2.1 Rock domain geometry and rock mass Rock bridge

Noncontinuous
properties joint
In order to simulate the interaction between blast
wave and rock bridges formed in a discontinuous
rock mass a 2D plane strain section was considered. Free Face
A horizontal section was assumed at the blasthole
mid-height where the 3D effects associated with
the blasthole top and bottom is minimized.
A 20 10 m rock mass domain was considered
and in order to avoid the unwanted wave reflection
from the model sides, absorbing boundaries were
implemented. Figure 1 shows a general view of the
model and employed boundary condition.
In order to evaluate the effects of joint geom-
etry, a typical joint configuration was considered.
Figure 2 illustrates a general view of the joint con-
figurations which was investigated.
Figure 2. A plane view of joint geometry considered in
In order to allow material plastic failure a the analysis and history points locations.
Mohr-Coulomb material model was used. The
rock type was assumed to be limestone. This is
the dominant rock type in most highway cuts in Table 1. Rock mass and joint properties.
northern Iran. The materials properties used are
shown in Table 1. Friction
Cohesion angle Density Poissons
(MPa) (degree) (kg/m3) ratio
2.2 Blast loading and dynamic boundary
conditions Rock mass properties
Blast loading mechanism is a complicated process E (GPa)
and there are controversies among researchers on 30 0.5 40 2700 0.25
the role of stress wave versus gas pressurization. Joint material filling properties [16]
Blast load can be broadly categorized into two sub- E (MPa)
sequent loading phases of the stress wave action 5 0.03 30 1900 0.3
and gas pressurization respectively. It should be
realized that there is a complicated overlap between
these two loading stages.
With regard to the complexities associated with objective of this research was to delve into the
a precise characterization of blast loading, a sim- mechanism involved in the interaction between
plified pressure-time history was assumed for the the stress wave and rock bridges formed in a rock
loading associated with a single blast. The main mass intersected by non-continuous joint sets.
Additionally, the employed code had full dynamic
capability but lacked any specific module for blast
Free face
loading description. In order to calculate the peak
blasthole pressure acting on the blasthole wall, the
following equation was used, [14]:
Burden=5m Y

0.25
p Vp
( )
10m

Pm 1 62 e VOD (1)
e vVOD
Blasthole
R= 10 cm

where e = explosive density; VOD = velocity of

Non reflecting
boundary
detonation; p = rock mass density; Vp = P-wave
20 m
velocity, and Pm = maximum blasthole pressure.
ANFO being the most commonly used explo-
Figure 1. General view of the model and applied sive was considered for the numerical analysis. The
boundary condition. explosive properties used in the calculation are

296

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 296 10/3/2012 8:33:10 PM

 summarized in Table 2 and equation 2 was used
to calculate the rock mass characteristic p-wave
velocity [15].
4G
K+
CP = 3 (2)
where K = bulk modulus; G = shear modulus, and
= rock mass density.
Characterization of blasthole loading profile is a
complicated task. Employing an equation of state
to describe the blasthole pressure as a function
of blasthole volume is probably the most realistic
way of characterizing blast load. For complex sce-
narios such as blasting in a discontinuous jointed
rock mass it is very different to precisely track the
volume charge as a function of pressure. Addition-
ally, it is not feasible to write the dynamic gas flow
equations in a discontinuous media consisting of
multitude of pre-existing and shock-induced
fractures. There have been attempts to describe
the above process numerically [48], but the pre-
sented results still do not match practical observa-
tions and cannot be applied at the field scale. In
the current study, since the selected numerical tool
did not have any detonation modeling capabilities,
a simple pressure-time profile was used as input
loading. Moreover, the major goal of the study
Table 2. Explosive parameters used in the analysis [19].
Density VOD P-wave Blast hole
Explosive (kg/m3) (m/s) velocity pressure (MPa)
ANFO 820 3100 4793 1600
Figure 3. Pressure wave pulse used as input.
297
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 297
was to investigate the role of rock bridges on wave
propagation and fracturing pattern. Accordingly, a
simplified pressure pulse having a 30 micro second
rise time, 1600 MPa peak pressure, and a 50 micro
second fall time was considered as the pressure
pulse associated with a blasthole loaded with
ANFO. Figure 3 shows the shape of pressure pulse
used as an input.
3 SIMULATION RESULTS
A jointed rock mass consisting of a non-
continuous joint set running parallel to the free
face was considered. Figure 4 illustrates a plan
view of the joint and blast geometry. The pressure
pulse shown in Figure 3 was applied to the blast-
hole wall and the propagation of the stress wave
toward the free face and its interaction with rock
bridges were analyzed. Figure 5 illustrates the
consecutive views of the wave front propagation
within the rock mass.
In a jointed rock mass multiple reflection from
discontinuities, wave attenuation within joints filled
with soft materials and stress concentration at stiff
rock bridge locations affects the rock fragmenta-
tion in a complex manner. The results obtained
from the conducted numerical analysis shows that
the joint geometry, in particular when the rock is
intersected by non-continuous discontinuities has
a pronounced effect on the fracturing pattern and
rock fragmentation. Figure 5 illustrates the plastic-
ity indicators showing the rock breakage process
as a function of wave propagation and interaction
with discontinuities. Moreover, consecutive views
of the wave propagation front and wave interac-
tion with the rock mass are shown on the Figure.
Looking at Figure 5 prior to 1 ms (Fig. 5-a) the
stress wave is propagating in a continuous medium
Rock bridge
Noncontinuousjoint
Free face
Figure 4. A plan view section of the joint configuration
and blast geometry.
10/3/2012 8:33:11 PM

Figure 5. Rock breakage process and blast wave
propagation in a rock mass with non-continuous joint set
parallel to free face.
Figure 6. Variation of normal stress measured at rock
bridge and non-continuous joint tip.
and has a uniform front in all directions. This is
illustrated by the developed radial fracturing pat-
tern and wave front geometry shown in Figure 5.
At about 1 ms in time the wave front reaches to
the first set of non-continuous joint system. With
regard to the stiffness and strength properties
298
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 298
Fracture initiation at free face
Radial crack extension
throughrock bridges
Fracture initiation at non
continuousjoints surface
Major radial cracks
Non linear fracture
zone
Figure 7. A magnified view of fracturing pattern
around borehole.
of the rock and joint filling material, shown in
Table 1, the wave/rock interaction changes signifi-
cantly once the wave front hits the joint system.
The attenuation of stress wave amplitude is very
significant when it passes through the joint filling
materials. On the other hand, when the stress wave
hits the rock bridges, a significant stress concen-
tration occurs at this location. As an illustration
Figure 6 shows the variation of normal stress
measured at rock bridge location and adjacent fill-
ing material. Looking at Figure 6 there is a signifi-
cant contrast in stress level developed at the rock
bridge and adjacent joint filling material.
The stress concentration at rock bridge tips
causes the initiation of additional fracturing at
these points. Upon fracturing of rock bridges the
radial fracture initiation from blasthole is able to
propagate toward the free face. Figure 7 illustrates
a magnified view of fracturing pattern at the bore-
hole vicinity and rock bridge location.
4 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
A comprehensive numerical analysis of the effect of
wave propagation in rock mass with non-continuous
joint system was carried out. A simplified blasting
geometry and a typical jointed rock mass with rock
bridges parallel to the free face was considered. The
analysis results show that in the areas that joints
are filled with soft materials the radial fracturing is
paused. On the other hand, in areas that the wave
front hits the rock bridge, the wave action is able to
propagate the fractures in a radial direction. The for-
mation of major radial fractures from the blasthole
area was shown by the analysis. The propagation
10/3/2012 8:33:12 PM
 direction of these fractures is controlled by the rock
bridge location. Moreover, additional fragmen-
tation is promoted by the tensile failure of joints
filled with soft materials. This second mechanism
of failure is controlled by the orientation of rock
mass pre-existing discontinuities.
REFERENCES
[1] Langefors U, Kihlstrom B. The modern technique of
rock blasting. 3rd ed. Stockholm, Sweden: Almqvist &
Wiksell Forlag AB; 1978.
[2] Dally JW, Fourney WL, Holloway DC. Influence of
containment of the borehole pressure on explosive
induced fracture. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 1975;12:
512.
[3] Wang ZL, Li YC, Shen RF. Numerical simulation of
tensile damage and blast crater in brittle rock due to
underground explosion. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci
2007;44(5):7308.
[4] Liu LQ, Katsabanis PD. Development of a contin-
uum damage model for blasting analysis. Int J Rock
Mech Min Sci Geomech Abstr 1997;34:21731.
[5] Atkinson BK. Fracture mechanics of rock. New
York: Academic Press Geology Series; 1987.
[6] Paine AS, Please CP. An improved model of frac-
ture propagation by gas during rock blastingsome
analytical results. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 1994;31:
699706.
299
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 299
[7] Cundall PA. Numerical modelling of jointed and
faulted rock. In: Rossmanith HP, editor. Mechanics
of Jointed and Faulted Rock. Rotterdam:
A.A. Balkema; 1990.
[8] Chen SG, Zhao J. A study of UDEC modeling for
blast wave propagation in jointed rock masses. Int J
Rock Mech Min Sci 1998;35(1):939.
[9] Goodman RE, Taylor L, Brekke TL. A model for
the mechanics of jointed rock. J Soil Mech Found
Div, ASCE 1968;94(SM3):63759.
[10] Lei WD. Numerical studies on 2-D compressional
wave propagation in jointed rock masses [D].
Singapore: Nanyang Technological University;
2005.
[11] Chen SG, Cai JG, Zhao J, Zhou YX. Discrete
elementmodelling of an underground explosion in
a jointed rock mass. Geotech Geol Eng 2000;18:
5978.
[12] Coates RT, Schoenberg M. Finite difference mod-
elling of faults and fractures. Geophysics 1995;60:
151426.
[13] Hart RD. An introduction to distinct element mod-
elling for rock engineering. In: Hudson JA, editor.
Comprehensive Rock Engineering. Vol. 2. 1993.
p. 24561.
[14] Liu, Q.; Tidman, P. Estimation of the dynamic
pressure around a fully loaded blasthole. Technical
report MRL 95-014, CANMET/MRL, 15p, (1995).
[15] Hustruild W. Blasting principles for open pit min-
ing. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam Brookfield, 1999,
pp. 416443.
10/3/2012 8:33:14 PM
This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Piston models for airblast due to the bulk movement of ground

D.P. Blair
TNL Consultants, Carine, WA, Australia

ABSTRACT: An explosive initiated within a rock mass will promote a bulk movement of the local
ground. For example, in large free-face shots, initiating blastholes in the front row will cause the vertical
face to accelerate outwards, much like a large air ram. Even well behind the face, where the horizontal
surface is always free, the initiating explosives will cause a vertical heave of ground, which also acts as an
air ram. These mechanisms, which are capable of producing significant airblast, can be modelled as a
delayed sequence of air pistons. For the free face shot, each piston moves in a horizontal direction and is
associated with each face blasthole and its particular delay time. In the case of vertical heave, each piston
moves in a vertical direction and is associated with each blasthole of the entire blast pattern. The details
of these models are presented and it is shown for the free-face shots that the predicted airblast waveforms
have a strong similarity to the observed airblast monitored in the far field and in front of the face. This
finding implies that the air-ram mechanism for vertical faces is reasonably pure, i.e. in many cases it is
not unduly disturbed by the less predictable influences such as rifling, face bursting, stemming ejection
etc, which generally dominate typical airblast waveforms. Furthermore, contour maps of airblast show a
high directionality that is dependent upon the face orientation and delay times of the face blastholes. For
vertical heave there is a high directionality of airblast dependent upon the delay sequence of the entire
blast. However, in general, it is expected that such airblast would be significantly contaminated by the less
predictable influences previously mentioned.

1 INTRODUCTION develop a multi-piston model for the prediction

Initiation of a single blasthole near a rock surface
induces a bulk acceleration of the surface material,
which acts like a large piston, initially compressing
the air and producing a significant airblast radia-
tion away from the surface. The general solution
for radiation from any single piston source can
be obtained directly by using a Greens Function
approach (Morse and Ingard, 1968). Freedman
(1971, 1997) gave simple, specific solutions for the
case of rectangular and circular pistons whose
radiation is detected in the far field. However, all
such solutions are invariably applied to oscillating
pistons and not a piston (rock surface) that only
moves in an outward direction. For an oscillating
piston, both the velocity and acceleration are nec-
essarily non-zero. However, for a non-oscillating
piston appropriate to surface movement it is pos-
sible to have constant velocity (zero acceleration).
Nevertheless, Freedmans solutions for far field
radiation from a moving piston are still applicable
to vertical blastholes in the front row of a free-face
shot, which produces movement of the vertical
face. These solutions are also applicable to all blast-
holes in the body of a shot, which produces verti-
cal heave of the horizontal surface. Blair (2004)
used the far-field rectangular piston solution to
of airblast due to movement of the vertical face,
but gave no mathematical detail of the airblast
model, showing only some limited comparisons
of model predictions with observed data. Thus the
main aims of the present work are to document
the complete models, for vertical and horizontal
pistons, as well as give a detailed comparison of
predicted airblast versus observations for vertical
free-face blasts. Blair (2004) also showed that the
airblast in front of the vertical face is character-
ised by a highly directional pattern, dependent on
the delay interval between face blastholes. More
recently, Segarra et al (2011) analysed measure-
ments of airblast radiated in front of the face using
a modified charge weight scaling approach that
incorporated a directional function. Their analy-
sis also indicated a directivity in airblast radiation
that was dependent upon the delay interval. In his
previous analysis, Blair (2004) had only considered
ideal blast cases with uniform delay intervals. Thus
another main aim of the present work is to show
the directivity patterns due to the monitored free-
face blasts, which invariably involved face holes
having non-uniform delay intervals. A final aim
is to show directivity patterns associated with air-
blast due to vertical heave of the ground across an
entire blast pattern.

301

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 301 10/3/2012 8:33:14 PM

 2 THE AIR PISTON MODEL FOR
VERTICAL FACES
Figure 1 shows a schematic of the vertical face
divided into N rectangular piston elements, each
sequentially delayed in time according to the delay
interval between the face blastholes.
If pT (t) is the total airblast overpressure as a
function of time, t, due to movement of the entire
face area then
N
where 2an is the width of the piston element and 2bn
its length; C is the speed of sound in air (assumed
constant at 340.3 m/s); is the wavelength of the
radiation (= 2C/); is the density of air (= 1.2 kg/
m3 at 20 degrees C); k is the wavenumber (= 2/);
cosn = yn/Rn; cosn = zn/Rn. According to equation
(2), the time-delayed (retarded) acceleration of the
piston surface in the frequency () domain is given
by
A( , Rn ) i V exp(i
xp( i t
xp Rn /C ) (5)

p (t ) = p (t d ) (1)
T
n =1
n n
Thus, an alternative form of Freedmans origi-
nal equation, explicitly in terms of and piston
acceleration, can be given by
where pn(t) is the overpressure due to the nth rec-
tangular piston, and dn is its delay time with respect
2 an bn sin([ an /C ]cos
] n )
to the first initiated blasthole. If V() is the velocity Pn ( ) =
normal to the piston surface with motion described Rn ]c n
[ an /C ]cos
by an amplitude V0 at a circular frequency , then sin([ bn C ]cos n )
A( , Rn (6)
[ bn C ]cos n
p( i t )
V ( ) V0 exp( (2)
According to equation (6), the airblast is deter-
In this regard, V() is the Fourier transform mined by the face acceleration rather than the face
of the piston velocity, v(t) as a function of time. velocity. Thus the airblast is zero for a constant face
If (xn, yn, zn) are the coordinates of any far-field velocity, V0, which would arise as approaches
monitoring station relative to the centre of the nth zero. In this regard, it is sometimes observed that
piston source, which is always re-located to (0, 0, 0), the largest airblast is produced by the first initiated
then the range, Rn, is given by blasthole in the face. This is consistent with equation
(6) because initiation of the first hole accelerates
Rn xn2 + yn2 + zn2 (3) the face from rest, whereas initiation of subsequent
face holes accelerates a portion of face that is
already in motion, being dragged along by initia-
The detailed treatment for the air pressure, pn(t),
tion of previous blastholes in the face. Thus, whilst
due to a single (nth) rectangular piston in the far-
these subsequent initiations might well increase the
field is given by equation (12) of Freedman (1971).
face velocity, they would probably not increase the
In particular, he shows that if Pn() is the Fourier
face acceleration, especially if all face holes were
transform of pn(t), then
identically charged and stemmed in uniform mate-
4an bn C sin( kan cos n ) rial. However, it should also be appreciated that
Pn ( ) = the delayed piston model as idealised by Figure 1,
Rn kan cos n
and expressed as equation (1), does not account for
sin( kbn cos n )
V0 exp( it kR
iV Rn ) this face dragging effect, because each element
kbn cos n (4) of face is assumed to be a discrete section whose
motion is completely independent of the motion
of neighbouring pistons. In this regard, the model
could overestimate the acceleration of subsequent
face elements because they are all assumed to start
their motion from a state of rest.
If PT() is the Fourier transform of the total
airblast, pT(t), due to the N delayed pistons, then
applying the shift theorem to equation (1) yields

N
PT ( ) P (
n =1
n
) exp( i d n ) (7)

Figure 1. Illustrating delayed air piston elements asso- Equations (6) and (7) completely describe the
ciated with face blastholes. spectral content of airblast due to movement of the

302

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 302 10/3/2012 8:33:14 PM

 face. The inverse Fourier Transform of equation (7)
then gives the required airblast waveform pT(t). It
should also be noted that there are no adjustable
parameters in these equations, i.e. the airblast is
determined solely by the blast design parameters
and the face acceleration.
There are some limiting cases of practical
interest. For example, if the airblast is measured
directly in front of the face at mid-height and in
the very far field (xn zn 0 for all n) then for uni-
formly-spaced and identical face holes, each piston
element is effectively at the same range, R. Under
these conditions, cosn 0 for all n and then equa-
tion (7) reduces to
2 ab sin([ a /C ]) N
PT ( ) = A( R ) exp(( i d n ) (8)
R [ a /C ] n =1
where a is the hole spacing and b the hole depth.
Furthermore, use has been made of the sinc func-
tion limit
sin
sinc( ) = 1 as 0 (9)
The observational evidence suggests that the
majority of airblast energy from the moving face
lies in the range 0 Hz to 10 Hz. Even for a hole
spacing as large as 10 m (i.e. a = 5 m), the sinc func-
tion in equation (8) only varies by 13.6% (from 1.0
to 0.864) over this frequency range. Thus to a prac-
tical first approximation,
2 abA(
A( , R ) N
PT ( )
R exp( i d n ) (10)
n =1
The inverse Fourier transform of equation (10)
yields
2 ab N
R
pT (t ) = v (t d n )
n =1 t
Thus, under these conditions, the airblast is
directly proportional to the superposition of the
delayed piston accelerations. If the delays are fired
too quickly (i.e. dn approaches zero) then all super-
positions are in phase and a maximum airblast will
result, which is given by
2 Nab v (t ) (12a)
pT (t ) =
R t
Thus for very far field monitoring stations
directly in front of the face, it is critical to select
delay intervals, dn, such that the summation term
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 303
in equation (10) is as small as practically possible.
Of course, if there is only a single face blasthole,
equation (12a) becomes
2 ab v (t ) (12b)
pT (t ) =
R t
In this case, the measured far-field airblast
directly in front of a single face blasthole can pro-
vide a direct estimate of the acceleration due a sin-
gle piston element.
3 DETERMINING THE PISTON
ACCELERATION
The piston acceleration is clearly an important
input required for the model as expressed by equa-
tion (6). Unfortunately, it is also the most difficult
input data to obtain in any realistic manner. There
are at least three basic methods that could be used
to determine the piston velocity, v(t), with suitable
time resolution. Direct displacement measurements
using face markers have been excluded because
they would probably be dominated by noise and
also might not yield suitable time resolution for the
estimation of face accelerations. The three meth-
ods illustrated here are modelling, Doppler radar
measurements of face movement and measurement
of airblast according to equation (12b). Excluding
the latter case, the required face acceleration is then
obtained as the derivative of the measured face
velocity. However, the process of differentiation
will significantly enhance any high frequency noise
on the velocity time history. In order to reduce this
noise, cubic spline interpolation was used to gener-
ate 4 points per sample interval on each velocity
record. A Savitzky-Golay derivative filter, based on
7 symmetric filter coefficients, was then used to get
a smooth estimate of the derivative.
Figure 2 shows examples of the face accelera-
(11) tion determined for all three methods; all peak
accelerations are normalised to unity. The model-
ling approach is discussed in detail in Blair (2004)
and will not be repeated here. These modelled
results were obtained for the case of a large coal
overburden shot typified by a hole spacing (2a) of
10 m and a hole depth (2b) of 20 m. The face radar
results were obtained for relatively small face holes
in a small coal shot; unfortunately the details of
this shot are unknown. However, the face radar
sees a large portion of the face. Thus, due to the
face-dragging effect, the face acceleration deter-
mined by this method could also be an underes-
timate of the acceleration due to a single element
of the face. Nevertheless, these results are shown
to illustrate the possibility of using this indirect
303
10/3/2012 8:33:19 PM
 Figure 2. Face acceleration from modelling, as well as
radar and airblast observations.
method to estimate the face acceleration. The air-
blast results used to infer face acceleration (via
equation 12b) were obtained for a large coal shot
typified by a hole spacing of 8 m and a hole depth
of 30 m. Furthermore, the airblast recording was
taken at a range, R, of 4550 m. Then assuming an
air density, , of 1.2 kg/m3, equation (12b) gives the
direct proportionality between airblast and piston
acceleration for each face blasthole in this shot as
v (t )
pT (t ) = 99.27 (13)
t
4 OBSERVED AND MODELLED
WAVEFORMSVERTICAL FACES
Perhaps the most reliable method for estimating the
vertical face acceleration is to measure the airblast
in the far field and directly in front of a single row
of face blastholes, each well-stemmed and suitably
delayed and burdened such that each blasthole
has a well-separated airblast signature due only
to face movement. The signature from any blast-
hole can then be used via equation (12b) to give a
direct estimate of the face acceleration. The nor-
malised acceleration waveform shown in Figure 2
was obtained from such a trial, and in this case the
peak acceleration was determined to be 63.3 g. This
then fixes the face acceleration waveform required
in the model. Assuming this face acceleration func-
tion, Figure 3 (also in Blair, 2004) shows a com-
parison of the measured and modelled airblast due
to Blast 1, a coal shot with 15 face holes. The front
row ran North-South, with delay intervals alternat-
ing between 84 ms and 107 ms, blasthole spacing
was 8 m and bench height 30 m. The 3 events seen
after approximately 1.7 s are due to blastholes in
the second row of the shot.
304
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 304
Figure 3. The observed and modelled airblast wave-
forms for Blast 1.
Figure 4. Delay times across the face blastholes.
Figure 4 shows the delay timing across all blast-
holes in the front row for the next three blasts to be
modelled; the large arrowheads indicate the initia-
tion point for each blast. The non-uniform grada-
tion of grey-scales along each front row, especially
that for Blast 4, also demonstrates that the delay
intervals are not uniform. The arrows indicate the
outward direction of the face; the airblast in regions
behind each of these faces cannot be modelled by
the present method. Thus Figure 4 conveys the
information for the delay sequence, dn, required to
evaluate the summation term in equation (7). This
figure also conveys the blasthole coordinate data
required to calculate the ranges, Rn, which are also
required as model input. The piston acceleration
function obtained from the modelling technique
(Figure 2) was used in all blasts except Blast 1.
Figure 5 shows a comparison of the observed
and modelled airblast waveforms for Blast 2 as
recorded at Station M1 (see Figure 10 later). Fig-
ure 6 shows the results for Blast 3 as recorded for
the only station lying in front of the face (see Fig-
ure 11 later). Figure 7 shows the results for Blast 4
as recorded at Station M1 (see Figure 12 later).
10/3/2012 8:33:22 PM
 Figure 5. The observed and modelled airblast wave-
forms for Blast 2.
Figure 6. The observed and modelled airblast wave-
forms for Blast 3.
Figure 7. The observed and modelled airblast wave-
forms for Blast 4.
The front row design of the next shot (Blast 5)
is shown separately in Figure 8 (to avoid clutter-
ing Figure 4). The first 19 holes were fired slowly
and the remaining 46 holes were fired fast with
an average interval of approximately 6.5 ms. Fig-
ure 9 shows the results for Blast 5 as monitored
at Station M1 (see Figure 13 later); the fast-fired
holes cause reinforcement to produce the large
305
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 305
Figure 8. The front row timing design for Blast 5; 65
blastholes.
Figure 9. The observed and modelled airblast wave-
forms for Blast 5.
amplitude airblast arriving at 1.9 s. The low ampli-
tude arrivals prior to 1.9 s are due to the first 19
holes whose delay intervals are too long to produce
reinforcement.
5 AIRBLAST RADIATION PATTERNS OF
MONITORED FREE-FACE BLASTS
Using ideal cases of uniform delays and faces run-
ning directly North-South, Blair (2004) showed
that the airblast due to the face motion is highly
directional. This directional nature is now inves-
tigated for large monitored blasts having various
front row alignments and non-uniform delay inter-
vals across these rows.
Figure 10 shows the model predictions for the
airblast radiation due to Blast 2, a large cast blast
in a coalmine; all regions are excluded where there
are one or more holes lying behind the face, and
this condition is determined using standard vec-
tor algebra. The contour values go from 115 dBL
to 140 dBL, in steps of 1 dBL, and the monitor
location, M1, lies between contour levels 124 dBL
and 125 dBL. The observed peak airblast at M1 for
10/3/2012 8:33:23 PM
 Figure 10. Airblast radiation pattern, Blast 2; contour
values from 115 dBL to 140 dBL.
Figure 11. Airblast radiation pattern, Blast 3; con-
tour values from 112 dBL to 130 dBL.
Blast 1 was 125.7 dBL. The line of the front face is
also shown and extends in a broad V-shape aligned
almost North-South, as shown previously in Fig-
ure 4. Most of the holes in this front row are fired
from North to South, which produces the highly
directed pattern of airblast radiation.
Figure 11 shows the airblast radiation pattern
for Blast 3. The contour values go from 112 dBL
to 130 dBL, in steps of 1 dB. The black circles
show the four monitor locations and beside each
is the observed peak airblast. The monitor loca-
tion in front of the face lies between contour
levels 121 dBL and 122 dBL, indicating that this
predicted peak is sufficiently close to the observed
value of 123.2 dBL. It is quite obvious that air-
blast in front of the face is significantly larger than
306
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 306
Figure 12. Airblast radiation pattern, Blast 4; contour
values from 112 dBL to 130 dBL.
Figure 13. Airblast radiation pattern, Blast 5; contour
values from 110 dBL to 140 dBL.
that behind the face, even accounting for the vari-
ous monitor locations. In this regard, Figure 2 of
Segarra et al (2011) also shows that the airblast in
front of the face (Floor level) is much larger than
airblast behind the face (Top level).
Figure 12 shows the airblast radiation pattern
for Blast 4; again, the contour values go from
112 dBL to 130 dBL, in steps of 1 dB. The moni-
tor location lies between contour levels 113 dBL
and 114 dBL, this is not significantly different to
the observed value of 115.6 dBL. As a last exam-
ple, Figure 13 shows the highly directional airblast
radiation pattern for Blast 5, with contour values
going from 112 dBL to 140 dBL, in which the
monitor is located almost on the 125 dBL line. In
this case the modelled value was 125.1 dBL, which
is close to the observed value of 124.8 dBL.
10/3/2012 8:33:24 PM
 6 THE AIR PISTON MODEL AND
PREDICTIONS FOR VERTICAL HEAVE
In order to model the vertical motion of the hori-
zontal surface, the air piston is considered to have
vertical motion and a circular (rather than rec-
tangular) cross section. Thus this model involves
all blastholes in the blast pattern, and the vertical
lift in a circular region around each blasthole pro-
duces airblast. It also makes sense to use a piston
radius related to the average spacing, S, between
holes as well as the charge weight, Wn, in each hole
as normalised by the average charge weight. Thus
a suitable definition of piston radius, rn, for the nth
blasthole can be given by
rn WnS /( 2W ) (14)
Figure 14 illustrates the vertical pistons that
mimic the ground vertical motion. Using equation
(5) as well as equation (28) of Freedman (1997) it
can be shown that Pn(), the Fourier transform of
the air pressure pn(t), due to the nth blasthole mod-
elled as a single circular piston, is given by
rn2 J1 ( rn sin n /C )
Pn ( ) = A( , Rn ) (15)
Rn ( rn si n /C )
where J1( ) is the first order Bessel function of real
argument . Furthermore,
sin n = xn2 + yn2 xn2 + yn2 + zn2 (16)
where, as noted previously, (xn, yn, zn) defines the
monitoring station with respect to each piston cen-
tred on its local origin.
If there are N blastholes in the pattern, then
equations (7) and (14) to (16) completely describe
the spectral content of airblast due to vertical heave
of the ground over the entire blast pattern. If the
Figure 14. Cylindrical vertical pistons to represent ver-
tical motion of the blast pattern.
307
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 307
monitoring station is at the same RL as all n holes
in the blast pattern, zn = 0 and then sin n = 1, and
equation (15) yields
rn2 J1 ( rn /C )
Pn ( ) = A( , Rn ) (17)
Rn ( rn /C )
At sufficiently high altitudes directly above the
blast pattern, zn >> xn, and zn >> yn and then sin n
approaches 0 for all n. Then equation (15) becomes
rn2
Pn ( ) = A( , Rn ) (18)
2 Rn
It should also be appreciated that if the moni-
toring zone is below the surface of the blast pattern
(zn < 0), then this model cannot be used because the
zone is underneath the piston surface.
It is also difficult to select a meaningful pis-
ton acceleration relevant to vertical motion of
the ground simply because different mechanisms
may operate, such as rifling, cratering and mound-
ing (surface heave), which may have different
strengths for each blasthole. In other words, each
piston may require a different acceleration input.
Nevertheless, for a well confined shot in which
rifling and cratering are negligible, and provided
a reasonable, representative acceleration function
can be found, the model can be used to give useful
insights to airblast, especially its directionality. In
this regard, Figure 15 shows the airblast radiation
pattern for vertical heave of the ground, for which
all the blasthole collars and monitoring stations
are assumed to be at the same RL (i.e. equation 17
is applicable).
Figure 15. Airblast radiation pattern assuming a verti-
cal heave of ground, Blast 3.
10/3/2012 8:33:25 PM
 An acceleration function based on the airblast
approach (Figure 2) was chosen to illustrate this
approach. It can be seen that this type of model
gives a reasonable approximation to the observed
airblast for all stations behind the free face, but
certainly does not account for the high level of
123.2 dBL for that station in front of the face.
7 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
Analytical models for airblast due to bulk move-
ment of ground have been presented. These mod-
els have no adjustable parameters, and also predict
airblast waveforms. Thus the models are unlike the
traditional empirical airblast predictors that rely on
site parameters adjusted to give a least squares fit
to the peak level, only, of the observed airblast. A
comparison of observed and modelled waveforms
for airblast due to movement of vertical faces shows
a distinct similarity in most cases, which verifies that
the piston effect is a realistic mechanism for airblast
due to movement of a vertical face. This finding also
implies that the mechanism is reasonably pure, i.e. it
is not unduly disturbed by noise influences such as
rifling, face bursting, stemming ejection etc, which
generally dominate typical airblast waveforms.
It should also be appreciated that in all airblast
contour plots, the contour values close to the blast
zone are not strictly valid due to the far-field approx-
imations involved. An estimation of this far-field
region can be obtained knowing the length (2a) and
width (2b) of a rectangular piston or the radius (r)
of a circular piston, and the range (R) from any pis-
ton to a specified monitoring station. The far-field
criteria are satisfied if R >> a; R >> b, R >> r. In a
large cast shot with a 50 m vertical face, the typi-
cal longest dimension (2a) of a rectangular piston
would be 100 m, and thus the far field would imply
1000 m or so from the vertical face. In the case of
vertical heave, the piston radius would generally not
exceed 5 m, being of the order of half the blasthole
spacing. Under this condition, the far field would
imply only 50 m or so from the blasthole.
Of course, a circular piston model is not the only
type of airblast model that deals with all radiating
holes in a blast pattern. In this regard, Blair (1999)
has given the detailed description of a Monte Carlo
waveform superposition model under the assump-
tion that each of the blastholes, if fired in isolation,
would behave in an equivalent statistical manner
and radiate airblast equally in all directions (a
spherical wave), rather than having the directional
radiation of a piston. However the Monte Carlo
model of total airblast surrounding the entire blast
zone might be directional, depending upon screen-
ing effects and the direction of initiation (Blair,
1999). Airblast screening of a particular blasthole
308
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 308
Figure 16. Airblast radiation pattern from a Monte
Carlo model, Blast 3.
about to initiate is caused by stemming ejection or
dust from all previously initiated blastholes. By way
of example only, Figure 16 shows a Monte Carlo
model for airblast in a region surrounding Blast 3;
100 simulations for varying delay scatter and ran-
dom fluctuations on the seed waveform are done at
each of the 161 161 grid points.
The seed waveform for this model was taken from
the airblast recorded for a single hole fired in ground
removed from any free face. It is clear that this
model, too, predicts results that are consistent with
those observations for stations behind the face. In
the real world, it seems reasonable to expect that the
observed results for stations behind the face could
be some complicated mix of Monte Carlo proc-
esses and (circular) piston responses (as illustrated
by Figures 15, 16), whereas the observed results for
stations in front of the face might be dominated
by (rectangular) piston responses as illustrated by
Figure 11.
REFERENCES
Blair, D.P. (2004). Analysis and modelling of airblast and
ground vibration. EXPLO2004, Perth, Australia, 19.
Blair, D.P. (1999). Statistical models for ground vibration
and airblast. Int. J. Blasting and Fragmentation, v3,
335364.
Freedman, A. (1971). Farfield of pulsed rectangular
acoustic radiator. J. Acoust. Soc. Am., v49, 738748.
Freedman, A. (1997). Acoustic field of a pulsed circular
piston. J. Sound and Vibration, v70, 495519.
Morse, P. M. & Ingard, K.U. (1968). Theoretical Acous-
tics. McGraw-Hill, New York, 365 pp.
Segarra, P, Lopez, L.M. Sanchidrian, J.A. & Domingo,
J.F. (2011). Asymmetric propagation of airblast from
bench blasting.
10/3/2012 8:33:29 PM
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Modification of the RHT model for enhanced tensile response

predictions of geologic materials

A.S. Tawadrous & D.S. Preece

Orica Mining Services, Watkins, CO, USA

J.P. Glenville
ANSYS Inc., West Sussex, UK

ABSTRACT: Sophisticated numerical models are increasingly used as a tool to analyze blast/impact
related problems. One of the most influential factors to reach a reliable analysis is the existence of a
material model capable of describing the behavior of the material being analyzed at the pertinent scale.
The RHT model is becoming more popular in modeling the behavior of concrete-like brittle materials.
The model covers almost all the macroscopic behavioral phenomena of concrete and geomaterials under
high strain-rate loading conditions. Several researchers reported that the current implementation of the
RHT model is more suitable for the prediction of compressive damage rather than a combination of
tensile and compressive damage. This imposes a major limitation on the model when used to analyze
blasting problems. It has been suggested that a rate dependant principle failure initiation stress com-
bined with a bi-linear crack softening model can improve the tensile response predictive capability of
the RHT model. This work was an investigation into such modifications to the RHT model. A bi-linear
strain rate dependency in tension has been implemented in both strength and failure models. The same
dependency has been applied to a principle stress failure surface that can be combined with the RHT
strength and failure model. Verification and correlation simulations have been carried out to verify their
suitability for modeling geomaterials. Conclusions are drawn on the usefulness and possible advantages
of such changes and recommendations made. Simulations in a 2D axial symmetry approximation have
been undertaken to reproduce the experimental results of a Hopkinson bar type test. In General, the
simulation results of this test showed promise in the ability to better predict the tensile response of a
geologic material. However, it is noted that there are high frequency components superimposed on the
calculated strains. Such high frequency components are not observed in the experimental strain records.
Due to these high frequency components in the strains, the predicted strain rate enhancement may be
over predicted. Using the bi-linear stain rate dependency in tension seems to exaggerate such high fre-
quency components.

1 INTRODUCTION simulation to investigate the effects of the com-

The behavior of concrete and geomaterials under
static or quasi-static loading has been a subject of
extensive studies for many decades. In more recent
years, the behavior of such materials under high
loading rates has gained more focus and wider
attention. Sophisticated numerical modeling is
increasingly used as a tool to analyze high loading
rate type problems. Due to the advancements in
computational power, it has become possible to
carry out large-scale numerical simulations that
could reproduce many complex physical processes
in great details. Numerical simulation has become
a powerful means in the design process as well as in
the analysis and investigation of complex physical
phenomena. A few examples of using numerical
plex response of concrete under ballistic impact
and explosion using commercial hydrocodes such
as ANSYS AUTODYN (ANSYS, Inc., 2011) and
LS-DYNA (Livermore Software Technology
Corporation, 2003) can be found in the literature
(Riedel, Thoma, Hiermaier, & Schmolinske, 1999),
(Lappanen, 2002), (Unosson & Nilsson, 2006),
(Rabczuk & Eibl, 2006), (Preece & Lownds,
2009).
One of the most influential factors for reach-
ing a reliable analysis is the existence of a material
model capable of describing the behavior of the
material being analyzed at the pertinent scale. For
brittle materials, the macroscopic inelastic response
stems from material fracture, buckling and crush-
ing of the binder and aggregate microstructure

309

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 309 10/3/2012 8:36:54 PM

 (Unosson & Nilsson, 2006). These mechanisms
become even more complex under high loading
rate conditions. Given the computational power
available to date, it is not easy to model material
behavior on the microscopic level. Therefore, mod-
eling of the constitutive behavior of brittle mate-
rials is typically done on a macroscopic level that
aligns with continuum mechanics. Several compre-
hensive models that are aimed at high-impulsive
load applications, with consideration of effects
such as pressure hardening, strain hardening,
crack softening and strain-rate dependency exist.
Models of this category include the RHT model
(Riedel, 2004), the K&C model (Malvar, Crawford,
Wesevich, & Simons, 1997) and JHC concrete
model (Holmquist, Johnson, & Cook, 1993).
The RHT model has been widely used in the
analysis of high-impulse response of brittle mate-
rials such as impact and penetration (Holmquist,
Johnson, & Cook, 1993), (Hansson & Skoglund,
2002). The main focus has been on modeling the
compressive behavior of concrete. These applica-
tions made use of the model as implemented by
the developers of the model to simulate the prob-
lems of concern as well as conducting qualitative
parametric studies with regard to the effect of
critical model parameters on the prediction out-
come. The focus of the enhancement of the mate-
rial model for the past few decades has been to
improve the predictions of the compressive behav-
ior of concrete.
Recent investigations (Tawadrous, 2010), (Tu &
Lu, 2010) evaluated the ability of the model to
reproduce the behavior of brittle materials under
different loading conditions. The results of the
investigations showed the following conclusions:
1. The RHT model is more suitable for the predic-
tion of compressive damage rather than a com-
bination of tensile and compressive damage.
This imposes a major limitation on the model
when used to analyze blasting problems in min-
ing applications.
2. The rate-dependency in tension needs to be
reformulated to keep in line with generally
accepted macroscopic dynamic enhancement
functions.
3. Under a triaxial extension condition, the model
produces a behaviour that differs from what
might generally be expected under such stress
conditions.
4. The default parameter configurations of the
tensile-to-compressive meridian ratio require
modification to produce results more consistent
with experimental observations.
5. A softening model should be employed to aug-
ment the RHT model. Under tension softening,
the softening law should ensure the anticipated
310
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 310
softening process while maintaining specified
fracture energy.
It has been suggested that a rate dependant
principle failure initiation stress combined with a
bi-linear crack softening model can improve the
tensile response predictive capability of the RHT
model. This work was an investigation into such
modifications to the RHT model. A bi-linear
strain rate dependency in tension has been imple-
mented in both strength and failure models. The
same dependency has been applied to a principle
stress failure surface that can be combined with the
RHT strength and failure model.
The proposed modifications are presented
along with brief descriptions of the background
theory and experimental observations. These
modifications are implemented with user coded
subroutines via the respective interface modules
provided by ANSYS AUTODYN. The modified
behavior of the material model is demonstrated
with numerical models of the explosively-
impacted Hopkinson Pressure Bar experiments.
The improvements of the modified material
model is further verified via numerical simula-
tions of crater blasting in Granite and compari-
sons are made among the predictions using the
original RHT model, the modified RHT model
proposed in this work. Conclusions are drawn on
the usefulness and possible advantages of such
changes and recommendations made.
2 RHT STRENGTH AND DAMAGE MODEL
In hydrocodes, the approach used to model the
strain tensor is achieved by splitting it into volu-
metric and shear strain. In addition to this, the
internal energy of the material needs to be taken
into account. Likewise, the stress tensor may be
separated into a uniform hydrostatic pressure
associated with the volumetric strain and a devia-
toric stress tensor associated with the resistance
of the material to shear distortion. If this can be
achieved, the relationship between the hydrostatic
pressure, the local density and local specific energy
can be defined through what is known as the Equa-
tion of State (EOS).
If the material is a solid and has finite shear
strength then, in addition to the calculation of
the hydrostatic pressure, it is necessary to define
relations between stress and strain. Also required
are relations to define the transition from elastic
to plastic strain, both in compression and tension,
and a relationship to define the onset of fracture.
Generally for solids the yield criterion govern-
ing the transition from elastic to plastic behavior
may involve only constant yield strength, or this
10/3/2012 8:36:55 PM

strength may itself be a function of the degree of
strain, the strain rate, the pressure, the Lode angle,
and the temperature of the material. This relation-
ship is known as the strength model.
The RHT material model is a phenomenological
material model that has been used to model concrete
and other concrete-like geologic materials, such as
rock. This has been well reported, and extensively used
and validated (Preece & Lownds, 2009), (Lappanen,
2002), (Sculer, Mayrhofer, & Thoma, 2006), (Tu &
Lu, 2010), (Tawadrous & Katsabanis, 2007), (Riedel,
Thoma, Hiermaier, & Schmolinske, 1999). The
RHT model is a combined strength and damage
model that can be coupled with a non-linear iso-
tropic Equation of State (EoS) that represents the
volumetric response. The phenomena that are repli-
cated in the model are:
Porous compaction
Energy dependency in the equation of state
Pressure hardening
Strain hardening
Strain rate hardening in tension and compression
Third invariant dependence for compressive and
tensile meridians
Strain softening
Coupling of damage due to porous collapse
The algorithms of a material model only make
up a portion of a fully defined material descrip-
tion that can be used within a hydrocode. The main
.
function; FRATE ( p ) = the strain rate dependency;
R3() = the third invariant dependency.
The model is modular in nature and is designed
such that individual aspects of the material behav-
ior can be turned on and off. The model is also scal-
able with the uni-axial compressive strength. This
gives the model significant practical usefulness.
The basis of the model is the pressure dependant
compressive meridian of the material. This merid-
ian, defining the peak strength of the material, is
strain-rate dependent and can move in the direc-
tion of increasing plastic strain rate. Once the peak
strength is exceeded, a shear damage increment is
calculated and the yield is gradually reduced from
the peak strength to the frictional surface as dam-
age accumulates.
2.2 Strain rate effects
Strain rate effects are represented through increases
in peak strength with plastic strain rate. Two dif-
ferent terms are used for compression and tension
with linear interpolation being used in the interme-
diate pressure regime.
 p
for P* > 13
30 10 6
FRATE = (3)
 p 1
3 10 6 for P < 3
*

part of a model is the parameters that represent

the phenomenological response of the material.
These parameters can be obtained from experi- FRATE has a minimum value of one. This rate
mental tests. enhancement factor needs to be applied to the
peak strength surface. The equation used is:
2.1 Strength
The RHT model is a combined plasticity and shear (
Y*TXC P*, FRAT
RATEE ) A ddyn
yn ( P
*
Ps*,dyn )n (4)
damage model in which the deviatoric stress in the
material is limited by a generalized failure surface A dyn FRATE1 n
AF (5)
(Riedel, 2004).
1
F F n
(P, eq , , p , p ) Ps*,dyn = RATE RATE (6)
3 A
= eq fcY* ( p , P*, p )FCA *
P ( P )R3 ( )
CAP (1)

Y* ( p P*, p) = fn ( , Y*TXC
p ,Y (P , F
*
RATE
RAT E( p) )) (2) Additionally, when the option to truncate the
fracture surface is used, the rate enhancement is also
applied so that the yield surface passes through the
where eq = the equivalent stress; P = the hydro- rate scaled uni-axial compressive strength, shear
static pressure; fc = the uni-axial compressive strength and uni-axial tensile strength points.
strength of the material; P* = the hydrostatic
pressure normalised by the uni-axial compressive
2.3 Strain hardening
strength; = the Lode angle; p = the p
plastic strain;
.
p = the plastic strain rate; Y*TXC P* ,FRATE () =( ) Strain hardening is represented in the model
through the definition of an elastic limit surface
the pressure and rate dependant . peak surface
in meridian space; Y* ( p ,P*, p ) = the pre- and a hardening slope. The elastic limit surface
peak yield surface on the compressive meridian; is scaled down from the peak surface. The pre-
FCAP(P*) = the pressure dependant elastic cap peak yield surface is subsequently defined through

311

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 311 10/3/2012 8:36:55 PM

 interpolation between the elastic and peak surfaces 2.5 Tensile failure initiation and damage model
using a hardening slope based on the ratio of
An appropriate way of modeling tensile failure is
elastic and plastic shear moduli. This is shown in
using a failure initiation model along with a dam-
Figure 1 for the case of uni-axial compression. The
age model that models the relaxation of stress
yield surface is scaled from the peak yield surface
as the crack strain grows. This is done within
using the formula:
AUTODYN by combining the principle tensile
stress failure model to model crack initiation and
p
Y* Yel* +
p pre
(Y
*
TXC Ye*l ) (7) the crack softening model to treat the accumula-
tion of damage and the effect on the local material
through stress softening. The greatest advantage
p e = the p
where p,pre pre-peak plastic strain defined as: of this approach is the simplicity of the modeling
p pre = YTXC
*
Yeel* 3G * G G G p1 ; Yeel*l = the constants required, and also their availability in the
initial elastic limit surface scaled from down from open literature. The parameters used for this are:
the peak surface; G / G G p1 = a ratio of plastic A maximum principle tensile initiation stress
and elastic shear moduli and is a user defined The dynamic fracture surface energy of the
parameter. material
Plastic strain is accumulated in the model as soon
as the elastic surface is exceeded. Shear damage is The tensile crack softening models implemented
not accumulated until the plastic strain exceeds the in AUTODYN is a Rankine plasticity model for
pre-peak plastic strain. Previously damaged mate- brittle cracking based on the work by Feenstra and
rial will not exhibit any further strain hardening. de Borst (Freenstra & Borst, 1992). The Rankine,
or principal stress failure surface, can be expressed
as:
2.4 Shear damage and the friction surface
Damage is assumed to accumulate due to inelas- f (I1, J 2 , J3 ) = 2 3J 2 I1 3T
3Tiinitit 0 (10)
tic deviatoric straining (shear induced cracking)
once the peak yield has been exceeded using the where I1, J2 and J3 = invariants of the total and
relationships deviatoric stress tensor; Tinit = the failure initiation
stress
p
D= (8)
fail
p 3 3 J3
cos(3) = (11)
2 J23/2
fail
p MAX D1(P* ( htll* )D2 , fail
h p,min ) (9)
Tensile failure is initiated via a maximum
where D = the damage ranging from zero to unity; principal stress or strain criteria defined through
fail
p = the pressure dependant
p plastic strain to a Rankine failure surface. This failure surface
failure; D1, D2 and fail
p,min = material constants; is superimposed onto the traditional constitu-
fail
p,min maintains a minimum strain to complete tive strength model. A distinctive feature of the
damage at low pressures. Rankine failure surface is its triangular form in
Damage accumulation can have two effects in -space, Figure 2.
the model: strain softening and reduction in shear The Rankine failure surface provides a limit for
stiffness. the maximum principal tensile stress in the mate-
rial. When the trial elastic stress state violates the
Rankine failure criteria, the stress is returned to

cr
1
J2 =60.0

cr
=0.0

3
2
-v3.0*T MAX -I1

(a) meridional plane (b) -space

Figure 1. Bi-linear strain hardening function. Figure 2. Crack softening Rankine failure surface.

312

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 312 10/3/2012 8:36:59 PM

 the failure surface. The option to force the return
to take place at constant pressure, thus avoiding
bulking, is the default. Other options of return are
radial return and associative flow (bulking).
The return to the Rankine failure surface
reduces the trial elastic stresses. The associated
loss in strain energy results in an increase in the
effective tensile crack strain, c. The rate of crack
growth, hence damage, is controlled by the mate-
rial fracture energy, Gf, the initial failure stress,
Tinit, and the local characteristic dimension, l, of
the numerical cell representing the volume of frac-
tured material. The resulting damage is formulated
such that the work required to extend a crack by a
unit length is relatively insensitive to the local ele-
ment size.
A representation of a crack is shown in Figure 3.
The cell is under stress T, the crack has a strain c
and the cell dimension is l. The width of the crack
is c.l. The crack opens up, and the stress reduces
to zero when the crack width reaches a critical size,
c,crit.l. It is assumed that the stress reduces linearly
as the crack opens. The material fracture energy is
the energy release due to creating the new surfaces
and can be equated to the average force multiplied
by the width of the crack.
The tensile crack softening model can be used
in conjunction with the RHT strength and shear
damage model. The same damage variable is used
for both models and in each cycle a damage incre-
ment can be calculated from either (but not both)
the shear damage law or the tensile crack law. The
Rankine surface can be superimposed onto the
RHT yield surface in meridian space (Fig. 4). The
Figure 3. Schematic of a tensile crack.
313
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 313
Figure 4. Rankine surface superimposed onto the RHT
yield surface in meridian space.
surface that is returned to, and thus which dam-
age increment law is used, is the lower surface at
constant pressure.
3 LIMITATIONS OF THE RHT MODEL
Recent studies reported the following limitations
in the RHT model formulation (Tawadrous, 2010),
(Tu & Lu, 2010), (Lappanen, 2002):
Rate Enhancement of the RHT Compres-
sive Meridian: The dynamic expression for
the RHT compressive meridian does not pass
through the rate scaled uni-axial compression
point. Therefore, the rate enhancement is over
predicted.
Rate Enhancement of the RHT Tensile
Meridian: The rate enhancement in tension
in modeled using a single linear relationship.
Experimental results have shown that the
strength of geomaterials follows a bi-linear rate
dependency.
Rate Enhancement of the Rankine surface: The
Rankine surface used with crack-softening has no
rate enhancement associated with it. The effect of
this is that in tension, the failure initiation stress
is constant and does not vary with strain rate.
The strain Hardening Model: The strain hard-
ening model, although generally effective, has
two limitations due to its simplicity:
1. If the material is at all damaged, then no hard-
ening takes place. Brittle materials can damage
slightly in tension through the crack softening
law and then go back into compression.
The quantity of hardening is determined by the
ratio of the effective plastic strain, and a calcula-
tion of the total amount of plastic strain required
until the peak surface is reached. The effective
plastic strain is monotonically increasing, whilst
the pre-peak strain is pressure dependant. There-
fore, the current quantity of hardening varies with
pressure, not the history of the hardening.
10/3/2012 8:37:03 PM
 4 MODIFICATIONS TO THE RHT MODEL
To improve the predictions of the behavior of geo-
logical materials, bi-linear crack softening, bi-linear
rate enhancement in tension and a rate scaled com-
pressive enhancement have been implemented into
a user subroutine in ANSYS AUTODYN. Further
details of these modifications are given in the fol-
lowing subsections.
4.1 Rate-scaled compressive rate enhancement
in the RHT model
An option has been added to apply the rate enhance-
ment factor to the compressive meridian. This rate
enhancement factor is applied to the peak strength
surface. Using this option the dynamic expression
for the RHT compressive meridian passes through
the rate scaled uni-axial compression point.
4.2 Bi-linear rate enhancement in tension
The tensile rate dependency in the RHT model is
modeled using a single equation covering the entire
static and dynamic loading range which makes it
very inflexible. The tensile rate enhancement has
been changed to:
. 1 . .
p for P p,i
D1
FRATE,tensile = . (12)
p 2 . . of fracture energy release or the critical crack
for P > p,i
D 2
where p,i = the intercept between the two curves;
1, 2, D1, and D2 = material constants.
4.3 Bi-linear crack softening
It has been observed experimentally that in tension
the residual strength of geologic materials initially
drops quickly once failure has initiated and then
softens more gradually. This is illustrated on in
Figure 5. It has been proposed (Lappanen, 2002)
that the transition between the two slope occurs
when the crack length reaches about 17% of the
critical crack length (1/6 c,crit.l). The bi-linear sof-
tening model has been implemented.
4.4 Rate Enhancement of the rankine surface
The effect of the rate enhancement needs to be
applied to the initiation of the crack then to the
softening of the crack. The application of the
effect of rate enhancement is not straight forward
as there are conflicting logical arguments on how
this should be implemented:
314
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 314
Stress
Tinit
h1
1/3 Tinit h2
Crack
1/6 c,crit.l c,crit.l Width
Figure 5. Schematic of the bi-linear crack softening
model.
1. The rate enhancement is a function of the plas-
tic strain rate. Once the material is cracking, the
materials plastic strain rate reduces to zero as
the material is no longer plastically straining.
This leads to the two options:
The Rankine surface is applied as a constant
rate enhancement dependant on the rate
enhancement at failure initiation.
The rate enhancement equation can be altered
to be a function of either the plastic strain
rate or crack strain rate depending on whether
the material is plastically straining or crack-
ing. Therefore, the rate enhancement on the
Rankine surface is continually updated.
2. During the softening process, either the amount
width at total fracture has to remain constant.
Based on these two arguments, four differ-
ent options exist. All four options have been
implemented.
Option (1): Rate enhancement is applied to the
initiation stress, remains constant for the subse-
quent crack softening calculation and the frac-
ture energy release remains constant.
Option (2): Rate enhancement is applied to the
initiation stress, remains constant for the subse-
quent crack softening calculation and the frac-
ture energy release is considered a static value
and is used to calculate a critical crack width
that remains constant.
Option (3): Rate enhancement is applied to the
initiation stress, continually updated for the sub-
sequent crack softening calculation and the frac-
ture energy release remains constant.
Option (4): Rate enhancement is applied to the
initiation stress, continually updated for the sub-
sequent crack softening calculation and the frac-
ture energy release is considered a static value
and is used to calculate a critical crack width
that remains constant.
10/3/2012 8:37:04 PM
 5 VERIFICATION OF THE
IMPLEMENTED MODIFICATIONS

5.1 Single-cell test

Verification of the implemented routines was done
using a series of single cell tests. A typical test is
to pull a single element in uni-axial tension. The
simulation setup is shown in Figure 6. There are
5 single element parts in this model, each filled
with the RHT model utilizing one of the options
mentioned above. The parts are then stretched in
the x direction only, with no constraint in the y
direction. The material options are as defined in
the previous section with the different rate options
on the crack softening model. A summary of the
material assignment is given in Table 1.
It can be seen in Figure 7 that the model is behav- Figure 7. Reduction in tensile stress as time progresses
ing as expected. Gauge 5 is the material with no for a sample under uni-axial tensile stress.
strain rate enhancement. The other cells all start to
fail at a higher stress due to the rate enhancement
on the Rankine surface. The effect of the bi-linear
softening can be easily seen. As the elements are
essentially being pulled at a constant strain rate,
it is understandable that the response of Option 1
and Option 3 are the same, as are Option 2 and

Figure 8. Energy release as the crack grows for a sample

under uni-axial stress.

Option 4. Option 2 and Option 4, in which the

damage accumulates to unity as the crack width
approaches a constant static value, completely
damages at the same point as the rate independent
model. This leads to an increase in release energy
as can be seen in Figure 8. As expected, option 1,
Figure 6. Single element test. option 3 and the rate independent model expend
the same release energy.
Similar tests have been carried out at different
Table 1. Summary of the material assignment used in strain rates, with the linear crack softening model,
the single-cell test. using the 3D structured solver and the 3D unstruc-
tured hexahedral solver.
Material name Comment Gauge number

LAURENTIAN Option 1 1 5.2 Explosively-impacted Hopkinson bar tests

LAURENTIAN2 Option 2 2
In a recent study, several experiments have been
LAURENTIAN3 Option 3 3
undertaken using a modified version of the
LAURENTIAN4 Option 4 4
Hopkinson Pressure Bar Test (HPBT) to meas-
LAURENTIAN5 Rate dependency 5
off ure the dynamic tensile strength of granite. An
example of the experimental strain-time records

315

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 315 10/3/2012 8:37:05 PM

 is depicted in Figure 9. Figure 10 is a photograph
showing the post-experiment failure mode of the
sample (Tawadrous, 2010).
The simulation setup to reproduce the experimen-
tal results is shown in Figure 11. The explosive and
surrounding air are modeled in an Euler domain
with Euler/Lagrange coupling to the attenuator
and the granite bar sample. The attenuator and the
granite sample are model in Lagrange with contact
defined between the two parts. 2D axial symmetry
was used.
Four gauges were added to represent the strain
gauges in the experiment. The gauge locations are
shown in Figure 12. The results compared between
the experiment and the simulations are the strain-
time traces, the general final appearance of the Figure 11. Simulation set-up for the SHB experiment.
sample and the number of tensile cracks normal to
the axis of symmetry towards the free end.
Several simulations were undertaken to check
the effect of implemented changes in the mate-
rial behavior. The first simulation undertaken
used the material model provided in the literature
(Tawadrous, 2010). This simulation, referred to
from here on as the original model, was run as a
Figure 12. Strain gauge locations.

base case to compare the subsequent simulations

to. The simulation results are shown in Figure 13.
In general, the following comments can be made:
A small amount of damage is seen at the contact
end of the sample.
The sample shows no fractures (or potential
fractures) at the free end
The strain gauge traces compare relatively well
with the experimental strain records as the com-
pressive pulse propagates along the sample.
There are higher frequency components in the
hydrocode simulation that are not seen on the
experimental traces.
Figure 9. Experimental strain-time record (Tawadrous,
No residual strains are recorded in the simula-
2010). tions, whilst gauges 2, 3, and 4 record a residual
tensile strain in the experiment.
The RHT parameter values were recalculated
for the implemented changes from the experimen-
tal data provided by (Tawadrous, 2010). The fol-
lowing set of simulations used the new parameters
values and the options shown in Table 2 and incre-
mentally changed the tensile failure parameters.
The results of the final damage in the sample and
the strain traces are shown in Figure 14 through
Figure 18.
Model (2) had the new derived parameter val-
ues, but did not have any of the new enhance-
ments activated. The solution is very similar to
Figure 10. Experimental fractures in the bar the original model. There is slightly more damage
(Tawadrous, 2010). at the contact end and the strain records showed

316

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 316 10/3/2012 8:37:05 PM


Figure 13. Simulation results for the original model.
Table 2. Material options of first set of simulations.
Model (2) New material parameters
No crack softening
Linear rate hardening
Model (3) New material parameters
RHT peak surface not truncated
at lower pressures
Linear crack softening (option 4)
Linear rate hardening
Model (4) New material parameters
RHT peak surface defined as
alternative method
Linear crack softening (option 4)
Linear rate hardening
Model (5) New material parameters
RHT peak surface defined as
alternative method
Linear crack softening (option 4)
Bi-linear rate hardening
Model (6) New material parameters
RHT peak surface defined as
alternative method
Bi-linear crack softening (option 4)
Bi-linear rate hardening
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 317
Figure 14. Simulation results for model (2).
Table 3. Material options to examine the effect of crack
softening.
Model (7) New material parameters
RHT peak surface defined as alternative
method
Bi-linear crack softening (option 3)
Bi-linear rate hardening
Model (8) New material parameters
RHT peak surface defined as alternative
method
Bi-linear crack softening (option 2)
Bi-linear rate hardening
Model (9) New material parameters
RHT peak surface defined as alternative
method
Bi-linear crack softening (option 1)
Bi-linear rate hardening
more noise. The decreased damage in the origi-
nal model is due to the data input into the model
can allow very large tensile pressures without
damage.
All subsequent simulations in this section had
crack softening activated. Generally, the results
are very positive. There is much less damage at
the contact end of the sample and there are areas
of damage towards the free end of the sample.
317
10/3/2012 8:37:05 PM
 Figure 15. Simulation results for model (3).
Figure 16. Simulation results for model (4).
In the strain plots, residual tensile strains occur at
locations 3 and 4. A significant difference in the
results between the models considered is that when
the bi-linear tensile rate dependency is activated.
Significantly less damage is predicted at the con-
tact end of the sample. Also, the high frequency
component in the strain gauges is much increased.
The traces look apparently much noisier and the
peak compressive strains are far larger than those
recorded in the experiments, though for very small
time durations. The results of the different simula-
tions are shown in Figure 14 through Figure 18.
Three simulations were undertaken to look at
the effects of the different crack softening options
on the strain rate enhancement and the fracture
energy. These should be compared with simulation
Model (6) reported above.
318
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 318
The fracture energy released can be calculated in
either of two ways. First, the fracture energy is con-
sidered a rate independent property and the energy
released as the crack opens is always constant
despite the loading conditions. This method was
used in both Model (7) and Model (9). The second
method assumes that the fracture energy is a static
property that defines the distance the crack needs
to open before the tensile stresses are returned to
zero. This critical crack distance then becomes a rate
independent property. This assumption was used in
Model (6) and Model (8). It can be observed that
using the rate independent fracture energy induces
more damage at the contact end of the sample.
The effect of the strain rate on the softening
can be applied in either of two ways. First, the
rate enhancement is applied only to the initiation
10/3/2012 8:37:06 PM
 Figure 17. Simulation results for model (5).
Figure 18. Simulation results for model (6).
stress. The second method is that once cracking
has initiated the rate enhancement is calculated
from the crack strain rate, and the effect of this
on the softening is continually updated throughout
the calculation.
It can be seen that the choice of the effect of the
strain rate on the softening has a reasonably large
effect. With the rate enhancement only applied to
the initiation stress, cracks normal to the axis of
the sample can be seen. The magnitude of the com-
pressive strains is much closer to the experiment
and the magnitude of the high frequency compo-
nent of the strains are much lower. The results of
this set of simulations are depicted in Figure 19
through Figure 21.
It should be noted that if the rate is only applied
to the initiation stress, then if the RHT parameters
do not have pre-peak strain hardening then there
319
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 319
will be no plastic strains produced, and thus no
strain rate. Therefore the tensile failure stress will
always be the static value.
Two simulations have been carried out to inves-
tigate the benefit of a bi-linear tensile strain rate
enhancement over a linear strain rate enhancement.
The material properties of these simulations are
given in Table 4 and can be compared to Model (6)
and Model (7) reported above.
From Figure 22 and Figure 23, it can be seen
that the general effect of using just the linear hard-
ening is that the high frequency component of the
strains are much reduced. It can also be seen that
the cracks are predicted to form normal to the
axis of the sample, though to do not progress to
completion.
It is of interest to look at the strain rates in one
of the models with the bi-linear rate enhancement.
10/3/2012 8:37:06 PM
 Figure 19. Simulation results for model (7).

Figure 20. Simulation results for model (8).

Figure 21. Simulation results for model (9).

320

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 320 10/3/2012 8:37:07 PM

 Table 4. Material options to examine effect of the bi-linear tensile
strain rate.

Model (10) New material parameters

RHT peak surface defined as alternative method
Bi-linear crack softening (option 4)
Linear rate hardening
Model (11) New material parameters
RHT peak surface defined as alternative method
Bi-linear crack softening (option 3)
Linear rate hardening

Figure 22. Simulation results for model (10).

Figure 23. Simulation results for model (11).

Pressure, strain rate and rate enhancement are
plotted in Figure 24 for Model (6). It can be seen
that there is a high frequency oscillation in the
pressure. Within the simulation, very large strain
rates occur due to this oscillation, which with the
bi-linear strain rate hardening, causes very large
rate enhancements. The strain rate will lag behind
the true strain rate due to its formulation.
Therefore, the formulation is not ideal for rapidly
changing strain rates. It can also be seen that the
bi-linear rate enhancement seem to exacerbate
these oscillations. The oscillation in the pressure/
stress in the simulations is investigated in the next
section.

321

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 321 10/3/2012 8:37:07 PM

 Figure 24. Pressure, strain rate and rate enhancement at two gauge locations for Model (6).

Table 5. Material options to examine the effect of the combined imple-

mented changes.

Model (12) New material parameters

RHT peak surface defined as alternative method
Bi-linear crack softening (option 2)
Linear rate hardening

The final simulation was a combination of the

implemented options which produced results that
correlated the most to the experimental records.
The material options used in this model are sum-
marized in Table 5. The results of the simulation
are shown in Figure 25.

6 CONCLUSIONS

A detailed description of the RHT model and the

crack softening models associated with it has been
given in this work. Also the observed limitations
of the model as well as the modifications made to
overcome these limitations have been illustrated.
User subroutines have been written in an investi-
gation into the improved modeling of the tensile
behavior of geological materials. These routines
have enabled:
A bi-linear strain rate dependency of the rate
enhancement factor in tension for the RHT
combined strength and failure model
The same rate enhancement factor was applied
Figure 25. Damage & strain records for Model (12). to the principle stress failure surface (a Rankine

322

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 322 10/3/2012 8:37:08 PM

 failure surface) that can be combined with the
RHT strength and failure model
Damage is accumulated by either return to the
RHT surface (with the accumulation of plastic
strain) or to the Rankine surface (accumulation
of crack strain). An option has been included that
allows the accumulation of crack strain to contrib-
ute to the strain rate enhancement factor. The crack
softening algorithm has been modified so that the
softening slope is bi-linear. The rate dependency
can be applied to the softening slope or just to the
initiation stress. The fracture energy can either be
considered a rate independent quantity or a static
quantity that defines a rate independent critical
crack strain at which the material cannot sustain
any further tensile load.
Simulations in a 2D axial symmetry approxi-
mation have been undertaken to reproduce the
experimental results of a Hopkinson bar type test.
Generally, the simulation results of this test showed
promise in the ability to better predict the tensile
response of a geologic material. However, it is
noted that there is a high frequency element to the
calculated strains that is not present in the experi-
mental strain records. Due to this high frequency
component in the strains, the predicted strain rate
enhancement may be over predicted. Using the bi-
linear stain rate dependency in tension seems to
exaggerate this high frequency component.
REFERENCES
ANSYS, Inc. 2011. ANSYS AUTODYN Theory Manual.
Canonsburg, PA: ANSYS, Inc.
Freenstra, P.H., & Borst, R. 1992. The Rankine Plastic-
ity Model for Concrete Cracking. In Owen, & Onate,
Computational Plasticity, Theory and Applications
(pp. 657668). UK: Pineridy Press.
Hansson, H., & Skoglund, P. 2002. Simulation of
Concrete Penetration in 2D and 3D with the RHT
Material Model. Tumba, Sweden: Swedish Defense
Research Agency.
Holmquist, T.J., Johnson, G.R., & Cook, W.H. 1993.
A Computational Constitutive Model for Concrete
Subjected to Large Strains, High Strain Rates and
High Pressures. In J.M. Michael, & E.B. Joseph (Ed.),
Proceedings of the 14th International Symposium on
Ballistics, (pp. 591600). Quebec, CA.
323
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 323
Lappanen, J. 2002. Dynamic Behaviour of Con-
crete Structures Subjected to Blast and Fragment
Impact. Goteborg, Sweden: Chalmers University of
Technology.
Livermore Software Technology Corporation. 2003. LS-
DYNA Users Manual, Version 970. Livermore Soft-
ware Technology Corporation.
Malvar, L.J., Crawford, J.E., Wesevich, J.W., & Simons, D.
1997. A Plasticity Concrete Model for DYNA3D.
International Journal of Impact Engineering,
847874.
Preece, D.S., & Lownds, C.M. 2009. 3D Computer Simu-
lation of Bench Blasting With Precise Delay Timing.
Blasting and Fragmentation Journal, 227240.
Rabczuk, T., & Eibl, J. 2006. Modelling Dynamic Failure
of Concrete with Meshfree Methods. International
Journal of Impact Engineering, 18781897.
Riedel, W. 2004. Beton unter dynamischen Lasten Meso-
und makromechanische Modelle und ihre Parameter.
Freiburg: Fraunhofer Institut fr Kurzzeitdynamik,
Ernst-Mach-Institut.
Riedel, W., Thoma, K., Hiermaier, S., & Schmolinske, E.
1999. Penetration of Reinforced Concrete by BETA-
B-500Numerical Analysis Using a New Macro-
scopic Concrete Model for Hydrocodes. Proceedings
of the 9th International Symposium on Interaction
of the Effect of Munitions with Structures, (pp. 315
322). Berlin: Strausberg.
Sculer, H., Mayrhofer, C., & Thoma, K. 2006. Spall
Experiments for the Measurements of Tensile
Strength and Fracture Energy of Concrete at High
Strain Rates. International Journal of Impact Engi-
neering, 16351650.
Tawadrous, A.S. 2010. Hard Rocks Under High Strain-
Rate Loading. Department of Mining Engineering.
Kingston, ON: Queens University.
Tawadrous, A.S., & Katsabanis, P.D. 2007. Numeri-
cal Modeling of the Effect of High Stresses on Blast
Induced Damage. Proceedings of the 33rd Annual
Conference on Explosives & Blasting Technique.
Nashville, TN: International Society of Explosives
Engineers.
Tu, Z., & Lu, Y. 2010. Modifications of RHT Model
for Improved Numerical Simulations of Dynamic
Response of Concrete. International Journal of
Impact Engineering, 10721082.
Unosson, M., & Nilsson, L. 2006. Projectile Pen-
etration and Perforation of High Strength Concrete:
Experimental Results and Macroscopic Model-
ling. International Journal of Impact Engineering,
10681085.
10/3/2012 8:37:08 PM
This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

A statistical model of fragmentation

J. Zimmerling & R. Alkins

iRing Inc., North Bay, Ontario, Canada

ABSTRACT: This paper provides the details of a statistical model of fragmentation due to under-
ground ring blasting. The aims of this model are to account for all relevant input parameters, provide
accurate and meaningful predictions of fragmentation, and to be computable in a reasonable amount
of time in order to facilitate optimization of blast designs. The model is based on previous work in the
blasting literature in conjunction with probability and statistical theory. The ore body is characterized
by a probability density function describing the in-situ block size distribution, as well measured physical
properties, such as P-wave and S-wave velocities, tensile and compressive strength, elastic moduli and den-
sity. Borehole pressure is determined using explosive density, velocity of detonation and coupling. This
pressure creates strain waves which are modeled using a closed form approximation of the wave equation.
Rock damage is modeled following a method of micro-crack propagation due to tensile volumetric strain.
The in-situ block size distribution is then transformed by the micro-crack growth and a new probability
density function describing the final post-blast muckpile is produced. Results of numerical simulations
are presented, followed by a discussion of how to determine input parameters and how to calibrate the
model using previous results.

1 INTRODUCTION a top primed charge would have greater peak

The importance of fragmentation in the wider
context of mine-to-mill productivity has been
well documented (see for example the chapter on
Blasting and Productivity in Mohanty (ed.) 1996).
In order to maximize efficiency and profit, blasts
must be designed in a way that creates process
optimal fragmentation. This requires being able to
reliably predict the resultant fragmentation of any
given blast design. The most widely used method
for predicting fragmentation by blasting is the
Kuz-Ram model (Cunningham 1983). This model
is designed specifically for bench blasting opera-
tions, and has parameters that require uniform-
ity between holes (e.g. mass of explosive per hole,
specific charge, charge length, bench height, etc.).
Although work has been done to develop fragmen-
tation models for underground mining operations
(Oederra, 2005, Liu, 2006), these models rely on
principles that are contented within the literature
(Blair & Minchinton 1996, 2006).
In the preliminary stages of model development
it became clear that changes in the priming point
(i.e. the initial point of detonation) of a charge
changes the shape of the peak stress and peak
particle velocity fields (Blair & Minchinton 1996,
2006). This work suggested that a bottom primed
column of explosive would have greater peak stress
and vibration levels near the top of the column of
explosive compared to a top primed charge (and
stress and vibration levels near the bottom of the
charge). Experimental work was done to verify this
(Zimmerling & Alkins, in prep.) and it was deter-
mined that primer location plays an important
role in the stress and vibration fields surrounding
a column of explosive. However, the authors were
unable to find any empirical or mechanistic models
that take primer position into account.
This paper outlines a model that aims to provide
a tool that responds realistically to all relevant input
parameters and gives fast and accurate predictions
of the volume of undersized and oversized material
produced by underground ring blasting. There are
models that provide a more extensive description
of the blasting process such as the Hybrid Stress
Blasting Model (see for example Furtney et al.
2010) than the one presented in this paper. It is the
authors aim to provide a model that makes a com-
promise between computational speed and accu-
racy. The proposed model is intended to be more
accurate than a purely empirical model, while still
being fast enough to use as an engineering tool.
In the current model many simplifying assump-
tions are made in order to reduce the computa-
tional complexity, as the end goal is a responsive
engineering tool rather than a physically accurate
description of every particle within an ore body.
The model begins with a probability distribu-
tion that characterizes the ore body. Detonating
explosives cause displacement of the borehole

325

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 325 10/3/2012 8:37:08 PM

 wall, which creates waves throughout the ore body.
These waves create strain on the body, and if this
strain exceeds the tensile strength of the ore, then
micro-cracks begin to form. These micro-cracks
then alter the probability density of the block size,
producing a new distribution that characterizes the
post blast fragment size distribution.
The model is broken into five distinct parts:
in-situ block size distribution, borehole pressure,
strain wave traveling throughout the ore body,
micro-crack growth and post-blast fragment size
distribution. A conscious effort was made to con-
sider only input parameters that either have sound
physical meaning or are site specific scaling param-
eters that can be determined using seismographs
or other vibration monitoring devices. A numerical
simulation of a set of rings is presented, followed
by a discussion of determining parameters, as well
future work to be done towards testing, validating
and refining the model.
2 IN-SITU BLOCK SIZE DISTRIBUTION
Much work has been done towards determining the
precise size and orientation of joints, seams, faults,
and other geological phenomena that make up
the in-situ block size distribution of an ore body.
However, not all sites have the means of accurately
describing the entire joint network, especially in
underground operations. Thus, instead of attempt-
ing to fully model every discontinuity throughout
an ore-body, a statistical method is employed.
Begin by assuming that the in-situ block size
distribution can be characterized by some proba-
bility density function f(x). Throughout this paper
a Weibull distribution will be assumed, although
the techniques presented here can be generalized to
account for any distribution. A Weibull probability
density function (Weibull 1939) is defined as
k 1
k x
f x) = e ( x / )
k
(1)
model. It is assumed that the maximum theo-
where k and are shape and scale parameters
respectively. The mean and variance of this distri-
bution are
( + ) (2)
( )
2 (1 + 2 ) (1 + 1 )
2
(3)
where is the gamma function.
Suppose there are an arbitrary number of blocks
with volumes {Vi}. These block volumes can be
approximated by equivalent spheres and the pass-
ing size of each block, denoted as xi, is
326
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 326
6V
xi (4)
i
Under the assumption that the sample mean
and variance provide an accurate approximation
of the population mean and variance, the parame-
ters of the distribution can be found using method
of moments (Khalili & Kromp 1991). For a sample
that follows a Weibull distribution, k can be esti-
mated by solving
S
=
( ( + / k ) ( k )
2
) (5)
xavg ( + k)
where xavg and S are the sample mean and vari-
ance. Equation 5 can be solved using an iterative
procedure. Then can be estimated by
xavg
= (6)
( + / k )
This gives a statistical description of the relative
frequency of the in-situ passing size of blocks in
an ore body.
3 BOREHOLE PRESSURE-TIME FUNCTION
Borehole pressure is the action of high pressure
gases on the interface between a hole (filled with
explosive) and the surrounding rock medium,
caused by the chemical reaction of the detonation
of the explosive. In the proposed blast damage
model, borehole pressure is an essential part of the
model.
There are many blasting codes which describe
the detonation process (for example Braithwaite
et al. 2010). However, these codes are often com-
putationally expensive, and do not necessarily fit
within the current goal of a computationally fast
retical borehole pressure is determined entirely
by the velocity of detonation and density of the
explosive, and does not account for differences in
energy. Further, it is assumed that the maximum
theoretical borehole pressure is achieved at every
point within a charge, and the behavior of pressure
over time can be described uniformly by a single
function.
Intuitively, we assume that borehole pressure
must be a function of detonation pressure, and
the physical properties of the area around the
explosive (geometry, geology, coupling). Borehole
pressure is in fact a function of explosion pressure,
which is itself a function of detonation pressure.
10/3/2012 8:37:08 PM
 Detonation pressure is defined as the pressure
immediately behind the detonation head. This is
often referred to as the Chapman-Jouget state.
Conservation of momentum for shock phenomena
gives detonation pressure, Pd (Pa) as
e (VOD )2
Pd = (7)
1 + CCJ
where e is the explosive density (kg/m3), VOD is
the velocity of detonation (m/s), and CJ is the coef-
ficient of adiabatic expansion at the Chapman-
Jouget state. A common approximation of CJ is
(Defourneaux 1973)
CJ 1 9 + 0 0006 e (8)
Explosion pressure is created by detonation
products expanding to fill the volume previously
filled by the explosive charge. It is defined as
(Jacobs 1981)
Pd
Pe = (9)
2 en
Borehole pressure is caused by the explosion
pressure expanding outwards and acting upon the
borehole wall. If the explosive in the undetonated
state completely filled the borehole then the bore-
hole pressure will be exactly the explosion pressure.
However, in the case of decoupled charges the
borehole pressure will vary relative to the ratios of
the volumes of the charge and the borehole. With
the assumption that the expansion towards the
walls of the borehole is adiabatic, it follows that
e e = PV
PV (10)
b b
Here the simplifying assumption that is con-
stant is made. The further assumption that is
approximately half of CJ is also made. This gives
an estimate of the maximum borehole pressure
based on velocity of detonation, explosive density
and coupling ratio, which can be stated as
C
CJ
(VOD )2 re 2 Le 2
Pb = e (11)
2(( + CCJ ) rb 2 Lb mation of the differential wave equation describ-
where re is the radius of the explosive, rb is the
radius of the borehole, Le is the length of the
explosive and Lb is the length of the borehole (all
given in m).
The strain waves produced by borehole pressure
created by an explosive cannot be fully described
by the maximum pressure value, rather it must be
327
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 327
described as a function of time. This too has been
an active area of research. Various pressure-time
functions are suggested by, Sharpe (1942), Duvall
(1953), Swoboda & Li (1993), Blair & Minchinton
(2006), and Trivio et al. (2010). Model accuracy
was tested using vibration and pressure data explo-
sive (Zimmerling & Alkins, in prep.). Based on pre-
liminary results, the proposed model of borehole
pressure over time is
P (t ) = Pot n e bt
(12)
where Po is a normalizing factor, n and b are site
constants that need to be fit to local site conditions
(determination of these parameters are further dis-
cussed in Section 8). Po is taken to be the theoretical
peak borehole pressure given by Equation 11 mul-
tiplied by a scaling factor which gives P(t) a maxi-
mum value equal to Pb. This scaling factor can be
determined by solving P(t) = 0 for t and substitut-
ing this back into P(t). This leads to
Pb
Po = (13)
n
n
b
This gives a model of borehole pressure over
time based on explosive and rock properties.
4 STRAIN THROUGHOUT THE ORE
BODY
The description of waves travelling through an
elastic medium is given by a second-order linear
partial differential equation. For waves radiating
from a cylindrical source no closed form solution
exists. These equations can be numerically solved
using techniques such as finite element, discrete
element, finite difference and boundary element
methods. Unfortunately, these techniques are
often very computationally expensive and can take
prohibitively long to run, even on modern hard-
ware. Further, for very large blasts (such as a full
stope), computer memory requirements become
untenable.
The Heelan model (Heelan 1953, Blair &
Minchinton 1996, 2006) is a closed form approxi-
ing the motion in an elastic medium caused by a
cylindrical source. Although it provides an exact
solution only under certain circumstances (Blair
2007), in general it provides an approximation that
is sufficient for our purposes.
Heelan equations describe the displacement of
particles over time in an isotropic, homogenous
continuum due to waves emanating from a squat,
10/3/2012 8:37:12 PM
 cylindrical and instantaneously detonating charge. R
Of course an ore body is not an isotropic, homoge- P tm m
nous medium and the geological effects must some- vp v2
u p (tm , r, zm ) = B
1 2 s 2 cos 2 m (18)
how be included. A slightly modified version of 4v p Rm vp
the Heelan model is presented, although it follows
closely the derivation of the original model (Blair sin m cos m R
& Minchinton 2006). Many of the mathematical us (tm , r, zm ) = P tm m (19)
4vs Rm B vs
details are suppressed for the sake of brevity. The
description of a single element of charge is given,
although in the full model it is extended to either a Here is the rock shear modulus (Pa), and is not
ring or a set of rings. A long charge in a blasthole related to the expected value of a random variable
cannot be represented as a single charge element, (this is the only occurrence where will not denote
as the detonation begins at a priming point and expected value). vp is the P-wave velocity (m/s), vs
propagates throughout the charge at the velocity is the S-wave velocity (m/s), B is an attenuation
of detonation. However, we can divide the charge coefficient (which is discussed in more detail in
into M squat charge elements, with each one hav- section 8) and P(t) is the derivative of Equation 12
ing a time of detonation that can be expressed as a with respect to time.
function of detonation velocity and distance from Volumetric strain, , and volumetric strain rate,
 are defined as
,
the priming point. So for any time t and any point
in cylindrical coordinates (r, z) we can sum the
contribution to displacement of every element of ur ur uz
= + + (20)
charge to find the total displacement at that point r r z
and time.
v v v
Suppose there is a charge of length l. Define  = r + r + z (21)
the bottom of the charge as (0, zb) and the top as r r z
(0, zt). The charge can be divided into M charge
elements each centered at (0, cm). Let the initiation where vr and vz are velocity with respect to the
point be (0, zp). Assuming that detonation begins r- and z-axes.
at t = 0 the detonation time of the mth element of This gives a model that describes volumetric
charge is strain and strain rate throughout an ore body as a
process of time.
(zp cm )2
dm = (14)
VOD 5 MICRO-CRACK GROWTH

For any time t, let tm be the time relative to the Many models of rock damage due to blasting have
mth element of charges detonation time. This is been formulated. They often attribute rock damage
defined as tm = t dm. Further, for any point (r, z) to different factors, and there are models based on
let zm be the z-coordinate relative to the centre of peak particle velocity (Holmberg & Persson 1979),
the mth element of charge defined by zm = cm z. energy (Latham & Lu 1999), and strain (Yang et al.
The Heelan equations describe the displacement 1996) to name a few.
vector of a particle, u, due to a blast from a cylin- Brittle materials such as rock are much weaker
drical source at time t as in tension than in compression. Although there
is compressive failure close to the borehole, the
u=( ) (15) majority of damage is due to tensile strain. It has
been shown that dynamic unloading causes high
M tensile strain, which causes rock damage (Hongtao
ur (u (t
m =1
p m r zm )si m + us (tm , r, zm ) coss m ) (16) et al. 2006). It seems intuitive that damage caused
by strain should be a function of not only the mag-
M nitude of strain but the duration as well. Similarly,
uz (
m =1
u p (tm r, zm )cos m + us (tm , r, zm ) sin
in m ) (17) a mass point undergoing a very high strain rate
will likely be more damaged than one undergoing
a lower strain rate. A damage model that accounts
where m is the angle between the z-axis and the for these factors has been developed by Liu &
vector from (0, cm) to (r, z) (the magnitude of this Katsabanis (1997). They suggest that fragmenta-
vector is denoted Rm) and up(tm, r, zm) and us(tm, r, tion due to tensile strain is caused by nucleation
zm) are the P-wave and S-wave contributions of the of pre-existing micro-cracks as a process of time.
charge defined as When tensile strain exceeds the value of the critical

328

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 328 10/3/2012 8:37:16 PM

 tensile strain of a material (which is proportional
to the static tensile strength) micro-crack growth
occurs, otherwise there is no effect. Over time, the
tensile strain will extend these micro-cracks until
a full crack is formed, fragmenting the rock. It is
suggested that gas pressure does not play an impor-
tant role in determining fragment size, but rather
expands existing cracks and pushes the already
fractured rock masses apart. The original model
of micro-crack density, cd (micro-cracks/m), as a
function of time from Liu & Katsabanis (1997) is
(t ) = ( (t ) (
(t ) t (t
(t )dt
d t)
(t)
d c
where and are material constants (discussed
in further depth in section 8) and c is the critical
volumetric strain, defined as
1 2v
c = Sc
E
where v is Poissons ratio, E is Youngs modulus
(Pa) and Sc is the tensile strength of the media
(Pa). In the proposed model, Equation 22 is modi-
fied slightly. According to this model, it is possible
that for negative volumetric strain rates with very
large magnitudes that micro-crack density will
actually decrease. That is, even when the volumet-
ric strain is tensile (i.e. positive) and exceeds the
critical volumetric strain the micro-crack density
could decrease. So the modification of considering
the absolute value of the volumetric strain rate is
made, giving
cd (t ) = ( (t ) (
(t ) c t (t
(t ) dt
d t)
(t)
So for an ore body divided into N cubes of equal
volume (denoted Ci) the volumetric strain and vol-
umetric strain rate for each Ci can be computed
using the Heelan model, and using these values the
total micro-crack density for the cube can be found
by Equation 24.
6 POST-BLAST BLOCK SIZE
DISTRIBUTION
This model begins with an in-situ block size dis-
tribution, and divides the ore body to be blasted
into blocks of equal volume. As cracks propa-
gate, the probability distribution of each sampling
cube changes to account for fragmentation due to
blasting. New probability density functions are
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 329
generated, and finally a distribution to describe the
entire muck pile is produced.
All particles are assumed to be spherical. It is
also assumed that the probability density function
f(x) determined in Section 2 (again, a Weibull is
used but any probability density function can be
used) describes the relative likelihood that the par-
ticle containing (or average size of the particle con-
tained within) a sampling cube has a diameter of x.
From this distribution, we can determine prob-
abilities for size ranges of interest (e.g. 01 mm,
110 mm, 1030 mm, 3050 mm, etc.).
)
Suppose we have J size ranges we are interested
dt
c
in, partitioning the space (0, ) into subspaces of
(22) not necessarily equal size. Let sj be a value within
the jth range, and pj be the probability density of sj.
The number of micro-cracks n in a particle P with
diameter s, and micro-crack density cd is
3
4 s
n Cd (25)
(23) 3 2
A Weibull distribution is often used to model
the probability of failure of a particle (Weibull
1939, Lundborg 1972, Liu & Katsabanis 1997).
Probability of failure, h(n), is modeled as a func-
tion of the number of micro-cracks within a parti-
cle, and is defined as
h( n ) = 1 e n (26)
It is important to model not only the prob-
ability that a particle of a given size with a given
micro-crack density will fail, but also how many
new sub-particles will be created by this failure.
The predicted number of sub-particles, K, created
)
c dt due to micro-crack growth is the product of the
(24) probability of failure and the number of micro-
cracks available to fail added to the initial particle.
Formally, this is
K n 1 en )
1 n( (27)
This creates m distinct sub particles Pk, such that
P is the union of all Pk. Since the sum of the volumes
of all sub-particles will be equal to the volume of
the original particle, Vp, the average volume of the
sub-particles will simply be the volume of the origi-
nal divided by m. That is, the expected volume of
any sub-particle Pk contained within P is
VP
E [VP k ] = (28)
K
From here, the expected passing size, x, can be
expressed as
329
10/3/2012 8:37:20 PM
 6 E[VPk ]
x= 3 (29)
which reduces to
s3
x= 3 (30)
K
This provides a crucial building block towards
modeling the post-blast size distribution. For
any sampling cube Ci, the micro-crack density
within Ci can be determined using the models in
Sections 35. Then, for every size range with prob-
ability density pj and representative particle with
size sj Equation 30 can be used to find the post-
blast size, xij, of this particle. From here a new
function for each Ci can be constructed as
gi ( xiijj ) = f s j ) = p j
For certain partitionings of (0, ), as J
approaches , gi approximates a probability den-
sity function that describes the relative likelihood
of post-blast particles resulting from a sampling
cube. A useful partitioning is to pick some prob-
ability then there exists an upper limit xmax where
all particles with passing size larger than xmax will
have a probability less than of occurring. Then
(0, xmax) can be divided into J subintervals. When
is sufficiently small, not considering (xmax, ) will
have no meaningful impact on the approximation.
The existence of a finite xmax is guaranteed by the
properties of a cumulative distribution function in
general, and in the specific case of a Weibull distri-
bution it can be found by
xmax = ( ln [ ])
1/ k
The expected value and variance of gi(x) are
M
x ing setups.
i = lim f s j )xi , j max
J
j =1
M
M
x
i2 li
J
f j )( i, j i ) max
M
j =1
Now, a muckpile can be predicted based on
the mean and variance of the individual sampling
cubes throughout the ore body. Muckpiles are
commonly modeled using a Weibull distribution
due to its ease of use and acceptable modeling of
a size distribution that is within approximately one
order of magnitude. Much work has been done
towards developing more robust distributions that
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 330
give a better fit to sieve data, most notably the Swe-
brec function (Ouchterlony 2010). Unfortunately,
little work has been done towards determining
the statistical properties of the Swebrec function
(such as determining mean and variance from the
function parameters, and determining the function
parameters from the mean and variance). In this
model a Weibull distribution is assumed, although
again any well-studied distribution may be sub-
stituted (this is discussed in further detail in Sec-
tion 9). Let the mean and variance of the muckpile
be defined as the average of the means and vari-
ances of the sampling cubes
1 N
i
N i =1
(35)
1 N 2
2 i
N i =1
(36)
(31)
Using the method of moments laid out in
Section 2 a Weibull distribution describing the
muckpile can be constructed. So for any muck-
pile of arbitrary size, the expected tonnage for any
given size range can be determined using this dis-
tribution. This gives a full model of fragmentation
due to blasting, from in-situ block size distribution
to final muckpile.
7 NUMERICAL SIMULATION
This model is currently implemented using
Microsofts.NET Framework with the strain
and micro-crack density computations done on
the video card using general-purpose computing
on graphics processing units techniques written
in OpenGL Shading Language. It has a CAD
(32)
style interface, enabling the user and the system
to work with real underground geometries. Each
charge is detonated based on its timing, allowing
for different wave interactions with different tim-
(33) A numerical study was performed. A block with
a width of 31.75 m, length of 42.5 m and height
of 63.25 m was considered. 11 rings were placed
(34) within this volume, designed with a burden of 3 m
and a toe spacing of 3 m. This led to a total of
174 holes being considered, containing a combined
8352 kg of explosive. The hole diameter was set as
100 mm. All charges were primed at the toe, with
a delay of 5 ms between holes and 15 ms between
rings. An emulsion explosive in granite was con-
sidered. Explosive properties are given in Table 1,
rock properties in Table 2, model parameters in
Table 3 and computational parameters in Table 4.
For the purposes of this simulation the values cho-
330
10/3/2012 8:37:24 PM
 Table 1. Explosive properties used in simulation.

Emulsion
Density (g/cc) 1.18
Velocity of detonation (m/s) 6000

Table 2. Rock properties used in simulation.

Granite

Density (g/cc) 2.7

Mean block size (m) 2.75
Variance of block size distribution 0.40
Tensile strength (MPa) 3.4
Youngs modulus (GPa) 75
Poissons ratio 0.31

Table 3. Model parameters used in simulation.

b 10,000
n 6
B 1.5
7 1010
2

Table 4. Computational parameters used in simulation.

Model resolution (m) 0.25

Time resolution (ms) 0.05
J 30
Element of charge size (m) 0.05

sen for model parameters are taken from textbook

values, rather than fit to existing data.
At a model resolution of 0.25 m this gives
5,462,240 individual points that were considered. Figure 1. Predicted micro-crack density (cracks/m3)
On a 3.30 GhZ CPU running one core using Win- levels around the first ring.
dows 7 64 bit as the operating system and an ATI
FirePro V4800 graphics card this took approxi-
mately 5 minutes to compute.
Figure 1 shows the predicted levels of micro-
crack density surrounding the first ring. Empty
space, such as the drifts above and below the ring,
is assigned a value of 0.
The resulting fragmentation is characterized by
a Weibull distribution with k = 0.59 and = 0.10,
shown in Figure 2. This corresponds to a mean of
0.15 m and a variance of 0.08.

8 DETERMINING MODEL PARAMETERS

The usefulness of a model is directly related to how Figure 2. Predicted fragmentation of muckpile for
reliably the input parameters can be determined. numerical simulation.

331

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 331 10/3/2012 8:37:29 PM

 The goal is to rely on common, measurable scien-
tific and engineering values (preferably ones that a
mine would already keep track of) as much as pos-
sible and to provide easy to use tools to determine
more esoteric parameters.
The size of blocks created by in-situ joints and
micro-cracks can be estimated using a number of
techniques, which vary in accuracy. Other rock
properties, such as density, tensile strength and
wave velocities, can be determined using simple
standard tests and will generally be known to the
engineers onsite.
Explosive properties are provided by the explo-
sive supplier, although it is always wise to test veloc-
ity of detonation values using the desired borehole
diameter and blasting conditions.
The attenuation coefficient, B is based on the
attenuation of the waves caused by explosives in
rock. This coefficient determined by the charge
weight scaling law used by Blair & Minchinton
(2006). However, field experiments (Zimmerling &
Alkins, in prep.) have shown that the charge weight
scaling law does not provide accurate predictions
in conjunction with this model. Instead, B, as
well as n and b are determined using non-linear
optimization, in this case particle swarm optimi-
zation (for full details on using particle swarm
to calibrate predictive models see Zimmerling
2010). A blast (or a number of blasts) is recorded
using vibration monitors, and the peak vibration
levels are recorded. The details of the blast are
placed into the model, and using the techniques
in Sections 3 and 4 the peak vibration is predicted.
The difference between the measured peak and the
predicted peak is then calculated. The values of B,
b and n that minimize this difference then become
the parameters for the model. As more blasts are
recorded the estimates of these coefficients will
become more accurate.
Liu & Katsabanis (1997) provide a framework
for determining and based on dynamic fracture
data, which is often difficult to obtain. They sug-
gest the assumption that = 2 should be made. If
the further assumption that strain rate is constant
is made then can be determined using
1+
0.368E
=  (37)
( )( )
f 0.368Sc
where f is the fracture stress (Pa).
9 DISCUSSION OF THE MODEL
A statistical model of fragmentation has been
presented. Although it does not provide the exact
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 332
motion of every particle within an ore body, it
provides a reasonable approximation of the major
processes involved in fragmentation due to blast-
ing, all based on previous work in the literature.
It provides estimates of in-situ block size distribu-
tion, of borehole pressure as a function of time,
strain, strain-rate, micro-crack density, post-blast
block size distribution for any point and final
muckpile fragment size distribution. Its use of a
closed form approximation of the wave equation
combined with statistical methods allows for fast
computation even for large blast designs. This
lends itself well to model calibration and process
optimization.
In the numerical simulation we see a very fine
fragmentation. This is to be expected from a 3 3
pattern using emulation. However, the simple frag-
mentation curve suggests that a more complex
distribution should be used in order to more accu-
rately describe the passing size, as much important
detail is likely lost.
Further work to be done includes determining if
the attenuation factor B and micro-crack propaga-
tion coefficients and can be expressed in terms of
measured rock and explosive properties, refinement
of the distribution describing the muckpile (possi-
bly developing statistical properties of the Swebrec
function), speed benchmarking, and calibration and
validation of the model in full scale underground
operations. Also, work is being done towards devel-
oping a full process to determine all necessary
parameters accurately and cost effectively.
The model has been developed in such a way
that different parts of the model can be tested and
refined separately, and results of these tests as well
as full scale tests of the entire model will be pre-
sented in the future.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank the reviewers for
providing many helpful and constructive com-
ments. The authors are also grateful for guidance
and feedback provided by Chris Preston and Troy
Williams.
REFERENCES
Blair, D., Minchinton, A. 1996. On the damage zone
surrounding a single blasthole. In B. Mohanty (ed.),
Proc. 5th Int. Symp. On Rock Fragmentation by
BlastingFragblast 5, Montreal, Canada, pp. 121130,
Rotterdam: Belkema.
Blair, D., Minchinton, A. 2006. Near-field blast vibration
models, Proc. 8th Int. Symp. On Rock Fragmentation
by BlastingFragblast 8, Santiago, Chile, 711 May,
pp. 152159, Santiago: Editec.
332
10/3/2012 8:37:29 PM
 Blair, D. 2007. A comparison of Heelan and exact solu-
tions for seismic radiation from a short cylindrical
charge, Geophysics 72(2): pp. 3341.
Braithwaite, M., Sharpe, G.J., Chitombo, G.P. 2010.
Simulation of real detonations as an energy source
term for the Hybrid Stress Blasting Model,, In
J.A. Sanchidrian (ed.) Proc. 9th Int. Symp. On Rock
Fragmentation by BlastingFragblast 9, Granada,
Spain, 1317 September, pp. 327333, Leiden: CRC
Press/Balkema.
Cunningham, C.V.B. 1983. The Kuz-Ram model
for prediction of fragmentation from blasting. In
R. Holmberg & A. Rustan (eds.), Proc. 1st Int.
Symp. On Rock Fragmenation by Blasting, Lule,
Sweden, 2226 August, pp. 439453. Lule: Lule
Univ. Techn.
Cunningham, C.V.B. 1991. The assessment of detonation
codes for blast engineering, Third High-Tech Seminar
in Blasting Technology, Instrumentation and Explosives
Applications, San Diego, California.
Defourneaux, M., 1973. Transferts dnergie dans la
propulsion par explosif, Sciences Et Techniques de
LArmament 73(3).
Duvall, W.I. 1953. Strain-wave shapes in rock near explo-
sions, Geophysics 18(2): pp. 310323.
Furtney, J.K., Cundall, P.A., Chitombo, G.P. 2010.
Developments in numerical modeling of blast induced
rock fragmentation: Updates from the HSBM project,
In J.A. Sanchidrian (ed.) Proc. 9th Int. Symp. On Rock
Fragmentation by BlastingFragblast 9, Granada,
Spain, 1317 September, pp. 335342, Leiden: CRC
Press/Balkema.
Heelan, P.A. 1953. Radiation from a cylindrical source of
finite length, Geophysics 18: pp. 685696.
Holmberg, R., Persson, P.A. 1979. Design of tunnel
perimeter blasthole patterns to prevent rock damage.
In M.J. Jones (ed.) Proc. 2nd Int. Symp. On Tunneling,
pp. 280283.
Hongtoa, Xu., Wenbo, L., Chuangbing, Z. 1996. Effect
of the dynamic unloading during the process of
rock fragmentation by blasting. Proc. 8th Int. Symp.
On Rock Fragmentation by BlastingFragblast 8,
Santiago, Chile, 711 May, pp. 175181, Santiago:
Editec.
Khalili, A., Kromp, K. 1991. Statistical properties of
Weibull estimators, Journal of Materials Science 26
(24): pp. 67416752.
Latham, J.-P., Lu, P., 1999. Development of an assess-
ment system for the blastability of rock masses,
International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining
Sciences 36: pp 4155.
Liu, L., Katsabanis, P.D. 1997. Development of a contin-
uum damage model for blasting analysis, International
Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Science 34(2):
pp. 217231.
333
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 333
Liu, Q. 2006. Modification of the Kuz-Ram model for
underground hard rock mines. Proc. 8th Int. Symp.
On Rock Fragmentation by BlastingFragblast 8,
Santiago, Chile, 711 May, pp. 185192, Santiago:
Editec.
Lundborg, N. 1972. A statistical theory of the polyaxial
compressive strength of materials, International Jour-
nal of Rock Mechanics and Mineral Science 9(5): pp.
617624.
Mohanty, B. (ed.) 1996. Proc. 5th Int. Symp. On Rock
Fragmentation by BlastingFragblast 5, Montreal,
Canada, pp. 121130, Rotterdam: Belkema.
Oederra, I. 2005. A fragmentation model for under-
ground production blasting PhD Thesis, Julius
Kruttschnitt Mineral Research Centre, The University
of Queensland.
Ouchterlony, F. 2010. Fragmentation characterization;
the Swebrec function and its use in blast engineering.
In J.A. Sanchidrian (ed.) Proc. 9th Int. Symp. On Rock
Fragmentation by BlastingFragblast 9, Granada,
Spain, 1317 September, pp. 322, Leiden: CRC Press/
Balkema.
Price, D. 1981. In F.J. Zerilli (ed)., Notes from lectures on
detonation physics, NSWC MP 81-399, Silver Spring:
Naval Surface Weapons Center.
Sharpe, J.A. 1942. The production of elastic waves by
explosion pressures. I. Theory and empirical field
observations, Geophysics 7(2): pp. 144154.
Swoboda, G., Li, N. 1993 Numerical modelling of blast
loading. In H.-P. Rossmanith (ed.) Proc. 4th Int.
Symp. On Rock Fragmentation by BlastingFragblast
4, Vienna, Austria, 58 July, pp. 2531, Rotterdam:
Balkema.
Trivio, L.F., Mohanty, B., Munjiza, A. 2010. Seismic
radiation patterns from cylindrical explosive charges
by analytical and combined finite-discrete element
methods, In J.A. Sanchidrian (ed.) Proc. 9th Int.
Symp. On Rock Fragmentation by BlastingFragblast
9, Granada, Spain, 1317 September, pp. 415426,
Leiden: CRC Press/Balkema.
Weibull, W. 1939. A statistical theory of the strength
of materials, Royal Swedish Academy of Engng. Sci.,
Proc., 151: pp. 145, Stockholm: Centraltryckeriet.
Yang, R., Bawden, W.F., Katsabnis, P.D. 1996. A new
constitutive model for blast damage, International
Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 33(3):
pp 245254.
Zimmerling, J. 2010. Estimation Of Spatial Econometric
Parameters Using Particle Swarm Optimization MSc
Thesis, Nipissing University.
10/3/2012 8:37:30 PM
This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Definition of quality of materials fragmented by blast with use

of the computer program

N.N. Kazakov & A.V. Shlyapin

Russian Academy of Science, Institute of Comprehensive Exploitation of Mineral Resources, Moscow, Russia

ABSTRACT: The definition of granulometric structure of the mountain weight shattered by blast-
ing is investigated using the computer-photoplanimetric method and the computer Gransostav-2008
program. The method of statistical processing of the gathered data and a choice of parameters of the
settlement areas is presented.

1 INTRODUCTION volumetric measuring of single fragments;

The main purpose of drilling and blasting processes
in an open pit is the desired quality of fragmenta-
tion of Run-of-Mine (ROM) material broken by
the blast. The quality of fragmentation of ROM
material is the end result of drilling and blasting
processes, and it depends on numerous geological,
engineering, technological and operation manage-
ment factors. The material quality is closely associ-
ated with drilling and blasting costs.
In spite of the available knowledge about rock
fragmentation by blasting and great advances of
computer technologies, the influence of the impor-
tant parameter of Drilling and Blasting Processes
(DBP) on the fragment size of the broken material
is, in many cases, estimated by eye (Baron, 1960;
Viktorov et al, 2007; Kryukov et al, 2009; Krysin
et al, 2006; Paramonov et al, 2001; Rakishev 1983).
This is indeed a difficult method to rely on, because
it may bring an error of 150200%.
The size of fragments of ROM material broken
by blasts has an important effect on the parameters
and end results of the downstream processes of the
solid mineral mining pipeline. Methods of frag-
ment size calculation and methods of measuring
the actual size of fragments of the broken mate-
rial entail great difficulties. Even the right choice of
characteristics of fragment size for particular oper-
ating conditions is not an easy task. (Tsyrel, 1999).
In most cases, the evaluation of the DBP
results entails such fragment size characteristics as
particle-size distribution, diameters of an average-
size fragment, standard fragment size, and yield of
oversize material.
Today, several methods of fragment size meas-
urement are available:
volumetric measuring of preliminarily separated
cut grades;
on-site planimetering methods;
planimetering methods for images;
calculations based on the consumption of explo-
sives or detonators for secondary blasting;
calculations based on secondary blasthole
meterage.
In field conditions, the yield of oversize mate-
rial in many cases is estimated by the consumption
of detonators for secondary blasting or by way of
measuring the rock oversize fragments. For many
mining operations, the yield of oversize material is
the only characteristic of the fragment size.
An indirect method of the evaluation of the
fragment size of material broken by the blast is
used widely. This method is based on the records
of consumption of the following items for second-
ary blasting:
blasting caps;
explosives;
blast hole meterage.
Some researchers have offered methods of over-
size material yield prediction depending on the size
of a standard fragment and natural jointing. V.K.
Rubtsovs work in this area IS most widely known.
In these investigations, the scholar has presented
the analysis of different methods of imaging of the
particle-size distribution of ROM material broken
by blast and plotted a cumulative curve as a power-
law relation.
B.N. Kutuzov and V.K. Rubtsov have pro-
posed the expressions for the estimation of the
oversize material yield depending on dav for solid,
large-block, medium-block and small-block rocks
(Kutuzov et al, 1970). In this case, the yield of
oversize material depends on the unit consumption
of explosives and the size of a standard fragment
(Krysin et al, 2006).

335

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 335 10/3/2012 8:37:31 PM

 In this research area, use is often made of the
photoplanimetering method for the estimation
particle-size distribution of broken ROM material.
Small volumes of the broken material are classified
by screening.
The snapshots of a shot pile show distorted lin-
ear dimensions because of the panoramic nature
of the object being photographed. Elimination
of these distortions requires tedious calculations
for the estimation of the actual size of each frag-
ment, with due account for its position shown in a
snapshot.

2 DEFINITION METHOD OF
GRANULOMETRIC STRUCTURE Figure 2. Digital snapshot of a shotpile area, for which
calculations are made.
IPKON RAS researchers have developed mathe-
matical methods and Gransostav-2008 software
(Fig. 1) intended for the estimation of different
characteristics of the size of fragments of ROM
material broken by blast. The software allows the
evaluation of fragmented ROM material quality
using the photoplanimetering method, with shot
pile snapshots taken by a digital camera. For tak-
ing the snapshot, a scale object of known linear
dimensions is placed on the shot pile, as clearly
seen in Figures 2 and 3 (Viktorov et al, 2007).
The articles results of the analysis of the
granulometric structure are given at explosive
dolomite and limestone destruction by charges
Grammonit 79/21 (the granulated industrial

Figure 3. Processed digital snapshot for the estimation

of particle-size distribution.

explosive79%AC, 21%-TNT) in blast holes of

diameter 135 mm. Detonation by ranks at param-
eters of a grid of blast holes of size 4,5 4,5 m.
The software algorithm takes into account the
panoramic distortions that inevitably occur in pho-
tographing process and overlapping of fragments
(see Fig. 3), and provides a way of estimating the
values of the rock fragment area, which are most
similar to the actual dimensions. Figure 3 shows
rock fragments of different colors processed by the
software, and a red line delineating the shot pile
area for which calculations are made.
The results of shot pile snapshot processing by
Gransostav-2008 software can be shown by dif-
ferent ways. For instance, they can be shown as a
table (Table 1) containing the values of the yield of
different rock sizes in percentage terms with due
account for specified ranges.
The software provides a feature for calculated
Figure 1. Gransostav-2008 screenshot. data accumulation and follow-up processing. For

336

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 336 10/3/2012 8:37:31 PM

 Table 1. Percentage of different particle sizes of ROM material broken by blast
depending on DBP parameters (Domodedovo construction materials and structural unit
production facility).

Test blast no. d < 200 mm 200500 mm 500800 mm d > 800 mm

1 59.3 17.0 15.5 8.2

2 56.0 18.1 16.0 9.9
3 55.3 17.6 16.7 10.4
Coefficient of variation 4.1575 3.7012 4.4159 13.6863

experiments. Root-mean-square deviation S2 is

calculated by Gransostav-2008 software in the
processing of several photoplanograms.
Measurement error depends on the difference in
the distribution of fragments by size of different
photoplanograms, and, as a rule, does not exceed
10%. The confidence interval for every particle size
is estimated on an individual basis as follows:
In the given example, the yield of oversize mate-
rial amounted to 5.2% (Vo = 5.2%), with root-
mean-square deviation S2 = 7.4%.
Deviation for oversize material is estimated by
the following formula:

Vo 5.2
o = S2 = 7.4 = 0.38%
100 100

Confidence limits are calculated by addition and

subtraction of particle size deviation (to) from the
yield by particle size.
Figure 4. Cumulative curves of fragments distribution The upper confidence limit of oversize material:
by size in a test block.
Vou = Vo + Do = 5.2 + 0.38 = 5.58%.

the processing of a set of snapshots, the software
provides an opportunity to measure point distribu-
tion, power-series distribution, or Rosin Rammler
distribution. Results of the distribution can be
shown as a cumulative curve (Fig. 4) or a distri-
bution density curve. The software also provides a
feature of statistical analysis by way of estimating
the root-mean-square deviation.
3 JUSTIFICATION ACCURACY
OF MEASUREMENTS
Processing of the results by mathematical and sta-
tistical methods is an important stage of the esti-
mation of broken material particle-size distribution
with the use of Gransostav-2008 software.
Measurement error is defined by root-mean-
square deviation, S2, which is a standard param-
eter for statistical processing of the results of any
The lower confidence limit of oversize material:
Vol = Vo Do = 5.2 0.38 = 4.48%.
The width of the confidence interval for every
particle size is a double-value deviation for this
particle size.
In this example, the width of the confidence
interval for oversize material is 0.76%.
For the smallest particle size in the example,
Vo = 60.5%, with root-mean-square deviation
S2 = 7.4%
Small particle size deviation:
VS 60.5
S = S2 = 7.4 = 4.5%
100 100
The upper confidence limit of small size material:
Vou = Vo + Ds = 60.5 + 4.5 = 65%.

337

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 337 10/3/2012 8:37:32 PM

 The lower confidence limit of small size
material:
Vol = Vo DM = 60.5 4.5 = 56%.
In this example, the width of the confidence
interval for small size material is 8%.
If the fragment size in photoplanograms is visu-
ally represented by fragments of similar size, the
root-mean-square deviation S2 does not exceed
2%, and in many cases is less than 1%.
It is not reasonable to make any judgment on
the accuracy of measurements of a single photo-
planogram in terms of the main principles of the
probability theory that have served as a basis for
the development of statistical processing methods.
Single measurements are stochastic and cannot
provide a clear estimate of measurement accuracy.
Representativeness of a sample has signifi-
cant importance for the unbiased experimental
estimation of physical values. This term is well
known and widely used by geologists and mineral
processing engineers. If a sample volume is small,
it cannot be viewed as a copy of the main mass
under investigation by its target characteristics and
is not representative. In representative sampling,
it is customary to use a notion of the minimum
acceptable sample.
When applied to the task under consideration,
the estimation of the particle-size distribution of
the broken ROM material, the area being esti-
mated serves as the sample size. This area is a
controlled value.
The total of all estimated areas in the photo-
planograms of a block fragmented by blast cannot
be less than the area calculated by the following
formula:
Smin = 100 2f
where f is the size of a standard fragment for an
open pit.
With  = 1.2 m, the minimal total area of all esti-
mated photoplanograms of the block is:
Smin = 200 1.22 = 144 m2
with  = 1 m
Smin = 100 12 = 100 m2
with  = 0.8 m
Smin = 100 0.82 = 64 m2
338
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 338
The estimated area in one of the photoplano-
grams cannot be less than 50 m2.
It is possible to use a household camera of 3.2
Mpix for initial pictures.
4 CONCLUSIONS
Gransostav-2008 software can be efficiently used
both for research and at mines for rapid assessment
of the quality of broken ROM material. Estima-
tion of the particle-size distribution of the broken
ROM material is important for prompt response
to the variation of the ROM material quality by
adjustment of the DBP parameters. It is particu-
larly important for mineral deposits with a non-
uniform structure and requiring the application of
a flexible system of DBP parameters to estimate
the quality of ROM material.
REFERENCES
1. Baron L.I. Fragment size and methods of its measure-
ment. M.: USSR AS, 1960. 122 p. (in Russian).
2. Viktorov S.D., Kazakov N.N., Shlyapin A.V.,
Dobrynin I.A. Estimation of particle-size distribution
in photoplanigrams with the use of software // Vzryv-
noe Delo: Collected works of the Mining Information
and Analytical Bulletin, OV No 7. M.: Mir Gornoy
Knigi Publishers, 2007. p. 169183. (in Russian).
3. Kryukov G.M., Belin V.A., StadnikV.V., Vaver P.A.,
Zhavoronko S.N. Laws governing the formation of
particle-size distribution in case of some solid mate-
rial blocks fragmentation by blast: Selected papers of
the Mining Information and Analytical Bulletin. 2009,
No 8. M.: Gornaya Kniga Publishers, 2009. 75 p. (in
Russian).
4. Krysin R.S., Novinskiy V.V. Models of rock fragmen-
tation by blast. Dnepropetrovsk: ART-PRESS Pub-
lishers, 2006. 144 p. (in Russian).
5. Paramonov G.P., Menzhulin M.G., Khokhlov S.V.
Models of the formation of particle-size distribution
of the broken ROM material in different zones of
the area of rock fragmentation by blast // Vzryvnoe
Delo, No 93/50. M.: RAMS International Blasting
Conference, 2001. p. 99106. (in Russian).
6. Rakishev B.R. Forecast of processibility parameters
of rock fragmented by blast at open pits. Alma-Ata:
Nauka Publishers, 1983. 240 p. (in Russian).
7. Tsyrel S.V. Particle-size distribution of broken
rocks: experimental data and estimation methods //
Vzryvnoe Delo, No 92/94. M.: Nedra Publishers, 1999.
p. 100116. (in Russian).
8. Kutuzov B.N., Rubtsov V.K. Physics of explosive
destruction of rocksMoscow: MMI, 1970. 176 p.
(in Russian).
10/3/2012 8:37:33 PM
 Section 5 - Blast Monitoring & Instrumentation

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 339 10/3/2012 8:37:33 PM

This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

A method to determine 3-D dynamic strain tensor based on

displacement gradients from blast vibration and field test results

Ruilin Yang & Kameron Ray

Orica USA Inc. Colorado, USA

ABSTRACT: Blast vibration is essentially strain/stress wave propagation in rock or structures in the
vicinity of a blast. However, blast vibration has always been quantified in terms of Peak Particle Veloci-
ties (PPV) or Accelerations (PPA) and a meaningful relationship between blast vibration and strain/stress
has not been established. Consequently, there is no consistent method based on fundamental mechanics
to determine a vibration limit for a particular operation.
The determination of the dynamic strain from blast vibration may improve the quantification of
blast damage and the selection of blast vibration limits for critical structures including highwalls. This is
because dynamic strain relates to rock mechanics or material strength more directly than Vibration Particle
Velocity (PPV). This paper documents a method to calculate three-dimensional dynamic strain from
recorded blast vibration signals. The method is based on the determination of the displacement gradients
at a small area of interest. The mathematical analysis and the results of the field monitoring of blast
vibration are discussed in the paper. The paper also discusses the conditions when the one-dimensional
and two-dimensional strains can be measured from blast vibration. The method is applicable to production
blasts with multiple blast holes.
Field testing of the method showed that dynamic strains determined from blast vibrations are within
theoretical expectations. The various strain quantities in the paper derived from the measurement, such
as maximum tensile, maximum compressive, maximum shear strains, may be used to describe potential
blast damage to the high walls or rock slopes. Such quantities are more meaningful to a rock mechan-
ics engineer than PPV alone. The analysis of the strain quantities also showed that the commonly used
assumption by the blasting community that the PPV is proportional to the dynamic strain may not be
always true because the dynamic strain is related to the displacement gradients which are affected by the
vibration frequency. The dynamic strain measurement may advance the capability to control blast vibra-
tion and damage.

1 INTRODUCTION of the pit wall due to blasting, in order to make

Most current approaches to assess the impact
of blasting-induced vibrations on pit walls use
Peak Particle Velocity (PPV) as a criterion. This
approach provides a picture of the vibration at the
point of interest, but fails to provide useful infor-
mation about the effect of the blasting vibrations
on the rock mass.
Blast vibration is essentially strain/stress wave
propagation in rock or structures in the vicinity
of a blast. However, blast vibration has always
been quantified in terms of Peak Particle Veloci-
ties (PPV) or Accelerations (PPA) and a meaning-
ful relationship between blast vibration and strain/
stress has not been established. Consequently,
there is no consistent method based on funda-
mental mechanics to determine a vibration limit
for a particular operation (Yang & Scovira, 2007).
Mine personnel, particularly geotechnical engi-
neers, need information about the deformation
informed decisions. If the dynamic strain from
blast vibration could be determined, the damage
from blast vibrations could be evaluated against
various rock strength criteria, such as a tensile or
a Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion, etc. In this way,
the cumulative effect of blast vibration on rock/
structures and the vibration limit for a particular
operation could be determined more objectively.
A previous paper (Yang & Scovira, 2007) pro-
posed a simple method to estimate strain and
stresses from vibration measurements. This method
required a specific assumption that displacement
gradients in the three directions of the coordinate
system were not zero or any zero displacement gra-
dients is identified before applying the method to
estimate the strain. Consequently, the method can-
not be applied to generic vibration fields.
Henley (Henley, 2009) conducted an experiment
with two monitors located 17 m apart to determine
the time variant relative displacement between the

341

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 341 10/3/2012 8:37:33 PM

 points. The relative displacement and distance were locations need to be measured for estimating the
used to estimate the dynamic strain history in the displacement gradient. Therefore, time-synchro-
ground. Close examination of this method and nized measurements at monitoring points are
the previous work (Yang & Scovira, 2007) led to the required. In order to calculate the strain tensor Eij,
conclusion that deducing dynamic strain requires each term of the displacement gradient in (1) has
treatment of the full three-dimensional strain tensor to be determined.
using a number of measurement points. This evolved Assume A (x1, y1, z1), and B (x2, y2, z2) are two
into the dynamic strain theory given in the following monitoring points located very close to each other.
section. Also assume that the displacements at these two
A recent paper (Yang, 2012) reported the math- points are (u1, v1, w1) and (u2, v2, w2) at a time
ematical framework to determine the 3-D dynamic instance t. If it is assumed that the two monitor-
strain tensor based on displacement gradients from ing points are sufficiently close then at time (t)
blast vibration. The paper also formulated the field the differential displacements are (Timoshenko &
measurement principals and parameters for mini- Goodier Sec 81 Eqs 116, 117 and (a)(c)):
mizing errors of the measurement. The basic method
was patented in the United States (Yang et al, 2011). u u u
However, the papers did not present any field tests u2 u1 = ( x 2 x1 ) + ( y 2 y1 ) + ( z 2 z1 )
x y z
or results. This paper presents field tests, and result v v v
analysis for three-dimensional dynamic strain v 2 v1 = ( x 2 x1 ) + ( y 2 y1 ) + ( z 2 z1 )
induced from blast vibration of production blasts. x y z
w w w
For the completeness of the present paper, the basics w 2 w1 = ( x 2 x1 ) + ( y 2 y1 ) + ( z 2 z1 )
of the mathematics of the data analysis are repeated x y z
below from the previous paper (Yang, 2012). (3)
In equations (3), u1, v1, w1, u2, v2, w2, x1, y1, z1,
2 CALCULATION OF DYNAMIC STRAIN x2, y2, z2, are known from the vibration monitor-
ing and the sensor locations. To calculate the nine
The infinitesimal engineering strain tensor is displacement gradients (u/x, u/y, u/z, v/x,
defined as (Timoshenko & Goodier, 1970): v/y, v/z, w/x, w/y, w/z), nine independ-
ent equations are needed. In order to minimize the
u u v u w measurement errors the number of the independent
x + +
y x z x equations is selected to be greater than the number
of unknowns to obtain the least-square solution.
v u v v w
( ij ) = + + (1) In this paper, six measurement points are used, in
x y y z y which it was intended that any four points does

w u w v w not reside in the same plane. With such six points,
x + zz +
y z z fifteen independent equations could be established
with respect to the nine displacement gradients.
After the displacement gradients are obtained, the
where, u, v, and w are tri-axial displacement com- tri-axial engineering strain tensor (1) is calculated.
ponents at the point of interest (x, y, z). u, v, and w
are functions of x, y, z and time t, i.e.
3 DATA ANALYSIS
u = u (x, y, z, t),
v = v (x, y, z, t), Blast vibration waveforms recorded by acceler-
w = w (x, y, z, t) ometers were used as input to a program (written
in-house), which processes the data and calculates
Consequently, in dynamic strain state the strain
the dynamic strains tensor in the mine coordinate
tensor Eij is a function of x, y, z, and t. In the strain
system. Each strain component, as a function of
tensor (1) each term is a displacement gradient.
time, is calculated from the particle acceleration
The displacement gradient at a time instance t is
data. The standard deviations of the six strain
defined as:
components are also calculated. The principal
strains, their directional cosines, and other selected
u u( x + x, t ) u( x, t )
= lim (2) strain quantities, such as the maximum octahedral
x x 0 x strains, the maximum shear strain, extensional
strain, were also obtained from the program. The
Equation (2) implies that the displacements at planes on which each maximum strain acts can be
the same instance (t) at two adjacent monitoring identified from the directional cosines.

342

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 342 10/3/2012 8:37:33 PM

 At each time instance of the blast vibration
waveform, in order to solve the simultaneous
equations that have the number of the equations
larger than the number of variables, the program
uses Singular Value Decomposition (SVD) method
(Press et al, 2005). The program is written using
Matlab which provides convenient libraries and
functions. The SVD produces a solution that is the
best approximation in the least squares sense. This
is equivalent to the following:
Find a that minimizes
2 = | |2 (4)
where, A and b are the known coefficient matrix
and the displacement vector, respectively. a is
the unknown vector. A is a M N matrix whose
number of rows M is greater than or equal to its
number of columns N. By SVD method, A can
be written as the product of an M N column-
orthogonal matrix U, an N N diagonal matrix W
with positive or zero elements (the singular values),
and the transpose of N N orthogonal matrix V,
that is,
A = U W VT (5)
Then the solution of the least-squares problem
(1) can be written as (Press et al, 2005):
N 1
U( i) b
a= w
V(i ) (6)
i=0 i
The above equation says that the fitted param-
eters a (vector) is a linear combination of the col-
umns of V, with coefficients obtained by forming
dot products of the columns of U with the dis-
placement vector b.
the vibration frequency components is larger than
15 m.
The test blast was a shovel-truck conventional
pre-strip blast. The blast hole depth varied from
44 ft to 52 ft (1316 m). The blast hole diameter
was 9.88 inches (251 mm). The charge weight
per hole varied from 1100 lb to 1350 lb (500
615 kg). The nearest blast hole to the monitors was
270 ft (82 m). The accelerometers were arranged
with spacing varying from 4.5 ft (1.37 m) to 9 ft
(2.74 m), which is less than a quarter of the wave
length (15 m) of the maximum frequency of the
vibration for accurate measurement of the strain
amplitude (over 90% accuracy, refer to Yang,
2011). The accelerometers were placed in differ-
ent elevations (by 0.51.0 m) attempting no more
than three accelerometers to be in the same plane.
Figure 1 shows a plan view of the first test blast
setup (with a close-up view of the sensor layout).
4.2 Accelerometer setup and location survey
Field tests were conducted to examine the pro-
posed method, to test the selected hardware equip-
ment system, and establish the field procedure for
the measurement.
In order to ensure valid calculations, no more
than three monitors should be placed at the same
elevation. Because of this constraint, it is important
to find a location near the point of interest which
has a significant elevation difference (such as 1 m)
across a relatively small distance (such as 5 m).
The accelerometers are mounted on a horizontal
surface leveled with a sensitive bubble level. The
selection of the spacing between the accelerom-
eters is dependent on the maximum frequency of
the blast vibration. It has been determined (Yang,
2012) that the sensor spacing should be about a
quarter of the wavelength of the expected upper
limit frequency of the blast vibration.

4 TEST SETUP

4.1 Test blast

So far, a few test blasts have been conducted.
It is found that the results are consistent with
expected trends by comparing the results from
different blasts. Due to the limited space of the
present paper, the results from only one blast are
presented here. The test blast was at a coal mine
in the western United States. The ground of the
test site was soft shale with an average compressive
strength of 800 psi (5.5 MPa). The ground sonic
velocity was measured to be 1500 m/s on average.
The maximum frequency of the particle accelera-
tion of the blast vibration was observed to be less Figure 1. A plan view of the test blast and monitor
than 100 Hz. Therefore, the shortest wavelength of locations.

343

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 343 10/3/2012 8:37:35 PM

 Once the blocks are set and leveled, GPS coor-
dinates of the locations of each monitor must be
obtained. The most accurate method is to attach
the GPS receiver to a tripod set up over the center
of the accelerometer. This is due to the fact that the
tripod has better stability and it is easier to align
top-dead-center over the accelerometer (Fig. 2).
The GPS equipment used for the test is accu-
rate to within 5 mm according to the equipment
manufacturer.
4.3 Measuring the direction of the x-axis
of the accelerometers
Equation (3) requires that the sensor locations are
surveyed according to the mine coordinate system
under which the vibration displacements from all
six sensors are recorded. Therefore, an effort was
made to align the accelerometer with the same
directions of the mine coordinate system (lon-
gitudinal accelerometer aligned with the x-axis,
transverse with the y-axis, and the vertical with
the z-axis). After the accelerometer is placed in
the horizontal level and aligned as close as possi-
ble with the mine coordinate system, the directions
of the longitudinal-axis of the accelerometers were
measured with an accurate compass for any nec-
essary data corrections according to the measured
direction. For the testing, a Brunton field compass
was used with an accuracy of 0.5 degrees accord-
ing to the manufacturer. The true direction of the
x-axis is obtained by taking into account the mag-
netic declination.
4.4 Data acquisition
The definition of the displacement gradient from
Equation (2) above requires that the displacements
at two selected locations (U(x, t) and U(x+x), t)
are measured at the same time (t). Therefore, the
high-precision time synchronization between the
sensors is required. However, with the current data
recording technology, there is always a time error
Figure 2. Setting up GPS equipment over the acceler-
ometer mounting points.
344
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 344
in the synchronization between channels. Even
larger errors exist between separate sensors that
are synchronized by a connecting cable or by a
GPS system.
Research of current commercial data recording
systems lead to a 28 channel data recorder with
the most accurate time synchronization for the
dynamic strain measurement. The maximum error
of the time synchronization is less than 0.45 s. It
was shown that such an accuracy in time synchro-
nization between channels is suitable for measur-
ing dynamic strains from blast vibration with the
upper frequency limit of 1000 Hz (Yang, 2011).
5 DATA ANALYSIS
Seven tri-axial accelerometers were used in each
test blast. Out of the seven sensors, six were con-
nected to the 28 channel data acquisition unit
for dynamic strain measurements. The remaining
accelerometer was connected to an Instantel moni-
tor to record blast vibration near the six sensors
and was used as a reference check of the vibration
measurements. The recorded particle acceleration
waveforms from one of the tri-axial accelerometer
are shown in Figure 3.
Figure 4 shows a typical power spectrum of
the particle acceleration waves (the average of the
three components) from the test blast. As can be
seen, the dominant frequency is 23.6 Hz. The first
blast was fired with 42 ms delay between blast
holes (refer to Fig. 1) and shifted the dominant
frequency of the blast vibration to 23.5 Hz. In
addition, the power spectrum shows that the upper
limit of the frequency band of the blast vibration
is less than 100 Hz.
Figure 5 shows the dynamic strain calculated
from the measured blast vibration in the test blast
Figure 3. Particle acceleration waveforms from one of
the tri-axial accelerometer.
10/3/2012 8:37:36 PM
 Figure 4. A typical power spectrum of the particle
acceleration wave (the average of the three components).
Figure 5. Dynamic strain calculated from the blast
vibration in the first test blast.
as functions of time. It should be noted that the
strain components are dependent on the selection
of the coordinate system. From Figure 1, it can
be seen that the normal x-strains are smaller than
the normal y- and z-strains. This could be due to
the fact that the x-axis is transverse to the blast
in the test (refer to Fig. 1). The normal z-strain
(z-axis is upwards, refer to Fig. 1) is largest. This
could be due to the elevation difference between
the blast and the monitors causing large displace-
ment gradients along the z-axis.
Figure 6 shows that the corresponding standard
errors for each strain component are of the same
order of magnitude as the corresponding strain
components (Fig. 5). The standard error () is a
measure of the scatter of each strain component
calculated from different sets of all the combina-
tions of simultaneous equations forming an over
determined system. The solution of the strain
components obtained from the least-square fit is
similar to the mean or median of all individual
solutions from different combinations of the equa-
tions. The standard error of the mean or median
would be smaller ( / n ) than the standard errors
() shown in Figure 6.
345
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 345
Figure 6. Standard error of the strain components in
Figure 5.
5.1 Principal strains
The infinitesimal strain tensor is defined as:
(7)
It can be shown that a coordinate system (n1, n2,
n3) exists in which the strain tensor (7) above can
be transformed into:
(8)
The components of the strain tensor in the (n1,
n2, n3) coordinate system are called the principal
strains and the directions ni are called the direc-
tions (direction cosines) of the principal strain.
Since there are no shear strain components in this
coordinate system, the principal strains represent
the maximum and minimum deformations of an
elemental volume. By convention, the tensile strain
is positive and the compressive strain is negative.
Figures 79 show the principal strains (1, 2,
and 3) from the test blast and their correspond-
ing directional cosines as a function of time.
10/3/2012 8:37:37 PM
 Table 1. Directional cosines of the maximum compres-
sive strain 1.

Max.
compressive
strain At Cosine Cosine Cosine
( strain) time (s) to x-axis to y-axis to z-axis

4000 1.593 0.299 0.1 0.949

Table 2. Directional cosines of the maximum tensile

strain 3.

Max. tensile
strain At Cosine Cosine Cosine
Figure 7. Principal strain #1 (compressive) and its ( strain) time (s) to x-axis to y-axis to z-axis
direction cosines.
2500 1.768 0.185 0.086 0.979

Such information could be useful for examining

Figure 8. Principal strain #2 and its direction cosines.
the effect of the dynamic strain on a joint plane
or faults. Table 1 shows the directional cosines for
the maximum compressive strain 1. The direc-
tional cosines give the direction of the maximum
compressive.
Table 2 shows the directional cosines for the
maximum tensile strain 3. The directional cosines
give the direction of the maximum compressive.
The maximum compressive strain is 4000
( 106). This means that a 4 mm length reduc-
tion for every meter dimension of the rock. The
dynamic Youngs modulus was estimated to be
0.4 106 psi (2.8 GPa) (Yang, 2009). Therefore,
the maximum compressive stress from the first test
is estimated to be 1600 psi (11 MPa). The meas-
urement location was 82 m from the blast and no
cracks were observed. Therefore, the rock dynamic
uni-axial compressive strength is estimated to be
greater than 1600 psi (11 MPa). Such an estimate
seems to be within the expectation according to the
site geology (Pratt and Pryor, 2003).

5.2 Maximum shear strain

The maximum shear strain can be calculated as:

1 3
Figure 9. Principal strain #3 (Tensile) and its direction max = (9)
2
cosines.

The normal of a maximum shear plane sub-

The compressive strain is designated by 1 using
the rock mechanics convention. As noted in the
figures, there are three direction cosines for each
principal strain. The normal vector of the plane on
which the peak principal strain acts (perpendicu-
lar) can be determined from the direction cosines.
tends equal angles (45) with the principal direc-
tions of 1 and 3. Figure 10 shows the maximum
shear strains from the test blast.
Table 3 shows the directional cosines for the
peak maximum shear strain. The directional
cosines give the direction of the normal vector of

346

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 346 10/3/2012 8:37:40 PM


Figure 10. Maximum shear strain from test blast.
Table 3. Directional cosines of the normal vector of the
peak maximum shear strain plane.
Peak max.
shear strain At time Cosine Cosine Cosine to
( strain) (s) to x-axis to y-axis z-axis
4000 1.593 0.242 0.093 0.964
the peak shear plane and they are the average of
those in Tables 1 and 2 since the peak shear plane
subtends equal angles (45) with the maximum
principal directions of 1 and 3.
It is interesting to note that the peak shear
strain happened at the same time as the maximum
compressive strain. This is because at this time
instance equation (9) yields the maximum shear
value.
6 DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
The derived strain quantities from the dynamic
strain measurement may be used to describe
potential blast damage to the high walls or rock
slopes. Such quantities are more meaningful to
a rock mechanics engineer than PPV only. The
dynamic strain measurement is useful to further
our understanding of vibration control for blast
damage.
It is recommended that more sensors (moni-
toring locations) be used to improve the
measurement accuracy. With eight monitor-
ing points, it is estimated that the error could
potentially be reduced to a factor of 11542
p /
( )
1 C 921 1 = 1 21!/1112 ! 9 ! 1 1 / 542 compared
to four sensor monitoring. For the current tests,
potentially fifteen equations were used for 9 vari-
ables. This means that the least-square solution is
obtained from 5005 sets of solutions because:
9 15 !
C15 = = 5005 (10)
6 ! 9!
347
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 347
From basic statistics, the error may be reduced
compared to four-sensor monitoring to a factor:
1 1
=
5005 1 70.7
The orientation of the plane on which the peak
strain quantity (such as the principal, the maxi-
mum shear, the maximum octahedral strains, etc.)
acts can be determined from the direction cosines.
Such information could be useful for examin-
ing the effect of the dynamic strain on geologic
discontinuities.
Blast-induced damage may be better controlled
by managing the dynamic strains, rather than focus-
ing purely on PPV. It was found that the dynamic
strain may be related to the frequency as well. In
the field tests that were conducted so far, it has
been found that the higher the vibration frequency,
the higher the probability of increased gradients of
displacement, and therefore, higher strains. This
finding is significant for understanding damage
due to blast vibration. This shows that PPV alone
may not be enough to represent the effect of blast
vibration on rock damage or deformation.
Most blast vibrations in rock are three-dimensional
in nature. Therefore, the three-dimensional meas-
urement of the strain is necessary. As shown in this
paper, six time-synchronized sensors deployed in
three-dimensional space were used. If the strain
measurement is conducted in one-dimension only
(e.g. using two sensors) or in two-dimensions only
(sensors are in a plane), the strains are not useful in
most cases since the results depend on the orienta-
tion of the line or the plane. Varying the orientation
of the measurements will result in different values
and the results obtained could be misleading and
of limited value. It is impossible to place the moni-
tors along the principal directions of the dynamic
strain since the principal directions of the dynamic
strain in rock change at each time instance (see
Figures 79) during a blast vibration.
REFERENCES
Henley, K., (2009), Vibration Site Law Analysis, Orica
Internal report.
Pratt, R.W. and Pryor, P.R., 2003, Cordero-Rojo Middle Pit
Geotechnical Study, prepared for Kennecott Energy.
Press, W.H., Teukolsky, S.A., Vetterling, W. T., and
Flannery, B. P., 2005, Numerical Recipes in C++, The
Art of Scientific Computing, 2nd Edition, Cambridge
University press.
Yang, R. and Scovira D.S., 2007, Using Blast Vibration
Measurements to Estimate Rock Tri-axial Strains/
Stresses and Dynamic Rock Strength For Blast Dam-
age Evaluation, The proceeding of 1st Canada-US
Rock Mechanics Symposium, Vancouver, May 2007.
10/3/2012 8:37:43 PM
 Yang, R., 2010, Method to calculate 3-D dynamic strain
tensor from blast vibration monitoring, Orica Internal
Technical Report.
Yang, R., 2011, Analysis of the error due to time syn-
chronization between monitors for dynamic strain
measurement, Orica Internal report, August, 2011.
Yang, R. and Scovira, D. Scott, 2010, A model for near
and far field blast vibration based on multiple seed
waveforms and transfer functions, Blasting and Frag-
mentation journal, Vol. 4, No. 2, 2010, pp. 91116.
348
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 348
Yang, R., 2012, A Method to Calculate Dynamic Strain
Tensor from Blast VibrationTheory and Measure-
ment Error Analysis, Orica internal report.
Yang, R., Henley, K.N., Scovira, D.S. and Spathis, A.T.
2011, Vibration analysis. Provisional Patent Appli-
cation No. 61/558978, US Patent Office, lodged
11 November.
10/3/2012 8:37:45 PM
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Measurement errors in vibrations from blasting

P. Segarra, J.A. Sanchidrin, L.M. Lpez & A. Llamas

Universidad Politcnica de MadridE.T.S.I. Minas, Madrid, Spain

ABSTRACT: This work shows a procedure to estimate errors in peak particle velocity and maximum
spectral amplitude based on the distribution of the sample errors (i.e. relative uncertainties). The impli-
cations of these errors in the assessment of compliance with vibrations from blasting standards are also
highlighted. A dataset comprised by 289 events from 69 blasts carried out in three sites is used; four
coupling methods of the transducers to ground and three orientation techniques of the sensors to the
blast are studied. Vibrations were monitored in each blast, with 2 to 6 tri-axial geophones or acceler-
ometers positioned close each other, and mounted on rock or soil with the same method for all. Errors
are sensitive to both the attachment and orientation conditions for the horizontal (i.e. longitudinal and
transversal) components of the ground motion, whereas they depend only on the coupling method for the
vertical component and the modulus of the particle velocity. The lowest errors, as expected, are obtained
with good geophone-to ground-coupling and accurate orientation of the longitudinal sensors towards the
blast; they can be as low as 4.6% for the peak particle velocity and 3.9% for the maximum spectral ampli-
tude. The highest errors correspond to poor sensor-to-ground coupling or poor sensor orientation (which
are sometimes the conditions in ordinary vibration monitoring in quarries and construction work); they
are as high as 19.7% for the peak particle velocity and 34.9% for the maximum spectral amplitude.

1 INTRODUCTION the sensors in the field. ISEE (2011b) and ISRM

As standards and recommendations related to
damage to structures from blasting refer to a
combination of peak particle velocity and domi-
nant frequency in any of the three components of
ground motion (AENOR 1993, BSI 1993, DIN
1999, Singh & Roy 2010, Siskind et al. 1980), these
parameters should be derived from the recorded
waveforms. The estimation of peak particle veloci-
ties is a clear issue, whereas the estimation of dom-
inant frequency is more controversial. Dominant
frequency is often regarded, as suggested by DIN
standard (1999), as the frequency at which the
spectral amplitude, derived through fast Fourier
transform analysis, is maximum. Sometimes, the
maximum of the modulus of the particle velocity
(i.e. vector peak particle velocity) is considered for
damage prevention (Blair 1999). In such cases, the
dominant frequency is obtained from the mean
frequency spectrum of the longitudinal, transver-
sal and vertical components of ground motion
(Blair & Armstrong 1999).
Because of the influence of the sensors fre-
quency response in the recorded values (Farn-
field 1996), regulations and recommendations
establish minimum characteristics for monitor-
ing devices (AENOR 1993, DIN 1995, ISEE
2011a). Other important consideration for meas-
uring vibrations is the method used to mount
(1992) show different methods as function of the
expected vibration levels and ground characteris-
tics. Although the performance of many of these
methods has been investigated (Adhikari et al.
2005, Blair 1987, 1995a, b, Drijkoningen et al.
2006, Krohn 1984, Wheeler 2005, Williams &
Treleaven 2003), no estimation of the uncertainty
(i.e. quantitative statement of the dispersion in
the reported magnitudes) is usually reported, so
it is not possible to assess how well a reported
value represents the value of the magnitude being
measured or to qualify a laboratory in accord-
ance to ISO regulation (AENOR 2005). This is
understandable for the dominant frequencies, as
it makes no sense to average them or to obtain
a measure of the dispersion, but not for the
peak particle velocity, which dispersion has been
reported for measurements in rock (Segarra et al.
2010, 2012) and soil (Armstrong 2001). These
data together with uncertainties derived from
Hutchison et al.s (2005) are used in this paper
to provide an insight to experimental errors for
six monitoring techniques commonly used in the
field. These are obtained from the maximum like-
lihood estimates of the parameter of the distri-
bution followed by the relative uncertainties. The
paper also stands up the implication of meas-
urements errors for assessing compliance with
standards.

349

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 349 10/3/2012 8:37:45 PM

 2 METHOD
Let assume a population of measurements that
follows a normal distribution with expected value
and standard deviation . The population coef-
ficient of variation (i.e. /) describes the relative
error of the monitoring method.
Consider a sample of N measurements from
that population, which mean and standard devia-
tion are xi and si, respectively. The coefficient of
variation si/xi describes the sample error (which
should not be mistaken with ), and the relative
uncertainty xi, i.e. (si/N1/2)/xi, brings the uncer-
tainty associated to xi (JCGM 2008, Miller &
Miller 1993, Taylor & Kuyatt 1994).
Let repeat this procedure M times, so that
a set of relative uncertainties is obtained. The
inverse of these relative uncertainties is noncen-
tral t-distributed with N-1 degrees of freedom
and noncentrality parameter N1/2/ (Owen 1968,
Forkman & Verrill 2008, Scholz 2007). This
parameter is estimated by the maximum likeli-
hood method; the term likelihood is used here
rather than probability because the observations
are known and the parameters of the distribu-
tion not.
The likelihood function is the probability that
the complete set of the inverse of the uncertainties
is observed. Since each observation is independent,
the probability of obtaining the set of observations
is the product of the probabilities of each separate
observation:
M
L( N 1 2 )= p (1)
i
i =1
where pi = output of the noncentral t probability
density function at 1/xi; and M = number of rela-
tives uncertainties observed.
The Maximum Likelihood Estimate (MLE) of
the noncentrality parameter, is the value that brings
the likelihood function in Equation 1 to a maximum.
The population coefficient of variation or experi-
mental error is estimated then from the inverse of
the MLE times the square root of N.
2.1 Particularization to vibration from blasting
Vibrations measurements are carried out in each
blast, with N sensors placed very close each other
and mounted using the same procedure for all.
From each waveform, the frequency spectrum is
derived through fast Fourier analysis.
Relative uncertainties can be calculated from the
following sets of N observations (in brackets are
the symbol used for each of them):
350
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 350
v1,j, v2,j, , vN,j of the peak particle velocity in
the jth component of ground motion [vj]; where
j = L, T, V for longitudinal, transversal, and verti-
cal components of ground motion, respectively.
v 1, v 2, ,
v N of the vector peak particle velocity
[v ]
V1,j,V2,j, , VN,j of the spectral amplitudes of the
frequency spectrum in the jth component at the
frequency at which Vj = mean(V1,j, V2,j, ..., VN,j) is
maximum [Vj].
V1, V2, , V N of the spectral amplitudes of the
mean frequency spectrum of longitudinal, trans-
versal and vertical components at the frequencyat
which V = mean(V1, V2, ..., VN) is maximum [V ].
Uncertainties in peak particle velocities can be
applied to estimate confidence limits of the meas-
ured peak particle velocities in the absence of sys-
tematic errors, so that the maximum likely peak
particle velocity can be used to assess the risk of
damage. Uncertainties in the maximum spectral
amplitude, on their side, are considered inasmuch
as they may change the frequency of the main
peak, and consequently the threshold vibration
level resulting from the damage prevention crite-
ria. This is the case, for instance, of the frequency
spectra in Figures 1ac.
Figures 1a and 1b show that the secondary and
main peaks at about 15 and 40.5 Hz, respectively,
are mutually interchanged in the spectra from the
Figure 1. Frequency spectrum in the transversal com-
ponent of three sensors sandbagged to the ground
(graphs a, b and c); mean frequency spectrum (graph d).
The peaks regarded as dominant from statistical analysis
are marked with a cross.
10/3/2012 8:37:45 PM
 other sensor used in the same blast and given in simultaneous measurements were obtained with a
Figure 1c. This example cautions about merely combination of coupling methods per blast have
relaying on the frequency at the greatest spectral not been considered. The reason is that the meas-
amplitude, and suggests accounting also for other urements for each blast, are drawn from different
peaks frequencies which amplitudes are near the populations each having a different error.
maximum and shows the effect of the variability Data in site S1 were monitored with three
of the amplitudes of the main peaks. orthogonally oriented accelerometers. The sensors
In order to determine these frequencies, the were bolted to the top of an aluminum cylindri-
mean of the spectral amplitudes of the signals cal mount designed according to Blair guidelines
recorded in a given component in the same blast is (1995a). In each blast, the mounts were laid into
calculated for every frequency of the spectrum; this a trench of 1.5 0.4 m, and 0.2 m deep, and the
has been made for data in Figures 1ac and plotted soil was backfilled into the empty space between
in Figure 1d. Hypothesis tests of the mean can be the trench and the mounts and tamped around
applied using the standard error or uncertainty of each mount to ensure firm contact between soil
the maximum spectral amplitude. If the amplitude and sensors. Each set of sensors was connected to
of the main peak in the mean spectrum is statis- a data logger, and the resulting acceleration signals
tically higher than the amplitudes of other peaks, integrated. Armstrong (2001) reports vector peak
only the frequency of the maximum spectral ampli- particle velocities and the dominant frequencies
tude should be used for damage assessment. But from the mean frequency spectrum of the longi-
if, for instance, the maximum spectral amplitude tudinal, transversal and vertical components of
is not higher than the amplitude of the secondary ground motion.
peak at a reasonable significance level, as occurred Eight tri-axial seismographs of four models were
with the mean amplitudes at 15 and 40.5 Hz, the used in the construction site S2; two devices have
frequencies of both peaks should be used for dam- the sensors inside the recording unit, and the others
age assessment. This also occurs for other peaks in outside. The first sensors type was only spiked and
Figure 1d. As damage criteria are established on a the other was spiked and sandbagged. The sensors
single estimate of the dominant frequency, the lim- were oriented visually towards the blast; this orien-
iting peak particle velocity should be taken as the tation technique is identified as fair in Table 1. The
most conservative (i.e. the smaller) from the com- notation used by Hutchison et al. (2005) prevents
pliance chart at the various dominant frequencies. to discriminate the sensor type/coupling method.
This work shows peak particle velocities in the
three components of ground motion (vL, vT, vV)
3 DATABASE and the vector peak particle velocity (v).
In the quarry S3, measurements were made
Vibration data are obtained with six measur- with 2 or 3 external tri-axial Series III sensors
ing methods that involve different coupling and connected to two MiniMate Plus recording units
orientation techniques. Their characteristics and manufactured by Instantel (Segarra et al. 2010,
acronyms are shown in Table 1. Other works, 2012). Two of the sensors meet DIN performance
such as those by Williams & Treleaven (2003), specification (1995), and the other ISEEs (2011a);
Adhikari et al. (2005) and Wheeler (2005), in which their deviation in the amplitude response ranged
from 2.4 to 3.9%, which is within the bounds for
blasting seismographs (ISEE 2011a). The set-ups
Table 1. Characteristics of measuring methods. used to record the waveforms were representa-
Method Sensors Sensors Sensors tive of those used in blasting. The sensors were
Site* name coupling orientation per blast** always laid on gypsum outcrops using four meth-
ods that comprise two coupling methods and three
S1 Em Soil-Embedded Not given 621/54 orientation procedures, see Table 1. The sensors
S2 SpSb/ Spikes & Fair 66/41 were anchored to the rock following the method
Sp sandbag described in previous work (Segarra et al 2010).
S3 SbCO Sandbag Correct 37/23 ISEE guidelines (2011b) were used to hold the sen-
S3 ACO Anchored Correct 311/21 sors with a sandbag. The methods used to orient
S3 AFO Anchored Fair 39 longitudinal sensors towards the blast try to rep-
S3 AWO Anchored Wrong 26 licate different bearing errors that can be typically
*S1: Bloomfield Colliery coal mine (Armstrong 2001);
made in the field and are identified as correct,
S2: Construction site (Hutchison et al. 2005); S3: Monte fair and wrong. Correctly oriented sensors were
Espartinas quarry (Segarra et al. 2010, 2012). **The obtained with a total station (Segarra et al. 2010).
number of blasts in which those sensors were used is A fair orientation of the sensors was achieved by
given in subscripts. pointing them visually to the blast center. In order

351

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 351 10/3/2012 8:37:46 PM

 Table 2. Vibration data.

Max.
Method Scaled distance Peak part. velocity Dominant freq. spectral
name (m/kg1/2) (mm/s) (Hz) amplitudes (102 mm/s)

Em Not given Not given 4.9104 Not given

SpSb/Sp 5.418.1 3.81104 Not given Not given
SbCO 15.272.4 1.3421.7 0.861.8 1.1081.7
ACO 18.274.7 0.6710.9 8.840.5 0.4746.2
AFO 27.983.4 0.679.18 9.954.0 0.7353.0
AWO 40.690.0 1.048.70 10.539.3 1.4044.8

to achieve a wrong orientation, one mount was

turned clockwise and the other counterclockwise
until the angle between the longitudinal sensor and
the direction towards the blast centre was 30.
Table 2 shows the range of basic vibration data
in any of the three components of ground motion.
Dominant frequency in site S1 (measurements with
Em method) is the frequency below which half of
the signals energy occurs (Spathis & Brodbeck
2005). In site S3 (data with SbCO, ACO, AFO, and
AWO methods), dominant frequency is regarded
as the frequency at which the spectral amplitude
is maximum. The maximum spectral amplitude is
also shown in Table 2. The wide span of vibration
data for each method stems from the fact that the
same measuring method was used in several blasts
with different characteristics and positions. Figure 2. Vector peak particle velocities.
Figure 2 shows the box plots for vector peak
particle velocities grouped as function of the cou-
pling methods in Table 1. The upper and lower sandbagged sensors (method SbCO); the recorded
limits of the boxes are the first and third quartiles, peak particle velocity was less than 2 mm/s and the
and the central line the median; whiskers outside dominant frequency 0.8 Hz.
the box extend a length 1.5 times the interquartile
range; values outside are represented as crosses;
the notches about the median represent robust 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSION
estimates of the 95% confidence interval about
those values (McGill et al. 1978). Relative uncertainties in the parameters available
Measurements with Em and SpSb/Sp methods from each site have been calculated and shown in
cover a wide range of vibration levels from low Figures 3 and 4; the width of the boxes has been made
to high, whereas data from other methods are proportional to square root of N. Uncertainties for
comprised at low levels. Armstrong (2001) and vector peak particle velocity can be calculated for all
Hutchison et al. (2005) do not show the existence the methods considered, whereas uncertainties for
of decoupling in their data. This is particularly spectral amplitudes are only available for the four
outlining for measurements with SpSb/Sp meth- methods tested in the quarry S3.
ods, which are only suitable for low vibration levels For the sake of simplification of the subsequent
(ISEE 2011b). The two atypically large velocities analysis, uncertainties in the longitudinal, trans-
from SpSb/Sp sensors in Figure 2, were obtained in versal and vertical components of ground motion
the same blast with the same seismograph model; are grouped for each vibration parameter and
they both are discarded because they are much measuring method in two sets: one for the vertical
higher than the other measurements in the same component (vV and VV), and another one for the
blast. This makes up a range of particle velocities horizontal components (vH and VH). The latter
from 3.81 to 55.1 mm/s. should not be confused with uncertainties in the
For the other methods, decoupling occurs in one total horizontal vector, which are not analyzed
event obtained in the longitudinal component with here because are not used for damage assessment.

352

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 352 10/3/2012 8:37:46 PM


Figure 3. Relative uncertainties in peak particle velocity.
Figure 4. Relative uncertainties in maximum spectral
amplitude.
Such data grouping is supported by the fact that
for every monitoring method, no statistical dif-
ference exists between the pairs of uncertainties
vL vT and also between the pair VL VT at a a
significance of 0.05.
Uncertainties in Figures 3 and 4, depend on the
number of measurement per blast N; they decrease
as N increases, e.g. decreasing the uncertainty in
the mean by a factor of two requires acquiring
four times as many observations in the sample.
Figure 3 shows that relative uncertainties for Em
sensors are smaller than those with SpSb/Sp sensors
for which N was similar and around six, see Table 1.
Uncertainties for SpSb sensors are even larger than
those obtained with less number of sensors.
The uncertainties in horizontal components
(vH and vH) from ACO, AFO and AWO meth-
ods for which the coupling method was always
the same and N similar (2 or 3), increase as the
orientation of the longitudinal sensors to the cen-
tre of the blast is less careful (see
Figs. 3 and 4).
The rest of uncertainties vV, V, VV and V are
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 353
independent of the orientation of the longitudinal
sensors to the centre of the blast. Such conclusions
are confirmed from the results of Kruskal-Wallis
test (Gibbons & Chakraborti 2005): for uncertain-
ties in the horizontal components, the p values are
less than 0.005, and for uncertainties in the other
parameters, they are greater than 0.15 (p values
above 0.05 suggest that the uncertainties come
from a population with the same relative error).
Equation 1 is applied to the datasets
in Figures 3
and 4; relative uncertainties vV, V, VV and V from
ACO, AFO, and AWO methods for which only the
orientation method varies, are lumped into a single
dataset since they are not influenced by the orienta-
tion quality. Matlab (2011) has been used to obtain
the MLEs of each distribution of errors. As a matter
of example, one of the likelihood functions is plot-
ted in Figure 5; its relatively sharp shape suggests
that the MLE is relatively precise (i.e. values of the
noncentrality parameter different than the MLE
are much less consistent with the set of observed
uncertainties).
The relative errors and their 95% confidence
bounds are given in Table 3 as function of the
measurements source, and the measuring condi-
tions; the confidence bounds of the relative errors
are calculated from the standard error of the
MLEs, which are ranged from 0.83 to 4.69. Since
N is variable for most of the methods, the near-
est integer of the average number of sensors per
blast has been used in the calculations. Such value
denoted as N is also shown in Table 3.
Data for peak particle velocity and maximum
spectral amplitude in Table 3 are shown in Figures 6
and 7, respectively. If there is no overlap between
the confidence bands for two methods, no statis-
tical differences in the precision of these methods
can be assessed at a confidence level of 95%.
Figure 5. Likelihood function of the parameter of the
distribution of uncertainties in maximum spectral ampli-
tudes in horizontal components with ACO method; the
MLE and its standard error are given.
353
10/3/2012 8:37:47 PM
 Table 3. Summary of measurement errors.

Error in peak particle Error in max. spectral

velocity (%) amplitude (%)

95% CB 95% CB
Sensors Sensors
Source coupling orientation M N Min Max Min Max

Combination of Embedded Not reported 25 6 4.6 4.1 5.3

3 components Spiked- Fair 7 6 13.0 10.0 18.7
sandbag
Sandbag Correct 10 3 7.5 5.4 12.3 14.5 10.4 23.8
Anchored Correct, fair & 27 3 6.2 5.1 7.9 3.9 3.2 4.9
wrong
Horizontal Spiked- Fair 14 6 19.7 16.5 24.4
components sandbag
Sandbag Correct 20 3 9.9 7.9 13.2 14.0 11.1 18.7
Anchored Correct 24 3 5.9 4.9 7.5 3.9 3.2 4.9
Fair 18 3 8.8 7.1 11.8 7.9 6.3 10.5
Wrong 12 2 14.3 9.8 25.9 34.9 24.1 63.4
Vertical Spiked- Fair 7 6 11.8 9.0 16.9
component sandbag
Sandbag Correct 10 3 8.4 6.1 13.8 14.9 10.7 24.4
Anchored Correct, fair & 27 3 5.0 4.1 6.3 3.9 3.2 4.9
wrong

M = number of relative uncertainties used; N = nearest integer of the mean of sensors number per blast; = estimate of
the population coefficient of variation or experimental error; 95% CB (min, max) = minimum and maximum bounds about
at a 95% confidence level.

Figure 7. Experimental errors for maximum spectral

Figure 6. Experimental errors for peak particle velocities amplitude and their 95% confidence bounds (AAO:
and their 95% confidence bounds (AAO: lumps data from lumps data from ACO, AFO, and AWO methods; acro-
ACO, AFO, and AWO methods; acronyms in Table 1). nyms in Table 1).

Figures 6 and 7 show that vibration measure-
ments in peak particle velocities and in maximum
spectral amplitudes can be quite precise if properly
made:
Measurements in the near and far field with soil-
embedded accelerometers have an error of 4.6%
for the vector peak particle velocity.
Measurements in the far field with anchored
geophones to rock have a relative error between
5 and 6.2% for particle velocities and 3.9% for
maximum spectral amplitudes.
Those values are an estimation of the
unavoidable experimental errors of vibration
measurements. The use of blasting seismographs
instead of accelerometers, which tolerance and
performance is different, will likely lead to differ-
ent errors for measurements with embedded sen-
sors into soil.

354

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 354 10/3/2012 8:37:48 PM

 Likewise figures are given to errors that can
be incurred when measurements are not made so
carefullythose with other coupling methods and
poor orientation towards the blast:
Sensors held with a combination of spikes and
sandbag (or only spikes) at medium distances from
the blast lead to relative errors in the upper range,
from 11.8 to 19.7% for peak particle velocities.
The use of sandbags to hold sensors cases in
rock at far distances leads to errors in the middle
range; from 7.5 to 9.9% for peak particle veloci-
ties and between 14 and 14.9% for maximum
spectral amplitudes.
When sensors are anchored, errors in horizon-
tal components can be ranked as low (5.9% for
vH and 3.9% for VH) when a total station is used
to point longitudinal sensors to the blast (with
bearing errors of only a few degrees), medium
(8.8% for vH and 7.9% for VH) when the sensors
are visually pointed to the blast, and high (14.3%
for vH and 34.9% for VH) when bearing errors are
around 30. The latter type is representative of
a situation that may arise when the blast cannot
be seen from the monitoring point and sensors
are oriented visually.
Variations in the mounting conditions, like mass
of sand loaded into the bags, contact conditions
between ground-sensor, spikes-ground, etc., when
spikes and/or sandbags are used, leads to variable
resonant coupling frequencies, and then to variable
distortion of the energy transfer from the ground
to the sensor. Such distortion will likely increases
as the incoming seismic waves carry more energy
at higher frequencies, which normally occurs at
closer distances to the blast. More data, however,
is required to decide whether the different precision
between sandbagged sensors and sandbagged and
spiked sensors is caused by site conditions (e.g. fre-
quency content of the incoming seismic signal) or
by the characteristics of the method.
5 CONCLUSIONS
Errors of vibration measurements have been studied
from records in 69 blasts in the near and far fields.
Vibrations from each blast, were measured with 2 to
6 tri-axial geophones or accelerometers. The sensors
were positioned close each other, and mounted with
the same method on rock or soil. The measuring con-
ditions analyzed were: embedded accelerometers into
soil, spiked and sandbagged geophones (or spiked),
sandbagged geophones on bedrock accurately ori-
entated towards the blast, and anchored geophones
accurately oriented, visually oriented, and intention-
ally deviated from the centre of the blast.
355
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 355
Measurement errors have been assessed for peak
particle velocities and maximum spectral amplitudes
in the three components of ground motion. They
have been also calculated for the vector peak parti-
cle velocity and maximum spectral amplitude of the
mean spectra in the longitudinal, transversal and
vertical components. Errors are described through
the coefficient of variation of the population of
measurements, which have been calculated from the
maximum likelihood estimates of the parameter of
the distribution of the relative uncertainties.
Errors in peak particle velocities are ranged
from 4.6 to 19.7% and from 3.9 to 34.9% for maxi-
mum spectral amplitude. Errors in the horizontal
(longitudinal and transversal components) compo-
nents obtained with the same method are sensitive
to both the attachment and orientation conditions.
Errors in the vertical component and in the mag-
nitudes obtained from a combination of records
in the 3 components (vector peak particle veloc-
ity and maximum spectral amplitude of the mean
frequency spectrum) depend only on the coupling
method. This suggests using vector peak particle
velocity for damage assessment.
Errors decrease, as expected, with better geo-
phone-to-ground coupling (i.e. methods that pro-
vides a constant coupling resonant frequency),
and with smaller bearing errors in the orientation
of longitudinal sensors towards the blast (only
for magnitudes in horizontal components). This
statement applies to errors of both peak particle
velocities and spectral amplitudes, which gives
consistency to the analysis made.
The knowledge of experimental errors in peak
particle velocities and maximum spectral ampli-
tudes can be used to estimate:
The maximum likely peak particle velocity from
a blast to be applied to assess compliance with
vibration from blasting standards.
Confidence limits of the maximum spectral
amplitude so that any frequency which spectral
amplitude is within such confidence band be
considered for the purpose of vibration from
blasting compliance assessment.
ACKNOWLEDMENTS
This work has been partially funded by MAXAM,
which support is gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
AENOR. 1993. Control de vibraciones producidas por vol-
aduras (Norma UNE 22-381-93). Madrid: Asociacin
Espaola de Normalizacin y Certificacin.
10/3/2012 8:37:49 PM
 AENOR. 2005. Evaluacin de la conformidad. Requisitos
generales relativos a la competencia de los laborato-
rios de ensayo y calibracin (Norma UNE EN ISO/
IEC 17025:2005). Madrid: Asociacin Espaola de
Normalizacin y Certificacin.
Adhikari, G.R., Theresraj, A.I., Gupta, R.N. 2005.
Influence of transducer-ground coupling on vibration
measurements. Int. J.Blast Fragm. 9(2): 7992.
Armstrong, L.W. 2001. Evalaution of parameters affect-
ing blast induced vibrations, Ph. D thesis. Wollon-
gong, Australia: University of Wollongong.
Blair, D.P. 1987. The measurement, modelling and
control of ground vibrations due to bBlasting. In
Fourney, W.L. & Dick, R.D. (eds.), Proc. 2nd Int.
Symp. of Rock Fragmentation by Blasting, Keystone,
CO, 2326 August, pp. 88101. Bethel, CT: Society for
Experimental Mechanics.
Blair, D.P. 1995a. Soil-embedded detector mounts for
seismic monitoring. Geophysics 60(1): 12033.
Blair, D.P. 1995b. Blast vibrations in soil and on large res-
onant structures. Proc. Explo 95. Exploring the role of
rock breakage in mining and quarrying, Brisbane, 47
September, pp. 317322. Carlton, VIC: The Australa-
sian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy.
Blair, D.P. 1999. Statistical models for ground vibration
and airblast. Int. J. Blast Fragm. 3(4): 335364.
Blair, D.P. & Armstrong, L.W. 1999. The spectral control
of ground vibration using electronic detonators. Int. J.
Blast Fragm. 3(4): 303334.
BSI. 1993. Evaluation and measurement for vibration in
buildings: Guide to damage levels from groundborne
vibration (BS 7385: part 2). London: British Standard
Institution.
DIN. 1995. Mechanical vibration and shock measure-
mentPart 1: Measuring equipment (DIN 456691).
Berlin: Deutsches Institut fr Normung.
DIN. 1999. Structural VibrationPart 3: Effects of
vibration on structures (DIN 4150-3:199902). Berlin:
Deutsches Institut fr Normung.
Drijkoningen, G.G, Rademakers, F., Slob., E.C.,
Fokkema, J.T. 2006. A new elastic model for ground
coupling of geophones with spikes. Geophysics 71(2):
Q9Q17.
Farnfield, R.A. 1996. So you think you are monitor-
ing peak particle velocity? Proc. 12th Symposium
on Explosives and Blasting Research, Orlando, 48
February. Cleveland, OH: International Society of
Explosives Engineers.
Forkman, J. & Verill, S. 2008. The distribution of
McKays approximation for the coefficient of varia-
tion. Statistics and Probability Letters 78(1):1014.
Gibbons, J.D. & Chakraborti S. 2005. Nonparametric
Statistical Inference: 363372. Marcel Dekker: New
York.
Hutchison, W., Grigoryan, E. & Lorsbach, G. 2005.
Significant sources of errors in the seismographs
error budget. Proc. 31st Annual Conference on Explo-
sives and Blasting Technique, Orlando, 69 February.
Cleveland, OH: International Society of Explosives
Engineers.
ISEE. 2011a. Blasting seismographs standards.
Eltschlager KK (working group co-ordinator). In:
Blasters Handbook, 18th Edition: 952. Cleveland, OH:
International Society of Explosives Engineers.
356
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 356
ISEE. 2011b. Seismograph field guidelines. Eltschlager
KK (working group co-ordinator). In: Blasters Hand-
book, 18th Edition: 955959 Cleveland, OH: Interna-
tional Society of Explosives Engineers.
ISRM. 1992. Suggested method for blast vibration moni-
toring. Dowding CH (working group co-ordinator),
International Society for Rock Mechanics. Int. J. Rock
Mech. Min. Sci. & Geo. Abstr. 29(2): 143156.
JCGM. 2008. Evaluation of measurement dataGuide
to the expression of uncertainty in measurement,
GUM 1995 with minor corrections. Svres: Joint
Committee for Guides in Metrology.
Krohn, C.E. 1984. Geophone ground coupling.
Geophysics 49(6): 722731.
Matlab 7.13. 2011. Natick, MA: The MathWorks Inc.
McGill, R., Tukey, J.W., & Larsen, W.A. 1978. Variations
of box plots.The American Statistician: 32(1): 1216.
Miller, J.C. & Miller, J.N. 1993. Statistics for analytical
chemistry (3rd edition): 16. New York: Ellis Horwood
PTR Prentice Hall.
Owen, D.B. 1968. A survey of properties and applica-
tions of the noncentral t-distribution. Technometrics
10(3): 445478.
Scholz, F. 2007. Applications of the Noncentral t-Dsitri-
bution. http://www.stat.washington.edu. March 2nd.
Segarra, P., Sanchidrin, J.A., Lpez, L.M., Querol, E. &
Gutierrez, J. 2010. Assessment of the error of blast
vibration measurements. In: Sanchidrin J.A. (ed):
Proc. 9th Int. Symp. of Rock Fragmentation by Blast-
ing. Granada, 1317 September, pp. 551560. Leiden,
The Netherlands: CRC Press.
Segarra, P., Lpez, L.M., Sanchidrin, J.A. 2012.
Uncertainty in measurements of vibrations from
blasting. Rock Mech. Rock Eng. DOI:10.1007/s00603-
012-0229-y.
Singh, P.K. & Roy, M.P. 2010. Damage to surface struc-
tures due to blasting. Int. J. Rock Mech.& Min. Sci.
47(6): 949961.
Siskind, D.E., Stagg, J., Kopp, J.W. & Dowding C.H.
1980. Structure Response and Damage Produced
by Ground Vibrations from Surface Mine Blast-
ing (Report No. 8507). Twin Cities: U.S. Bureau of
Mines.
Spathis, A.T. & Brodbeck, A. 2005. Future directions
in ground vibration and airblast control within Aus-
tralian regulatory context. Proc. 31st Annual Conf.
on Explosives and Blasting Technique, Orlando, 69
February 2005, pp. 263276. Cleveland, OH: Interna-
tional Society of Explosives Engineers.
Taylor, B.N. & Kuyatt C. 1994. Guidelines for evaluating
and expressing the uncertainty of NIST measurement
results (NIST Technical Note 1297). Washington, D.C.:
National Institute of Standards and Technology.
Wheeler, R.M. 2005. The importance of proper seismo-
graph coupling. In: Holmberg et al. (Eds.) Proc EFEE
3rd World Conference on Explosives & Blasting Tech-
nique, Brighton, 1316 September, 237243. Roches-
ter: European Federation of Explosives Engineers.
Williams, A. & Treleaven, T. 2003. Trench blasting in
close proximity to existing utilities in ultra metamor-
phic rock. J. Explosives Engineering 20(4): 614.
10/3/2012 8:37:49 PM
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

The dynamics and fragmentation of blasted ore slices in scaled sublevel

caving and slab models followed by accuracy analysis of the Volume
weight method used for determination of ore content at loading

Agne Rustan
Royal Institute of Technology, Division of Mining, Stockholm, Sweden
Retired from Lule University of Technology, Division of Mining Lule, Sweden
Swedish Detonic Research Foundation and Nitro Nobel AB, Vinterviken, Stockholm (Institute and company
where the blasts were performed)

ABSTRACT: The sublevel caving mining method is described in the introduction. The problem in sublevel
caving is if the swelling and fragmentation of the ore is not enough, then the mobility of the ore will be
too low so the main mass can not move only the smallest pieces created in the vicinity of the blastholes
will move downwards by gravity forces. The hypotheses tested in this project was therefore, if we by model
tests can study the dynamics of the blasted ore and thereby learn the kinematic in detail and get a better
understanding of the swelling of the ore and finally be able to make better blast designs for the full scale
mine to avoid freezing of the ore. A second objective was to examine if the Volume weight method could
be used to determine the cut off point when loading the ore waste rock mixture. The research strategy
developed was to simulate full scale blasting as geometrical and accurately as possible and to use the
smallest possible scale thereby reducing the cost of model material and material handling. The blastholes
were charged manually with dry and fine grained PETN explosive and initiated by precise Micro Second
Ignition Beams. Within the burden, in one SLC Normal Profile model, numbered markers were placed
in three vertical planes before casting of the model. The model material consisted originally of magnetite
concrete, but joints were lacking in these models and had to be introduced to achieve a scaled fragmen-
tation. The introduction of crushed microscopic glass for simulation of joints worked very well and the
amount of wished middle size fractions increased considerable. Special made plastic markers were used
for the observation of the movement of ore during initial blasting and during loading of the blasted ore.
A new technique for creation of the blastholes was developed by insertion of oiled iron bars before casting
so they could be removed after the curing of the model. The movement of the burden was recorded for
1 SLC Silo Profile model by a high speed camera in a section representing a vertical cut along the loading
cross cut.The fragmentation size distribution and the ratio of weight of ore to weight of caved waste rock
was determined at different extraction levels. The swelling, velocity and the acceleration of the burden
against the caved rock was also measured in the Silo model. In 6 Slab blasting models the influence from
delay time on the fragmentation of ore was studied. The optimal delay time was 0,1 ms. At 0 and 0,005 ms
delay time the linear swell was negative. The result shows generally a higher positive linear swell in the
middle of the round compared to the sides. The maximum mean linear swell was 42% of the burden at
0,1 ms delay time. In the SLC Normal Profile models the swelling of ore into the drift was recorded with
the help of plastic tube markers, 10 mm in length. Most early markers comes from the area close to the
blastholes which is well fragmented. Regarding the Volume weight method the maximum error between
real and calculated ore content using the volume weight method was 23 weight-%. The standard deviation
of the difference for 24 extracted unit volumes (Kiruna trucks) was 12 weight-%. Quantification of all
parameters studied was possible in 12 Slab models, 12 Normal Profile models and 2 Silo models. This kind
of modelling developed can therefore be recommended for future research.

Keywords: Blasting, sublevel caving, model test, swelling, fragmentation, gravity flow, high speed camera,
ore dilution, measurement method, ore content, loading of ore, volume weight method

357

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 357 10/3/2012 8:37:49 PM

 1 INTRODUCTION initial model blasting experience from blasting in
plates of Plexiglass, Rustan 1965. The aim of those
1.1 The hypothesis tested tests was to study the influence of blasthole devia-
tion on fragmentation. These tests were under-
The sublevel caving mining method principle is
taken at the Nitro Nobel Research Laboratory
to fragment a slice of ore standing almost vertical
located at the original dynamite factories of Alfred
8085. The thickness (burden) of the slice might
Nobel in Vinterviken, Stockholm. The develop-
be in large Scale Sublevel Caving (SLC) about 3 m
ment and performance of the SLC and Slab blast-
and the number of blastholes to fragment the slice
ing tests reported here were done during 1968 to
may have a diameter of 102115 mm and could be
1970 and the result only published in a Technical
about 8 to 10 and fan orientated upwards at LKAB
Licentiate thesis written in Swedish, see Rustan
in Kiruna today. The sublevel height is 2530 m
1970. To make the research results open to inter-
today. To keep the slice in place the SLC method
national researchers part of the thesis is now being
demands that the surrounding caved rock mass
published for the first time.
exerts a pressure on the blasted slice before, during
The swelling of ore is very difficult to quantify
and after blasting. The fragmented ore will then by
in the full scale and it was therefore decided to
gravity flow down to an underlying drift (cross cut)
study the phenomenon in model blast tests.
where the fragmented ore will be loaded and trans-
After the test reported in this paper have been
ported by a Kiruna truck or Load Haul Dumper
undertaken, the swelling at blasting against waste
(LHD) to an ore pass shaft. If the swelling of the
rock was studied by Jarlenfors 1980 at the Swedish
ore is not enough the mobility of the ore will be
Detonic Foundation. He did 3 slab blast tests in
too low so the main mass can not move, only the
Plexiglass at 3 different swell volumes using 1 row
smallest pieces, created in the vicinity of the blast-
with 4 blastholes. The holes were initiated simul-
holes, will then move down by gravity forces. The
taneously against different swell volumes, 12,5%,
hypotheses tested in the technical licentiate thesis
20% and 100%. The resulting fragmentation is
was therefore, if we in model tests can study the
shown in Figure 1.
dynamics of the blasted ore and thereby learn the
The finest fragmentation was achieved at 100%
kinematics of the blasted round in detail and get a
swell volume and the coarsest fragmentation at
better understanding of the swelling process of the
minimum swell volume 12,5%.
ore when blasting against waste rock and finally be
In 2004 Zhang reported results from model
able to make a better blast design for a full scale
blasting tests in scaled SLC- models scaled 1:50 in
mine and to avoid freezing of the ore.
concrete. His finding was that the fragment size
A second goal was to examine if the volume
distribution within the body is increasing from
weight of the loaded ore mixed with waste rock
bottom to top, and on the top of the caved (should
could be used to determine the ore content in a
be blasted burden) ore body and close to the blast-
Kiruna truck or LHD-bucket.
holes there is a subsided area. This is similar to the
finding in the blast tests reported here. However
he is also reporting a horizontal swelling of the
1.2 Literature review
ore in the upper part as large as 2,8 times the bur-
No literature was found where the sublevel cav-
ing blasting has been simulated in model by small
scale blast tests. In Sweden lot of model tests have
been undertaken during the 1960s and 1970s to
simulate the gravity flow at sublevel caving mainly
under the conduction of Professor Ingvar Janelid
and Dr Rudolf Kvapil 1966 at the Royal Institute
of Technology in Stockholm. During that time
the blasted ore slice was simulated by filling loose
magnetite into the models and using white lime-
stone around the loose ore. Of course, this material
will have a much better mobility than blasted ore
and therefore it will only reflect a very ideal grav-
ity flow.
Agne Rustan, assistant to Professor Ingvar
Janelid at that time, who was active in the research Figure 1. Fragmentation after blasting one row of
of gravity flow for LKAB, suggested that the slice 4 holes simultaneously against 3 different surrounding
of blasted ore in sublevel caving could be better swell volumes of loose rock. 100% swelling means swell-
simulated by model scale blasting. Rustan got his ing against air. Jarlenfors, 1980.

358

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 358 10/3/2012 8:37:49 PM

 den so the swelled burden would near the shape
of the draw body. This large expansion I have not
observed in my model tests and have not been
reported elsewhere. Many important technical data
are, however, lacking in the paper.
Power 2004 has reported from a full-scale SLC
marker test in the Ridgeway gold and copper mine
in Australia. According to him the draw enve-
lope (drawbody) was shallower than the fired bur-
den and the with of the flow was not so wide as
expected because there was no interaction between
two rounds drawn side by side.
In 1996, see Newman et al 2008, a full scale swell
test was undertaken at LKAB in Kiruna where
3 horizontal production holes 115 mm in diameter
were drilled in a vertical plane into a SLC-pillar
parallel with a SLC crosscut filled with caved rock.
The burden varied from 2.5 to 3,5 m, due to a not
planar drift wall and the length of the 3 holes was
22 m. The blastholes were charged by pumpable
emulsion explosive type Kimulux R with 5% alu-
minum delivered from Kimit AB, The blastholes
were fired against the caved SLC waste rock in the
nearby lying crosscut that already has been mined
out. The swelling of the burden was measured
by 4 diamond drilling holes (42 mm in diameter)
drilled through the pillar before blasting to exam-
ine the undisturbed conditions and 4 diamond drill
holes drilled after blasting to examine the linear
swelling and also the damage from the blastholes in
the remaining pillar. The linear swell recorded was
17, 8, 16 and 2% with a mean value of 11% which
should be compared to the free volume swell of
6% into the draw drift in real full scale sublevel cav-
ing blasting in Kiruna using a sublevel height of
27 m, drift spacing 25 m, and a drift height 5 m and
drift width of 7 m.
Recently a thesis was presented showing the
result from blasting magnetite concrete cylinders
samples with an axial linear charge in the center of
the cylinder against waste rock or air, see Johansson
2011. This blast layout simulates, however, more
boulder blasting than a sublevel caving blast, but
the advantage is that a larger number of well con-
trolled tests can be done to a low cost. The blasting
was done against two different swell of waste rock
S = 20% and 36% and compared to blasting against
air. The swell S is defined as follows, see Rustan
et al 2011,
V
S = 100 void (1)
Vsolid
The specific charge q was varied in steps from
0,10, 0,20, 0,33, 0,65, 1,3 and up to 2,60 kg/m3.
At a specific charge of 1 kg/m3, commonly used
in mining, k50 = 18,5 mm for the free face blast or
359
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 359
infinite swell and k50 = 36,8 mm for blasting against
waste rock with 40% swell and k50 = 52,4 mm when
blasting against waste rock with 20% swell. The
swell of the waste rock surrounding the ore cylin-
der therefore has a big effect on the fragmentation
and the result shows the same trend as the earlier
mentioned Jarlenfors tests.
Johansson 2011 also studied how the pressure
of waste rock on the ore cylinder effected fragmen-
tation. The pressure was varied between a natu-
ral pressure increase with depth in the model and
compared to an induced pressure of 0,42 respec-
tively 0,86 MPa in the waste rock. An increase in
k50 was measured at increased pressure at respec-
tively stress level from 58, 69 and 78 mm at a spe-
cific charge of 0,40 kg/m3 and 21, 24 and 24 mm at
a specific charge of 2 kg/m3. The conclusion was
therefore that the waste rock pressure on the cylin-
der affects the fragmentation more at a low specific
charge than at high specific charge.
At the time when I was undertook the small
scale sublevel caving blast tests, I did not find any
quantitative information in the literature about the
effect of waste rock pressure on fragmentation.
2 TEST PROCEDURE AND RESULTS
2.1 Model types
Three kind of models where used, SLC Normal
Profile, SLC SILO profile model and finally Slab
blasting models.
It was decided from the beginning that the
models should be as realistic as possible to full
scale SLC. Therefore a module of the SLC Nor-
mal Profile was scaled down to 1:75, see Figure 2.
Figure 2. Dimensions of the SLC Normal Profile
model in mm. The numbering of the blastholes shows
the delay numbers.
10/3/2012 8:37:50 PM
 The SLC SILO profile model and Slab blasting the model blast material. The sieving properties for
models will be explained further on. these two products are shown in Table 1.
In the experiments it was found that when blast-
ing the models after about 14 days curing, the mid-
2.2 SLC Normal Profile model
dle size fractions were rare when using 5 weight-%
The goal with the SLC Normal Profile blasting cement in the model material.
model was to determine the linear swell, loosening, This problem was overcome by introducing
and fragmentation and to start loading of the ore crushed microscopic glass into the model mate-
after blasting. rial. The glass plates acted as natural weakness
An analysis of factors affecting the mean frag- planes and caused an increase of the middle size
ment size of blasted ore k50 was undertaken. fractions.
The casting of the models were done in a 2 mm
k50 f (c,p f1, Q q
Q, q, Bb , S,) (2) thick steel mould were the drill holes were manu-
factured by inserting oiled steel bars, 2 mm in
diameter, into the model before casting. Maximum
where k50 = mean fragment size five burdens could be blasted in one casted model
SLC Normal Profile model, one by one.
Rock properties
In one casted SLC Normal Profile model, see
c = Langefors rock constant
Figure 3, three planes of markers where placed in
p = pressure from waste rock exerted on the burden
the burden at 4, 12 and 20 mm distance from the
being blasted
blast holes (drilled burden was 24 mm) and located
Geometry properties in front of the blastholes on one half of the model
= the geometry of drill hole pattern and on the other side the markers were placed
f1 = confinement of the blast round between the blastholes. The purpose with the
= blast front inclination markers was to quantify how the blasted ore moves
in space due to the synergetic effect of blasting and
Blasting properties
gravity flow and also to follow the ore when it is
Q = explosive heat
started to be loaded.
q = specific charge
The model before casting is shown in Figure 3.
= delay time between blastholes
The use of oiled steel bars was necessary to be able
Bb = burden distance blasted
to remove the steel bars after curing of the model.
S = minimum and maximum spacing between
The mould and the oiled steel bars were removed
charged parts of the blast holes.
the next day after casting, and the models were
The parameters , c, p, and q in Eqv. 2 have been wrapped by a wet cloth to prevent too fast drying.
varied in this project to arrive with an acceptable The goal was to blast all models exactly 14 days
fragmentation for gravity flow. The delay time after casting but in reality the time varied from 7
was varied from 0 to 250 ms in 6 Slab blasting to 32 days.
models. The rock constant c was varied by chang-
ing the properties of the model material by using
Table 1. Properties of the two iron ore qualities MBF
different percentage of binding material 3, 5 and and MAC from LKAB in Malmberget Sweden used in
10 weight-% in the SLC Normal profile models the model material.
and 1, 2, 5 och 10 weight-% in the Slab blasting
models. Gullhgen rapid cement was used as bind- Weight-% passing
ing material in the magnetite concrete in all models
reported in this paper. Sieve opening (mm) MBF MAC
Numerous tests were undertaken to find a suit-
able model material that could give a scaled frag- 0,83 94
mentation when being blasted. 0,59 85
The ore should after blasting and gravity flow 0,42 70
0,30 50 100
be separated and therefore magnetite was used to
0,21 26 96
simulate ore because it can be easily separated from
0,15 18 89
non magnetic waste rock by a magnet. White lime-
0,10 11 74
stone was used as waste rock and the color helped
0,07 8 60
also to distinguish visually the waste from the ore
Specific weight (kg/m3) 4900 5100
due to the high contrast to the dark magnetite. Volume weight (kg/m3) 27003800 26003300
Two different marketing qualities of iron ore Moisture content (weight-%) 3,5 7,0
from LKAB in Malmberget, MBF and MAC, Fe-content (weight-%) 68 71
were used to in proportion 2/3 to 1/3 to prepare

360

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 360 10/3/2012 8:37:52 PM


Figure 3. The SLC Normal Profile mould with num-
bered markers placed in three planes parallel to the
drilled burden and in front of each blasthole before cast-
ing. Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm.
Fine grained PETN was used as an explosive and
poured by hand into the blastholes. No packing by
tamping was made. The amount of explosive in
each blasthole was measured to check that no hang
up occurred during charging. If this was the case
the explosive loaded was removed and replaced by
new explosive. In initial experiments lead azide and
lead trinitrate was used as explosives. Because of
its larger sensitivity to friction and unintentional
initiation these explosives were later on replaced by
PETN. The initiation was done by microsecond ini-
tiation beads having a precision in timing of 1 s.
The initiation was made at the top of the holes.
The start of the covering the prepared model by
waste rock is shown in Figure 4. The two middle
holes were initiated on the first delay, thereafter the
two holes next to them on each side and so on, see
Figure 2. For the generation of delays, an Electronic
Pulse Generator Type 1395-A General Radio was
used creating delay times down to 1 s.
2.3 Initial blast tests for determination of optimal
delay time in the Slab blasting models
The optimal delay time for creation of maxi-
mum amount of fines was studied in Slab blast-
361
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 361
Figure 4. PETN has been charged into the blast holes
from the bottom und upwards and the s Ignition beads
were placed at the top of the blastholes in the SLC Nor-
mal Profile blast model. The wooden box is started to be
filled with white limestone. Nitro Nobel Research Labo-
ratory, Vinterviken, Stockholm.
Figure 5. Slab blasting model simulating bench blasting
with an open joint at the bench bottom. The numbers
at the top of the blastholes are showing the initiation
order.
ing tests in magnetite concrete with 2 weight-%
rapid cement and with parallel holes and blast-
ing against the white waste rock in the same box
as used for the SLC-models, see Figure 5 for
dimensions. Five different delay times were exam-
ined from 0 to 10s.
2.4 Result of delay time influence
on fragmentation
After blasting the fragmented magnetite was sepa-
rated by a magnet from the waste rock. The Linear
Charge Concentration ql (LCC) of the explosive
PETN could not be held constant due to the pour-
ing of the explosive into the blastholes. The LCC
therefore varied between different holes from
2,16 to 2,86 g/m. The fragmentation at different
delay times is shown in Table 2 and Figure 6 after
recalculation to full scale.
The finest fragmentation was achieved at 0,1 ms
delay time and at the same delay time the maximum
mean linear swell was achieved, 10 mm or 42% of
the burden. To avoid problems with the cut-offs
10/3/2012 8:37:52 PM
 Table 2. Influence from delay time between holes in
Slab blasting models on fragmentation k50 and k80 com-
pared to a wished k50 = 100 mm and k80 = 280 mm in full
scale.
Delay time k50 recalculated to k80 recalculated to
(ms) full scale (mm) full scale (mm)
0 57 2700
0,005 44 1800
0,1 28 300
1,0 32 2750
250 215 7000
Figure 6. Cumulated weight-% passing versus mesh
size after blasting in Slab models with 2 weight-% rapid
cement and delay times from 0250 ms.
of holes, the delay time was therefore decided to
be 0,1 ms in all following SLC Normal Profile and
Slab blasting models.
The dashed line represented by the two points,
k50 = 100 mm and k100 = 800 mm in Figure 6 shows
the mean fragment size distribution in SLC-tests
measured in full scale at LKAB in Kiruna, see
Maripuu 1968.
In recent time Wimmer 2008, presented a study
from sieving 6 LHD buckets corresponding to 96 t
of magnetite ore taken from a specific fan (level
907 Block 37, drift 377) of the Kiruna mine. All
6 buckets have been taken in series after an ini-
tial extraction of 20 buckets corresponding to an
extraction of 7,5% from a total loaded mass of
6591 t. The sublevel height was 27 m. The scat-
ter of k50 was large from k50 = 14,3 mm for bucket
No. 5, to k50 = 277,6 mm for bucket No. 2 and with
a mean value of k50 = 62 mm. k100 varied from 200
650 mm with a mean of 480 mm. Wimmers result
indicates a finer fragmentation than that measured
by Maripuu, but Wimmers measurement are made
in the beginning when fragmentation normally is
fine.
362
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 362
In Figure 6 it can clearly be seen that the
S-shaped size distributions are crossing the wished
dashed linear aimed distribution. The shape indi-
cates that the middle size fractions are missing and
this led me to introduce crushed microscopic glass
in the model material to simulate the joints (geo-
logical fractures) in the rock mass.
3 BLASTING OF SLC NORMAL PROFILE-
AND SLAB BLASTING MODELS
The models were blasted in a special built wooden
box made by 19 mm thick plywood and reinforced
by iron profiles, see Figure 4.
3.1 Description of the blast box and waste rock
The inner dimensions of the box are width
400 mm, length 450 mm and height 400 mm. In
one of the shorter sides a drift opening was made
to make it possible to load the blasted burden of
ore. The model was placed at the bottom of the
box and fixed to the bottom by a 1 mm thick steel
plate covering the model 130 mm in length. The
covered part of the model is not used for blasting.
It was fasten to the bottom by 6 pieces of 6 mm
bolts. In Figure 4 the SLC-model is shown at the
start of filling of waste rock into the box up to the
top surface. The waste rock consists of limestone
with a scaled down size distribution from full scale,
see Table 3.
Above the waste rock two sand bags were placed
each with a weight of 25 kg.
3.2 Analysis of the result from SLC Normal
Profile
After blasting the models were digged archeology
level by level to measure linear swell, loosening,
and fragmentation, movement of ore and the plas-
tic markers and the result was also photo docu-
mented, see Figures 710.
The fragmentation after blasting of one
SLC-model with 5 weight-% rapid cement showed
that 5 weight-% is a too high rapid cement con-
centration to get a scaled fragmentation, see also
Figure 8 och 9.
From Figure 8 we understand that the fragmen-
tation is too coarse to cause any gravity flow of
Table 3. Waste rock fragment composition.
Fraction (mm) Amount weight-%
35 33 1/3
58 33 1/3
812 33 1/3
10/3/2012 8:37:53 PM
 Figure 7. Fragmentation of the top pillar between
two SLC Normal Profile crosscuts. The fragmentation
is too coarse for ideal gravity flow and the backbreak is
too large. Scale 1:75. Royal Institute of Technology in
Stockholm.

Figure 9. Fragmentation seen from the side after a

SLC-Normal Profile blast in magnetite concrete, using
5 weight-% rapid cement. Scale 1:75. Royal Institute of
Technology (KTH), Stockholm.

Figure 8. Fragmentation after a sublevel caving blast in

magnetite concrete using 5 weight-% of rapid cement as
binding material. Scale 1:75. Royal Institute of Technol-
ogy (KTH), Stockholm.

Figure 10. Swelling after blasting of the SLC Normal

the main mass, so therefore this round better repre-
sents a frozen SLC Normal Profile round.
In Figure 9 the same model as shown in Figure 8
is shown from the side. A considerable back break
can be seen on the right side almost as deep as the
burden 24 mm.
Profile model consisting of magnetite concrete with 10
weight-% rapid cement. Dashed areas shows positive lin-
ear swelling at the heights; 6,7, 18,7 och 26,3 cm above
the draw level corresponding to 5, 14 and 20 m above the
draw level in full scale SLC. Scale 1:75. Royal Institute of
Technology (KTH), Stockholm.

363

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 363 10/3/2012 8:37:54 PM

 The linear swelling on different heights above 3.3.2 Results from binding material influence
the extraction drift was recorded by archeology on fragmentation in SLC Normal Profile
digging in one SLC Normal Profile model using models
10 weight-% rapid cement and 0,1 s delay time In the SLC Normal Profile models fan drilling was
between the blastholes, see Figure 10. There is also used and the mean fragment sizes measured at 3, 5
a swelling to the two sides 6,7 and 18,7 mm above and 10 weight-% rapid cement, see Table 5.
the draw level corresponding to 5 and 14 m above The cement concentration should therefore be
the draw level in full scale. a little larger than 3% in the SLC Normal Profile
models.
The SLC Normal Profile model with 3% cement
3.3 Result from binding material influence caused very fine fragmentation, see Figure 11. May
on fragmentation in Slab- and SLC Normal be the fragments are even finer than that observed
Profile blasting models in full scale SLC but the middle fractions were
In the Slab blasting models rapid cement was missing. A technique was therefore developed to
used as binding material and varied in steps introduce joints in the model material which will
between 1, 2, 5 och 10 weight-% and in the SLC be explained in the next section.
Normal Profile models 3, 5 and 10 weight-% Together with the dark magnetite concrete,
cement was used. At 13% cement content, the some single white waste rock pieces were found
sieving has to be done very carefully to avoid on the top of the muck pile, see Figure 11, and
secondary breakage of the model material. The probably these pieces comes from the top of the
larger pieces were brought through the sieve by blast front because the blasted burden opens up a
hand and the smaller pieces were hand sieved slot between the blasted ore and the next burden
with as little movement as possible to avoid sec- to be blasted and waste rock pieces can therefore
ondary breakage. drop down to the excavation drift through the slot.
The mean fragment size for full-scale SLC
ore and waste rock mixture was judged to be
Table 5. The importance of rapid cement concentration
k50 = 100 mm according to the earlier mentioned on k50 in Sublevel Caving Normal Profile models at delay
test undertaken by Maripuu 1968 at LKAB in time 0,1 ms.
Kiruna.
Rapid cement k50 measured Corresponding
(Gullhgen) in model scale value in full scale,
3.3.1 Reslt from binding material influence (weight-%) (mm) k50 (mm)
on fragmentation in slab blasting
The measured k50 in the slab models are shown in 3 0,84 63
Table 4. 5 14,7 1100
The cement concentration must therefore be less 10 29,3 2200
Wished valued 1,333 100
than 5% and larger than 3% at parallel hole drill-
for scaled
ing, in Slab blasting models, to achieve a scaled fragmentation
fragmentation.

Table 4. Slab blasting models with parallel holes and

delay time 0,1 ms. The mean fragment size, k50 depend-
ens on the cement concentration. It is compared with the
wished value for fragmentation.

Rapid cement k50 (model Corresponding

(Gullhgen) scale value in full scale k50
(weight-%) (mm) (mm)

1 0,23 17,25
2 0,23 17,25
3 0,35 26,25
5 6,1 457,50
10 18,7 1402,50
Wished value 1,333 100
for scaled Figure 11. Fragmentation of ore in the loading drift
fragmentation immediately after blasting a SLC-Normal profile model
using 3 weight% rapid cement.

364

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 364 10/3/2012 8:37:55 PM

 This phenomenon, has also been observed in full
scale SLC.
3.4 Influence from specific charge on
fragmentation in a Sublevel Normal Profile
model
Two different specific charges were examined in
SLC Normal Profile models, q = 2,7 kg/m3 using
2 mm blasthole diameter and q = 0 5,5 kg/m3 using
3 mm blasthole diameter. The holes were charged
with PETN. The delay time was 0,1 ms and the
rapid cement concentration was 5 weight-%.
The result showed a large change in k50 and k80
with change in specific charge, see Table 6, but the
backbreak was too large with the higher specific
charge and therefore the conclusion was that the
fragmentation could not be improved by increas-
ing the specific charge.
From Table 7 it is obvious that the fragmenta-
tion is still too coarse to fulfill a scaled fragmenta-
tion. The conclusion was therefore that the rapid
cement concentration has to be lowered and frag-
mentation improved by artificial joints instead.
was 20 mm. The tests were performed with a rapid
cement concentration of 10% and delay time 0,1 s.
4 burdens were blasted in the same model and the
joint area was intentionally varied linearly in each
burden according to Table 7.
In use are several definitions for joint frequency,
see Rustan et al 2011. Here the following definition
was used for the joint frequency (IjAV);
Aj
I jAV = (3)
V
where Aj is total area of joints in (m2) and V the
volume including the joints in (m3).
In Table 7 the k50 for all tested joint frequencies
are shown. Figure 12 shows the model before blast-
ing the fourth round.
A considerable change in k50 was achieved by
introducing joints. The shape of the sieve analysis
curves in the double logarithmic diagram changes
from a S-shaped to a linear form and the curves
are near parallel to the full scale SLC-fragment size
distribution curve shown by the dashed line to the
left in Figure 13.

3.5 Influence from artificial joints
on fragmentation
Joints were introduced into the model material to
increase the middle size fractions. The joints were
created by using crushed microscopic glass plates
with an original size of 24 36 mm and a thickness
0,1 mm. The largest length of a single piece of glass
in the SLC-Normal Profile model after crushing
Table 6. Influence from specific charge on fragmen-
tation in SLC Normal Profile models with 5 weight-%
cement. LCC = linear charge concentration.
3.6 The influence of the waste rock pressure
on fragmentation
The influence of waste rock pressure was exam-
ined in both SLC Normal Profile models at 0 and
12 Pa at 3 weight-% cement concentration and at 0,
10 and 22 Pa in Slab models at 2 weight-% cement
concentration. The delay time was 0,1 ms. The
calculated pressures are at half the height of the
model. The result is shown in Table 8.
The sublevel caving models are showing a clear
increase of both k50 and k80 with increased waste

Spec Aimed Aimed

charge LCC k50 k50 k80 k80
(kg/m3) (g/m) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)

2,7 1,93 700 100 3300 275

5,6 3,99 500 100 2550 275

Table 7. Influence of joint intensity on the mean

fragmentation, k50, in SLC Normal Profile models with
10 weight-% cement.

No. of Joint frequency k50

Burden glasses (1/cm) (cm)

1 0 0 28
2 25 1,17 13,3 Figure 12. SLC Normal Profile blast model with 10
3 50 2,35 7,3 weight-% cement. The fourth burden to be blasted with
4 100 3,52 4,3 a joint frequency of IjAV = 3,52 1/cm. Model scale 1:75.
Observe the backbreak to the left and right in the model.

365

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 365 10/3/2012 8:37:56 PM

 diameter 2 mm. The influence of the plastic mark-
ers on fragmentation was first examined in a sepa-
rate test in the SLC Normal Profile model and it
was negligible because k50 was unchanged.
Most markers moved outwards after blasting
and the movement varied from 0 to 22 mm, where
the maximum movement is almost in the order of
the drilled burden (24 mm). If the markers move-
ments is observed in one vertical plane, 9 markers
moved upwards and 5 downwards.
Recovered markers in the volume defined by the
ore slope to a vertical plane defined by the breast
were 80 from the marker plane located 4 mm from
the blastholes, 24 from the plane located 12 mm
Figure 13. The influence of joint intensity 0, 1,2, 2,4 from the blastholes (half the burden) and finally 19
and 3,5 1/m on fragmentation in the SLC Normal Pro-
file model No. 600919 using 10 weight-% rapid cement
from the plane located 20 mm from the blastholes.
and 0,1 ms delay time between blastholes. Scale 1:75. The This shows clearly that the mobility of blasted ore is
fragmentation has been recalculated to full scale for com- larger closer to the blastholes than further away. No
parison with the aimed fragmentation (dashed line). marker from the plane 20 mm from the blastholes
was found behind the drift breast. The movements
of markers downwards to the loading drift has been
Table 8. The influence of waste rock pressure on frag- recalculated to full scale and are shown in Table 9.
mentation recalculated to full scale.
If a comparison is made for those markers
k50 (Target placed in front of the blastholes with those placed
Waste rock value k80 (Target in between, it was found 62 markers in the drift
Model pressure 100 mm) valued 280 mm) and below the blasted burden when the markers
(Date no.) (Pa) (mm) (mm) were placed in front of the blastholes and 48 mark-
ers when the markers were placed in between the
SLC models blastholes because the fragmentation is better in
690424 0 26,5 320 front of the blastholes.
690423/2 12 60,0 1600
Slab models
690423/1 0 16 40 3.8 Conclusions
681016 10 28 320
690429/1 22 11 75 1. From the test in slab blasting models the opti-
mal delay time between parallel holes could be
determined. For sure we know that the optimal
delay time using diverging blastholes would
rock pressure in the pressure range examined.
be lower because of the likelihood for damage
The slab blasting models, however, show a peak
from neighbouring holes. This was verified in a
at 10 Pa and lower values for the two other pres-
later full scale SLC Normal profile blast test at
sures. It is difficult to explain this result because
LKAB in Malmberget, see Rustan 1993, where
it was expected an increase in fragmentation with
it was shown that the smallest distance between
increased waste rock pressure.
A check of the scatter in the real linear charge
concentrations LCC resulted in ql = 1,96, 1,89, 2,32, Table 9. The extension of the gravity flow after blast-
2,33 and 2,20 g/m which can be regarded as almost ing regarding markers found below the burden and in the
constant. More repeated tests are necessary and slope of ore in the drift seen by the loader.
also changing the waste rock pressure over a larger
pressure range. Limit marker height above loading
The shape of the fragment size distributions in drift (m)
a double logarithmic sieve analysis diagram shows Marker plane Below the burden
that distributions are curved and more ore less par- distance from and behind the Volume penetra-
allel at different waste rock pressure. blastholes (m) drift breast ting into the drift

3.7 Movement of markers (plastic tubes) 0,6 14,6 13,9

0,9 10.9 6,4
Totally 450 numbered plastic markers were used 1,5 7,1
in the burden, each with a length of 10 mm and

366

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 366 10/3/2012 8:37:57 PM

 the charged parts of the blastholes is the gov-
erning parameter.
2. The amount of binding material is a very criti-
cal factor in model blasting and from tests in the
Slab- and SLC Normal Profile blasting models
the cement concentration must be very low,
about 3 weight-%, to achieve a scaled fragmen-
tation, but the middle fractions were lacking. At
this cement concentration the material is very
brittle and it has to be sieved by hand.
3. To achieve a scaled fragmentation in modelling
it was necessary to introduce artificial weak-
ness planes by using crushed micro scopic glass.
It turned out to be a suitable material for this
purpose.
4. Increasing the specific charge from 2,7 kg/m3 to
5,6 kg/m3 improves the fragmentation but with
the larger specific charge the backbreak was two
large and could therefore not be used.
5. A lager waste rock pressure causes larger frag-
ments when blasting against the waste rock.
6. The introduction of markers in the gravity flow
had very little influence of the fragmentation.
7. The mobility of the blasted ore could be exam-
ined in detail.
8. The initial testing of different model materi-
als resulted in a model material with scaled
fragmentation of the blasted burden and the
hypothesis is therefore verified.
4 KINEMATIC (HIGH SPEED)
AT BLASTING OF THE BURDEN
AGAINST WASTE ROCK IN A
SUBLEVEL CAVING SILO PROFILE
MODEL AND ANALYSIS OF THE ORE/
WASTE RATIO BY VOLUME WEIGHT
AT DIFFERENT EXTRACTION LEVELS
It was also of interest to know how the size dis-
tribution of ore respective waste rock changes
with the extraction degree.
4.1 Description of the SLC Silo Profile model
The slab model used in the earlier described tests
could also be used to simulate the Silo Profile
by orientation of the slab vertical and with an
inclination of 85o forwards to the horizontal, see
Figure 14.
Because of the fact that the drift width here is
105 mm compared to 73 mm in the earlier described
the SLC-Silo models scale is 1:55. The burden,
however, should have been increased by 44% but
it was not sure to achieve enough fine fragmenta-
tion to make it possible to study gravity flow so
the burden was kept the same. The sublevel height
was 240 mm, and the depth of the simulation box
105 mm and the height of the drift 50 mm. The
front inclination has changed to 85 to decrease
the pressure on the blast front and thereby increase
the mobility of the blasted ore. One side of the blast
box is provided by a 19 mm thick Plexiglass plate
to make High Speed photography possible. The
model was fixed to the box by a steel shield similar
to that used in the earlier reported tests. The box
was filled with the same waste rock composition
as used in the earlier tests up to the upper edge of
the box. In the waste rock, black waste rock stones
were placed on horizontal lines to make it possible
to study the movement of the waste rock at blast-
ing and also when extracting the ore.
The cement concentration was 3 weight-% and the
hole diameter 2 mm. The charging of the blastholes

Three goals were set for these tests,

1. To use high speed camera to study the move-
ment of the blasted burden of ore against the
waste rock. This movement was not known
when these tests started. Today the movement
is studied by full scale tests at LKAB Kiruna
by the PhD students Matthias Wimmer LKAB
and Nikolaos Petropoulos Swebrec.
2. To record the gravity flow at loading of the ore
by taking pictures of the flow through a Plex-
iglass plate.
3. To quantify the accuracy of the Volume weight
method when used for a loaded ore/waste rock
mixture in a Kiruna truck (used in the 1970:s at
LKAB). The volume weight is recorded at dif-
ferent extraction levels up to the cut off point. Figure 14. SLC Silo Profile Model with 85 front
The real ore content was determined by separat- inclination, 4 blastholes with 24 mm drilled burden and
ing the ore from the waste rock by a magnet. 24 drilled mm spacing. Scale 1:55.

367

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 367 10/3/2012 8:37:57 PM

 was done with PETN and initiation started in that
hole most close to the Plexiglass plate. The other
holes following in consecutive order and delay time
of 0,1 ms between the blastholes.
The high speed camera used was a Hitachi High
speed 16 Hs. The functional principle is a rotating
prism. The initiation was synchronized with the
start up of the camera. The following photograph-
ing data was used.
Light: 6000 W
Film: Agfa 27 DIN negative film 16 mm
Photographing distance: 4 m
Film frequency: 4100 pictures per second.
Maximum possible frequency of pictures was 4500
pictures per second.

4.2 Kinematics observed from the high

speed photography
From the high speed film it is not possible to record
the movement of individual rock pieces because
part of the Plexiglas plate was covered by fine dark
ore particles immediately after initiation. Only the
interface between blasted ore fines and the waste
rock could be followed at different times after ini-
tiation. It was found that the fine particles have a
larger penetration depth than the coarser particles,
see Fig. 15 a), b) and c). The large white handwrit-
ten numbers on the silo model is showing the frame
number at a frequency of 4300 frames per second.
According to Figure 15 the maximum swell of
the fine ore particles into the waste is achieved at
2,16 ms after initiation.
The light was not enough to show how the ore
flows down by gravity into the loading drift at the
bottom of the model, because of too little light in
this area and the fact that the ore is black.
In Figure 16 the velocity of the ore fines interface
is shown at different times after initiation. The max-
imum velocity 24 m/s was reached 1,1 ms after ini-
tiation. The delay time between the blastholes was
0,1 ms. After 2,5 ms the visible movement stopped.
The acceleration and retardation of the ore fines
interface is shown in Figure 17.
The maximum measured acceleration, 40 m/s2
corresponding to about 4 g, was reached 0,75 ms
after initiation and the largest retardation 32 m/s2 Figure 15. High speed photographing of the penetra-
was achieved 2 ms after initiation. tion of ore fine particles into the waste rock after initia-
tion of 4 blastholes in a SLC Silo Profile model in scale
1:55 and at three different times after initiation. Nitro
4.3 Analysis of gravity flow and volume weight Nobel Research Laboratory, Vinterviken Stockholm.
of a mixture of ore and waste and finally a) The moment of initiation of the first hole at the top
fragmentation of ore and waste dependent of the SLC Silo model. Drilled burden Bb = 24 mm and
on the extraction degree time after initiation t = 0,24 ms. Note the light from the
Ignition pearl! b) The linear swelling of the ore fines is
4.3.1 Test procedure about 1,7 times the burden t = 1,44 ms after initiation.
The gravity flow of the blasted ore was shot by c) The linear swelling of the ore fines is about 2,3 times
a 16 mm camera. The film was archived together the burden t = 2,16 ms after initiation.

368

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 368 10/3/2012 8:37:58 PM

 Figure 16. The velocity of the ore fines interface is
increasing from 0 to a maximum of 24 m/s and slows
down to 0 m/s at about t = 2,5 ms after initiation in a SLC
Silo Profile model in scale 1:55.
Figure 17. Acceleration and retardation of the ore fines
interface produced during blasting of a SLC Silo Profile
model in scale 1:55, and how it changes with time.
with the high speed film at the Institution of
Mining at KTH and this was later transported to
Lule University of Technology. The 16 mm film is
very instructive to explain the waste rock dilution
of ore at SLC.
The ore-waste rock mixture was loaded into unit
volumes of 100 cm3, which corresponds to 12,5 m3
in full scale. The shape of the measurement vessel
was cylindrical and with a diameter of 4,5 cm and
height 7,0 cm. The weight of each unit volume is
recalculated to ore content with the help of a theo-
retical diagram developed in another part of the
thesis, see Figure 18.
The real ore content was measured after sepa-
rating the ore from the waste by a magnet.
369
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 369
Figure 18. Theoretical diagram for the transformation
from volume weight of a mixture or ore and waste rock
to ore content for LKAB Malmberget MBF (2/3) and
MAC (1/3) magnetite used as ore and white limestone
used as waste rock.
4.3.2 Test result from volume weight measurements
The result from the ore content determined by the
volume weight and the diagram in Figure 18 is
shown in Figure 19 as a dashed line and it is com-
pared to the real ore content determined by mag-
netic separation full line in Figure 19.
The largest difference between the two curves is
23 weight-%. The standard deviation for the 24 unit
volumes was calculated to s = 11,7 weight-%. The
larger differences in Figure 19 can be explained by a
coarser fragmentation in some of the unit volumes.
To prove this statement that the fragment size
is causing the deviations it was therefore necessary
to measure how the size distribution of ore and
waste rock varies with the extraction degree, see
Figure 20.
4.3.3 Change in fragmentation of ore dependent
on the extraction level of a SLC Silo Profile
round
All the values have been recalculated to full scale to
be compared with wished mean fragment size dis-
tribution. The first truck loaded had the finest frag-
mentation with a k50 of only 13,5 mm. Truck No.
2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 are grouped close to each other and
have a coarser fragmentation with a k50 varying from
1619 mm and finally truck No. 7, 8, 9 and 10 are the
coarsest with k50 between 27,5 and 43 mm. All these
distributions has a lower k50 than the wished mean
fragment size in full scale where k50 = 100 mm.
4.3.4 Change in waste rock fragmentation
dependent on extraction level of a SLC Silo
Profile round
In Figure 21 the resulting sieve analysis from the sep-
arated waste rock is shown for the different trucks.
10/3/2012 8:37:58 PM

Figure 19. Comparison of ore content determined by
magnetic separation (Real ore content marked with full
line) with (Ore content determined by the Volume weight
method dashed line) in a blasted SLC Silo Profile model
in scale 1:55.
Figure 20. Mesh size distribution of the ore extracted
from waste rock in the first 10 unit volumes (trucks) loaded
after blasting in a SLC Silo Profile Model in scale 1:55.
The result is recalculated to full scale and compared to the
wished mean fragment size distribution of SLC-rock in
full scale consisting of ore and waste (dashed line).
Figure 21. Mesh size distributions for the waste rock
in the ten first loaded trucks at extraction of a SLC-Silo
Profile Model in scale 1:55. The result is recalculated to
full scale.
370
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 370
The distributions are here much steeper because
of the recipe for manufacturing of the waste rock.
The coarsest fragmentation was found in the first
truck and this was really not expected. The k50 for
the waste rock varies between 125220 mm.
4.4 Conclusions
1. It is possible to simulate small scale SLC Silo
Profile model blasting and gravity flow in the
model scale 1:55.
2. By a high speed camera it was possible to docu-
ment the penetration of fine grained ore pen-
etrating into the waste rock. The maximum
velocity, acceleration and retardation of the
interface of the fines are 23 m/s, 40 m/s2 and
32 m/s2 respectively. These values are in the
same order as found in full scale blasting.
3. More illumination has to be introduced to be
able to see the gravity flow of ore into the drift
at the moment of blasting.
4. It was not possible to record any change of the
horizontal layers of dark stones placed in the
waste rock before and after blasting in spite of
the fact that about 6% of the blasted ore will
flow down into the loading cross cut.
5. Testing the Volume-weight method for regis-
tration of the ore content in each truck shows
a standard deviation s = 12 weight-% between
the Volume weight method and real measured
ore content and a maximum measured devia-
tion of 23 weight-% between the Volume weight
method and real measured ore content. There
is a tendency that the deviation is larger when
coming closer to the cut off point of loading.
Single trucks could have a misleading high or
low e ore content but seldom two trucks after
each other.
6. A normal rule at LKAB in Malmberget is to
stop loading when half of the last loaded vol-
ume contains 50 volume-% waste rock. This
occurs in the experiment at truck No. 14.
7. The fragmentation in the different trucks shows
that the first truck has the finest fragmentation
k50 = 13,5 mm after recalculation to full scale
and the five following trucks have coarser mate-
rial k50 = 1619 mm because it comes from areas
in the burden further away from the blastholes
and the coarsest fragmentation appear at the
end of loading k50 = 27,543 mm.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Professor Ingvar Janelid, former head of the Divi-
sion of mining and Mine Surveying at the Royal
Institute of Technology (KTH), now deceased,
made it financially possible for me to undertake
10/3/2012 8:37:59 PM
 the Technical Licentiate Thesis. Dr Rudolf Kvapil
at the same Division was my main supervisor, and
I am very thankful for his help in many discussions.
He was also very skilful in making pedagogic illus-
trations in his reports and this knowledge I tried to
apply in my own thesis. The Nitro Nobel AB Labo-
ratory and the Swedish Detonic Research Founda-
tion are thanked for their help in learning me to
solve many technical problems regarding the ini-
tiation of model charges, high speed photography
etc and I am especially thankful for the help from
the experienced laboratory engineer Algot Persson
who always was very helpful in teaching me how
to use the advanced blasting laboratory facilities
at Vinterviken in Stockholm in a safe manner.
Luossavaara-Kirunavaara (LKAB) is thanked for
letting me study full scale sublevel blasting and
gravity flow at LKAB in Kiruna and Malmberget
and for the delivery of almost all model material
to KTH.
REFERENCES
Jarlenfors, Jim 1980. Blast tests against compacted
rock masses. Model test in Plexiglass. The Swedish
Detonic Research Foundation. Report DS 1980:5. (In
Swedish).
Johansson, Daniel 2011. Effects of confinement and initia-
tion delay on fragmentation and waste rock compaction.
Results from small-scale tests. Doctoral thesis per-
formed at Division of Mining and Geotechnical Engi-
neering, Department of Civil, Environmental and
Natural Resources Engineering, Lule University of
Technology, Lule, Sweden. 149 pp.
Maripuu, Raivo, 1968. Underskning av siktanalys
och styckeform frn skivrasberg vid LKAB i Kiruna.
(Examination of sieve analysis and fragment shape
of sublevel caving rock at LKAB in Kiruna). Master
of Science thesis Division of Mining, Royal Institute of
Technology (KTH), Stockholm, Sweden. The field test
were performed at LKAB in Kiruna. (In Swedish).
371
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 371
Newman, Troy, 2008. Sublevel cavingtrial monitoring
effects from blasting an ore slice against caved rock
at LKAB:s Kiruna mine, Sweden. 5th International
Conference & Exhibition on Mass Mining, Lule,
Sweden, 911 June 2008, MassMin 2008. Editors
Hkan Schunnesson and Erling Nordlund, Pp 705
713. 1141 pp.
Power, Gavin 2004. Full scale SLC draw trials at Ridge-
way Gold Mine. 4th International Conference & Exhi-
bition on Mass Mining. MassMin 2004, Santiago
Chile, 2225 August 2004. pp. 225230.
Rustan, Agne 1970. The theoretical basics for using vol-
ume weight to determine the ore content in a mixture
of blasted ore and waste rockkinematic, swelling,
density changes and fragmentation in the burden when
blasting against loose rock in bench- and sublevel cav-
ing models. Division of Mining and Mine Surveying.
Technical licentiate thesis at the Royal Institute of
Technology (KTH), Stockholm 236 pp. (In Swedish).
Rustan, Agne 1993. Minimum distance between charged
boreholes for safe detonation. Fourth Int. Symposium
on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting, 58 July 1993,
Vienna, Austria. Editor Hans-Peter Rossmanith.
A.A. Balkema, 1993. pp. 127144.
Rustan, Agne et al 2011. Mining and Rock Construction
Technology, DESK REFERENCErock mechanics,
drilling and blasting. CRC Press/Balkema. 454 pp.
Wimmer, Matthias, 2008. The fragment size distribu-
tion of Kiruna magnetite, from model-scale to run off
the mine. 5th International Conference & Exhibition
on Mass Mining Lule, Sweden, 911 June 2008,
MassMin 2008. Editors Hkan Schunnesson & Erling
Nordlund, 1141 pp. pp. 601690.
Zhang, Guojian 2004. Behavior of caved ore mass in
sublevel caving and its effect on ore dilution. 4th Inter-
national Conference & Exhibition on Mass Mining.
MassMin 2004, Santiago Chile, 2225 August 2004.
pp. 238242.
10/3/2012 8:38:01 PM
This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Burden movement in confined drift wall blasting tests studied

at the LKAB Kiruna SLC mine

M. Wimmer & A. Nordqvist

LKAB, Kiruna, Sweden

F. Ouchterlony & U. Nyberg

Swebrec at Lule University of Technology, Lule, Sweden

J.K. Furtney
Itasca Consulting Group, Minneapolis, USA

ABSTRACT: Blasting in SLC (sublevel caving) takes place under varying confinement. Blasted material
swells while the caved material compacts, and also, to a lesser extent, fills parts of the void volume of
the production drift. Several analytical and empirical models have been developed in the past. However,
understanding of the interaction of confined blasting conditions, SLC blast design and rock mass char-
acteristics on rock breaking performance is rudimentary. Instrumentation of the blasted burden with vari-
ous sensors and study of the dynamics of burden movement against confinement is therefore important.
Such measurements are very scarce and thus different systems have been tested both in laboratory and
in the field. Main focus was thereby the development of measuring equipment that could be scaled up to
full-scale SLC blasting and installed behind the rings. In the field tests, blastholes were drilled in a pillar,
parallel to a cross cut drift in the LKAB Kiruna SLC mine. The burden constraint was achieved either by
filling the drift of 7.0 5.2 m (width height) with rock masses or reinforcing the drift wall. The tests were
instrumented with different redundant sensors, which were installed in holes drilled from a parallel cross
cut. The most promising one was a concept, which combines the initial movement recorded by an acceler-
ometer designed to minimize zero-shift with the final displacement recorded by a fibre photoelectric sen-
sor (fibre-optic zebra gauge). For the filled drift wall blasting test the maximum velocity varied between
1632 m/s with a compaction in the range of 45%. A gap was verified to exist between the intact pillar
and the blasted material. By comparison, the velocity for an unconfined situation yielded a considerably
increased velocity (4247 m/s). In addition, Blo-Up, a component of the Hybrid Stress Blast Model
(HSBM), was used to model the blasting results. The objective was to show that reasonable predictions of
fragmentation and burden movement under confined conditions can be made. An unconfined reference
experiment was used to calibrate Blo-Up and forward predictions of the confined case were made. In both
cases, Blo-Up accurately reproduced the burden velocity and displacement observed in the experiments.
The suggested measurement concept could be used for further measurements of confined burden move-
ment in filled drift wall blasting tests and under controlled situations. As mentioned the final objective is
instrumentation of the burden in SLC production rings.

1 INTRODUCTION are on the one hand material properties of both

Blasting in Sublevel Caving (SLC) has been identi-
fied throughout the literature to have a significant
impact upon material flow characteristics and
therefore on the overall performance of the SLC
method. Brunton (2009) gives an excellent litera-
ture review. Blasting in SLC takes place in a situ-
ation with varying confinement. Blasted material
swells while the caved material compacts, and also,
to a lesser extent, fills parts of the void volume
of the production drift. Its dynamic behaviour is
dependent upon several parameters. Given factors
the blasted and compressible material. Controlla-
ble factors on the other side include the ring layout
and blast design.
A number of analytical models and physical
experiments were deployed in the past to either
quantify the fragmentation or understand the
dynamic process of blasting into a compressible
material. With a limited number of small-scale
tests primarily the final swell and compaction
were investigated (Belenkii 1969, Rustan 1970,
Cullum 1974, Volchenko 1977, Kirpichenko 1982,
Zhang 2004 and Johansson 2011). Measurements

373

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 373 10/3/2012 8:38:01 PM

 in full-scale were mentioned by Kirpichenko
(1982). However, no details of the measurement
method were given. Newman et al. (2008) meas-
ured the final swell by physical means when blast-
ing an ore slice against caved material in a drift at
Kiruna mine.
Measurements of the burden dynamics of blasting
into a compressible material are sparse. Small-scale
tests were carried out by Rustan (1970), Volchenko
1977, Kirpichenko 1982 and more recently by
Johansson (2011) and Petropoulos (2011).
2 BURDEN INSTRUMENTATION
OF SLC BLAST RINGS
Understanding the interaction of confined blasting
conditions, blast design and rock mass characteris-
tics on rock breaking performance is rudimentary.
Therefore the idea arose to instrument the burden
with various sensors to study the effect of con-
finement on dynamics of burden movement and
breakage in full-scale. The conceptual layout for a
future test program is shown in Figure 1.
The tests focus on investigating the functioning
of the blast in the upper part of the rings. These
tests comprise the drilling of boreholes from
the longitudinal drifts into the burden area of
the blast rings closest to the footwall to study the
following:
Dynamics of burden movement
Swelling of the blasted burden and compaction
of caving debris
Existence of voids prior to and after blasting
Breakage of burden
Verification of over-and underbreak
Quantification of fragmentation and mobilization
Breakage of burden was examined by static and
dynamic Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) of
coaxial cables grouted in boreholes within the bur-
den (Wimmer & Ouchterlony 2008, Wimmer et al,
2011a). The present paper relates though to the
study of burden movement.
Figure 1. Future burden instrumentation of SLC blast
rings.
374
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 374
The implementation of the proposed
measurement program in production mining is
subject to some complicating factors. The measure-
ment holes have to pass at least 3040 m of foot-
wall before they reach the nearest rings. Accurate
surveying of the ring holes, careful planning and
high-precision drilling are necessary for a success-
ful future field test. Another factor is the correct
placement and installation of the measurement
systems from the backside of the burden.
Studies of burden movement have been carried
out previously with various systems ranging from
very simple to advanced ones but with installation
in-front of the blast. This study requires meas-
urement of burden movement from the reverse
side. All measuring equipment must therefore
be installed inside a borehole or alternatively
at the borehole collar. In principle, a variety of
measurement systems and components available
today could probably be used. However, their
applicability, reliability and accuracy remain to be
assessed for this specific task.
The fact, that the measurement problem is new
and the methods used are untested, are the rea-
son that controllable, simplified drift wall blast-
ing experiments were carried out. Main focus was
the development of measuring equipment that
could be scaled up to future full-scale SLC blast-
ing and installed behind the rings. Due to differ-
ent conditions these tests to not intend to model
full-scale blasts.
3 DRIFT WALL BLASTING TESTS
Adjacent pillars in the completed production
block 12 on the 691 m level were chosen for the tests
(Wimmer et al. 2011a). Blasting at two sites (test 2,
drift 132130 and 4, drift 127130) was carried out
against artificially filled drifts with a mixture of
broken ore and waste loaded by a LHD machine.
This way a confined blasting situation should be
achieved which also allowed a later inspection of
the blast results.
Two blastholes with diameter 115 mm were
drilled for each test parallel with the drift. The
tests were extensively instrumented with different
sensors which were installed in holes that where
drilled from the drift behind into the burden area.
Table 1 summarizes the blast design.
The blast sites were well documented in terms
of a face survey and structure mapping before
and after blasting with the photogrammetry sys-
tem ShapeMetriX3D (3G Software & Measure-
ment). All boreholes were surveyed with a gyro
based deviation probe Flexit SmartTool (Flexit).
As an example, blast site of test 4 is shown in
Figure 2.
10/3/2012 8:38:01 PM
 Table 1. Blast design, test 2 and 4 with blastholes B2B5. Measurement range of minimum 500 mm with
high sampling frequency
Test 2 Test 4 Simple installation, i.e. inside a borehole or at
Parameters Unit B2 B3 B4 B5
the borehole collar
Robustness in a mining environment i.e. shock,
Diameter mm 115 115 vibration, dust, moisture, etc.
Hole length m 13.2 11.1 13.0 14.0 Preferably comprehensive and highly reliable,
Charge kg/m 12.0 12.4 11.4 11.6 unbiased results
concentration Reasonable priced, either single-use or re-usable
Stemming length m 4.0 3.0 2.5 2.5
Measurement of the confined burden movement
Effective burden m 0.9 0.8 1.5 1.7
in full-scale has been unresolved: the methods used
Effective spacing m 1.6 2.0
Delay time ms 0 0
have therefore not previously been tested.
Several types of displacement transducers are
described in the technical literature but their suit-
ability to reliably measure burden movement is
rather uncertain. Because of this uncertainty and
the fact that only a limited number of experiments
could be made a redundant instrumentation with
various different sensors was made:
Accelerometers
Piezoelectric accelerometer (PE; Endevco
7255A-01) and piezoresistive accelerometer
(PR; PCB 35011220KG)
Continuous position sensors
Draw wire sensor (DRAW; Firstmark Controls
161-2145H-BSS)
Figure 2. Measurement points (cubes) within burden for
Magnetostrictive position sensor (MAGNET;
the confined test 4, (1) top-view and (2) isometric view.
Santest GYcRS with custom-made magnet)
Incremental relative distance sensors
The boreholes were charged with the emulsion Detection of a hole matrix with laser light bar-
explosive KR0500 (Kimulux Repumpable 0500), rier (LASER; Sensor Instruments D-LAS-HS)
which is sensitized by glass micro-balloons and con- Detection of cable breakage as short circuits
tains aluminium. The initiation system consisted of (SPEAR; Swebrecs coaxial cable spear)
primers SLP-50 (Sliding Primer-50) composed of Detection of coding with fibre photoelectric
a cap sensitive emulsion packed in a hollow plastic sensor (FIBRE; fibre-optic zebra gauge)
casing. A 25 g primer made of PETN, wax and oil is
placed in the central hole. Programmable electronic
3.1.1 Instrumentation
detonators i-konTM (Orica) were used for initiation.
Test 2 had three boreholes (M3M5 with
The boreholes were stemmed with sand/gravel.
76 mm) and test 4 six holes (M10M16 with
The Velocity of Detonation (VoD) and vibra-
76 mm and 115 mm; Fig. 2) respectively which
tions at adjacent pillars were recorded to document
were instrumented to measure burden move-
detonation of the blastholes. For documentation
ment. In all measurement holes an anchor was
purposes a camera with high speed filming capac-
gouted mid-way in the burden containing axi-
ity of 300 fps was used (Casio EX-F1). It helped to
ally mounted 1-axis accelerometers. For signal
verify the functionality of sensor systems installed
transmission, steel cables each with three embed-
behind the burden and that the confinement was
ded electrical cables have been strain-relieved by
properly built up. Special attention was given to
a conical termination filled with polyester resin
further document the situation after blasting in
mounted within the anchor. A cable magazine
terms damages to the sensor systems and to deter-
was contained in a casing either behind the bur-
mine final displacement.
den or at the borehole collar.

3.1 Measurement systems

3.1.2 Installation behind the burden
The selection of a proper measurement method The incremental relative distance sensors, coaxial
to measure the dynamics of burden movement cable spear and fibre-optic zebra gauge, could be
depends upon key factors such as: installed closely behind the burden. Thereby, the

375

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 375 10/3/2012 8:38:01 PM

 movement of the anchor was transferred by a
threaded hollow pulling tube which also housed
the steel cables and was guided in a strong protec-
tion casing. A bolting of the latter to a mounting
plate at the borehole collar in the neighbouring
drift should serve to keep the casing fixed in the
holes so that a true relative movement is measured.
For the coaxial cable spear the pulling tube had a
cutting knife made of hardened steel with an annu-
lar gap at the end to gather the cut cable pieces.
Coaxial cables were circumferentially mounted
within the casing and fed through holes. The
spacing of planned cable cuts was successively
increased, from fine to coarse resolution at the end
of the movement. For the fibre-optic zebra gauge
a coded, black-and-white, adhesive foil with strip
widths either 5 or 10 mm was attached to the pull-
ing tube. Movement was detected by 2 fibre pho-
toelectric sensors mounted inside the casing. This
would from the sequence of the arriving signals
reveal the direction of movement.

3.1.3 Installation at the borehole collar

Due to their required space, some of the sensors,
i.e. continuous position sensors (draw-wire and
magnetostrictive sensor) and the laser-light-barrier
were mounted on a stand at the collar.
The movement of the anchor was transferred
by the steel cable passing through a flexible teflon
coated steel hose which gives both protection and
a friction reduction. The sensors were mounted
asymmetrically on the stands with a cross-beam to
the element housing the cable termination within
a guide bar. The cable assembly was pre-tensioned
by clamping the cross-beam. The electrical cables
from the accelerometers leave the guided element at
the rear side to enter a cable magazine from which
they could be rapidly extracted. The spring system
of the draw-wire sensor is rated for a maximum
cable acceleration of 1350 g which should be suffi-
cient to retract and to tension the cable assembly.
3.2 Unconfined situation (test 2)
Filling of the drift for test 2 was not complete, nei-
ther in height nor in length, which led to a relatively
unconfined blasting situation. This resulted in exces-
sive material movement, upwards and outwards
from the drift and left a wide trench in front of the
blast site. It was caused by a too conservative assess-
ment of the required filling degree, a small burden
and a partly nonexistent opposite drift wall.
The collected data is a result of a combination
of factors: the blasting situation, the sensors used
and the construction and mounting of the systems.
As a consequence the time delays and the charac-
teristics of the curves differ. The velocity and dis-
placement signals are summarized in Figure 3.
Figure 3. Velocity and displacement, test 2.
With the blastholes detonating almost simul-
taneously at 20 ms, the anchor bearing the PE
accelerometer in hole M3 first moved after 1.9 ms.
The instrumentation behind the burden in hole
M4 (coaxial cable spear) came 6.5 ms after deto-
nation and 1 ms later the instrumentation at the
borehole collar of hole M3 and M5 started to
move. The comparatively long reaction time for
the coaxial cable spear could be based upon its
incremental operating mode, i.e. an initial move-
ment is required until the first cable is cut, and a
comparatively high weight.
The velocity signals from the PE accelerometer
and the coaxial cable spear showed clearly decay
in velocity, but the other gauges did not. From
the blasting result with massive cast of material
an early retardation effect and rigorous physical
stop effect can be excluded. Hence an effect of the
insufficient filling on the initial measured burden
movement and decrease in velocity is doubtful
but rather possible error sources for the measure-
ment should be found. There was no linear guiding
for the anchor with in-built 1-axis accelerometer.
As there was no resistance of masses either most
likely the anchor rotated during its trajectory at
an early stage so other components increasingly
affected the reading. For the coaxial cable spear,
it was found that the spear moved unintentionally

376

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 376 10/3/2012 8:38:02 PM

 together with a protection casing because concrete
penetrated during installation in this casing. The
thick-walled casing moved about 1.5 m from the
wall and got stuck as it was considerably bent. It
was verified, that the actual measuring tube with
installed cables did not move. However, a large fric-
tional effect of the tight-fitting casing within the
borehole wall can be assumed which affected the
measurement result.
By contrast, the gauges linked to the cable
assembly (draw-wire, magnetostrictive sensor and
laser-light barrier) did not show any decrease in
velocity for the designed measurement range of
700 mm. Good agreement exists between the dif-
ferent measurement methods installed for the same
borehole. For hole M3 the mean velocity is around
42 m/s and for hole M5 around 45 m/s. There is a
cyclic variation of the velocity for both draw-wire
sensors as they reach their maximum level. This
might be related to the design of the potentiom-
eter and fast withdrawal of the steel cable. With the
blast result in mind it is considered possible that an
essential retardation for the initial movement did
not exist. According to that it is difficult to assess
if the spring system of the draw-wire could on
principle counteract the high inertia of the mass.
3.3 Confined situation (test 4)
A much better filling was achieved for test 4 and
a near confined blasting situation was achieved.
A movement on the surface of the muckpile was
neither verified during blasting (high-speed film-
ing) nor from post-blast inspections. At about
100 ms after detonation, some gases started to leak
through the pile. Remote inspections through the
instrument holes with a long-range borescope and
observations during mucking showed that there
existed a void between the pillar and the blasted
material (Fig. 4).
Figure 4. Blast result, test 4.
377
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 377
The blasted material moved about 1.21.6 m in
the upper part of the drift section. The compac-
tion is in the order of 45% based on the void in
Figure 4. It is likely that the value of compaction
could be adjusted upwards as there was partial
collapse of the gap before or during the muck-
ing operation. Definitely, the degree of filling
and compaction, the simultaneous initiation and
the stress situation within the present test differed
from the SLC situation. Voids in operational SLC
mining were identified to be related to disturbed
flow, i.e. shallow-draw phenomenon (Selldn &
Pierce 2004; Power 2004; Wimmer et al, 2012).
Nevertheless, it raises the question if a bulking or
even voids closest to the ring plane possibly exist
also directly after blasting.
During mucking it was also observed that the
burden has moved more or less as one unit during
blasting. It could be characterized as very coarsely
fragmented, and was difficult to muck, with some
boulders that were as large as 1.52 m.
For test 4, all anchors with built-in accelerom-
eters were linearly guided by a pulling tube within
a casing. The post-blast inspection revealed that
the anchors were well fastened within the concrete/
borehole and moved with the masses towards the
debris. Problematic, however, was that the cas-
ings started to move together with the accelerating
anchors and the surrounding material. The casing
became bent likely at the very beginning due to the
shock waves arriving and causing the inner pulling
tube to catch. A friction mechanism between cas-
ing and the throw of material is also conceivable.
The desired relative movement between the inner
pulling tube and outer casing, if any, only occurred
at the very beginning of the movement. These
mechanisms disturbed all systems that were based
upon a relative motion between the outer casing,
with built-in measurement system, and the pulling
tube as the moving part. However, this problem
can in the future constructively be solved as solely
a buckling-resistant inner pulling tube reaches into
the burden and the actual measurement system
within the casing is placed well behind the burden.
Reliable measurement results for test 4 were
obtained with the accelerometers and draw-wire
sensors. The velocity and displacement signals are
summarized in Figure 5.
The burden movement during test 4, as meas-
ured with accelerometers, indicated a rapid one- or
two-stage acceleration phase to a maximum veloc-
ity of 1632 m/s, followed by a retardation phase
which had a similar character for all gauges. In par-
ticular, the curves of the PE accelerometers for the
very closely spaced holes M15 and M16 also exhib-
ited very similar curve characteristics for the initial
movement. The final stop and its characteristics
were not captured as the maximum displacement
10/3/2012 8:38:02 PM

Figure 5. Velocity and displacement, test 4.
of the burden was underestimated. The total dis-
placement measured corresponds to the maximum
available cable length of the accelerometer system.
It is therefore reasonable to assume that the results
obtained up to this point are reliable.
As the entire systems moved violently,
i.e. anchor with pulling tube and casing, the bolt-
ing to the neighbouring drift did not withstand the
forces. Damages occurred to the cabling within the
borehole and at the collar to the mounting plates
(bent or broken in half). This way, the draw-wire
sensors were also badly affected as they did not
record more than about 300 mm of displacement.
The draw-wire results did not capture the initial
acceleration phase as the signals after a delay of
34 ms rise within 0.50.6 ms to the accelerometer
levels. The initial jerks and the signal delay of the
draw-wire are probably wave propagation phe-
nomena or the associated local acceleration may
have exceeded the manufacturers limits. The dis-
placement records between 2030 ms are quite rea-
sonable though compared with the integrated PE
accelerometer signals.
3.4 Numerical modeling
To complement the understanding gained from
the burden movement measurements a numerical
378
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 378
modeling investigation was also undertaken using
the HSBM Blo-Up software. The objectives
of the study were twofold: (i) to gain additional
insight into the process of blasting in confined
conditions and (ii) as a verification study of
Blo-Up.
The Hybrid Stress Blasting Model (HSBM) is a
high level blast modeling research tool which pro-
vides results that can be used implicitly for prac-
tical blast design. The code is being developed
through an international collaborative research
project funded by a consortium of companies
which is comprised of explosive, equipment sup-
pliers and major mining companies. A key com-
ponent of the HSBM is the numerical code and
user interface designated as Blo-Up. The Blo-Up
software uses a unique combination of continu-
ous and discontinuous numerical methods to rep-
resent the key processes occurring in non-ideal
detonation, rock fracturing and muckpile forma-
tion. The model is described in detail by Furtney
et al. 2009.
The flex-boundary condition was developed to
model the behaviour at the boundary between the
intact burden and the caved material in an SLC
ring. This condition exists at the boundary of
the model so the caved material is not explicitly
represented. The broken rock material in the tests
and in real SLC rings are expected to show com-
paction behaviour in which the modulus increases
with displacement and unloading occurs along a
stiffer modulus. In order to incorporate this com-
paction behaviour into the model a non-linear
hysteretic spring is parameterized to describe the
waste material.
Tests 2 and 4 described herein are analyzed
using Blo-Up. Although test 2 was relatively
unconfined it provides excellent data on the bur-
den movement. This allows for a calibration of
the material properties. The objective is to build
confidence in the model by exploring the simpler
unconfined case before moving on to the less con-
strained and more complex case of the confined
blasting.
Figure 6 gives a summary of the results of the
numerical investigation. In both the unconfined
conditions of test 2 and the confined conditions
of test 4, Blo-Up reproduces the burden velocity
and displacement observed in the experiment. In
the unconfined case the burden accelerates to a
velocity of about 45 m/s over a period of approxi-
mately 1 ms. In the confined case, the maximum
velocity reached at the same point in the burden is
about 30 m/s. The expansion energy of the explo-
sive product gasses is consumed in overcoming
interlocking in the burden and in accelerating the
burden mass. In the confined case, the expansion
energy is also consumed in compacting the caved
10/3/2012 8:38:03 PM

Figure 6. Comparison of burden velocity measure-
ments and Blo-Up model predictions.
Figure 7. Model predictions of burden swell. Con-
tours are for displacements of 0 to 1.2 m, 60 ms after
detonation.
material, resulting in smaller burden velocities and
displacements.
Figure 7 is a cross section of the confined model
showing the boundary swell, fracturing and back
break. As in the field measurements a gap centered
on the boreholes is observed.
379
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 379
4 DEVELOPMENT OF A MEASUREMENT
SYSTEM FOR BURDEN MOVEMENT
Based upon the experiences of the drift wall blast-
ing blasts and parallel on-going laboratory tests, an
incremental relative measurement system installed
closely behind the burden was put into use. The main
idea is to have a system which captures both the fast
acceleration phase and the slower movement until
rest. The measurement system consists of a hollow
pulling tube with an anchor incorporating an accel-
erometer suited for long duration transients, which
is grouted inside the burden. Behind the burden,
a displacement measuring system with fibre-optic
sensors is mounted in a shock-absorbent casing,
which is kept in position. A coded tape is fastened
to the pulling tube and detected by two fibre pho-
toelectric sensors. This allows detection of a change
in the direction of movement. Figure 8 illustrates
the essential parts of the measurement system as
applied in the last field test.
4.1 Accelerometers
Both, piezoelectric (PE) and piezoresistive (PR)
accelerometers are widely used shock accelerometers.
However, their applicability for integration of the sig-
nal to velocity and displacement is often troublesome
and related to specific construction-conditioned
problems (Chu 1992).
Despite that PR accelerometers were improved
considerably in their usable bandwidth (>500 kHz)
and rigidity, the sensor can still be set into resonance
as the gauge mechanism is practically undamped.
The result of this failure is complete loss of data
and eventually permanent gauge damage. On the
other side, PE accelerometers are more robust under
the same conditions but have other deficiencies:
Inability to hold their charge output during a
steady input (DC response).
Zero-shift, i.e. failure of a sensors output
returning to zero after a dynamic event.
Figure 8. Measurement system installed behind the
burden.
10/3/2012 8:38:03 PM
 The phenomenon of zero-shift arises during
an explosively generated shock (pyroshock), as a
unidirectional shift of unpredictable polarity and
amplitude. Measures to reduce the effects of zero-
shift are the design of the accelerometer, i.e. avoid-
ance of overstress of sensing element and sensor
part movements as well as care in the installation
and set-up, i.e. avoidance of frictionally generated
cable noise (triboelectric effect) and base strain.
For example, the design of the PE accelerom-
eter, 7255A-01 (Endevco) is an attempt to elimi-
nate the zero-shift problem. It incorporates a
built-in mechanical filter for sensor isolation and
a matched electronic low-pass filter in order to
remove unwanted residual ringing superimposed
on the accelerometer output signals. Several inde-
pendent test results have shown that the design vir-
tually eliminated the difficulty of zero-shift (Chu
1988, Yiannakopoulos & Van der Schaaf 1998).
4.2 Fibre-optic zebra gauge
The usage of incremental relative distance sensors
to determine the time for initial face movement
and the rate of burden movement is not novel
within the field of blasting. Different systems
which yield time-distance data as detection of
cable breakage were successfully applied by Noren
(1956) and Olsson et al. (2009).
The fibre-optic zebra gauge might be regarded as
a direct improvement. A fibre photoelectric sensor
detects the movement of the object by the detec-
tion of a coding printed on adhesive foil. Detection
occurs when the light beam, incident on the target,
is reflected by the target and received. The optical
plastic-fibre consists of a transmitter (core, 1 mm)
surrounded by 16 tiny ( 0.26 mm) receiver fibres
embedded in a flexible end tip (Sick LL3-DB02).
accelerometer signals were compared to velocity
and displacement measured at the probe by the
incremental relative distance sensors.
The incipient use of the cable breakage method
proved to be difficult as the cutting of coaxial
cables induced ripples in the acceleration signal.
Consequently, a comparison with conventionally
measured velocity and displacement was largely
incoherent.
By contrast, the non contact fibre-optic zebra
gauge did not exert any influence on the accelera-
tion signal. It also allowed detection of the direc-
tion of movement with two systems mounted in a
sequence and gave an increased resolution to iden-
tify the acceleration and retardation phases.
The results from the PE unit compared with the
PR unit looked very much alike, see Figure 9.
The integrated data coincided well with the
velocity and displacement as measured by the fibre
optics. The actual stop was recognizable as a tran-
sient spike in the velocity and a kink in displace-
ment just before 2.10 s. For the time window of
interest (50150 ms), zero-shift did not prove sig-
nificant. Continuing though to integrate the signal
of the PE unit after the stop revealed later problems
of zero-shift. This appeared as a ramp in velocity
and a parabola in displacement. This problem was

4.3 Laboratory tests

Laboratory tests with the aim to evaluate the per-
formance of different accelerometers and compare
their integration results with incremental relative
displacement sensors (coaxial cable spear, fibre-
optic system) were carried out.
The test set-up was intentionally kept simple
and robust with regard to its latter application in
the mining environment. A probe that housed the
accelerometer was guided within transparent PVC
tubing ( 40 mm) mounted in a lathe.
The probe was pushed forward by a tube guiding
the cables and inserted through the hollow work
spindle. In this way a constant velocity in the range
of 36 m/s could be achieved for a certain distance.
The measurement range was varied between 150 Figure 9. Velocity and displacement, PE and PR accel-
and 750 mm and the characteristics of stoppage erometer compared with fibre-optic gauge, abrupt stop
could be differently simulated. The integrated at 150 mm.

380

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 380 10/3/2012 8:38:04 PM

 also directly noticeable when comparing the mean
offset before (1) to after the shock event (2). The
mean 2/1 is 0.72 for the PE and 1.01 respectively
for the PR unit (18 measurements). Even so, the
PR unit did not perform better after shock.
The dynamics from a burden movement against
confinement in terms of rock masses would presum-
ably look different with a) a much higher accelera-
tion and initial velocity and b) a gradual retardation
effect as the confining masses get compacted. These
may also react as a spring system. For the latter rea-
son the used stop in the form of hard plastic was
replaced by a compression spring. A pronounced
bounce effect and damping which reached a peak
indicating the stoppage of the probe could be found,
see Figure 10. Further experiencing with stopping
systems of different rigidity indicated that a harder
stop was easier to identify as a clear stop.
The use of PR accelerometers required some
special care. Attention was paid to the cable selec-
tion in terms of special treatment to reduce tribo-
electric noise. In particular, for the PR unit it was
essential to use low-pass filtering (10 kHz).
By contrast, the PE accelerometer type is relia-
ble due to a secure mounting arrangement, ease of
use, robustness and noise free, consistent results in
the laboratory tests. The excellent performance of
the PE unit is due to an effectively working in-built
mechanical filter in combination with an electronic
low-pass filter. Comparing displacements and
velocities derived by the PE unit with the fibre-optic
measurements pointed to a reasonable agreement.
On average, the velocity was increased by 7 37%
(165 meas.) and the displacement decreased by
9 11% (378 meas.) as the actual values.
4.4 Field tests
For further development of the described fibre-
optic system, collaboration with the project
Rock support subjected to dynamic loading
Figure 10. Velocity (v) and displacement (d), PE accel-
erometer compared with fibre-optic gauge, suspended
stop at 400 mm.
381
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 381
(Shirzadegan 2011) was valuable. In the test series
the effectiveness of various ground support sys-
tems under dynamic loading conditions are tested.
Rock burst loading is simulated using explosives
in holes drilled behind differently reinforced drift
walls. The reinforcement was of integrated charac-
ter, i.e. rock bolts, shotcrete and wire mesh. The
equivalence of rock bursts and blast-generated
dynamic load is doubtful. However, the tests with
an artificially generated initial movement and a
possible rebound effect were ideal for the develop-
ment of a reliable technique to measure face veloc-
ity and displacement in a comparatively simple
and controllable way. Two tests were carried out
at block 9, on the 741 m level at the Kiruna mine
(Wimmer et al, 2011b). Both were single-hole shots
with instrumentation either in front of the burden
(test 5, drift 93, right side), or in front and behind
the burden (test 6, drift 9598).
In test 5, a movement of at most about 0.1 m
with a subsequent gentle rebound was recorded.
In test 6, the limit case of breakage was achieved
as the burden for the section of lower charge
concentration moved slowly as a single block for
about 0.51 m. The section with higher charge was
unexpectedly broken but showed rather coarse
fragmentation.
The fibre-optic zebra gauge worked reliably and
its output was comparable with other measuring
techniques when installed in front of the burden.
Velocity and displacement derived from it were
compared to a laser distance sensor (Fig. 11).
The field tests showed also that the tested
accelerometers were not suited as a stand-alone
technique to yield information on the complete
burden movement but are rather complementary.
A splicing of the initial accelerometer data with
the results of the fibre-optic gauge might be the
best option.
Figure 12 compares velocity and displacement
from the integrated accelerometer signal with the
Figure 11. Test 6, velocity (v) and displacement (d),
laser distance sensor (Sick OD2-250W150) and fibre-
optic gauge.
10/3/2012 8:38:05 PM
 Figure 12. Test 5, velocity (v) and displacement (d),
PE accelerometer and fibre-optic gauge.
fibre-optic gauge. The PE accelerometer picked up
the initial wall velocity as well as its maximum dis-
placement and gives a result comparable to that of
the fibre-optic gauge. The observed double peak in
velocity for the wall mounted accelerometer might
have a physical explanation. It is reasonable to
assume that this represents the arrival of shock
wave at the drift face followed by initial fracture
propagation and/or a reflection from the bounda-
ries of the pillar. A similar observation was made
for a draw-wire sensor mounted at the same sec-
tion of the wall but further down to the floor.
Possible explanations for the later discrepancy
between the integration result of the accelerometer
signal and the fibre-optic gauge are i) a zero-shift
problem occurring at a very early stage, ii) mount-
ing issues for the fibre-optic gauge, i.e. a lifting of
the floor and subsequent low-frequency oscillation
of the mounting stand which was also observed
from high-speed filming (at 2535 ms).
The excellent performance of the PE acceler-
ometers achieved in the laboratory tests could not
be repeated for the field tests. It was observed that
their failure is often related to specific spurious
pulses in the signal that occur during the movement
and mask the actual signal in the low frequency
region. The expected difference in behaviour of the
PE and the PR accelerometers in the field did not
materialise. If such an effect exists it may be appar-
ent during very slow motion and as motion ceases.
With the measurement system installed behind
the burden, the initial face velocity was measured.
Then, as a result of the blasthole located nearby
and penetrating gases, a blow-out of the system
occurred. The blow-out forced the fibre-sensing
backwards and accelerated the apparent out-
ward movement of the anchor. A curve splice of
the initial integrated accelerometer signal and the
later fibre-optic signal would yield the whole time
history of the movement, see Figure 13. As the
382
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 382
Figure 13. Test 6, velocity (v) and displacement (d),
PE accelerometer and fibre-optic gauge.
fibre-optic gauge measured a relative movement
between the anchor and the casing, two relevant
mounting matters need to be solved in the future.
The starting position needs to be well defined and
casing movement during measurement prevented.
Important constructive measures are a grouted
casing as well as an integrated stop ring on the
pulling tube (Fig. 8).
5 CONCLUDING REMARKS
The instrumentation of the burden to study the
dynamic process of blasting into a compressible
material is a crucial factor to quantify the blast
function within a SLC ring. This development
work was initiated so that SLC blasting may in
the long term be better understood. Different
redundant sensor systems were tested in both
unconfined and confined drift wall blasting tests.
Blo-Up accurately reproduced the burden velocity
and displacement observed in the experiments. The
measurement methods deployed in the tests were
further developed and tested. The novel system, a
PE accelerometer combined with the fibre-optic
zebra gauge, will be further used to measure con-
fined burden movement in filled drift wall blasting
tests under controlled situations and a full-scale
SLC instrumentation is planned. Moreover, the
Blo-Up software might be used in the near future
to gain additional insight into the complex process
of blasting SLC rings.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Hjalmar Lundbohm Research Centre (HLRC),
a research foundation at LTU and endowed
by LKAB is thanked for its financial support
throughout the PhD project Improved break-
10/3/2012 8:38:05 PM
 age and flow in sublevel caving. The colleagues
from the central workshop and Complab at LTU
are thanked for the support and numerous valu-
able discussions related to the development of the
measurement equipment. Special thanks go to our
technicians and the mine surveyors in the LKAB
Kiruna mine for all their help consistently pro-
vided in practical matters.
REFERENCES
Belenkii, E.V., Kovtun, I.N. & Fedorenko, P.I. 1969.
Buffer properties of caved ore. Sov Min Sci, 5(4):
444447.
Brunton, I.A. 2009. The impact of blasting on sublevel
caving flow behaviour and recovery (Doctoral thesis).
Univ of Queensland, Brisbane.
Chu, A.S. 1988. Built-in mechanical filter in a shock
accelerometer. In 59th Shock and Vibration Symp
(1: 251269). Washington, USA: Shock and Vibration
Information Centre, U.S. Naval Research Centre.
Chu, A.S. 1992. Problems in high-shock measurement
(Paper TP 308). San Juan Capistrano: Endevco
Corporation.
Cullum, A.J. 1974. The effects of confined blasting on
rock fragmentation and flow characteristics in sub-
level caving (Master thesis). Univ of Queensland,
Brisbane.
Furtney, J., Cundall, P.A. & Chitombo, G. 2009.
Developments in numerical modeling of blast induced
rock fragmentation: Updates from the HSBM project.
In J.A. Sanchidrin (ed.), 9th Int Symp on Rock Frag-
mentation by Blasting (335342). London: CRC Press.
Johansson, D. 2011. Effects of confinement and initia-
tion delay on fragmentation and waste rock compac-
tion. (Doctoral thesis). Lule Univ of Technology,
Lule.
Kirpichenko, V.M. 1982. Study of ore breaking in a com-
pressed medium by sets of parallel adjacent bores in
the Tash Tagol Mine. Sov Min Sci, 18(3): 233237.
Newman, T., Hustrulid, W. & Quinteiro C. 2008. Sublevel
caving trialmonitoring effects from blasting an ore
slice against caved rock at LKABs Kiruna mine,
Sweden. In H. Schunnesson & E. Nordlund (eds.),
5th Int Conf and Exhib on Mass Mining (705713).
Lule: Univ of Technology.
Noren, C.H. 1956. Blasting experiments in granite rock.
Colorado School of Mines Quarterly, 51(3): 213225.
Olsson, M., Nyberg, U. & Fjellborg, S. 2009. Controlled
fragmentation in sublevel cavingfirst tests (Swebrec
Report 2009:2). Lule, Sweden: Lule Univ of Tech-
nology. In Swedish.
Petropoulos, N. 2011. Influence of confinement on
fragmentation and investigation of the burden
movementsmall scale tests. (Master thesis). Lule
Univ of Technology, Lule.
Power, G. 2004. Modeling granular flow in caving
mines: large scale physical modeling and full scale
experiments. (Doctoral thesis). Univ of Queensland,
Brisbane.
383
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 383
Rustan, A. 1970. Theoretical basics of the volume-weight-
method for the determination of the ore content of a
mixture of blasted ore and waste rock. Kinematics,
swelling, loosening and fragment size in the bur-
den for confined blasting in model-scale. (Licentiate
thesis). Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm.
In Swedish.
Selldn, H. & Pierce, M. 2004. PFC3D modeling of flow
behaviour in sublevel caving. In A. Karzulovic &
M.A. Alafaro (eds.), 4th Int Conf and Exhib on Mass
Mining (201214). Santiago: Instituto de Ingenieros
de Chile.
Shirzadegan, S., Nordlund, E., Nyberg, U., Zhang, P. &
Malmgren, L. 2011: Rock support subjected to
dynamic loading: Field testing of ground support
using simulated rock burst. In Q. Quian & Y Zhou
(eds.), Harmonising rock engineering and the environ-
ment, 12th International Society for Rock Mechanics
International Congress on Rock Mechanics (1269
1273), Leiden, Netherlands: CRC Press/Balkema.
Volchenko, N.G. 1977. Influence of charge arrangement
geometry and short-delay blasting on the crushing
indices in compression blasting. Sov Min Sci, 13(5):
488493.
Wimmer, M. & Ouchterlony, F. 2008. Application of time
domain reflectometry (TDR) for block- and sublevel
caving minesState-of-the-art and preliminary labo-
ratory shear tests (Swebrec Report 2008:P3). Lule,
Sweden: Lule Univ of Technology.
Wimmer, M. & Ouchterlony, F. 2011a. Study of burden
movement in confined drift wall blasting tests in block
12, 691 m level, Kiruna mine (Swebrec Report 2011:P1).
Lule, Sweden: Lule Univ of Technology.
Wimmer, M. & Nordqvist, A., Ouchterlony, F. 2011b.
Burden movement while blasting under constraints
Tests with new gauges in block 9, 741 m level, Kiruna
mine (Swebrec Report 2011:P2). Lule, Sweden: Lule
Univ of Technology.
Wimmer, M., Nordqvist, A., Ouchterlony, F., Selldn, H. &
Lenz, G. 2012. 3D mapping of sublevel caving
(SLC) blast rings and ore flow disturbances in the
LKAB Kiruna mine. In G. Baiden & Y. Bissiri
(eds.), 6th Int Conf and Exhib on Mass Mining (CD).
Sudbury: Laurentian Univ.
Yiannakopoulos, G. & van der Schaaf, P.J. 1998. Evalua-
tion of accelerometer mechanical filters on submerged
cylinders near an underwater explosion. Shock and
Vibration, 5(4): 255265.
Zhang, G. 2004. Behaviour of caved ore mass in sublevel
caving and its effect on ore dilution. In A. Karzulovic &
M.A. Alafaro (eds.), 4th Int Conf and Exhib on Mass
Mining (238242). Santiago, Chile: Instituto de
Ingenieros de Chile.
10/3/2012 8:38:06 PM
This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Investigation of the relationship between blasting pile density and

loader productivity

A. Tosun
Dokuz Eylul University, The Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences, Department of Mining
Engineering Buca-Izmir, Turkey

G. Konak, D. Karakus, A.H. Onur & T. Toprak

Dokuz Eylul University, Engineering Faculty, Department of Mining Engineering, Buca-Izmir, Turkey

ABSTRACT: One of the most important parameters of loader efficiency is pile fragmentation, a function
of bench blasting. Pile fragmentation directly affects pile density, which can be defined as the percentage of
blasted unit rock weight to original unit weight. As the blasted material size distribution increases, pile density
decreases, and as size distribution decreases, pile density increases. The value of pile density is a clear method
of expressing efficiency of a loader, and the single volume of blasted material to be transported. In this study,
eight blast tests were conducted in order to find a relation between pile density and work efficiencies for both
loaders and transportation trucks. Experimental blastings were set to define the pile density by means of
truck volume and number of trips. Loading efficiencies were established for each experimental blasting.

1 INTRODUCTION The costs of drilling, blasting, loading and haul-

In open pit mining practices, the overburden mate-
rial that cannot be excavated directly with loading
equipment can only be loaded using bench blast-
ing operations, applied with some principles. The
pile arising after the blasting operation needs to be
loaded, transported and crushed for size reduction
in limestone quarries as needed. Loading, trans-
portation and crushing of the pile affects the cost
of successive processes, so these activities can only
be economical when performed at minimum cost.
The cost of these mining operations is affected by
different parameters, and cost items and associated
parameters have been the subject of many research
projects over the years. Figure 1 shows graphical
relations between open pit mine operational costs
(NOVOTNY, D., Quarry Days, 2006).
age units for the blast tests at Quebec-Cartier mine
in 1966 by Hammes are given in Table 1.
As seen in Table 1, blasting practices are the
main part of the operational cost, compared to
the costs of loading and haulage operations in the
open pit mine.
In open pit mining, priority should be given to the
efficiency of loaders and the transportation equip-
ment of loaded. Some researchers have worked on
defining the essential conditions of loaders for an
effective working during the loading process.
Van Barneveld (1913) investigated several time-
related variables in his work: the time spent on
loading the loader, the time spent by the loaded
loader on unloading onto the truck, the time spent
on repair and maintenance of the loader, the truck
waiting time parameters of the loader. The results

Table 1. Estimated direct operating costs and the cost dis-

tribution for the Quebec-Cartier mine (Hammes, 1966).

Cost

Unit operation ($/long ton) (%)

Drilling 0.06 13
Blasting 0.11 23
Loading 0.07 15
Hauling 0.18 38
General 0.05 11
Figure 1. The cost of open-pit operations (NOVOTNY, D., Total 0.47 100
Quarry Days, 2006).

385

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 385 10/3/2012 8:38:06 PM

 showed that 4075% of all work time was com-
prised of real loading time.
McDaniel (1913) and Marsh (1920) tried to
define the efficiency parameters of loaders during
operation. They stated that the most important
parameters for loader efficiency are the loader
approach angle to the pile, the filling and lifting
time of the loaders, and the time spent unloading
onto the truck.
Segarra et al. (2010) put forward in his works
that the bucket fill factor is an important param-
eter in loading efficiency.
As can be seen from examples of research given
above, the loading cycle time and the loader bucket
fill factor are very important factors in determin-
ing loading efficiency. Mackenzie (1966, 1967)
emphasized that smaller pile size distribution
obtained from blasting results in cost reduction of
transporting operations.
Pile geometry is defined by pile particle size dis-
tribution, in other words, pile density. When the
pile density is high, it means that spaces between
particles are small, resulting in a higher bucket fill-
ing factor, in turn increasing the loaders working
capacity. If the pile density is low, there is rela-
tively more space between particles, resulting in a
decrease of the volume of loaded material, decreas-
ing the loader buckets working capacity. Thus, the
pile density shows a clear method of defining the
volume of loaded material.
A blasting operation which has resulted in high
pile density can be obtained with optimum blast-
ing patterns. Parameters of any blasting project
(e.g., hole diameter, burden, spacing and bench
height) affect pile particle size distribution directly
and they can be controlled by using an efficient
blasting pattern.
In this study, the relation between pile density
and loader efficiency has been introduced with
eight test blasting data in a limestone quarry that
supplies raw material to a cement factory. The
total pile volume occurring after test blasting was
derived from the trucks total tipper volume. The
total weight of the materials forming the pile was
calculated from the weight scale data belonging to
the factory. Thus, the pile volumes for all the test
blasting were separately measured and recorded.
2 RESEARCH METHOD AND FIELD
STUDIES
For the purpose of defining loader efficiency
related to changes in the pile densities, eight blast-
ing tests were conducted in the limestone quarry
mine in the West Anatolian Cement Factory,
located in Izmir/Turkey. In each of these test blast-
ings, the loading of the materials was performed
386
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 386
using a back-hoe bucket hydraulic loader with 3 m3
bucket capacity. For each test blast, specific charg-
ing values, pile densities and other parameters in
the work field that defined the efficiency of load-
ing were also measured and evaluated.
2.1 Determination of specific charge
The amount of explosive used in all test blastings
were recorded and controlled before the blasting
operation. The amount of material available after
the blasting was recorded from the truck weight
scale belonging to the factory. Specific charging
values were calculated by dividing the total amount
of explosive used for each specific blasting by the
whole pile tonnage obtained from weight scale
measurements (Table 2).
2.2 Determination of pile density values
The material within the pile from each test blast
was hauled to the factory by six trucks, each having
different carrying capacity. For each blast test, the
quantity of material carried by each truck having
different volume was used to define the total trans-
ported pile volume. Pile density values were calcu-
lated using the weighted average of the number of
trips made by the trucks. The values were recorded
for each blast test and data measured from the
work is given in Table 2.
2.3 The parameters used in determining
the efficiency of the loader
To define loader efficiencies, average oil consump-
tion during loader operation, hydraulic pressure
changes of different pistons of the excavator, and
average truck loading time were recorded.
In the loader cabinet, there was a facility for
monitoring and recording its average fuel-oil
consumption, hydraulic pressure changes of pis-
tons and some other operational information.
This information was monitored and recorded
for each test blasting during a 1 hour period. The
front pump, arm off pump, bucket off pump, and
hydraulic pressure changes during loader opera-
tion due the hardness of the loading material were
simultaneously monitored from the loader moni-
tor system. To maintain a record of instant visual
data from the loading monitor, an image process-
ing technique was used with a digital image captur-
ing camera. Such data were recorded electronically
and transferred using special software. Changes in
hydraulic pressure of different pistons of the exca-
vator in the material loading circle were captured
with a webcam fixed in front of the loader. In order
to analyze pile particle size distribution of loaded
materials using the image processing technique,
10/3/2012 8:38:07 PM
 Table 2. Collected data from field and calculated values.

The volume The average The density of

of truck amount of material The number of the material for Specific
chassis for each truck truck time each truck Pile density charge
Test no. Truck no. (m3) (tonnes) (number) (tonnes/m3) (tonnes/m3) (kg/m3)

Test 1 1 20.03 35.45 34 1.77 1.77 0.50

2 21.49 38.28 56 1.78
3 17.96 31.77 56 1.77
Test 2 5 21.51 35.27 49 1.64 1.70 0.42
2 21.48 37.48 24 1.75
3 17.96 31.9 22 1.78
Test 3 4 21.13 33.33 24 1.58 1.73 0.45
3 17.96 31.78 30 1.77
1 20.03 35.6 42 1.78
Test 4 4 21.13 34.44 24 1.63 1.70 0.40
1 20.03 35.64 24 1.78
3 17.96 30.51 10 1.70
Test 5 4 21.13 36.43 12 1.72 1.74 0.47
5 21.51 36.59 32 1.70
2 21.48 37.89 10 1.76
3 17.96 31.66 35 1.76
Test 6 4 21.13 34.19 46 1.62 1.77 0.60
1 20.03 34.8 19 1.74
6 18.88 38.45 28 2.04
Test 7 2 21.48 36.45 42 1.70 1.80 0.60
3 17.96 30.81 36 1.72
5 21.51 33.12 26 1.54
6 18.88 39.73 44 2.11
Test 8 4 21.13 35.55 15 1.70 1.75 0.48
2 21.48 36.89 24 1.72
3 17.96 32.96 21 1.84

During the material loading cycle of the loader,

the loading time for each truck was recorded using
a chronometer. For every blast test, the average
loading time of each truck was calculated.

3 EVALUATIONS

The investigations performed on each blast test,

Figure 2. Monitoring hydraulic pressure of loading cycle.
data were transferred to the computer inside the
loader cabin (Fig. 2). Because of problem that
occurred in the hydraulic pressure measurement
system for the first blast test, hydraulic pressure
readings of that loading cycle failed.
data relating to pile densities, specific charge val-
ues, hydraulic pressure changes in the loader dur-
ing the digging-loading cycle, the average energy
consumption and the time of the loaders loading
for each truck were correlated. Specific charge val-
ues, the field pile density values, and the parameters
that were collected to define the loading efficiency
are given in Table 3. The results of these relations
are seen in Figures 36.
When regression analysis is applied to the pile
densities and specific charge values, a correlation
coefficient of 81% was obtained. As can be seen
from Figure 3, blasting pile density increases with
increasing specific charge values.

387

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 387 10/3/2012 8:38:07 PM

 Table 3. Pile density and the values that determine the efficiency of the loader.

Total The average

Specific Pile Front Back Arm Bucket hydraulic Loader fuel loading time
Test charge density pump pump pump off pump pressure consumption of a truck
no. (kg/m3) (tonnes/m3) (kg/cm2) (kg/cm2) (kg/cm2) (kg/cm2) (kg/cm2) (1/hour) (second/truck)

Loaders average hydraulic pressure values (kg/cm2)

1 0.502 1.774 27.1 182.57
2 0.422 1.698 192.46 185.83 12.09 14.67 405.04 37.7 229.47
3 0.454 1.723 181.20 183.83 5.56 23.42 394.02 33.8 195.08
4 0.401 1.704 189.24 193.02 9.74 8.09 400.10 34.9 221.40
5 0.469 1.736 172.72 177.19 7.80 10.83 368.54 27.8 193.69
6 0.598 1.770 161.10 160.85 4.83 9.42 336.21 23.9 175.54
7 0.603 1.795 165.56 169.85 7.31 10.69 353.41 25.3 164.89
8 0.475 1.750 169.82 176.69 5.53 8.10 360.14 30.7 189.71

Figure 3. The relation between pile density and specific Figure 5. The relationship of between pile density and
charge. loader fuel consumption.

Figure 4. The relationship of between pile density and Figure 6. The relationship of between pile density and
loader sum of hydraulic pressure. the average loading time of a truck.

For every test blast, front pump, back pump,
arm off pump, bucket off pump pressures were
measured, and the results obtained from all these
tests are given in Figure 4. As the pile density
increases, the total hydraulic pressure values dur-
ing loading operations decreases.
The fuel consumption rates of the loaders
changed between 23.9 lt/hour to 37.7 lt/hour. The
relation between blasting pile density values and
loader fuel consumption is given in Figure 5.
From the data that was recorded from the eight
blast tests, a correlation coefficient of 92% was
observed between pile density and the average
truck loading time (Fig. 6).
4 CONCLUSIONS
During these eight blast tests, the effect of pile
density on loading efficiency was observed for the

388

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 388 10/3/2012 8:38:07 PM

 limestone quarry belonging to West Anatolian
Cement Factory.
For each blast test, different specific charge
values were used to test different efficiency
parameters. While the maximum specific charge
value of 0.603 kg/m3 was organized in the blast test
7, the lowest specific charging values of 0.401 kg/m3
was organized in blast test 4.
Pile density values were calculated using truck
carrying volumes and the amount of material
to be carried by each truck. Blast test 7 had the
highest pile density value of 1.795 ton/m3, while
blast test 2 showed the smallest pile density value
of 1.698 ton/m3. Specific charge values increased
with the pile density.
In measuring loading efficiency, the average fuel
consumption value obtained from each blastings
pile loading cycle, hydraulic pressure changes, and
average loading time for each truck were used as
parameters. A high negative correlation between
pile density and loading efficiency was obtained.
When the pile density value increased, the loading
efficiency increased as well.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We wish to thank The Scientific and Technologi-
cal Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK) for
389
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 389
providing funding for this research project and
Western Anatolia Cement Factory for their help
during field studies.
REFERENCES
1. Hammes, J.K. (1966), The economics of producing
and delivering iron ore pellets from North American
taconite type resources. Proceedings of the 27th
Annual Mining Symposium, University of Minnesota,
pp. 916.
2. NOVOTNY, D., Quarry Days, (2006).
3. Mackenzie, A.S. (1967), Optimum Blasting. Twenty-
Eighth Annual Mining Symposium, University of
Minnesota, Minneapolis, pp. 181188.
4. Segarra, P., Sanchidrin, J.A., Lpez, L.M. and
Querol, E. (2010), On the prediction of mucking
rates in metal ore blasting, Journal of Mining Science
Vol. 46, No. 2, pp. 167176.
5. Marsh, R., Jr. (1920), Steam Shovel Mining (First
Edition), McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
pp. 130, 5154, 7582, 9399, 135149, 224226.
6. McDaniel, A.B. (1913), Excavation Machinery.
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York. pp. 4369.
7. Van Barneveld, C.E. (1913), Iron Mining in Minnesota.
Bulletin No. 1. Minnesota School of Mines Experiment
Station. The University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.
pp. 131153.
8. MacKenzie, A.S. (1966), Cost of explosivesDo you
evaluate it properly? Mining Congress Journal. 52(5):
3241.
10/3/2012 8:38:09 PM
This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Advanced understanding of the mechanism of air-deck blasting:

A numerical approach

M.A. Abdalla, P. Hagan & D. Chalmers

The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia

ABSTRACT: The increasing use of air-decks within charge columns, either for improving the quality of
fragmentation or for pre-splitting, has highlighted the need for further investigation into the mechanisms
by which air-deck blasting works. This paper outlines the phenomena encountered at minesites with the
implementation of air-decks, and reveals some design indicators to optimise the technique. Moreover, the
paper discusses the quantification of fragmentation by monitoring and measuring the second loading
wave that is responsible for creating the initial network of fractures in rock mass adjacent to the borehole
(Lu & Hustrulid 2003).
The computer software program AUTODYN was deployed in the investigation utilising its analysis
capabilities and follows on from previous studies on air decking. A numerical model was developed with
AUTODYN using parameters and values that best simulate air-deck blasts such as using JWL equation
of state for modelling the source of explosion and P alpha for modelling ground. The study examined
three positions of air-decks inside blast holes (upper, middle and lower) of differing lengths and compared
their results with those of an alternative technique using more stemming within the charge column. It
was found when using an upper air-deck, the maximum energy transmitted to the surrounding rock mass
occurs during the very early stages of detonation (0.007 ms). However, with a middle air-deck, the effect
of propagation of the rarefaction waves along with the reflected rarefaction waves on enhancing fragmen-
tation was quiet distinct since the energy was well contained up to 0.0078 ms of the process. Regarding
lower air-decks, the numerical simulation predicted more steady transmission of energy could be insured
due to the ringing process of the pressure wave between the stemming materials and the bottom of the
borehole. Analysis of data derived from the simulation has shed more light on the nature of air-deck
blasting and on the nature of the effect of propagation of pressure waves, creation of fractures network
and rock mass fragmentation.

1 INTRODUCTION the quantitative description of the mechanism by

The suggested mechanism of air-decking provides
that by introducing an air-deck in an explosive col-
umn, the blast action is better controlled by redis-
tribution of the blast energy. Air-deck blasting was
developed and implemented at mines in the 1980s
(Hopler, 1998), consequently, significant results
of using air-deck blasting have been recorded
in terms of fragmentation quality and cost effi-
ciency. Chiappetta and Mammal (1987) studied
the impacts of implementing air-deck blasting at
open pit mines by using high-speed photography.
There have been a number of studies dealing with
how air-deck works and the interaction between
explosives and rock using computational meth-
ods depending on advanced computational codes
and utilizing the numerical modelling techniques
(Jensen and Preece, 2000; Lu & Hustrulid, 2003;
Yang et al, 2011; Park & Jeon, 2010). However,
there are still some areas that need to be further
explored by precise investigation. In particular,
which the air-deck blasting works, has not been
completely revealed.
One aim of this paper is to develop an inte-
grated numerical model for air-deck blasting based
on a better understanding of the process. In this
model, geological, operation and design param-
eters could be incorporated resulting in more real-
istic simulations.
2 NUMERICAL MODELLING
OF AIR-DECK BLASTING
A study conducted by Preece and Chung, (2003)
presents the predictions of fragmentation as a
result of the blasting process. Their study made
use of the code AUTODYN in conjunction with
an advanced material model developed for brittle
rock and concrete. This modelRHT (Riedel,
Hiermaier, Thoma)claimed to, accurately, pre-
dict damage resulting from a compressive wave.

391

CH044_Paper 028.indd 391 10/4/2012 3:26:55 PM

 Three examples were presented showing the
response of rock and concrete to dynamic load-
ing. The example of a TNT explosive charge
positioned adjacent to a free face illustrated the
prediction of shock wave transmission in the cen-
tre of a long borehole. However, the final effects
were not, precisely, predicted. Damage due to the
pressure pulse is reflected in the pressure pattern,
specifically at time 0.19 ms, 0.35 ms and 0.98 ms.
The compression stress normal to the wave front
along with the tensile stress, parallel to the wave
front, at 0.19 ms is responsible for the damage
accumulation adjacent to the borehole. Then, at
0.35 ms, the compressive stress reflects off the free
face as a tensile wave resulting in damage at the
free face.
The second example predicted the results of
an explosion in a borehole loaded with ANFO,
adjacent to a pre-split wall. The interaction of the
explosive-induced wave with the crack occurred at
0.14 ms resulting in a reflection of a tensile wave
off the crack that magnified the damage adjacent
to the crack.
In order to study the physical process of blasting
with air decks Lu and Hustrulid (2003) performed
a numerical simulation along with theoretical
analysis. FLAC (Fast Lagrangian Analysis of
Continua) was adopted for the numerical simula-
tion of blasting of a top air-deck. It is considered
one of the most useful numerical tools to inves-
tigate ground behaviour and particle movement
resulting from blasting with air-decks. This pro-
gram simulates the behaviour of structures built
of soil, rock or other materials that may undergo
plastic flow when their yield limits are reached.
Materials are represented by elements, or zones,
which form a grid that is adjusted by the user to
fit the shape of the object to be modelled. Each
element behaves according to a prescribed linear
or nonlinear stress/strain law in response to the
applied forces or boundary restraints. The material
can yield and flow and the grid can deform (in large-
strain mode) and move with the material that is
representing. The explicit, Lagrangian calculation
scheme and the mixed-discretization zoning tech-
nique used in FLAC ensure that plastic collapse
and flow are modelled very accurately. Because no
matrices are formed, large two-dimensional cal-
culations can be made without excessive memory
requirements. The drawbacks of the explicit for-
mulation (i.e., small timestep limitation and the
question of required damping) are overcome to
some extent by automatic inertia scaling and auto-
matic damping that do not influence the mode of
failure (ITASCA, 2011). Results of particle veloc-
ity, major and minor principle stresses and shear
strain of the rock are gained from the simulation
392
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 392
process. A drawback of this approach is its depend-
ency on a single position of air-deck and only one
rock type as the ground mass.
A comparison of ANSYS AUTODYN and
RSPH (Regularized Smoothed Particle Hydrody-
namics) on two-dimensional shock wave problems
was undertaken by Borve et al. (2009). The study
exhibits results from the two computational codes
which are to some extent qualitatively similar, in
spite of the existence of some quantitative differ-
ences. In terms of computational speed, RSPH is
approximately twice as fast as AUTODYN (Borve
et al., 2009). Similar to the study of Preece and
Chung, the report gives general results about blast-
ing process. So there is a need to validate these
results to air-deck blasting.
A specific use of AUTODYN for simulat-
ing air-deck blasting to reduce blast-induced
vibration in the direction of tunneling was
achieved (Park & Jeon, 2010). Resulting from the
simulation, it was found that when the ratio of
bottom-air-deck length to the explosives length
increased, the vibration-reduction effect subse-
quently increased. In order to assess the reduction
of ground vibration resulting from using bottom-
air-deck, an investigation by varying the length
of the bottom air-deck while the other numerical
conditions remained constant, was carried out.
The investigation was achieved by comparing the
values of Peak Vector Sum (PVS) when an air deck
is used and when it is not used.
It is apparent that the air-deck ratio plays a
decisive role in blast design. Due to the compli-
cation of physical process in blasting, it is diffi-
cult to perform theoretical analysis to obtain the
correlation between blasting results and air-deck
ratio. Therefore, the study used numerical simu-
lation methods to expose the effect of different
air-deck ratio on stress distribution at first. And
then laboratory tests were carried out to validate
the simulation results. It was found with the range
of 33.350 percent of air-deck ratios, good direc-
tional fracture could be achieved (Yang et al.,
2011).
3 NUMERICAL MODELLING WITH THE
NON-LINEAR HYDROCODE ANSYS
AUTODYN
The study aims to model and analyze a high-
velocity impact so AUTODYN as an explicit anal-
ysis tool is considered the most suitable hydrocode
for modelling nonlinear dynamics of solids, fluids,
gas, and their interaction. The capabilities of
AUTODYN span Finite element solvers (FE),
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) solvers,
10/3/2012 8:38:09 PM
 Mesh-free particle solvers (SPH) and Multi-solver
coupling between FE, CFD, and SPH.
3.1 Overview of model construction
Finite element models have been developed in
AUTODYN based on the location of the air decks
within the charge column. Three designs were
modelled; upper, middle and bottom air decks.
The rock mass and stemming as low deformation
regions were modelled with Lagrange elements
while the explosives and air were modelled with an
Euler mesh.
3.2 Modelling the explosives charge
The explosive modelled was ANFO since it is com-
monly used by blasting engineers especially in coal
mines. The JWL (Jones-wilkins-Lee) equation of
state was deployed in order to model ANFO. The
JWL EOS along with its parameters for ANFO is
as follows:
e
P A 1 exp RV + B 1 exp R2V +
RV R1 R2V V
(1)
an appropriate choice is available to simulate the
blasted area. The RHT model was basically devel-
oped for modelling the reaction of concrete under
dynamic loading (Berg & Preece, 2004). The syn-
thetic material chosen to model the rock mass was
CONC-35MPA, since it has a medium strength
resembling the rocks at the coal minesite within the
Sydney Sandstone Basin. The principle parameters
used in the models are listed in Table 1.
3.4 Modelling stemming material
Stemming was modelled as non-cohesive sand
material since it is available material that has been
used in several open pit mines (Ariab gold mines,
Sudan) and could simulate the looseness in stem-
ming materials. The term sand here referred to the
mixture of materials available around the hole col-
lar (Sand, gravels and drill cuttings). Moreover, it
is the closest material in properties to crushed rock
that are normally used in the Rixs Creek mines.
The mechanical properties of the loose sand can
be seen in Table 2.
The air deck was simulated as an ideal gas with
parameters illustrated in Table 3.
Table 1. RHT basic parameters.

where V is the specific volume, e is the specific Shear modulus 2.206 104 MPa
internal energy (=2.484 106 kJ/m3) and A (=4.946 Compressive strength 35 MPa
107 kPa), B (=1.891 106 kPa), R1 (=3.907), Tensile strength factor, fc 0.10
R2 (=1.118) and (=0.33) are the ANFO constants Shear strength factor, ft / fc 0.18
(Park & Jeon, 2010). Intact failure surface constant, A 1.60
For the sake of reality, the simulations would Intact failure surface constant, N 0.61
consider the use of other types of ANFO such Damage constant, D1 0.04
as FORTAN and FORTIS that are frequently Damage constant, D2 1.00
used to enhance fragmentation or be used in Minimum strain to failure 0.01
wet ground condition. Therefore, the following
equationRelative Weight Strength (RWS) of
explosiveswas implemented to calculate the Table 2. Parameters of non-cohesive
amount of any other explosive to that of ANFO. sand.

Reference density 2.641 g/cm3

e VOD 2
W =(
RWS )1 / 3 (2) Density 1 1.674 g/cm3
0 VODO 2 Density 2 1.740 g/cm3
Soundspeed 1 265.12
Soundspeed 2 852.10
where e is the density of the explosive (g/cm3),
EOS Compaction
VOD is the velocity of detonation (m/s), and
VODo and 0 are the corresponding values for the
standard explosive.
Table 3. Parameters of the ideal gas.

3.3 Modelling the rock mass Reference density 0.001225 g/cm3

Ratio of specific heat 1.4
The availability of methods used to model dynamic Reference temperature 288.20 K
loading of brittle rock materialsuch as the RHT Specific heat 717.60 J/kg . K
(Riedel, Hiermaier and Thoma) method, ensures

393

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 393 10/3/2012 8:38:10 PM

 4 MODELLING RESULTS the damage in the upper part of the hole as it is illus-
AND DISCUSSION trated in Figure 3. In addition, plastic strain con-
centrated at the area surrounding the collar which
4.1 The upper air-deck model gave an indication that fracturing and bulk failure
could occur at that area as evident in Figure 4.
Modelling the configuration of an upper air
Alternatively, when using extra stemming instead of
deck entailed several stages. In the first stage, the
air-decks in the same model, the energy transmitted
dimension of the blast hole along with the portion
immediately after detonation to the rock mass with-
of each deck was determined with a 27 m length
out any confining as shown in Figure 5.
drill hole, 40 percent stemming, 20 percent air and
40 percent explosives as illustrated in Figure 1.
Fixed location gauges were implemented along the 4.2 The middle air deck
length of the blast column. The ground surround- AUTODYN records of the middle air deck
ing the blast hole under study was modelled with accounted for the high quality of fragmentation
Lagrange mesh while the explosives and air were
modelled with an Eulerian mesh. The interaction
was simulated using an Euler/Lagrange mesh.
The second stage of modelling defined the
boundaries of the block. The upper boundary was
set a free boundary while the other three edges
were modelled as transmitting boundaries to avoid
the reflection of shock waves. The symmetry axis
was aligned in the centreline of the borehole.
Results of the numerical modelling show that the
maximum energy had been confined for a very short
time of the detonation (0.007 ms), as can be seen in
Figure 2, before it is transmitted to the rock mass.
Consequently, this could be the cause for the early
formation of cracks around the hole collar since the Figure 3. The propagation of shock wave around col-
shock wave travelled through the air to stemming lar area.
area where it was confined. In turn this enhanced

Figure 4. The intensive accumulation of plastic strain

Figure 1. The upper deck within the charge column. around hole collar.

Figure 2. Total energy transmission when an upper air- Figure 5. Total energy transmission in a conventional
deck is used. blast.

394

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 394 10/3/2012 8:38:11 PM

 when positioning an air deck in the middle of the
charge column, as in the Rixs Creek Mine case.
Figure 6 shows an ideal damage formation which
has a conical shape that its base on the free face and
its tip at the bottom of the borehole. The justifica-
tion of this phenomenon is that the compressive
wave along with the tensile wave induce intensive
cracking at the surface around hole collar. Then,
this dense cracking could result in individual frag-
ments. These encouraging results of fragmentation
were accounted for the, relatively, good confine-
ment of the maximum energy (up to 0.0078 ms) as
Figure 8. Spread of shock wave at 1.32 s.
shown in Figure 7.
Moreover, the propagation of the rarefaction
waves and the reflected rarefaction waves or the
second loading wave was, to some extent, clear.
The numerical results reveal a record of 778.1 MPa
for the reflected wave at the given parameters.
Figures 8 and 9 show the spread of these waves at
1.32 s and 2.89 s, respectively.
The fracturing is different in the conventional
blast since the pressure wave propagated in the
area around the explosive column forming spheri-
cal fracturing in the surrounding rock mass in this
area as illustrated in Figure 10. Consequently,
resulting fragmentation could not be optimal due
to uneven distribution of the energy throughout Figure 9. Spread of shock wave at 2.89 s.
the rock mass alongside the blasthole. More fine
products could be predicted in the rock around

Figure 10. The damage region in case of a conventional

blast.

Figure 6. The damage region in the middle air-decking

case. the explosive section of the hole while more bulks
could be expected at the area surrounding the
upper part of the blasthole.

4.3 The bottom air deck

Figure 7. Total energy transmission when a middle air
deck is used.
In this configuration of the blast hole, the energy
tends to spread into the adjacent rock mass more
steadily. This phenomenon results from the ring-
ing process of the shock wave between the stem-
ming and bottom of the hole several times before
transferring to the surrounding mass as shown in
Figure 11. In addition, this insertion of air decks
in the bottom had significant results in terms of
ground vibration especially in tunnelling opera-
tions as a study by Park and Jeon (2010) reported.

395

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 395 10/3/2012 8:38:13 PM


Figure 11. Travelling waves between stemming and the
bottom of the hole.
Figure 12. Downward spread of the detonation products.
The explanation for the attenuation of ground
vibration resulting from placing an air-deck at the
bottom of blasthole could be derived from track-
ing the maximum pressure waves behaviour at the
early stage of detonation.
The model showed that the wave tended first to
travel downward through the air gap to rock mass
below the blasthole where a portion of the energy
was absorbed. As a result, the energy of the reflected
wave to the stemming was reduced as illustrated in
Figures 11 and 12. This action repeated through-
out the ringing process so it might contribute to
the reduction of ground vibration.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The paper has shed light on the mechanism of air
deck blasting from a numerical point of view. The
analysis of the AUTODYN modelling of the three
positions of air decks resulted in character results.
Regarding blasting with an upper air deck, it was
found that the greatest portion of the energy was
released within a very early time of the detona-
tion life span. This could explain the formation of
cracks network around blast holes.
The history records of blasting simulation
with a middle air deck revealed a comparatively
396
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 396
longer time of confinement of the shocking
waves (0.0078 ms). This, in turn, could contribute
towards enhancing fragmentation in some blasts at
mine sites.
Results of modelling using lower air deck
blasting found more steady transmission of energy
could be insured due to the ringing process of
the pressure wave between the stemming materi-
als and the bottom of the borehole which could
explain good results of ground vibration reduc-
tion concluded in a previous study (Park and Jeon,
2010). Further investigations are needed in order
to confirm these results especially when consider-
ing additional parameters such as using a grid of
holes with different delay intervals. This would
enable the broad view of the blasting, with each
position of air decks, to be studied. Additionally,
more complicated models need to be examined
in terms of rock mass strength and geological
structure.
REFERENCES
Berg, S. & Preece, D.S. 2004. Reinforced concrete struc-
ture failure mechanisms resulting from explosively-
indused overpressures. International Society of
Explosives Engineers. 2004G, Volume 1.
Borve, S., Bjerke, A., Omang, M. & Svinsas, E. 2009.
Acomparsion of AUTODYN and RSPH on
two-dimentional shock waves problems. Norwegian
Defence Research Establisment (FFI).
Chiappetta, A.F. and Mammele, M.E. Analytical,
High-speed photography to evaluate air decks,
stemming retention, and gas confinement in
presplitting,reclamation, and gross motion application
in proceeding of the second International Syposium
on Rock Frgmentation by Blasting. Keystone, Co,
pp. 257301.
Hopler, R.B. 1998. Blasters Handbook, 17th Edition,
International Society of Explosives Engineers,
Clevland, Ohio.
Itasca 2011. Software FLAC, Overview. viewed 15 march
2011, www.itascacg.com/flac/overview.html.
Jensen, R.P. & Preece, D.S. 2000. Modelling explosive/
rock interaction during prespliting using Ale compu-
tational methods. The Journal of The South Arfrican
Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 2426.
Liu, L. & Katsabanis 1996. Numerical modelling of the
effects of air decking/decoupling in production and
contorling blasting. B.Mohanty (ed) Rock fragmenta-
tion by blasting, 319330.
Lu, W. & Hustrulid, W. 2003. A further study on the
mechanism of airdecking. Fragblast, 7, 23125.
Park, D. & Jeon, S. 2010. Reduction of blast-induced
vibration in the direction of tunneling using an
air-deck at the bottom of a blasthole. International
Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences,
752761.
Yang, G.L., Yang, R.S., C. Huo & Che, Y.L. 2011. Numeri-
cal simulation of air-deck slotted charge blasting.
Advanced Materials Research, 143144, 787791.
10/3/2012 8:38:14 PM
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

A design of remote real-time calibration and vibration measurement

platform based on the grid

Ying Gao, Xuguang Wang & Guang Yang

College of Computer Science and Engineering of South China University of Technology, China

Guangjian Qu
Guangzhou China Blasting Security Network Technology, Ltd., China

ABSTRACT: At present, the society has enhanced the understanding to the damage of blasting, and
paid more and more attention to the vibration measurement. The vibration measurement industry has
faced a tough problem: how to obtain a more real, objective and credible measurement result. Digitalization
is a new turning point of the whole industry. Digital vibration measurement is a practical application
of computer technology, network technology and grid technology in the field of engineering vibration
measurement. This paper has proposed a Remote Vibration Measurement Platform (RCVMP) oriented
to the blasting industry based on the grid technology. This paper introduces the complete solutions of
the platform.

1 INTRODUCTION

At present, the vibration measurement industry

has no vibration operation procedures. Differ-
ent companies use different methods of vibration
measurement, meaning the reliability of vibra-
tion measurement results is low. Furthermore, the
degree and measures of vibration amongst profes-
sional are not consistent, causing great differences
in data analysis. This paper defines a set of vibra-
tion specifications for the measurement process,
realized through unified management, analysis and
storage of the vibration staff, the vibration meas-
urement equipment, and the vibration data. This
paper is structured as follows: Section II intro-
duces the overall architecture of the platform; Sec-
tion III describes the Acquisition Instrument (AI)
and Data Transformer (DT) using in the platform;
Section IV focuses on the Vibration Measure- Figure 1. Design diagram of RVCMP.
ment Grid (VMG); finally, the conclusion of this
article.
and the Remote Vibration Measuring Instrument
(RVMI). AI is Responsible for acquiring the vibra-
2 THE MAIN DESIGN OF RCVMP tion signal; it provides the conversion from analog
to digital signals, and performs some other related
The platform has 4 main parts, as shown in signal processing. DT is responsible for transform-
Figure 1. ing the vibration signal acquired by AI to a certain
The data acquisition of vibration measurement format vibration data file which will be automati-
and job submission is one of the most important cally uploaded to the VMG later. The RVMI is the
data sources for the entire platform; this part pro- all-in-one machine involving the AI and DT. With
vides raw data of the vibration for the platform, the RVMI, there is no need to manually connect the
using three kinds of equipment: the Acquisition AI and DT. RVMI simplifies the installation and
Instrument (AI), the Data Transformer (DT) use of the equipment. Vibration measurement files

397

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 397 10/3/2012 8:38:15 PM

 are submitted by DT to the VMG as a Vibration
Measurement Job (VMJ), and then stored in the
Vibration Measurement Data Center (VMDC). At
the same time, the VMG computes the VMJ and
after that, the results are saved in the VMDC.
Digital Archives of Blast (DAB) is another
very important data source of the platform, and
has many branch libraries. The Digital Vibration
Measurement Archive (DVMA) is used to main-
tain the system vibration measurement process:
the vibration measurement company applies for
vibration measurement tasks and fills in the vibra- Figure 2. ADS1274 and S3C6410 interface.
tion measurement information. After completion
of the grid computing in VMG, experts analyze the
relevant vibration measurement data, and generate
a standard form of vibration measurement report.
Digital Equipment Archives (DEA) and Personnel
Museum (PM) are responsible for the maintenance
of equipment and the information and permissions
of personnel in the blasting system. The Remote
Calibration Center is the part in which calibra-
tion staff makes remote calibrations and views the
results of the calibration.

3 AI AND DT

The RCVMPs need the vibration measure device
to acquire and upload the vibration measurement
data to the VMG in real-time, which the existing
equipment is unable to do. Therefore, we designed
a portable real-time AI and DT in this platform.
3.1 AI
The VMG requires the vibration measurement col-
lecting device to collect and upload the data to the
VMG in time, a requirement that the extant device
cannot meet. This thesis designs a new portable
real-time vibration measurement collecting device.
This device uses a high speed ARM11 CPU and an
A/D convertor with high resolution and high rate.
Furthermore, it is designed with a wireless chip to
access to the VMG and upload real-time data. We
use the embedded Linux as the operating system
for the device, and have designed a drive for the
hardware. We use the high speed pulse PWM to
drive the A/D convertor.
Though the embedded CPU S3C6410 based
on ARM11 has an 8-channel 10bit A/D control-
ler, we need another A/D convertor because the
resolution and the sample rate of the internal
A/D cant meet the requirement of the vibration
measurement. The ADS1274 has a four depend-
ent ADC which can convert the 4-channel analogy
signal to a digital signal. It works in possible four
modes: high speed mode, high resolution mode,
low power mode, and low speed mode. In high
Figure 3. LTC6910 connect method.
resolution mode, it performs at a 52 Kps data con-
version rate. The CPU can get the converted data
from ADS1274 through SPI protocol or frame
synchronization. In this thesis, we use SPI protocol
to transfer data. The Interface between ADS1274
and S3C6410 is shown in Figure 2.
LTC6910 is used as the range selection chip of
the collecting device. LTC6910 is a digitally con-
trolled, programmable gain amplifier. The invert-
ing gain is adjustable using a 3-bit digital input
(G2, G1, and G0) to select gains of 0, 1, 2, 5, 10,
20, 50 and 100V/V. The interface of the LTC6910
is shown in Figure 3.
For more information on the design of AI driver,
please see the relevant part of A Research on the
key technology of real-time vibration measurement
basing on grid.
3.2 DT
The DT communicates with the AI via a socket
protocol. When uploading data is necessary, the
DT sends a signal that starts the transmission of
the vibration file to the AI, and the AI transfers
the file to the DT. Then the file is saved on the local
disk on DT. If the DT has access to the network,
the file will be sent to the VMG automatically.

398

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 398 10/3/2012 8:38:15 PM

 Figure 4. Communication process between DT and AI.
Figure 5. Procedure of remote calibration.
The communication process between the DT and
the AI is shown in Figure 4.
The DT and the AI can be used for the remote
calibration of the sensor. The remote calibration
principle is shown in Figure 5.
4 VMG
At present, blasting simulation is an important
task in blasting processes China. In order to
improve the efficiency of blasting operations and
to assist people in the use of more complicated,
sophisticated models for achieving higher rates of
blasting success, the processing of massive quanti-
ties data generated by blasting simulations needs
a high performance computing platform to pro-
vide super computing power. As the accuracy of
vibration measurement grows, the scale of meas-
urement result data is larger than ever before. Fur-
thermore, it is becoming more and more difficult
to process the data using a traditional centralized
computation model. This paper has proposed a
vibration measurement grid using low cost nodes
distributed around the country, providing infinite
flexible computing power, improving comput-
399
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 399
Figure 6. A hierarchy chart of VMG.
ing efficiency, and reducing costs. The large-scale
computing of the data will be divided into distinct
jobs, and the jobs will be added to a job queue.
The jobs will be assigned to and run on the com-
puting nodes. The whole platform has three layers
of nodes, containing a country-level control node,
some province-level control nodes, and plenty of
computing nodes. Moreover, there is a data center
providing all the service programs and vibration
measurement data. Compared to traditional super
computers, raising the computing capabilities by
adding more computing nodes is an extremely easy
task, which provides the platform infinite flexibil-
ity. All the computing nodes and the control nodes
could be ordinary PCs. It means a high perform-
ance computing platform can be built up using low
cost computers, which can sharply reduce the cost.
Some experiments have also been worked out to
test the performance of the platform.
4.1 The structure of VMG
The VMG is built using Globus Toolkit 4 (GT4)
for job management and authentication manage-
ment. The Globus Toolkit is a fundamental ena-
bling technology for the Grid, letting people
securely share computing power, databases, and
other tools online across corporate, institutional,
and geographic boundaries without sacrificing
local autonomy and. The toolkit includes software
services and libraries for resource monitoring, dis-
covery, and management, plus security and file
management.
The VMG uses Condor to build Condor pools.
Condor is a specialized workload management
system for computation-intensive jobs. Like other
full-featured batch systems, Condor provides a
job queuing mechanism, scheduling policy, pri-
ority scheme, resource monitoring, and resource
management. Users submit their serial or paral-
lel jobs to Condor, which places them in a queue,
10/3/2012 8:38:16 PM
 chooses when and where to run the jobs based
upon a policy, carefully monitors their progress,
and ultimately informs the user upon completion.
Condor allows users to build a Condor pool with
other computers. In the daily use of PCs, there
are many idle computing cycles which are totally
wasted. Condor can make the wasted computing
cycles useful. Condor assigns jobs to the Condor
pool, which contains numerous of computers. Jobs
will be run on computers that are idle.
VMG uses the Service Oriented Architecture
(SOA). The SOA decouples the business logic and
realization, and so is convenient for the integra-
tion of the business. The SOA VMG used is Web
Service Resource Framework (WSRF) which is
provided in Globus. WSRF provides stateful web
services. WMG have two kinds of services: Single
Node Service (SNS) and the Resource Pool Service
(RPS). SNS can only be run on a single PC node,
but RPS has the ability to use multiple cheap PCs
in the resource pool. The two kinds of services are
shown in Figure 7.
4.2 The services of VMG
Making full use of the two kinds of services in
VMG can greatly improve the performance of the
system and job throughput.
SNS is relatively simple, but its limit is relatively
large: it runs on a single node and can only be used
to solve computing tasks of low complexity or low
task concurrency. However, to run the high con-
currency or complexity jobs, the SNS has very high
requirements for node performance. Using RPS
effectively can solve these problems.
Figure 7. Two kinds of services in VMG.
400
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 400
For high concurrency problems, RPS only needs
to continuously submit jobs to the resource pool.
If one encounters a situation in which the degree
of concurrency is so high that the response of the
system is very slow, it is possibly to dynamically
improve concurrent performance by increasing the
number of computing resources in the resource
pools. Solution to the problem of high concur-
rency is shown in Figure 8.
In the case of high computational complexity
tasks, it is possible to split the original job into a
number of low complexity and parallel sub-jobs.
In Figure 9, job A is broken into five sub-tasks
which can be executed in parallel, the use of the
resource pool services can improve the throughput
of the job.
If there is a steady stream of job tasks, the use
of RPS can bring the ultra-water effect.
As we can see in Figure 11, the computing effi-
ciency of high complexity tasks in a SNS is far
behind in the RPS. The combination of SNS and
Figure 8. Solution to the problem of high concurrency.
Figure 9. Split original job into sub-jobs.
10/3/2012 8:38:16 PM

Figure 10. Solution to the problem of high computa-
tional complexity.
Figure 11. Ultra-water effect of the RPS.
RPS can get very high execution using numerous
of low-cost PCs.
4.3 VMDC
The VMDC accepts Vibration Measurement Jobs
(VMJ) submitted by the client. The Vibration
Measurement Data (VMD) will use the strip trans-
fer and storage solution: the data will be stored in
many PCs, parallel transmission and parallel stor-
age. So when storage resource is insufficient, we
can dynamically increase the number of PCs to
improve storage capacity. This transfer and storage
service is based on the Globus transfer and storage
401
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 401
Figure 12. Strip transfer and storage.
service. Strip transfer and storage process is shown
in Figure 12.
5 THE APPLICATION OF REMOTE
BLASTING VIBRATION SYSTEM
To detect the availability of RCVMP, we held a
blasting vibration measurement in a real envi-
ronment in Luogang district, Guangzhou city,
Guangdong province on May 12, 2012. This was
a rock blasting and had three measurement points.
The blasting started at 12:10. The VMG started to
calculate at 12:11 and finished at 12:13. Through
the VMGs calculation and analysis, we obtained a
series of results about the blasting.
This platform is successful in data acquisition,
real-time transmission, real-time calculation and
analysis. This blasting vibration experiment dem-
onstrates the availability of RCVMP. This platform
brings considerable convenience to the blasting
vibration industry, and also it regulates the blast-
ing vibration measurement process, so that the
blasting vibration measurement industry can take
a step forward to digital blasting.
6 CONCLUSIONS
The AI, the DT, the VMG, the VMDC and some
other parts of the PVMP work closely together to
ensure that the platform can get more real, more
objective and more credible vibration measure-
ment data, and then generate more authoritative
vibration measurement report. In addition, the
platform uses cheap devices in the VMG. It cost
little but works well.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The research is supported by:
1. Science and Technology Planning Project of
Guangdong Province (2009B010800047).
2. Ministry of Education University-Industry-
Research Project of Guangdong Province
(2009B080702037).
10/3/2012 8:38:17 PM
 3. Ministry of Education University-Industry-
Research Project of Guangdong Province
(2010B090400535).
4. the Fundamental Research Funds for the Cen-
tral Universities (20112M0068).
REFERENCES
Billie Spencer Jr. & Thomas A. Finholt & Ian Foster &
Carl Kesselmam & Cristina Beldica & Joe
Futrelle & Sridhar Gullapalli & Paul Hubbard & Lee
Liming & Doru Marcusiu & Laura Pearlman &
Charles Severance & Guangqiang Yang, NEES-
GRID: A Distributed Collaboratory for Advanced
Earthquake Engineering Experiment and Simulation,
Proceedings of the 13th world Conference on Earth-
quake Engineering, Vancouver, B.C., 2004, Canada.
Condor project, http://research. cs.wisc.edu/condor/ desc-
ripttion.html.
Ewa Deelman & Carl Kesselman & Gaurang Mehta &
Leila Meshkat & Laura Pearlman & Kent
Blackburn & Phil Ehrens & Albert Lazzarini & Roy
Williams & Scott Koranda, GriPhy & LIGO,2002,
Buildinga a Virtual Data Grid for Gravitational Wave
Scientists, Proceedings of the 11th LEEE International
Symposium on Performance distributed Computing,
IEEE Computer Soc., Los Alamitos:225234.
402
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 402
Globus.org, http://www.globus.org/toolkit/about.html.
Simon Cox, Grid Enabled Optimisation, Design Search
for Engineering(GEODISE), Semantic Grid workshop,
Tokyo, 2003.
Wang Huai-xiu & Zhu Guo-Wei, ADS1274 and Its
Application Study in New Digital Three-component
Geophone, Proceedings of the 20th Computer Technol-
ogy and Application in Nan ning, China 2009.
William Leinberger & VoiPin Kumar, Information Power
Grid: The New Frontier in Parallel Computing, IEEE
Concurrency, 1999,74:7584.
Ying Gao & Guanyao Liu & Yanglin Ma & Jianlin
Zheng, Guangjian Qu & Bin Jiang & Ye Qu, A Design
of Remote Calibration And Vibration Measurement
Platform Based On The Grid Technology, 2011.
Ying Gao & HaiHua Zhang, A Research on the key tech-
nology of real-time vibration measurement basing on
grid.
Ying Gao & Guanyao Liu & Jiancong Huang & Haihua
Zhang & Guangjian Qu & Zhenhai Zhu, A Research
of Critical Technology of Vibration Measurement
Grid.
10/3/2012 8:38:18 PM
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Improving blasting operations using data management and analysis

C.P. Parihar
Ultra Tech Cement Limited, Chittorgarh, Rajasthan, India

S. Bhandari
Earth Resource Technology, Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India

ABSTRACT: Data collection: pre-blast, during the blast and post-blast is critical to the blasting proc-
ess, for planning purposes, statutory requirements and/or environmental compliance. The review and
analysis of past data can improve blast design, execution and help in the achievement of desired blasting
outcomes, downstream productivity and process improvement. Based on the database and its search and
analysis capabilities, the system can provide opportunities for taking corrective steps by changing charge
distribution, initiation timing and sequence for controlling fragmentation size, flyrock, and ground and
air vibrations.
This paper shows importance of data collection and analysis. A case study has been provided where
data from 1995 till date has helped a limestone open pit mine in improving drill factor from 45 tons/m
to 75 tons/m, breakage of limestone from 6.5 tons/kg to 14 tons/kg thus reducing costs by 50% while
improving crusher productivity from 764 tons/hour to 932 tons/hour and controlling vibration, flyrock
and dust.

1 INTRODUCTION tribution, initiation timing and sequence for con-

Drilling and blasting is made up of groups of
tasks, which are performed to produce broken rock
with specific fragmentation and muck pile shape &
displacement while ensuring that safety, statutory
requirements and/or environmental compliance
are met. Procedures need to be defined for carrying
out drilling and blasting to obtain desired results.
Data collection: pre-blast, during the blast and
post-blast is critical to the blasting processfor
blast design, for prediction of impacts, for taking
corrective steps at execution stage and for further
analysis and planning purposes.
Generally blasting related information is poorly
managed with disjointed and unrelated informa-
tion technology systems managing parts of blast-
ing data. Data is often moved from one system to
another, sometimes manually. A data management
system not only ensures information storage, but
also acts as an intelligent system for optimization
of blasting and overall operation. The review and
analysis of past data can improve blast design,
blast execution and help in the achievement of
desired blasting outcomes and downstream pro-
ductivity, and process improvement by adjustment
of drilling and blasting parameters. Based on the
database and its search and analysis capabilities,
the system can provide opportunities for taking
corrective steps by changing explosive charge dis-
trolling fragmentation size, vibration and flyrock.
Data obtained from blast face profiling tool, vibra-
tion, flyrock and fragmentation prediction tools,
can be directly linked to a database incorporating
explosives and accessories used. Modular software
may use information to create specific hole by hole
explosives loading and create load sheets accord-
ing to geotechnical zone characteristics and results
required.
An important component to the management
of any process is the measurement of key param-
eters, which in turn are used to monitor, control
and provide the feedback necessary to improve the
process. Any optimization (or improvement) of
blasting should not only look at the blast itself, but
also to all consequences of blasting results. These
considerations lead to overall-integrated concept.
It is obvious that such approach not only provides
data for blasting improvement, but will also be
helpful for improvement of all other operations as
well.
Several commercial database systems for min-
ing and blasting are available for storing and ana-
lyzing data. However, blasting related data base
systems have not found to be popular at the mine
level by Indian mining and blasting organiza-
tions. Organizations are either recording data in
registers and/or are using excel sheet. Difficulty
is about customizing imported software and also

403

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 403 10/3/2012 8:38:18 PM

 updating the database. Further, blast execution
is not similar in different countries while using
similar explosives and initiating systems. In gen-
eral, mines are keeping blast data in paper based
system and have generally not benefitted from
recent technology advancement. Drawbacks of
the system include that record retrieval is time
consuming, record cannot be used for analysis,
and insufficient data are recorded. Advantage of
using information technology data base are sys-
tematic storage of data, retrieval of data over a
long time period, analysis of data for improving
efficiencies, automated reports, view and analysis
at distant location if desired. In general separate
reports have to be prepared/submitted to different
regulatory authorities, to management and also
needed for own requirement of mine operators.
This paper discusses how computerized data col-
lection and analysis can provide improved blast
accuracy and performance achieved through a
more intelligent blast design, made possible by
combining with distinct data base. This is accom-
plished by focusing on key performance indica-
tors derived from the historical performance of
drill and blast events. The searchable data base of
blasting information drives incremental improve-
ment in performance.
2 DATA MANAGEMENT
A data management system not only ensures
information storage, but also acts as an intelligent
system as an aid for blast design, prediction of
impacts and analysis. Database can be integrated
with mine planning, drill guidance, field survey,
load design parameters and post-blast evaluation
(Figure 1). Database is foundation for optimiza-
tion of blasting and overall mining, tunneling or
Figure 1. Blast information integration.
404
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 404
quarrying operation. Based on the database and
its search and analysis capabilities, the system can
provide opportunities for getting dynamic drilling
and blasting parameters, vibration constants and
predictions, flyrock predictions, fragmentation size
predictions. This information helps in adjustment
of drilling and blasting parameters based on opti-
mized results.
Besides measured parameters related to blast-
ing parameters, explosives accessories, geotechni-
cal information, environmental information are
required for planning and design of blast block
(Birch, et al., 2002; Hutchins, 2004; Bhandari
and Bhandari, 2006, Bhandari, 2011). Blast data
management system stores blast details, blast
parameters, blast pattern, face profile, explosive
consumption, charging details, costs, weather
information, pre-blast survey, post-blast evaluation
data, fragmentation information, photograph(s),
videos, accidents, misfires, flyrock, vibration record
and information for vibration analysis. Video and
photographic records also provide opportunity
to analyze displacement and flyrock. These also
indicate face movement and hole by hole behav-
ior. Integration of the following also needs to be
accomplished:
Vibration monitoring results.
Blast simulation and airblast and ground vibra-
tion reinforcement.
Flyrock and safe zone for personnel and
equipment.
Fragmentation size distribution.
Blast dust plume movement.
Data obtained from blast hole face profiling
tool, vibration prediction tool, and direct data link
to a database incorporating all the major manufac-
turers products and an interface allows the user to
add new product ranges and create custom prod-
ucts. Directly import drill patterns and pit shells
from the mine planning packages. By linking with
geological data/chemical data the blast block can
provide quality assessment.
Performance and cost of blasts can be moni-
tored and Key Performance Indicators can be
determined. Appropriate blast designs for par-
ticular areas of mine and different zones can
be identified. Optimizing the blasting process
involves drilling accuracy and efficiency, pro-
filing of exposed faces for mining applications,
tailored loading explosives according to face pro-
file and rock conditions at depth, and designing
proper parameters, delay timing and initiation
sequence. Reports can be generated as per vari-
ous requirements of the organization or statu-
tory authorities. Blast records must be held for
statuary purposes and would be useful in case of
litigations.
10/3/2012 8:38:18 PM
 3 CASE STUDYADITYA LIMESTONE hopper is carried out in 35/60 tonner dumpers.
MINE Before crushing, the limestone from crusher hop-
per is passed through grizzly screen or screening
Aditya limestone openpit mine belongs to Ultra out intrusive clay.
Tech Cement Ltd group which has several lime The mines have kept blasting records since
stone openpit mines spread across India. Aditya the beginning of mining operations in 1995, ini-
mine is designed to produce 6.6 million tonnes tially in hand written format and thereafter have
limestone per annum for its cement plant, situ- been maintaining records in Excel sheet format
ated around 2 km away (Parihar et al., 2009). The (Figure 3 & 4) for its blasting operations, explo-
ore to overburden ratio is 1:0.33. Thus, total rock sive consumptions, drilling performance, blasting
handling is around 9 million tonnes per annum. costs. These data show considerable improvement
Presently, there are two working pits. The mine is in blasting performance and at the same costs have
surrounded by small villages. also reduced. This has been possible in spite of
Geology: Aditya Limestone deposit belongs to much increase in costs of explosive, accessories
Nimbahera limestone formation: limestone, shale and labour and other input. Continuously several
and clay are the major rock types. Limestone is fine new techniques have also been adopted with indig-
grained, thinly laminated to massive in structure. enous and local methods.
Aditya limestone mine deposit is highly jointed. Data collection and adoption of many scien-
The joints are multi-directional. Some of them are tific techniques such as Indian indigenous air
filled with overburden soil and clay. The deposit gap, indigenous stem plug, indigenous rock plug
was subjected to structural disturbances of mod- techniques and tools have helped in achieving the
erate intensity as evidenced from numerous minor
and major folds and joints.
Broadly, the structure of the entire deposit can
be classified as a synform. In spite of the above
folds, study of dip and strike readings indicates
NS trend with maximum of 10 deviation on
either side. The amount of dip varies between a
narrow range of 0 to 20. Dip direction changes
from East to West due to folding. There is plunge
of about 5 in strike direction.
Mining: Mining is carried out by fully mecha-
nized open pit mining method. The working
pit is below the general topography of the area.
Working pits have been developed with working
benches of 9.0 m. height. At present, the work is
going on in three benches. Drilling is done with
the help of ROC L6 and IBH-10 drill machines of
100 mm115 mm diameter. A set of about 25 holes
is blasted. Excavation and loading operations are Figure 3. Written records of each blast.
carried out by hydraulic excavators. At a time two
excavators are used for this operation. Transpor-
tation of limestone from working face to crusher

Figure 2. Blast result in Aditya Mines. Figure 4. Records using Excel Sheet.

405

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 405 10/3/2012 8:38:18 PM


Figure 5. Use of airdeck wooden spacer.
Figure 6. Tonnage per kg of explosive improved.
above stated results. An example of charging with
indigenously developed wooden spacers for giving
airgap (Figure 5).
Blast records from 1995 till date has helped the
mine in improving rock breakage of limestone
powder factor from 6.5 tons/kg to 14 tons/kg
(Figure 6) drill factor from 45 tons/m to 75 tons/m
(Figure 7), thus reducing costs by 50% (Fig-
ure 8) while improving crusher productivity from
764 tons per hour to 932 tons per hour and con-
trolling vibration, flyrock and dust.
The mine is now using blast related informa-
tion data management system for record, analysis
and reporting. This indigenously developed system
is reliable, easy to use, stores large data and pro-
vides retrieval and analysis of the stored data and
also provides costs, weather information, pre-blast
survey, post-blast evaluation data, fragmentation
information, photograph(s), videos, accidents,
misfires, flyrock, vibration record and information
406
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 406
Figure 7. Blasting cost reduced.
Figure 8. Drilling per meter also improved.
for vibration analysis records (Figure 9). Software
also provides opportunity to analyze displacement
and flyrock, back break/over break records to be
maintained and analyzed.
4 BLAST INFORMATION MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM (BIMS)
Blast Information Management System (BIMS)
provides information to meet the strategic and
operational needs for planning, controlling and
decision-making for optimizing mining opera-
tions (Bhandari and Bhandari, 2006). BIMS pro-
vides methods to store, manage, document and
retrieve drill and blast related information The
system stores blast details, actual blast parameters,
blast pattern, face profile, explosive consumption,
charging details (Figure 9).
Recorded videos and stored in the database can
also be used for observing face movement and hole
by hole behavior.
The stored blast information data can be
retrieved quickly and easily. Performance and cost
10/3/2012 8:38:20 PM
 Figure 9. Details of explosive charge distribution and
initiation used for the holes. Figure 10. Result of blasting along with photograph &
video.

of blasts can be monitored and appropriate blast

designs for particular areas or different zones can
be identified. The data management and retrieval
is easy and simple to use which can be carried out
in a few minutes instead of days for manual meth-
ods which helps in optimizing various operations.
Readily available past data in a logical format and
blasting data analysis tools are the key features of
the database.
The database can be extended to integrate with
other systems such as ERP, CMMS etc. If the
software is operated in conjunction with a compre-
hensive monitoring program, it can contribute to
the efficient running of an operation and reduce
environmental effects to a minimum. Importing
data using csv file, Excel and other popular min-
ing software makes it is possible to reduce input
work. Entered data can be edited through Edit
Parameters.
This tool provides a way of trapping the expe-
rience of drilling and blasting personnel to bet-
ter control critical parameters such as dilution,
vibration, fragmentation, and flyrock and fines
generation.
Integration with other software such as that
used for vibration monitoring and analysis, frag-
mentation analysis etc. can be carried out so as to
provide simplified management system.
Many central and state agencies, concerned with
Explosives Security, Mines Safety and the Envi- Figure 11. Reporting and searching of information.
ronmental Protection (DEP), are increasing their
expectations for strict accounting of inventory and
blast documentation. Blasting company executives uses the following criteria for the search option:
and managers are now facing the possibility of between dates, by performance of explosives or
incarceration, fines and suspended operations if initiating system, by vibration limits, by fragmen-
their documentation is not in order. The database tation size, by location of blasting zone or acci-
can be tailored according products and practices, dent etc.
to customer requirements and can be maintained. Presentation of analysis of data, compliance
This database has also searching options using reports suitable for regulatory bodies, archiving
which the user can look for the records of blasts and viewing of data at distance location, costs can
as per his defined criteria. Currently, the software be developed. Reports suitable for Occupational

407

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 407 10/3/2012 8:38:21 PM

 Health and Safety (i.e. incident reports) can be com-
piled. Key performance indicators are derived.
Calculation of costs related to blasting, drill-
ing cost, explosives cost, accessories cost, and
manpower cost all as separate entity, so that each
& every step of the mining activity could be opti-
mized by using this information. Mine has to
provide returns to regulatory authorities PESO,
Indian Bureau of mines, Director General of
Mines regarding consumption of explosives quar-
terly, monthly and yearly. Besides management
also want end of the month reports. Many records
have to be maintained for statutory requirement.
Stored information also helps in providing infor-
mation in cases of litigations.
The data base application is password protected
as such restricting the use of the software. The
database is protected; as such no unauthorized
access to the data is possible.
Inventory control & stock management gives
knowledge of amount of explosive or initiating
devices available for the blast is left after the blast.
This could help in keeping a track of consumption
of material in the mine and to maintain the quality
of explosives as not to have too little or excessive
stock.
The program also records all the important
analysis data like those of vibration monitoring,
fragmentation analysis etc. Further functionalities
like VOD measurements can be added.
5 BLAST DESIGN AND PREDICTION
TOOLS
Based on data base information about geotechni-
cal, environmental requirements, planning out-
come a separate Blast Design module can design
blasts. Design software can create and edit drill
patterns using geotechnical and environmental
information data base. Blast patterns are individu-
ally designed for every blast block taking into con-
siderations for quality. Based on past best practices
it provides blast calculations, specific blast design
and blast hole data, priming details, hookup and
timing analysis calculations. Charging appropriate
quality and quantity of explosive and using appro-
priate initiating system is provided. This design has
already taken into consideration ground vibration,
flyrock, dust limits, fragment size distribution and
other requirements while providing blast design.
After drilling has been carried out actual hole
positions, dip and face profile are measured.
Design data is separated from measured data. Pre-
diction tools are again used to see if any of the
limits are exceeded with regard to ground and air
vibration limits, flyrock limit etc. Software may use
information to create charge standards to design
408
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 408
Figure 12. Reinforcement of vibration before blasts
helps in changing delays.
specific hole by hole explosives loading and create
load sheets according to geotechnical zone charac-
teristics and results required.
The software can be used to assess the likely
impact or effect of a particular design. Vibration
reinforcement analysis (Richards and Moore,
1995) (Figure 12), flyrock predictor (Richards and
Moore, 2004) are used to see if charging and ini-
tiation timing and sequence need to be changed to
meet with flyrock, fragmentation, vibration lim-
its. This is in conjunction with field observations,
experimentation and monitoring.
Simulation of initiation design including, angle
of initiation, direction of movement are given.
Design initiation sequences for electronic detona-
tor systems and applying timing to defined zones
to enable multiple independent deck firing.
6 CONCLUSIONS
Database connects all information related to blast-
ing operation to provide reporting, trends and
analysis. Custom graphs and reports reduce work
for providing reports to any desktop and can be
fully customizable to meet key production indica-
tors, and daily reports. Software based data base
provides valuable time for engineering and mining
professionals by integrating disparate mining data
capture software systems and removing dependen-
cies on Excel spreadsheets. This information stored
and analysed helps in better control and optimi-
zation of mining operations. Data base helps to
quickly respond to information and remain suc-
cessful in todays competitive market place. Web
based versions and tablet PC would make data
acquisition easy.
Use of database helps in improving blast effi-
ciencies and demonstrate that an improvement has
been achieved there needs to be a comprehensive
10/3/2012 8:38:21 PM
 measurement system, which is capable of setting
baseline, and then tracking the changes made to
the process.
REFERENCES
Bhandari, S. and Bhandari, A. 2006. Blast Operations
Information Management System, Journal of Mines,
Metals and Fuels, Vol. 54 no.12.
Bhandari, S. 2011. Information Management for
Improved Blasting Operations and Environmental
Control, 3rd AsiaPacific Symposium on Blasting
Techniques, August 1013, Xiamen, China.
Birch, W.J., Pegden, M. and Stothard, P. 2002. Intelli-
gent Information Management for Improved Blasting
Practice and Environmental Compliance. Proc. 28th
Annual Conf. on Explosives and Blasting Technique,
Las Vegas.
Hutchings, J. 2004. Improving and Designing Blasting
Using TQM and Appropriate IT. Proc. 30th Ann.
409
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 409
Conf. on Explosives and Blasting Technique, Interna-
tional Society of Explosive Engineers.
La Rosa, D. 2001. The Development of an Information
Management System for the Improvement of Drilling
and Blasting in Mining Operations. Proc. 29th Int.
Symp. Computer Applications in the Minerals Indus-
tries. Beijing, 367372.
Parihar, C.P., Lahoti, M.L. and Mishra, P.L. 2009. Optimi-
sation of Limestone Deposits in Cement Manufactur-
ingA Case Study, Int. Conf. Advanced Technologyin
Exploration and Exploitation of Minerals, Jodhpur.
Feb. 1416, 261269.
Richards, A.B. and Moore, A.J. 1995. Blast Vibration
Control by Wave front Reinforcement Techniques in
Explo 1995, pp 323327 (The Australasian Institute of
Mining and Metallurgy in association with The Inter-
national Society of Explosives Engineers: Brisbane).
Richards, A.B and Moore, A.J. 2004. Flyrock Con-
trolBy Chance or Design? Proc. 30th Ann. Conf.
on Explosives and Blasting Technique, International
Society of Explosive Engineers.
10/3/2012 8:38:21 PM
This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

The monitoring and analysis of vibrations generated by blasting

in Fangmayu Iron Mine

T.J. Tao & G.Q. Zhang

School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Science and Technology, Beijing, China

X.G. Wang
China Society of Engineering Blasting, China

ABSTRACT: The quarries of Fongmayu Iron Mine are located near local residents. The 29th Olympic
Games were held in Beijing in 2008. For this reason, the local government asked for a vibration study to
monitor and analyze the blast effect on the surrounding environment. In total, 120 vibration signal data
were taken at Fangmayu Iron Mine under different surface conditions from April to June, 2008. The
following were found: the value of actual monitoring data and predicted data were both below the level
specified by the Blasting Safety Regulations (GB6722-2003). The safety division blasting method used in
Fangmayu Iron Mine is feasible and safe. The vertical component of PPV is not always the largest one. So,
the criterion is not always the vertical component of PPV but the maximum one, when predicting whether
constructions will be destroyed by blasting vibration.

1 INTRODUCTION from the factory. The third is the Luoboyu quarry,

Today, there is rapid development of towns in China,
and infrastructure construction is at a climax. Blast-
ing engineering is playing a more and more impor-
tant role in open pit mining, quarries, and industrial
sites. However, a series of blast-induced negative
effects, especially blast vibration, are also attracting
more and more attention. The blast-induced seismic
waves not only change the permeability of struc-
tures and damage construction, but also reduce the
strength of rock joints, giving rise to rock failure or
instability. The negative effects of blasting must be
eliminated or reduced by reasonable and effective
measures, especially with todays increasing envi-
ronmental and social awareness. It also becomes a
mandatory requirement of the local government
which was to follow asked the construction unit.
Many blasting workers devoted much time to stud-
ying this issue, and several different methods were
proposed, based on extensive research.
The Fongmayu Iron Mine, which has four open-
pits, is situated in Gaoling town, Miyu County,
Beijing. The pits are near local residential buildings,
and the surrounding environment is complex. The
29th Olympic Games were held in Beijing in 2008.
For this reason, the local government had asked for a
vibration study to monitor and analyze the blast effect
on the surrounding environment. The field monitor-
ing work was conducted in three pits. One was in the
Anzigou quarry, which is 4 km away from the factory.
The other is the Sihe quarry, which is 12 km away
21 km away from the factory. The field monitoring
lasted three months, from April to June, 2008.
2 THE MONITORING METHOD
Monitoring instruments were used to record the
vertical component, longitudinal component and
transverse component of PPV (peak particle veloc-
ity) under different charge weights and distances.
2.1 The monitoring instruments
Selecting precise and accurate monitoring instru-
ments is the key to the monitoring results. In this
field monitoring, the UBOX20016 blasting
vibration recorder, produced by Sichuan TOP
Measurement & Control Technology Co. Ltd, was
used to record the blasting vibration signals. The
major hardware indices are as follows: the maxi-
mum sampling rate is 200 KSps/CH, the resolution
ratio of A/D is 16 Bit, the measuring range is stored
program control of 1 V, 2 V, 5 V, 10 V, the
input impedance is 106 , the capacitance 25 PF,
the input signal bandwidth is 0 Hz100 KHz, the
DC accuracy error 0.2%, the passband ripple
0.05 dB, the signal to noise ratio 76 dB, and the
isolation degree of channel 100 dB.
The matching sensors PS-4.5 and PSH-4.5 were
used to monitor the vertical and horizontal direc-
tion vibration, respectively, and the main technical
indices are shown in Table 1.

411

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 411 10/3/2012 8:38:22 PM

 Table 1. The technical index of vibration velocity
sensors.
Type Technical index
Vertical sensor Frequency response 5500 Hz;
PS-4.5 natural frequency 4.5 10% Hz;
velocity range 0.130 cm/s;
distortion 0.2%
Horizontal sensor Frequency response 5500 Hz;
PSH-4.5 natural frequency 4.5 10% Hz;
velocity range 0.130 cm/s;
distortion 0.2%
Figure 1. The field arrangement of sensors.
2.2 The monitoring method
The monitoring methods and steps of the blasting
vibration were as follows:
1. Choosing the monitoring points. The moni-
toring points were chosen at points where the
surface was smooth, the bedrock intact, and
exposure was convenient for traffic. The distri-
bution of monitoring points was linear.
2. Setting the instrument parameters. The moni-
toring voltage, trigger threshold, data sampling
rate, negative delay time, and trigger type of
monitoring instrument, were set according
to the blasting scale and distance between the
monitoring points and explosion source before
placement of the sensors.
3. Placement of the sensors. The surface dust,
pumice, loose material, as well as other materi-
als that could have negative effects on for splic-
ing were be cleaned and removed before setting
the sensors. Quick-stick powder was then used
to bond the sensors to the bedrock. The three
sensors were perpendicular to each other, and
were connected to the UBOX20016 blasting
vibration recorder. The field arrangement of
the sensors is shown in Figure 1.
412
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 412
4. The recorders were triggered by blasting, and
the vibration signals were recorded. When the
blasting vibration signals surpassed a set trigger
value, the recorder began recorded.
3 DATA ANALYSIS
In total, 120 vibration signals were taken in
the field of Fangmayu Iron Mine under differ-
ent surface conditions (rock surface, 90 record-
ings; concrete floor, 10 recordings; soil surface,
20 recordings), which included vertical component,
longitudinal component and transverse compo-
nent particle velocity. All these data were analyzed
to determine sites propagating law.
3.1 The theory of data analysis
Firstly, the one-dimensional linear function was
obtained by the deformation of the Saudorsky for-
mula. The measured data were linearly fitted, and the
values of K and were obtained. The predictor for-
mula was then built. According to the specifications
in the blasting safety regulations, the degree of safety
of the blasting area can be classified by the predictor
formula. The necessary steps are as follows:
1. The methods of measurement and calculation
of blasting vibration are clearly given by the
Blasting Safety Regulations (GB6722-2003). The
PPV (peak particle velocity) is calculated by using
the Saudorsky formula, which is as follows:
3Q
v K (1)
R
where v is the safely permissible PPV at the point
of interest in cm/s. Q is charge weight, which is
the total charge weight for simultaneous blast-
ings or the maximum charge weight per delay
for delay blasting, in kgs. R is the distance from
the blast to the point, in m. K and are the rela-
tive coefficient and attenuation index, respec-
tively, of the terrain and geological conditions
between the blast and the point.
2. The data set of vertical components, longitu-
dinal components and transverse components
of the vibration signals were used to conduct
regression analysis, from which the values of K
and were obtained, and the predictor formula
was built.
3.1.1 The analysis of vertical component
of vibration signal
The data set of vertical component of vibration is
shown in Figure 2.
10/3/2012 8:38:22 PM
 3.1.3 The analysis of transverse component
of vibration signal
The dataset of the transverse component of vibra-
tion is shown in Figure 4.
The predictor formula for the transverse com-
ponent of vibration velocity was built as follows:
1.47
3Q
vV = 49.75 (4)
R

3.2 The analysis of formulas and forecast

Figure 2. The regression analysis result of vertical com-
ponent of vibration velocity.
Figure 3. The regression analysis result of longitudinal
component of vibration velocity.
From the linear regression analysis, results of the
datasets of vertical components, longitudinal com-
ponents and transverse components, the following
are concluded: the K and of the vertical compo-
nent are the smallest at 49.75 and 1.47, respectively.
The of the longitudinal component is largest at
1.58; the of transverse is the largest at 66.02. All
of these indicate that the attenuation of the vertical
component of PPV is relatively slow, and is rela-
tively small near the field while becoming relatively
large in the far zone. In contrast, the attenuation of
the transverse component of the PPV is faster, and
is relatively large near the field field while relatively
small in the far zone.
The three correlation coefficients of the three
regression formulae are 0.68707, 0.65763, 0.62333,
respectively. It is concluded that there is a correla-
tion in the linear regression of the measured data,
so the prediction formula built on these param-
eters can be used to predict the blasting vibration
velocity. However, the discreteness is relatively
large, so the predicted value should be used as a
reference in the field engineering. The safety factor
should be added to properly ensure the protection

The predictor formula of the vertical component

of vibration velocity was built as follows:
1.47
3Q
vV = 49.75 (4)
R

3.1.2 The analysis of the longitudinal component

of vibration signal
The dataset of the longitudinal component of
vibration is shown in Figure 3.
The predictor formula for the longitudinal com-
ponent of vibration velocity was built as follows:
1.58
3Q
vL = 56.79 (5) Figure 4. The regression analysis result of transverse
R component of vibration velocity.

413

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 413 10/3/2012 8:38:23 PM

 Table 2. The forecast value of three components of blasting vibration velocity.
Charge Distance Vertical component
weight (kg) (m) (cm/s)
100 50 1.51
150 0.30
250 0.14
200 50 2.12
150 0.42
250 0.20
300 50 2.59
150 0.51
250 0.24
of the surrounding environment. The blasting
vibration velocity under different charge weights
and different distances were predicted according
to regression formulae. The predicted value of the
three components of blasting vibration velocity
of the charge weight were 100 kg, 200 kg, 300 kg,
with distances of 50 m, 150 m, 250 m, respectively.
These are shown in Table 2.
From Table 2, it is concluded that the longitu-
dinal component of vibration is the smallest, the
transverse component of vibration velocity is the
largest, while the vertical component of vibra-
tion velocity is between. According to the Blast-
ing Safety Regulations (GB6722-2003), the vertical
component of vibration velocity is used to judge
the seismic effects of blasting. Even if the charge
weight increased to 300 Kg, the predicted values
of the blasting vibration velocity for 150 m, 300 m
were 0.51 cm/s, and 0.24 cm/s, respectively, and with
variations of 30% included, are 0.360.66 cm/s,
0.170.31 cm/s. The maximum value is still lower
than the safely permissible velocity required by
Blasting Safety Regulations(GB6722-2003), which
is 2 cm/s. Thus, the safety division blasting method
used at Fangmayu Iron Mine is feasible and safe.
4 CONCLUSIONS
As a result of the evaluation, the following were
found:
1. More than 100 blast vibration signals were meas-
ured in the field of Famayu Iron Mine. They
were analyzed, and values of K and of the ver-
tical component, longitudinal component and
transverse component of PPV were obtained.
Using these, predictor formulae were estab-
lished. These formulae can be used to predict
the vibration velocity generated by blasting. The
values of actual monitoring data and predicted
data were both below the guidelines of Blasting
414
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 414
Longitudinal Transverse
component (cm/s) component (cm/s)
1.33 1.70
0.23 0.31
0.10 0.14
1.91 2.42
0.34 0.45
0.15 0.20
2.37 2.98
0.42 0.55
0.19 0.25
Safety Regulations (GB6722-2003), indicating
that the safety division blasting method taken
by Fangmayu Iron Mine is feasible and safe.
2. The attenuation of the vertical component of
PPV is relatively slow. It is relatively small in the
near field and relatively large in the far zone. In
contrast, the attenuation of transverse compo-
nent of PPV is relatively fast, and id relatively
large in the near field, and relatively small in the
far zone.
3. The vertical component of PPV is not always
the largest component, and cannot always be
the criterion for measurement and prediction.
Thus, the criterion should not always be the
vertical component of PPV but the maximum
one, when predicting whether construction will
be destroyed by blasting vibration.
REFERENCES
Attawell, P.B., Farmer, I.W., Haslam, D. 1965. Prediction
of Ground Vibration Parameters From Major Quarry
Blasts, Mining and Minerals Eng., pp. 621626.
Blare D.P. 1995. Blast vibration control in the presence of
delay scatter and random fluetuations between blast-
hole. In: 2nd Int. J Num. Analy Geomeeh. pp. 5974.
Dowding C.H. 1992. Suggested Method for Blast
Vibration Monitoring. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci,
pp. 143156.
Gupta R.N., Roy P.P., Bagachi A., Singh B. 1987.
Dynamics Effects in Various Rock Mass and Their
Predictions, J. Mines, Met. Fuels, pp. 455462.
Gupta R.N, Roy P.P., Singh B. 1988. On a blast induced
blast vibration predictor for efficient blasting, Pro-
ceedings of The 22nd International Conference On
Safety in Mines, Beijing, China, pp. 10151021.
Luo Y., Lu W.B., Chen M. 2010. View of Research on
Safety Criterion of Blasting Vibration, Blasting,
27(1), pp. 1422.
Wilton T.J., Hills R.L. 1986. Blasting vibration monitor-
ing on anehored retaining walls and within boreholes.
In: Proe. conf. Rock Eng. And Excavation in Urban
Enviroment, HongKong, pp. 421427.
10/3/2012 8:38:25 PM
 Section 6 - Blast Vibrations

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 415 10/3/2012 8:38:25 PM

This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

The development of a trivariate statistical blast vibration model

that seeks to respect both the difference between types of seismic
waves and their attenuation rates

W.J. Birch
Blastlog Ltd. Leeds, UK

T.J. White
Department of Geology, University of Leicester, UK

ABSTRACT: Whitwell Quarry is located in North East Derbyshire in northern England and has an
active railway tunnel (Whitwell tunnel) running through it. Whitwell tunnel is situated between the main
area of the quarry and the northern extension. The complex legal situation is that whilst the tunnel is
owned and operated by Network Rail, the mineral is the property of Lafarge Aggregates. Quarry devel-
opment plans are to extract mineral by working as closely as possible to the tunnel without damaging. A
total of 15 monitoring boreholes were installed, in two separate time periods. Each monitoring borehole
had two tri-axial arrays located in each; an upper array aligned with the soffit level of the tunnel (roof),
and a lower array corresponding to the invert level (floor). All blasting was been carried out using elec-
tronic detonators and pre packaged explosive charges so as to ensure the maximum control possible on
the design process. In addition the position of each borehole in the blast was surveyed and the quarry face
to be blasted was profiled.
Some 46 multi-hole blasts have been monitored at 39 specific locations resulting in 503 blast vibration
records being obtained. These results were obtained from bespoke blast monitoring equipment developed
by the University of Leeds connected to fixed monitoring points within boreholes at soffit and invert
levels; together with data collected from commercial portable seismographs which were deployed on the
surface at specific boreholes on the day of each specific blast.
The vibration data that resulted from blasting was recorded at both surface and subsurface monitoring
location. This data was subsequently analysed by employing a trivariate statistical model that takes into
account differing explosive charge weights [E] whilst also respecting the two difference between types of
seismic waves [body waves (b) and surface waves (s)] and their attenuation rates with respect to both dis-
tance [D] and depth. It was found that in this instance, this model can be said to account for 91% of the
differences that were found in the dependant variable [PPV] when taking into account the two independ-
ent variables [E/Db] and [(E/Ds)*(1/edepth)], leaving 9% as unexplained variability within the model. This
represents a significant advance in statistical blast vibration predictive modelling.

1 INTRODUCTION extract mineral by working as closely as possible

Whitwell Quarry is operated by Lafarge Aggre-
gates Limited, and is located in North East
Derbyshire in the North of England [UK]. It
produces dolomite feed for its on-site rotary kilns
and aggregate for road stone. It has an active rail-
way tunnel (Whitwell tunnel) running through it
which currently sterilises some of the reserves.
The tunnel is situated between the main area of
the quarry and the northern extension. The tunnel
is owned and operated by Network Rail (the rail
track authority), but the mineral is the property
of Lafarge Aggregates, which makes it a complex
legal situation. Quarry development plans are to
to the tunnel without causing damage to it.
2 WHITWELL TUNNEL
Whitwell tunnel originally cut through a ridge of
high ground between the villages of Creswell and
Worksop. The cutting leading into the tunnel in the
south west is approximately 160 metres long and
has been excavated on a curve of between 800 to
1200 metres radius; the track rising at an approxi-
mate gradient of 1 in 200 towards the north west-
ern tunnel portal. The cutting comprises a steep
inner rock cutting with more gentle upper slopes.

417

CH048_Paper 180.indd 417 10/4/2012 12:08:16 PM

 In contrast the north east cutting is straight and
approximately 300 metres long, with the track ris-
ing at an approximate gradient of 1 in 330 towards
the portal (Fig. 1).
The tunnel profile is a horseshoe shaped ellipti-
cal arch, 7.95 metres wide by 6.22 metres high at
the centre line. The tunnel is lined throughout and
the lining projects from the rock bore at each end.
The rock bore is thus some 5 metres shorter than
the tunnel as a whole (492 metres as opposed to
497 metres). The tunnel lining is reported to be of
brick, supported on masonry (dressed stone) wall,
however remedial work throughout the working
life time of the tunnel has resulted in a large sec-
tion of masonry being replaced by brick. The con-
dition of the tunnel lining as indicated by a radar
survey revealed that there had been several periods
of construction and remediation. Some sections
of the lining were apparently very thick with up
to eight rings of brick work, well packed with fill
between the lining and the rock, whilst other sec-
tions are thinner consisting of down to four rings
of brick, but with cavities between the lining and
the rock.
The principle concern is the effect of ground
vibration from blasting on the geotechnical integ-
rity of the tunnel structure. Network Rail had stip-
ulated that an absolute vibration limit of 12 mm/s
PPV (maximum single plane) should apply to the
tunnel and that there should be a 60 m standoff on
either side of the tunnels axis.
As the railway is active, access to the tunnel was
very difficult, so a number of boreholes were com-
missioned close to the tunnel. A total of 15 moni-
toring boreholes were installed, in two separate
time periods (Fig 2). Each monitoring borehole
had two tri-axial arrays located in each; an upper
array aligned with the soffit level of the tunnel
(roof), and a lower array corresponding to the
invert level (floor). This system operated success-
fully, confirming that the vibration levels stayed
Figure 1. North-eastern entrance to Whitwell tunnel.
418
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 418
below the 12 mm/s limit and thus allowing the
operations to continue to the 60 m standoff that
had been agreed.
3 SEISMIC WAVE TYPES AND
PROPERTIES
Seismic waves of several types are generated when a
seismic source such as an earthquake or explosion
is energized. Two main types of seismic waves are
known to exist. The seismic waves that penetrate
deeply and represent short pulses (wavelets) of
propagating energy are referred to as body waves.
A second type of seismic wave (a surface wave) is
generated by the interaction of the different types
of body waves with the surface of the Earth, or
in fact at any interface between different density
materials.
The speed of the waves depends on wave type
and the properties of the rock; the denser the rock,
the faster the waves travel. The propagation effect
of dispersion is to spread the wave train out with
the faster travelling wave types getting continually
further ahead of the slower moving waves.
3.1 Seismic body waves
In a homogeneous and mechanically isotropic
medium, two types of body waves are generated.
The fastest are called P-waves (primary waves)
and are simply a type of sound wave; a series of
compressions and dilations. As a P-waves passes
a point in the Earth, the material at this point
vibrates back and forth in the direction in which
the wave is travelling (Fig. 3).
The S-waves (secondary or shear waves) move
more slowly and occur only in solids where there
is an elastic response that resists shearing stresses.
For S-waves, the motion at a point in the Earth is
perpendicular to the path along which the wave is
travelling (Fig. 4).
Figure 2. An aerial photograph of Whitwell Quarry
and the railway tunnel, showing the tunnel axis and the
location of the 15 monitoring boreholes.
10/3/2012 8:38:25 PM
 Figure 3. P-wave propagations through a solid
medium (Modified from Earthquakes by Bruce A.
Bolt. Copyright@1978, 1988 W.H. Freeman Company.
Reprinted with permission).
Figure 4. S-wave propagations through a solid
medium (Modified from Earthquakes by Bruce A.
Bolt. Copyright@1978, 1988 W.H. Freeman Company.
Reprinted with permission).
In mathematical treatments, it is convenient to
separate or decompose the S-wave into a verti-
cally polarized component (SV) and a horizontally
polarized component (SH). If the material through
which the wave is travelling is mechanically iso-
tropic, these components travel together and are
not really separate waves. If, however, the mate-
rial is anisotropic, these components separate and
travel at different velocities. Rock blasts produce
predominantly body waves at small distances.
From a vertical quarry blast hole, the fundamen-
tal components are compression waves (primarily
due to the shock wave which is then enhanced by
extremely rapid expansion of the explosive gases)
and shear waves as the borehole is subjected to
huge tensional forces.
3.2 Seismic surface waves
Surface waves can travel along the surface of any
interface which exhibits a change in density. The
most marked contrast in density is between the
rock/soil surface and the atmosphere. The pres-
ence of a free face or several free faces (most
419
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 419
Figure 5. Rayleigh wave propagations along a free sur-
face (Modified from Earthquakes by Bruce A. Bolt.
Copyright@1978, 1988 W.H. Freeman Company.
Reprinted with permission).
Figure 6. Love wave propagations along a free sur-
face (Modified from Earthquakes by Bruce A. Bolt.
Copyright@1978, 1988 W.H. Freeman Company.
Reprinted with permission).
significantly the ground surface) gives rise to sur-
face waves which cause the phenomena know as
ground roll. They are created due to the disper-
sion of the body wave resulting in interaction at
the ground surface. Theory and observation both
show the existence of two basic types of surface
waves. These waves are characterised by an expo-
nential decrease in particle oscillation amplitude
with increasing distance from the boundary and
by propagation of the waveform along the bound-
ary. The two wave types are known as Rayleigh
(R-) waves and Love (Q-) waves.
Unlike the body waves unidirectional particle
motions, Rayleigh surface wave particle motion is
two-dimensional (Fig. 5). The waves travel across
surfaces and in isotropic solids the surface parti-
cles move in ellipses in planes normal to the sur-
face and parallel to the direction of propagation.
At the surface and at shallow depths this motion
is retrograde. Particles deeper in the material move
in smaller ellipses with an eccentricity that changes
with depth. At greater depths the particle motion
becomes pro-grade (Stein and Wysession 2003).
A Love wave is a shear wave causing transverse
vibration horizontally with no vertical component
(Fig. 6).
10/3/2012 8:38:26 PM
 3.3 Wave variation with depth subsurface geophones were attached to one of
two Leeds University bespoke blast monitors
Surface wave displacement can be characterised
(LUBBM). The data acquisition component of
by its variation in depth and distance along the
the LUBBM utilizes a PersonalDAQ 3000 USB
surface. With specific reference to the Rayleigh
device capable of recording up to 16 signal lines at
wave type, both the x (horizontal component in
over 60 kHz per channel. The in-hole triaxial arrays
the direction of propagation) and z (vertical com-
could be up to 400 m from the data acquisition
ponent) are known to be sinusoidal functions,
unit. Over such distances there was an enormous
and thus is a harmonic wave propagating in the
potential for signal loss and noise pickup from
positive x direction. (For further explanation see
external overhead power cables and other machin-
Stein and Wysession 2003, pp. 8689). Because
ery. To improve noise immunity, all underground
the harmonic wave solution applies only in the x
geophones were in active amplified arrays. Power
direction, the meaningful wavelength is the hori-
was supplied to the individual geophone unit using
zontal wavelength along the surface. Fig. 7 shows
2-core wiring; the signal from the geophone being
how displacement (for x and z components) decays
used to modulate the current draw along the power
with depth, so the depth to which a Rayleigh wave
cable (to industry standard 420 mA levels). The
has significant displacement is proportional to its
modulated current signal was then converted to a
horizontal wavelength. The behaviour of the x
voltage signal at the system end and fed into the
component is interesting as the displacement at
acquisition board. The whole system, including
shallow depth approaches zero, enters into nega-
the current to voltage converter, was designed to
tive displacement and then attenuates to zero again
have a voltage gain of 15 to improve the signal to
as the depth increases. This behaviour is in marked
noise ratio, enabling very low vibration levels (less
contrast to the z component, which can be seen to
than 0.1 mm/s) to be recorded. The majority of
exponentially decay to zero with increasing depth.
noise induced is picked up on both conductors in
It is difficult to obtain a direct measurement of
the 2-core wiring. The current to voltage conver-
wavelength. However using a fast Fourier trans-
sion stage, however, only detects changes in current
form, it is possible to obtain a spectrum of the
draw and as such is immune to this common type
major frequencies present in a blast vibration sig-
of electrical noise.
nal. If an estimate of the wave velocity could be
Prior to installation all the arrays were calibrated
made, then some idea of the attenuation of the
at the University of Leeds. The triaxial arrays were
surface waves with depth could be determined by
mounted in aluminium blocks and then sealed with
use of the simple expression where the velocity of
epoxy resin prior to being placed at the appropriate
the wave equals the frequency multiplied by the
level in the monitoring borehole and sealed in with
wavelength.
cement and limestone dust. An attempt to orien-
tate the underground arrays proved unsuccessful.
It was therefore decided that all PPV data analysed
4 VIBRATION MONITORING
would have to be PPV Resultant.
EQUIPMENT USED AT WHITWELL
QUARRY

Portable White and Instantel Seismographs were

deployed to monitor the surface locations. The
Figure 7. Variations in Longitudinal and Vertical
Rayleigh wave displacements (normalised by surface par-
ticle displacement).
5 DATA COLLECTION
Vibration readings were taken for all blasts in close
proximity to the tunnel over the period of study
(7th November 2006 to 20th July 2010). A total of
39 fixed monitoring locations were established of
which an average of 11 were used to monitor each
blast, although it varied from 7 to 18. A total of
46 multi-hole blasts were monitored, resulting in
503 blast vibration records being obtained (Table 1
and Fig. 8). These results were obtained from
bespoke blast monitoring equipment developed by
the University of Leeds connected to fixed moni-
toring points within boreholes at soffit and invert
levels of the tunnel. Data was also collected from
the commercial portable seismographs (Instantel
and White) which were deployed on the surface at
specific boreholes.

420

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 420 10/3/2012 8:38:27 PM

 particular site. This is usually carried out by trans-
forming Equation 2 to Equation 3 by taking the
log of both sides.

log [ ] l g [SD
log S ] log [ a ] (3)

This has the form of the equation for a straight line

(y = mx + c), where m is the gradient relating to site
factor b, and c is the intercept relating to the log
of the intercept, log[a]. If the regression is reason-
able (high correlation coefficient and low standard
error), it is possible to predict the likely PPV value
given a certain charge weight and distance.
The results of statistically analysing the data by
the conventional scaled distance modelling method
using the nomenclature defined in equation 4 are
shown in Table 1. This data is derived in the con-
Figure 8. Resultant PPV vs Scaled Distance (surface ventional way.
and underground results).
log [ ] log
logCC M log[ScaledDist ] (4)
Table 1. Results from conventional linear regression
model. The correlation coefficients and standard error
values improve once the data is separated into
All blasts Surface Soffit Invert the three distinct horizons (that is vibration data
Readings 503 143 183 177
recorded on the surface, data recorded at tunnel
Gradient (M) 1.438 1.593 1.398 1.335
soffit level and data recorded at tunnel invert level).
Intercept (lnC) 5.214 6.209 4.936 4.641 Figure 8 is a plot of all the recorded Resultant PPV
Intercept (C) 183.8 497.0 139.2 103.6 values at their respective scaled distances, irre-
Standard error 0.596 0.463 0.476 0.452 spective of horizon. The 50% and 95% prediction
Correlation coeff. 0.85 0.92 0.90 0.89 levels for all the data points are plotted, and for
Site factor A (95%) 488.2 1016.6 303.6 217.4 comparison, the 50% lines for the surface data, the
tunnel soffit data and the tunnel invert data are
also plotted. This clearly shows that for any given
Scaled Distance, the average Resultant PPV value
6 ANALYSIS OF DATA AND RESULTS
at the surface will be higher than that at the soffit
level, which in turn will be higher than that at the
It has long been recognised that there is a rela-
invert level.
tionship between Peak Particle Velocity (PPV),
There is little doubt that separating the data
distance from blast to monitoring location (d),
into the three distinct horizons (surface, soffit
and the Maximum Instantaneous Charge (MIC)
and invert) greatly improves the standard error.
(Devine et al 1967). The distance and MIC have
Table 1 shows a Standard error value of 0.596 for
been combined to form the parameter known as
all blasts considered together, whilst the standard
Scaled Distance (SD) which is defined in Equa-
errors for each level are 0.463, 0.476 and 0.452
tion 1 as:
(surface, soffit and invert respectively). Whilst the
d intercept values [C] (which directly relate to Site
SD = (1) factor A) increase with depth, there is a marked
MIC
difference between the calculated values of gradi-
ents [m] (which directly relate to site factor B).
The actual relationship between PPV and SD var- The fact that the a value (which is the anti-
ies from site to site and is given in general form log of the intercept [C]) decreases as the depth
by: increases means that on average a Peak Particle
Velocity blast vibration experienced at the surface
PPV = a (SD
S )
b
(2) would be 56% lower at soffit level, and 62% lower
at invert level. For example, a predicted Resultant
where a and b are site factors. PPV of 12.7 mm/sec at the surface would become
The site factors can be determined empirically 5.6 mm/sec at soffit level and 4.8 mm/sec at invert
from a number of blast monitoring records for a level (Table 2).

421

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 421 10/3/2012 8:38:27 PM

 Table 2. Predicted PPV values (mm/s) for different data Table 4. Depths of the triaxial arrays in monitoring
sets, based on Scaled Distance of 10 m/kg0.5. boreholes.

All blasts Surface Soffit Invert Borehole Depth to soffit [m] Depth to invert [m]

50% prediction 6.7 12.7 5.6 4.8 BH1 16.5 22.5

95% prediction 17.8 27.1 12.1 10.0 BH2 22.7 28.7
BH3 12.4 18.4
BH4 23.9 29.9
Table 3. Percentage difference in predicted PPV values BH5 14.1 20.1
with respect to distance. BH6 20.2 26.2
BH7 16.4 22.4
All blasts Surface Soffit Invert BH8 21.5 27.5
BH9 21.1 27.1
140 m distance +154 +30 +40 +64 BH10 14.9 20.9
4090 m distance +18 +17 3 6 BH11 20.2 26.2
90300 m distance 0 +7 +9 +7 BH12 21.0 27.0

The nature of the blasting carried out in the
vicinity of Whitwell tunnel is that the charge
weights used do not vary greatly. The key determi-
nant is therefore the distance from blast to moni-
toring location. Table 3 shows how this distance
has an effect on the predicted vibration levels for
each of the three levels (depths) being monitored,
in terms of a percentage of the monitored values.
For the distances 039.9 m, the monitored values
are 30%, 40% and 64% higher than the average pre-
dicted values. At the critical distance (4089.9 m,
i.e. that distance that contains the planned clos-
est approach to the tunnel) the monitored values
are 17% higher than the average predicted for the
surface, but for the soffit and invert levels, the
average monitored values are 3% and 6% lower
than the predicted. Thus the conventional linear
regression model tends to predict differently for
near, mid and far distances, as well as for different
horizons.
6.1 Trivariate approach based on distance,
charge weights and depth
It has been shown that by introducing the concept
of different depths or levels (surface, soffit and
invert) the total variance is reduced. Whilst the
depth to invert is always greater than the depth to
soffit for each monitoring borehole, if the depth
from the surface to the soffit and invert levels for
specific observation points are examined (Table 4),
it can be seen that this varies between observation
boreholes.
Thus it might well be that the actual depth
should be introduced as a parameter. If the depth is
to be considered, then logically it needs to be done
on the basis of what is known about the difference
between the types of seismic waves that would be
present at any observation point as a result of a
blast, whilst taking into account the depth from
the surface.
Figure 9 shows schematically how the body
waves attenuate with distance, whilst the surface
waves attenuate with both distance and depth from
the surface. It has been noted that the body waves
attenuate at a rate proportional to the inverse
square of the distance, and the surface waves
attenuate at a rate proportional to the inverse of
the distance as well as exponentially decaying with
depth. The resulting vibration level would then
be the product of these two types of waves. This
fits well with the approach taken by Attwell et al.
(1965) who reasoned that the peak amplitude of the
particle velocity caused by an explosion should be
proportional to the energy released, and that under
elastic conditions it should decrease both inversely
with the square of the distance that the body waves
have to travel, and inversely as the distance that the
surface waves have to travel from the blast to the
observation point. It is therefore logical that any
analysis should attempt to take this into account.
In order to achieve this, a trivariate relationship
should seek to relate the dependant variable (PPV)
to the two independent variables associated with
body waves and surface waves respectively.
The first independent variable will be associated
with the body wave and will be a power function
() of the explosive charge weigh (E ) divided by
the distance squared (Db2) from the blast to the
observation point squared, i.e. [(E/Db2)]. Likewise
the second independent variable will be associated
with the surface wave and will be a power function
( ) of the explosive charge weigh (E) divided by
the distance (Ds) from the blast to the observation
point, i.e. [(E/Ds)].
However, this must also take into account
the fact that surface waves attenuate exponen-
tially with depth, so the relationship becomes

422

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 422 10/3/2012 8:38:29 PM

 Table 5. Predicted PPV levels at various depths (distance
40 m and charge weight 25 kg).

Depth Prediction
Hole Horizon (m) (mm/s)
Surface 0 9.74
BH1 Soffit 16.5 5.68
BH2 Soffit 22.7 4.64
BH3 Soffit 12.4 6.50
BH4 Soffit 23.9 4.46
BH5 Soffit 14.1 6.15
BH6 Soffit 20.2 5.04
BH7 Soffit 16.4 5.70
BH8 Soffit 21.5 4.83
BH9 Soffit 21.1 4.89
Figure 9. Sketch of relationship between surface waves BH10 Soffit 14.9 5.99
and body waves with respect to attenuation with distance BH11 Soffit 20.2 5.04
and depth from the blast. BH12 Soffit 21.0 4.91
BH13 Soffit 20.6 4.97
BH14 Soffit 21.4 4.84
((E/Ds) x (1/e(depth))). Despite this consideration, a BH15 Soffit 20.0 5.07
perfect relationship cannot be established. This is BH16 Soffit 16.5 5.68
because the attenuation with depth of the horizon- BH17 Soffit 22.7 4.64
tal component of the Rayleigh wave ( as shown in BH1 Invert 22.5 4.67
Fig 7), and the problems associated with phase, are BH2 Invert 28.7 3.82
not taken into account in such a simple model. BH3 Invert 18.4 5.34
Thus given what is known about the way that BH4 Invert 29.9 3.67
PPV relates to distance, charge weight and depth BH5 Invert 20.1 5.05
the proposed formula is: BH6 Invert 26.2 4.14
BH7 Invert 22.4 4.69
BH8 Invert 27.5 3.97
(( E e depth ))

PPV = a ( E Db ) Ds ) ( (5) BH9 Invert 27.1 4.02
BH10 Invert 20.9 4.92
and thus, BH11 Invert 26.2 4.14
BH12 Invert 27.0 4.03
log log a + log BH13 Invert 26.6 4.09
l ( / Ds )
[ / Db 2 ] log ( / e depth ) (6)
BH14
BH15
Invert
Invert
27.4
26.0
3.98
4.17
BH16 Invert 22.5 4.67
where PPV = Resultant Peak Particle Veloc- BH17 Invert 28.7 3.82
ity; E = maximum instantaneous charge weight;
Db = slope distance from blast to observation point;
Ds = plan distance from blast to vertically above
observation point; depth = depth of observation
point below the surface; a, and are the site fac-
tors derived from the trivariate analysis; e = Math- charge weight of 25 kilograms at a distance of
ematical constant (Eulers number) which makes 40 metres from the blast to the observation point,
depth an exponential function. the most likely PPV values at BH 10 are 9.74 mm/sec,
As a result of carrying out the trivariate analy- 5.99 mm/sec and 4.92 mm/sec for surface, soffit
sis the following values were derived: a = 268.36; and invert respectively.
= 0.684; = 0.033; mean squared error = 0.2302;
standard error = 0.4797; Total variance = 1363.54;
Explained variance = total variance unexplained 7 CONCLUSIONS
variance = 1248.47.
Thus, the trivariate model can be said to explain The conventional least-squares, blast regression
91.6% of the variability within the system. (i.e. analysis approach indicates that there is a progres-
1248.47/1363.54). sive reduction in vibration from the surface, via
Table 5 illustrates the effect of depth from the soffit to invert tunnel level for blasts of equivalent
surface. For a blast with a maximum instantaneous scaled distance.

423

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 423 10/3/2012 8:38:29 PM

 The use of a trivariate model, that takes into
account charge weights, vibration wave types and
their attenuation rates with respect to distance
and depth has been found in this case study to
account for 91% of the differences, leaving 9%
as unexplained variability within the model. This
represents a significant advance in statistical blast
vibration predictive modelling.
In terms of seismic waves, given that displace-
ment is proportional to velocity and that in turn,
velocity is proportional to energy2, then by inference
from Fig 7, at the surface, the vertical component
of the Rayleigh waves particle motion usually car-
ries approximately 70% of the total energy. Indeed
although the total energy of the Rayleigh wave
decays with depth, if anything, the relative propor-
tion of energy in the vertical component increase.
Even so some caution must be exercised, as the
trivariate model used only attempts to take into
account the vertical component of the surface wave
424
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 424
as it attenuates with depth. The problem being that
the horizontal component follows a complex atten-
uation curve that is a function of depth divided by
wave length (poly horizontal curve in Fig 7).
REFERENCES
Attwell, P.B., Farmer, I.W. & Haslam, D. 1965. Predic-
tion of Ground Vibration Parameters from Major
Quarry Blasts. Mining & Mineral Eng., Dec. 1965
pp. 621-626.
Bolt, B. 1978. Earthquakes. Publisher W.H. Freeman
ISBN 978-0-716700579.
Devine, J.R., Beck, R.H., Meyer, A.V.C. & Duval, W.I.
1967. Effects of Charge Weight on Vibration Levels
from Quarry Blasting. United States Bureau of Mine
RI 6774.
Stein, S. & Wysession, M. 2003. An Introduction to Seis-
mology, Earthquakes & Earth Structure. Blackwell
Publishing ISBN 978-0-86542-078-6.
10/3/2012 8:38:31 PM
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Phasethe forgotten problem of blast vibration prediction

W.J. Birch, L. Bermingham & S. Hosein

Blastlog Ltd, Leeds, UK

T.J. White
Department of Geology, University of Leicester, UK

R. Farnfield
Head of Explosives Engineering, EPC-UK, UK

ABSTRACT: In terms of the environmental impact of blasting, regulators usually specify statutory
limits on air overpressure (in terms of air blast) or particle velocity (in terms of ground vibration) either
as absolute values that may not be exceeded or as a fixed percentage of allowable exceedances. These
limits vary considerably and even within the same country, different authorities can apply different limits.
The specified values are equivalent to the absolute maximum values achieved within the transient blast
induced wave form, which in turn is known as the Peak Level. However, both Peak Particle Velocity and
Peak Air Overpressure levels have historically been notoriously difficult to predict.
All blast vibration time signals or transients are defined by having measurable components of
frequency (amplitude and phase) which can be determined through a Fast Fourier Transform routine.
It is impossible to define a vibration transient (either the ground vibration or even the much simpler
waveform of air overpressure) from the amplitude of the frequency components alone; the phase of each
frequency must also be known. In fact, it is not the absolute phase angle of each frequency component
which is important, but the relative phase (or phase difference) of one frequency to another. Therefore, the
relative phases of the frequencies within the transient have an impact on the amplitude of the transient.
When two or more sources of vibration combine to form a single transient (such as an air overpressure
signal produced by two or more blast holes), the resulting signal will not only depend on the amplitudes
of the frequency components, but the relative phases of these components. This will determine which
frequencies are amplified and which are attenuated, which in turn will have an effect on the amplitude
observed at any point in the time signal or transient.
This paper seeks to illustrate the problems associated with phase and to highlight the need for more
research into this area. It will discuss the factors that relate both to the Peak Air Overpressure levels and
to Peak Particle Velocity and discuss the similarities and differences that relate to these two separate
environmental impacts of blasting.

1 INTRODUCTION ter during wave motion (Bollinger, 1960). The con-

Physically, waves are a travelling disturbance and
represent the transfer of energy from one point to
another in a given medium. Thus, for a wave to
exist, there must be an initial disturbance of the
medium, that is, some forces must act to disturb the
medium from its equilibrium position and thereby
introduce new energy into the medium. The action
of the forces causes the nearby portions of the
medium to oscillate about their rest position, much
as a spring mass system. The oscillatory distur-
bance is transmitted from one particle to an adja-
cent particle, then to the next and so on, causing
a wave motion to propagate through the medium.
There is no bulk movement or transport of mat-
stituent particles of the medium oscillate and/or
rotate only about space limited paths and do not
travel through the medium. This fact introduces
the necessity for consideration of two velocities:
a wave velocity that describes the rate at which
the disturbance propagates through the medium
a particle velocity that describes the small oscil-
lations that any given particle executes about its
equilibrium position as wave energy excites it.
The energy introduced by the disturbance travels
as kinetic energy of the particle motion and poten-
tial energy of particle displacement in the wave
motion. As a wave propagates through an infinite
medium, it tends to spread out and this introduces

425

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 425 10/3/2012 8:38:31 PM

 a geometrical effect on the energy concentration Fourier extended his theory to include the
of the wave. Thus in a perfectly elastic medium of cases where motion is aperiodic. The general
infinite extent; a point source in such a medium result is the same as for periodic motion, that is,
would induce spherical waves. The area of these the complex vibration can be represented by the
wave fronts increases as r2 (where r is the distance superposition of a number of sinusoidal vibrations.
from the source), so the energy flow per unit area The fundamental difference for the aperiodic case
decreases as 1/r2. is that the summation is replaced by an integral,
In practice we do not have a perfect medium and all frequencies, rather than a discrete set of
and thus there are additional losses as the wave frequencies, are included. The Fourier Transform
propagates. These are absorptive losses, which pair formulation of this integral representation is:
attenuate wave amplitude with distance and/or
time; absorptive loss is often exponential.
1
x F (t ) f ( )e d
i t
(4)
2
2 FOURIER ANALYSIS
and
The basic kinematics of wave motion can be given
by a review of harmonic motion. This type of
motion is specified by: f ( ) F (t ) e
t
dt (5)

X = A Sin t (1)
The function f () is in general complex and can
where; be written as:
X = Displacement at time t
A = Maximum value of x = Amplitude (Zero-to- f() = R() + iI() = A()ei() (6)
Peak)
= 2f and f = frequency where:

The time for one complete cycle is termed the

period (T or 2/). The frequency of the motion A ( ) R 2 ( ) + I 2 ( ) (7)
is the number of complete cycles per unit time and
is given by ( /2). Thus frequency and period are I ( )
( ) = Tan 1 (8)
R ( )
reciprocals of one another.
The basic properties of harmonic motion are:
1. Constant frequency (/2) The function A () is termed the Fourier
2. Constant maximum amplitude (A) Amplitude Spectrum and () the Fourier Phase
3. Constant peak-to-peak amplitude (2A) Spectrum of the function F (t).
Baron Fourier (17681830) discovered that any
period signal, no matter how complex, may be R ( ) F (t ) Cos
C tdt (9)
regarded as a combination of sinusoidal signals

with harmonically related frequencies, where each
sinusoid must have a value of frequency, ampli- and
tude and phase. Such a representation is termed a
Fourier series and is given by:
I ( ) F (t ) Sin
Si tdt (10)
x F (t ) Si t + a 2Sin
a1Sin Si 3t +
Si 2t a3Sin
+ b0 b1Costt + b2Cos
C 2 t b3Cos
o 3t (2)
If F(t) is either an air overpressure trace
The motion is the sum of a fundamental fre- or a seismogram, (i.e. a time history of the
quency () and higher ordered harmonics or vibrations), then the relative amplitudes (A())
overtones that are multiples of the fundamental and phases ( ()) of the harmonic waves (whose
frequency (2, 3, and so on.) summation, according to Fourier Theory, will
The equation can also be written in the form: yield the observed F(t)) can be obtained. This is
done by multiplying F(t) by sines or cosines and
integrating according to equations 9 and 10 and
x = A 0 + A nSin ( n t + n ) (3) then performing operations indicated in equations
n =1 7 and 8. Randal (1977) also demonstrated that the

426

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 426 10/3/2012 8:38:32 PM

 power content at each frequency is given directly
by the square of the amplitude of the Fourier series
component. Fourier analysis is an essential part
of vibration analysis in that it gives insight into
complex vibrations. It allows complex vibrations
to be seen as the resultant effect of multiple
simultaneous harmonic vibrations, each of which
has its own amplitude and phase relationship.
Cooley and Tukey (1965) published an algorithm
known as the fast Fourier Transform, for obtaining
a discrete Fourier Transform from a digital signal.
This algorithm greatly reduced the number of
arithmetic operations required. Randal (1977)
noted that this algorithm had revolutionised field
signal analysis and had become the most important
signal analysis technique.
3 GROUND VIBRATION AND AIR
OVERPRESSURE
Blast vibrations (whether air-borne or ground-
borne) are true transients. They are brought into
being as the unwanted by-product of fragment-
ing rock with the aid of explosives. They radiate
out from the source of the disturbance, attenuat-
ing with ever increasing distance until they reach
a point where they are no longer detectable by
either human beings or seismographs. A given
observation point that lies on the path of such a
transient has no experience of the vibrations prior
to its arrival and no memory after it has passed.
The observation point itself experiences the wave
train as a vector, in that there is an amplitude with
a direction in three dimensional space. The mag-
nitude of amplitude and direction will vary over
time as the wave passes through the observation
point. All blast vibration transients are defined by
having measurable components of frequency (each
frequency having amplitude and a phase angle)
which can be determined through an FFT. It is
impossible to define either a ground blast vibra-
tion or air overpressure event purely in terms of
the PPV velocity or Air overpressure time trace
and the frequency amplitude spectrum; the fre-
quency phase spectrum must also be taken into
account. Put simply, the frequency amplitude
spectrum defines the magnitude of a certain fre-
quency component present within the signal, and
the frequency phase spectrum defines where the
frequency component is within the signal, relative
to the other frequency components. Whilst it is
common practice to graphically display frequency
amplitude spectra (these are relatively easy to
interpret), frequency phase spectra are complex
and usually do not display any coherent patterns.
The concept of how the frequency compo-
nents are related to each other is a vital part of
427
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 427
Figure 1. Two separate frequencies possessing both
magnitude and phase in the time domain combining to
form a single coherent ground motion response.
understanding how a given observation point
responds as the vibration passes through it. Thus
phase defines how two or more frequencies of vary-
ing magnitude can interact to either add or subtract
from each other to produce the magnitude of the
ground response as a vector in three dimensional
space. Clearly it is not possible to graphically rep-
resent four dimensions (i.e. three orthogonal direc-
tions and time), as is required for a typical ground
vibration signal consisting of Vertical, Radial and
Transverse components. However Figure 1 is a rep-
resentation of the concept in two dimensions e.g.
one dimensional space with respect to time, which
is applicable to an air overpressure trace. Because
of its relative simplicity, Air overpressure will be
considered first.
4 AIR OVERPRESSURE TRACES
FROM QUARRY BLASTING
Air overpressure means simply the air pressure
over and above that of atmospheric pressure,
which is always present due to blasting (ISEE
Blasters Handbook, 2011). In a quarry blast, the
pressure wave that causes air overpressure is gener-
ated in part from the detonation of an explosive
charge, as well as by the displacement of air as a
result of the movement of the rock from the face.
The detonation of an explosive charge causes the
expanding gaseous reaction to compress the sur-
rounding air and moves it outwards with a high
velocity. The shock wave that is produced has
a steep shock front which is closely followed by
rapidly decreasing pressure.
The detonation of explosives causes the pres-
sure of the surrounding air to rise almost instanta-
neously from an ambient pressure to its peak value
(Persson et al. 1994). Once the pressure peaks, it
decays back down to the original ambient pressure
but then proceeds to decay to a negative pressure
value. This negative phase (also known as the suc-
tion phase) lasts longer than the positive phase.
Whilst the magnitude is not inversely proportional,
the total energy of each phase will be the same.
10/3/2012 8:38:35 PM
 Figure 2 is an example of the pressure waves
two phases measured from a single-hole blast. The
negative phase can last from approximately three
to five times the duration of the positive phase.
The pressure wave then travels through the air until
it eventually dissipates or its path is blocked. The
precise travel path is dictated by the temperature
of the air, the speed and direction of wind and
also the presence of any obstructions, e.g. trees,
buildings.
4.1 Melton ross test blast
Melton Ross is a chalk quarry located in the north
of England. The method of working typically con-
sists of one single-row blast per day, with five holes
per blast, burden and spacing equal to 4.0 metres,
and hole depth of 9.0 metres.
A single-hole test blast was carried out using
similar blasting parameters, and the resulting
air overpressure trace (Fig. 3) clearly exhibits
the two separate sections illustrated in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Behaviour of an air over pressure pulse from
a single-hole quarry blast.
Figure 3. Air overpressure trace from a single-hole
blast observed at 40 m directly in front of the quarry face
being blasted.
428
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 428
The Amplitude Power spectrum (Fig. 4) indicates
that the majority of the energy lies within the range
6 to 50 Hz with very little energy above 132 Hz.
Although it is difficult to see, the phase spectrum
(Fig. 5) appears to show a regular rotation of
angle from +180 to 180.
The five-hole single-row air overpressure trace
from a normal production blast (Fig. 6) clearly
shows each individual hole detonating, and reveals
that the shape of each individual peak is similar, up
to the point where it interacts with the next peak.
However, the magnitude of each of the peaks
varies. Previous research work by Birch et al (2012)
established that the specific magnitude of the max-
imum air overpressure (in Pascals) associated with
a single-hole quarry blast is a function of:
1. The total power of the explosive
2. The duration of the detonation
Figure 4. Amplitude power spectrum derived from the
air overpressure trace from a single-hole blast observed at
40 m directly in front of the quarry face being blasted.
Figure 5. Phase spectrum derived from the air over-
pressure trace from a single-hole blast observed at 40 m
directly in front of the quarry face being blasted.
10/3/2012 8:38:36 PM
 Figure 6. Air overpressure trace from a five-hole blast Figure 7. Amplitude power spectrum derived from the
observed at 40 m directly in front of the quarry face being air overpressure trace from a five-hole blast observed at
blasted. 40 m directly in front of the quarry face being blasted.

3. The distance from the origin of the detonation

to the observation point
4. The burden of rock in front of the blast hole at
the initial point of detonation
In the case of a multi-hole quarry blast, the
geometry of the blast with respect to the observa-
tion point must also be taken into consideration.
The resulting air overpressure pulse will therefore
also depend on;
1. The spacing of the holes
2. The orientation of the blast pattern
3. The timing between successive detonations
4. The speed of sound in air at the precise time of
the blast
Figure 8. Phase spectrum derived from the air overpres-
The Amplitude Power spectrum for the five sure trace from a five-hole blast observed at 40 m directly
hole quarry blast (Fig. 7) is more complex than in front of the quarry face being blasted.
that obtained from a single hole blast (Fig. 4)
and clearly shows a number of peaks. The domi-
nant peak occurs at 10 Hz, with additional lower recordings from different monitoring locations rel-
peaks at 27 Hz, 52 Hz, 82 Hz and 150 Hz. It is also ative to the blast hole pattern and firing sequence.
interesting to note that there are also a number of The AOP Behind signal was recorded at a loca-
minima occurring at 2 Hz, 19 Hz, 39 Hz, 70 Hz tion perpendicular to the row of blast holes. The
and 118 Hz. AOP Away signal was recorded at a location in
Once again, it is not easy to discern the trends in line with the row of blast holes, with the initiation
the phase spectrum (Fig. 8), but an element of ran- being away from the monitoring location. The
domness appears to have been added to the regular AOP Towards signal was recorded at a location
rotation of angle from +180 to 180 which was in line with the row of blast holes, with the initia-
visible in the single-hole shot. tion being towards the monitoring location. The
The five-hole Frequency-amplitude and differences between them clearly show that wave
Frequency-phase spectra describe the net effect of interaction is dependent on the location of the
the interaction of air overpressure from each hole. It monitor with respect to the blast pattern.
is clear that energy has been redistributed between Where the firing sequence is progressing in
the frequencies resulting in wave reinforcement or front of the monitoring location (AOP behind), or
reduction at various points in the time signal. away from the monitoring location (AOP away),
Figure 9 contains three air overpressure traces the individual air overpressure pulses from the
from another blast at Melton Ross. They represent detonation of each blast hole are clearly evident.

429

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 429 10/3/2012 8:38:38 PM


Figure 9. Differences in air overpressure waveform
in relation to recording position relative to initiation
direction.
Due to the delay time between each of the blast
holes, and the direction in which the delay sequence
is designed, minimal wave interaction occurs.
When it does take place, it has a negative effect
i.e. the positive phase of a pressure pulse interacts
with the negative phase of the previous pressure
pulse and thereby reduces the effective amplitude
of the pulse.
However, at a location where the blasting
sequence is progressing towards it, the opposite
effect happens resulting in constructive rein-
forcement. This is because the time delay sepa-
rating the arrival of the different pressure pulses
is reduced relative to the initiation delay. As a
result, the positive phase of the air overpressure
pulse superimposes itself on the air overpressure
positive phase of the next pulse. The extent and
nature of the reinforcement is dependent on the
spacing dimension between the blast holes and
430
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 430
the inter-hole delay times. The following formula
can be used to determine the arrival times between
each pulse.
S
T t ih (11)
Vair
where:
tih = inter hole delay time (ms)
S = hole spacing (m)
Vair = is the velocity of sound in air (approximately
340 m/s)
For example, if the inter hole delay is 17 ms
and the spacing between each of the holes is 4 m,
the arrival time between each pulse will be 28 ms
at a location in line with the blast with the delay
sequence firing away, and 6ms at a location in line
with the blast with the delay sequence firing towards
it (assuming the speed of sound is 340 m/s).
Figures 10 and 11 show how a model was
created to fit the five-hole example given above.
An air overpressure waveform from a single hole is
repeated with the appropriate delay period (6 ms)
between each of the five holes (Figure 10). These
are then added together to create the model shown
in Figure 11. From the elemental waveforms it can
be seen that each hole creates an air overpressure
level of 188 Pa, but due to the interaction with
each successive hole, the resulting peak pressure
level is 400 Pa.
The transient in Figure 11 is a reasonable
approximation to the real recording in Figure 9
(AOP towards).
Figure 10. The single-hole blast trace repeated at 6 mil-
lisecond intervals to reflect their arrival times.
Figure 11. The five separate hole waveforms combine,
showing the effects of wavefront reinforcement.
10/3/2012 8:38:40 PM
 5 GROUND VIBRATION TRACES
FROM QUARRY BLASTING
Seismic waves of several types are generated when a
seismic source such as an earthquake or explosion
is energized. Two main types of seismic waves are
known to exist. The seismic waves that penetrate
deeply and represent short pulses (wavelets) of
propagating energy are referred to as body waves.
A second type of seismic wave (a surface wave) is
generated by the interaction of the different types
of body waves with the surface of the Earth, or
in fact at any interface between different density
materials.
5.1 Seismic body waves
In a homogeneous and mechanically isotropic
medium, two types of body waves are generated.
The fastest are called P-waves (primary waves)
and are simply a type of sound wave; a series of
compressions and dilations. As a P-waves passes
a point in the Earth, the material at this point
vibrates back and forth in the direction in which
the wave is travelling.
The S-waves (secondary or shear waves) move
more slowly and occur only in solids where there
is an elastic response that resists shearing stresses.
For S-waves, the motion at a point in the Earth is
perpendicular to the path along which the wave is
travelling.
5.2 Seismic surface waves
Surface waves can travel along the surface of any
interface which exhibits a change in density. The
most marked contrast in density is between the
rock/soil surface and the atmosphere. The pres-
ence of a free face or several free faces (most sig-
nificantly the ground surface) give rise to surface
waves which cause the phenomenon known as
ground roll. They are created due to the disper-
sion of the body wave resulting in interaction at
the ground surface. Theory and observation both
show the existence of two basic types of surface
waves. These waves are characterised by an expo-
nential decrease in particle oscillation amplitude
with increasing distance from the boundary, and
by propagation of the waveform along the bound-
ary. The two wave types are known as Rayleigh
(R-) waves and Love (Q-) waves.
Unlike the body waves unidirectional particle
motions, Rayleigh surface wave particle motion
is two-dimensional. The waves travel across sur-
faces and in isotropic solids the surface particles
move in ellipses in planes normal to the surface
and parallel to the direction of propagation. At
the surface and at shallow depths this motion is
431
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 431
retrograde. Particles deeper in the material move
in smaller ellipses with an eccentricity that changes
with depth. At greater depths the particle motion
becomes pro-grade (Stein & Wysession 2003).
5.3 Seismic waves velocity of propagation
P-waves propagate longitudinally at a velocity
(Cp) which is equivalent to the velocity of sound in
rock. S-waves propagate transversely at a velocity
(Cs) which is approximately 0.6 Cp in a well con-
solidated medium (Clover, 1986). For both P- and
S-waves, the vibration amplitudes decay at a rate
inversely proportional to the square of spherical
distance from the blast source. The Rayleigh sur-
face waves travel along a free surface at a velocity
(Cr) which is approximately 0.9 Cs in a well con-
solidated medium (Clover, 1986), and particles
have a retrograde elliptical motion (i.e. rotation
in the opposite direction to wave propagation).
The vertical component of particle motion carries
67% of the total energy in a surface wave. At the
surface, the vibration amplitudes decay at a rate
inversely proportional to the distance from the blast
source. Thus Rayleigh waves attenuate less rapidly
than P- and S-waves. In the Earths crust, P-waves
typically travel at around 67 km/s, while S-waves
typically travel at around 3.54 km/s. Rayleigh and
Love waves typically travel at between 2.04.4 km/s
in the Earth depending on the frequency of the
propagating wave, and therefore the depth of
penetration of the waves. In general, in a given
rock, the Love waves travel slightly faster than the
Rayleigh waves.
5.4 Inherent problems in the types
of seismic waves
If a given blast consists of a set of discrete
frequencies and associated magnitudes, then it
is reasonable to suggest that at the moment of
detonation, all frequencies of all the four wave types
will be in phase around the column defined by
an individual blast borehole. As the wave radiates
out, the different frequencies will move in and out
of phase causing a beating phenomenon.
It has been demonstrated that different wave
types travel at different speeds. Close to the initia-
tion point, the differing wave types will not have
had time to separate out from one another, and so
they will interact. Such interaction will then go in
and out of phase as the wave train moves further
away from the point of initiation. This will have
a fundamental effect on the particle velocity at a
given observation point.
It has also been previously shown (Clover, 1986)
that, as the different wave types travel away from
the column of initiation, they attenuate at different
10/3/2012 8:38:41 PM
 rates (i.e. surface waves as a function of the recip-
rocal of the distance and body waves as a function
of the reciprocal of the square of the distance).
Thus not only is the phase changing, but also the
amplitude of the different wave types.
6 CONCLUSIONS
Whilst it is extremely difficult to interpret the
frequency phase spectrum in any meaningful
way, the effect that phase has on the resulting air
overpressure transient recorded from a five-hole
quarry blast is clearly visible in Figure 9. The sim-
ple interaction of the geometry of the holes and
the speed of sound with respect to the observation
point results in a significant change in the peak air
overpressures and the forms of the different tran-
sients shown. The fact that air overpressure com-
prises only one wave type makes it possible for a
reasonably simple multi-hole quarry blast to be
constructed from a single hole seed waveform.
It then follows that a multi-hole air overpressure
event can be deconstructed into its original com-
ponents associated with each individual blast hole.
It is clear that the timing differences between
holes firing in a quarry blast can have a
pronounced effect on the resulting magnitude and
wave shape of the air overpressure pulse produced.
The interaction of blast geometry and timings
results in a significant modification from that
seen in a single-hole blast, for both the resulting
Frequency-Amplitude and Frequency-Phase
spectra.
However with ground vibrations, the interac-
tions of the four different wave types, resulting
from their varying speeds of propagation and
attenuation rates, make it very difficult to use such
simple analytical techniques.
432
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 432
The future challenge is to build on the simple
methodology established in examining air over-
pressure traces, and then to determine if it is pos-
sible to apply such techniques to ground vibration
records.
REFERENCES
Bollinger, G.A. 2003. Blast Vibrations Analysis. Southern
Illinois University Press, Carbondale and Edwardsville,
Feffer and Simons INC, London and Amsterdam.
Birch, W.J., Bermingham, L., Farnfield, R. & Hosein, S.
2012. Control of Air Overpressure from Quarry
Blasting?It is about time. Proceedings of the Thirty-
eighth Annual Conference of Explosives and Blasting
Techniques, Nashville 2012, International Society of
Explosives Engineers, Cleveland, Ohio, Volume 2.
Clover, A.W. 1986. Appraisal of Potential Effects of
Surface Blasting on a Rock Tunnel, with Particular
reference to the Tai Lam Chung Water Tunnel, Hong
Kong. Rock Engineering and Excavation in an urban
Environment. Proceedings of the conference held in
Hong Kong from 24th27th Feb 1986. The Institute
of mining and metallurgy. Freeman Fox & Partners
(Far East), Hong Kong.
Cooley, J.W. & Turkey, J.W., 1965 An Algorithm for the
Machine Computation of the Complex Fourier Series.
Mathematics of Computation, Vol. 19, April, pp.
297301.
ISEE Blasters Handbook 18th Edition. 2011.
International Society of Explosives Engineers.
Persson, P.A., Holmberg, R. & Lee, J. 1994. Rock Blasting
and Explosives Engineering. Boca Rarton, Florida:
CRC Press.
Randell. R.B. Application of B&K Equipment of
Frequency Analysis. Brel and Kjr, Denmark, ISBN
8787355140.
Stein, S. & Wysession, M. 2003. An Introduction to
Seimology, Earthquakes & Earth Structure. Blackwell
Publishing.
10/3/2012 8:38:42 PM
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

A comprehensive assessment of ground vibrations and structural

damage caused by blasting

Pijush Pal Roy

CSIR-Central Institute of Mining and Fuel Research (CIMFR), Dhanbad, India

ABSTRACT: For designing a safe blast, it is important to ascertain the level of ground vibration at a
desired distance from the blast. There are many established approaches to do such a job, out of which
the most popular one is to derive an empirical predictor equation based on a few test shots and use any
of the conventional Peak Particle Velocity (PPV) predictors. Going away from the conventional practices,
scientists like Dowding (1985), Berta (1985), Jimeno et al. (1995), etc., proposed different analytical for-
mulations for direct evaluation of ground vibration which do not require prior field trials. Such formula-
tions need only a few basic rock mass, geologic, blast design parameters and explosive properties. The
present paper makes a comprehensive assessment of all such predictive models to signify the potentially
useful direction for future study. It also deals with the structural damage threshold limits established by
the Central Institute of Mining and Fuel Research (CIMFR).

1 INTRODUCTION 2 ROCK DAMAGE DUE TO BLASTING

One of the undesirable side-effects of rock blasting,
i.e. producing structural damage and annoyance
is due to ground vibration. It creates great socio-
economic problems for the mine management as
well as for the people residing in the vicinity of the
mine. Ever increasing usage of commercial explo-
sives in mining and quarrying industries, coupled
with the sprawl of urbanization and, in part, mans
increased sensitivity to environmental disturbances
have made blast impacts a big issue in recent years
with the stemming up of mining activities. Out of
all the blast impacts, ground vibration has become
the most predominant issue to the inhabitants liv-
ing in the mining areas.
Damage to surrounding buildings/structures
occurs when dynamic stress exceeds the building
materials strength. As a building is less rigid than
the solid rock mass, the damage to buildings may
occur even at a reasonably long distance from the
source of blasting. The frequency spectrum of
the propagating ground waves is important. If it
coincides with the natural frequency of a build-
ing, it is likely to produce resonance, which may
cause structural damage. Therefore, not only PPV
or kinetic energy but also the frequency distribu-
tion is equally important in controlled blasting.
To acquaint with the gravity of the problem and
its consequent remedial measures, a comprehen-
sive assessment is made in the present paper so
that the readers can choose a particular model of
significance to minimize the blast vibration related
problems.
In blasting, when an explosive is detonated, within
a few milliseconds it produces high temperature
and high pressure gas, and the explosive column
expands approximately 1000 times its volume
and generates huge amount of theoretical blast
pressure. Immediately around the blasthole, the
high detonation pressure generates a shock wave
into the rock mass. The pressure of this initial
shock wave is much more than the strength of the
rock and, as a result, a zone of 23 times the charge
diameter is crushed in compression (Persson et al.
1994). Beyond the crushed and fractured zones, the
intensity of the shock wave attenuates very rapidly.
Thus, in elastic or semi-elastic wave zones located
away from the source, the intensity drops signifi-
cantly and thus produces no permanent deforma-
tion. The remaining energy goes directly into the
surrounding rock as seismic waves (Singh & Pal
Roy 1993).
3 SAFE GROUND VIBRATION LIMITS
In two separate investigations by the Central Insti-
tute of Mining and Fuel Research (CIMFR),
Dhanbad during the periods of 19861990 and
20022006, seven sets of test structures were
constructed at different locations of operating
opencast mines to study and evaluate the effects
of blast vibrations on typical Indian structures
(Figs. 1 and 2). Out of these, five sets were con-
structed during 19861990 while other two sets

433

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 433 10/3/2012 8:38:42 PM


Figure 1. View of test structures constructed at
Kusmunda Opencast Project. (a) Double storey three-
room RCC structure. (b) Single storey two-room unit of
brick and mud structure with cement plaster. (c) Mud
structure with tiles on the roof.
were constructed during 20022006. The test
structures were constructed at West Mudidih Open-
cast Project and South Jharia Opencast Project of
Bharat Coking Coal Ltd., West Bokaro Colliery
of Tata Steel Ltd., Gopinathpur Opencast Project,
Badjna Opencast Project, Sonepur Bazari Opencast
Project of Eastern Coalfields Ltd. and Kusmunda
Opencast Project of South-Eastern Coalfields Ltd.
In both studies, a vast amount of data was collected
using a number of different microcomputer-based
seismographs and analyzed through compliance
software. Almost similar results were obtained in
both studies. A brief description of the major find-
ings is summarized separately.
434
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 434
Figure 2. View of test structures constructed at West
Bokaro Colliery (a, b) and Gopinathpur Opencast
Project (c). (a) Mud house was severally damaged while
the other two structures suffered less, except joint loosen-
ing (blasting was done at 13 m distance and maximum
PPV measured was 400 mm/s). (b) Prominent cracks were
observed at the joints of brick and concrete structures.
(c) Structures did not collapse even though blasting was
done at 3.8 m distance (PPV = 500 mm/s; Qmax = 21.0 kg).
The reason was the compactness of the structures (i.e.
smaller dimensions).
4 MAJOR FINDINGS
4.1 Period of study: 1986 to 1990
The investigations on test structures at five
locations revealed the following (CIMFR S&T
Project Report, 1991):
1. The magnitude of vibration on test structures
was 1.02.82 times greater than that on the
ground. Duration of structure vibration was
also 1.02.2 times longer than that of ground
vibration.
10/3/2012 8:38:42 PM
 2. Natural frequency of test structures varied from Table 1. DGMS prescribed permissible limit of ground
8 to 14 Hz. vibrations (in mm/s) (Technical Circular No. 07, 1997).
3. Within the range of natural frequency of the
structure, the amplitude of particle velocity on Dominant excitation
frequency
the structure amplified approximately 3.5 to
6 times than that on the ground. Type of structure <8 Hz 825 Hz >25 Hz
4. High frequency waves varied from 22 to 80 Hz
and low frequency waves ranged between 6 and (A) Buildings/structures not belonging to the owner
22 Hz. PPVs associated with low frequency Domestic houses/structures 5 10 15
waves were 1.09 to 3.39 times higher than those (Kuchcha, brick & cement)
for high frequency waves. Industrial buildings 10 20 25
5. The lowest level of ground vibration at which Objects of historical 2 5 10
new cracks developed in the brick structure at importance and
one site was 50 mm/s and the frequency was sensitive structures
more than 20 Hz. (B) Buildings/structures with limited span of life and
belonging to owner
6. At PPV of 85 mm/s and above, almost all existing
Domestic houses/structures 10 15 25
cracks were either extended and/or widened.
Industrial buildings 15 25 50
7. Window glass panes cracked at PPV of
86.6 mm/s.
8. Vibration levels around 100 mm/s and above
caused more and more cracks and falling of
loose mortar.

4.2 Period of study: 2002 to 2006

The investigations on test structures at two loca-
tions revealed the following (CIMFR S&T Project
Report, 2006):
1. No structure was found to collapse though
major damage occurred in their walls after
experiencing vibration more than 254 mm/s.
First cosmetic crack was observed at vibration
level of 51.6 mm/s with dominant frequency of
19.8 Hz.
2. The minor and major damages occurred
in (a) mud house at 55 and 95 mm/s vibra-
tion respectively, (b) brick-mud house at 85
and 106 mm/s vibration respectively and (c)
ground and first-floor of RCC structure at 111
and 125 mm/s vibration respectively (all values
are in average).
Figure 3. View of the effects of amplification of vibra-
3. The near-field monitoring (<150 m) recorded tion in a test structure confirming its linear relationship
higher frequencies (>30 Hz) whereas far-field with the height of the structure.
(>150 m) recorded lower frequencies (<15 Hz).
4. Amplification of vibration with respect to
height- (a) mud house: 1.85; (b) brick-mud
intensity of ground vibration while propagating
house: 2.69 and (c) ground-floor (3.01) and
through a structure is amplified in proportion to
first-floor of RCC structure (5.12).
the height of the structure (Fig. 3), due importance
Based on the study carried out by CIMFR and was given to the resonant frequency while framing
taking into account the output of other research- such threshold values.
ers in India, the Directorate General of Mines The damage levels of vibrations for buildings/
Safety (DGMS), India has stipulated the threshold structures differ from one country to another
values of vibrations at different frequency levels depending upon construction, type of structure
for the safety of residential as well as other struc- and state of repairing. As such, the threshold value
tures usually seen in the vicinity of mining areas of vibration for the safety of structures depends
of the country. These are given in Table 1. As on its type, potency and the degree of safety con-
the CIMFR studies firmly established that the sciousness prevailing in a country. Table 2 shows

435

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 435 10/3/2012 8:38:43 PM

 Table 2. Permissible blast-vibration limits stipulated by different countries (Pesch & Robertson 2007, Pal Roy 2005).

Vibration limits
Country (mm/s) Comments

British Standard BS 64722.1992 8.512.7 90 per cent confidence limitpermissible impulsive

vibration at residential property
Leicestershire County Council (UK) 6 95 per cent confidence levelpart of conditions
covering blasting within modern planning
permissions
Australian Standard Explosives Code 5 Common environmental limit (EPA)depends on
AS2187-1993 administering authority
Explosives Code 0.2 Historical buildings and monumentsdisplacement for
AS2187.2-2006 frequencies less than 15 Hz
19 Houses and low rise residential buildingsresultant
PPV for frequencies greater than 15 Hz
25 Commercial limit AS 2187.3
India (Directorate General of 5 Domestic houses/structuresfrequencies less than 8 Hz
Mines Safety)
German Standard DIN 4150 5 Domestic houses/structuresfrequencies less than 10 Hz
(GIS.1986) 515 Domestic houses/structuresfrequencies 20 to 40 Hz
1520 Domestic houses/structuresfrequencies 50 to 100 Hz
Hungarian Standard 5 Panel houses
Swiss Standard 812 Objects of historic interest or other sensitive structure
frequency bandwidth: 6090 Hz
Swedish Standard 25 Building structure
5 Sensitive exhibits
Human perception 0.151.5
Visible damage 50 Values in excess cause appreciable structural damage

the typical blasting limits regulated in different
countries in the world. It is, however, important to
note that the safe level of ground vibration neces-
sarily presumes a close inspection of the structure
involved, its age and type.
5 NATURAL FREQUENCY
OF STRUCTURES
There are two types of vibrations namely forced
and free vibrations. When a seismic pulse passes
through a structure, it transmits its energy to force
the structure to vibrate with the frequency of the
transient pulse. This is called forced vibration.
After cessation of this forced vibration, the struc-
ture vibrates with its own frequency called natu-
ral frequency of the structure. The R&D studies
conducted by CIMFR showed that the natural
frequencies of structures generally seen in the vicin-
ity of the mining areas can broadly be summarized
as below (Table 3).
6 COMMONLY USED PREDICTORS
Predictor equations are the means of theoreti-
cal analyses to explain the experimental data.
Table 3. Natural frequencies of a few test structures.
Type of structure Natural frequencies (Hz)
Single storey brick structure 1214
Double storey brick structure 810
Concrete structure 916
Predictor equations of different forms have been
established worldwide considering the facts of
geometrical spreading and inelastic attenuation
as the main cause of the decrease in amplitude
of ground vibration induced by blasting. Such
predictor equations mostly consider two site con-
stants namely decay factor K (influenced by the
rock properties and geological discontinuities) and
geometrical spreading factor B (influenced by the
blast design parameters including charge weight,
distance from the explosion source, charge diam-
eters, delay interval, burden, spacing, subdrilling,
stemming length etc.). Table 4 lists the frequently
used conventional PPV predictors as compiled by
Kamali & Ataei (2010).
To standardize the values of site constants for
various rock masses and assess the validity of a
particular empirical model, the blasting research
group of the CIMFR conducted investigations

436

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 436 10/3/2012 8:38:43 PM

 Table 4. Frequently used conventional PPV predictors (Kamali & Ataei 2010).

Predictor Year Equation Reference

( )
B
USBM 1959 V K D W Duvall & Petkof (1959)

( )
B
Langefors-Kihlstrom 1963 V D3/2
W /D Langefors &
Kihlstrom (1963)
General predictor 1964 V K D B
WA Davies et al. (1964)

( )
B
Ambraseys-Hendron 1968 V K D W Ambraseys &
Hendron (1968)
Ghosh-Daemen 1983 V K D ( W ) B
e D Ghosh & Daemen
(1983)

( )
1
CMRI (CIMFR) 1993 V n+K D W Pal Roy (1993)

V is the peak particle velocity in mm/s, D is the distance from the source of blasting, W is the maximum charge per
delay fired in the round and K, B, A, n and are site constants.

Table 5. Empirical equations for different types of rock mass (Pal Roy & Sinha, 2007).

Index of
Type of rock mass Form of equation determination

( )
1
Sandstone V 2 2605 197 444 D W 0.83

( )
1. 9802
0
Sandstone-alluvium V 1483 48 D W 0.94

( )
2.152
Basalt V 895 D W 0.93

( )
1
Dolomite V 21 118 339 377 D W 0.95

( )
1
Gneiss and schist 0.80
V 0 4650 84 372 D W
(lead-zinc ore)
3352 63 ( D W )
1.9548
Limestone V 0.90

574 188 ( D W )
1.5331
Granite V 0.84

266 523 ( D W )
1.4076
Coal V 0.80

117 00 ( D W )
1.05
Iron ore V 0.89

on different exposed rock masses, which included 8 ANALYTICAL PREDICTIVE MODELS

limestone, granite, iron ore, coal, dolomite, basalt,
sandstone, sandstone-alluvium and lead-zinc ore.
The values of site constants as obtained are given
in Table 5.
7 BAUER AND CALDER DAMAGE
CRITERIA
Bauer & Calder (1978) proposed the following gen-
eralized criteria, as given in Table 6, for damage
level of different degrees.
Going away from the conventional practices,
researchers like Jimeno et al. (1995), Dowding
(1985) and Berta (1985) proposed different analyti-
cal formulations for direct evaluation of ground
vibration which do not require prior field trials.
8.1 Modified predictive model of Jimeno
and Carcedo
The following modified Equation 1 can be used
for evaluation of critical vibration velocity for

437

FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 437 10/3/2012 8:38:43 PM

 Table 6. Damage level of sound rock mass based on
ground vibration (Bauer & Calder 1978).
Particle
velocity (mm/s) Predictable damages
<250 No danger in sound rock
250600 Possible sliding due to tensile breakage
6002500 Strong tensile and some radial cracking
>2500 Complete breakup of rock masses
rock mass damage based on the longitudinal wave
propagation velocity, density of the medium, rock
strength parameter and tensile strength of rock.
The equation is a modified version of the equation
described in Jimeno et al. (1995), which does not
suit to wide varieties of rock mass.
Vcrit = 104 RT /(r Vc) (1)
where, Vcrit = critical vibration (mm/s); RT =
tensile strength of rock (MPa); r = density of the
medium (g/cc); Vc = propagation velocity (m/s);
= Mohs scale of hardness; [ = 12 for very
soft: compressive strength (MPa): <10, 23 for
soft: compressive strength (MPa): 1030, 34.5 for
medium soft: compressive strength (MPa): 3060,
4.56 for medium hard: compressive strength
(MPa): 60120, 67 for hard: compressive strength
(MPa): 120200, +7 for very hard: compressive
strength (MPa): +200.
8.2 Dowdings conjecture
The following equation proposed by Dowding
(1985) expresses a relationship of peak values of
blast-generated velocities with the distance between
the blasting site and structure-
1 46 0 48 0 .48
30.5 W 2.4
V = 18.3 4.54 (2)
R
where, V is the particle velocity (mm/s); R is the
distance from blasting site to structure (m); W is
the maximum charge weight per delay (kg) and
is the specific gravity of rock. The above equation
verifies that the peak particle velocity decays at a
rate proportional to 1 / R1.46.
8.3 Bertas formulation
The blast vibration prediction model suggested
by G. Berta (1985) takes into account the seismic
energy transmitted to the rock by the explosive. It
can be used when no instrumentation and equip-
ment are available to carry out monitoring of
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 438
vibrations. The predicted vibration, V (mm/s) is
estimated by the following equation-
1000 W nt n1 n2 E r 106
V= (3)
R 5 k f log R Vp
W = maximum explosive weight per delay (kg)
R = distance from the explosion point (m)
nt = breaking factor: charges lay on the ground,
nt < 0.2; charges without a free face nt > 0.2
( )2
impedancefactor = 1
e
n1 (4)
( e )2
1
n2 coupling ffactor = (5)
1.72
D/ d
e
ze = impedance of explosive (kgm2s1)
= e (kg / m 3 ) VOD ( m / s)
z r = impedance of rock (kgm 2 s 1 )
= r (kg / m 3 ) VP ( m / s)
D = blasthole diameter (mm)
d = charge diameter (mm)
Er = energy per unit of mass (MJ/kg)
kf = characteristic ground constant (all type of
rocks- 0.01 to 0.11)
r = density of rock ( /m 3)
VP = P-wave velocity (m/s)
VP is estimated from the physico-mechanical
properties of the rock based on the following
equation:
E( )
Vp = (6)
( )( )
where, E = modulus of elasticity (Pa); = Pois-
sons ratio; and = rock density (kg/m3).
9 STRAIN INDUCED BY PPV
The importance of frequency of ground vibration
cannot be overestimated, as it is as critical as peak
particle velocity in determining the response of
above-ground structures. For below-ground struc-
tures, frequency, in combination with propagation
velocity controls response. In both cases, cracking
results from induced strains. Particle velocity is
employed as an index to measure strain level.
A number of researchers have tried to correlate
induced tensile stress developed by particle velocity
with the tensile strength of the rock mass (Persson
1996, Gordon & Gregg 1999, Richard & Moore
2002). Richards & Moore (2002) observed in a coal
mine that strain induced by blast vibrations lead-
ing to damage was about 10 percent of the tensile
438
10/3/2012 8:38:51 PM
 failure strain of the rock. They further reported
that this limit correlated well with the observations
of other researches made in coal mines. The strain
induced by the particle velocity can be calculated
by using Equation 7.
= V . 106 (7)
C 3040
where, = strain induced (s); V = particle velocity
(m/s); and C = sonic velocity (m/s).
When V = 200 mm/s i.e. 0.2 m/s (threshold parti-
cle velocity) and C = 1500 m/s, the value of induced
strain comes to 133 s.
The tensile failure strain can now be computed
by using the following Equation 8.
t ( t /E ) . 103 (8)
where, t = tensile failure strain (s); t = tensile
strength of the rock (MPa); and E = elastic modu-
lus (GPa).
On substituting the appropriate values for the
cavern rock mass-t = 6 MPa and E = 4.8 GPa,
the tensile failure strain is calculated to be 1250 s.
Hence, induced strain at the threshold level is
nearly 11 percent of the tensile failure strain. It is
in conformity with the outcome of the researches.
It can be summarized that near field vibration
monitoring in conjunction with physical observa-
tion of rock mass alteration at critical locations
leads to a safe threshold limit for those site condi-
tions. While rock mass damage criteria established
for other sites may be taken as a guideline, it needs
to be ascertained for the specific field condition.
When site-specific studies are not possible, the
threshold limit may be computed from the tensile
failure strain as described above.
10 GUIDELINES FOR STABILITY OF
UNDERGROUND COAL MINE
WORKINGS DUE TO OPENCAST
BLASTING (INDIAN CASE STUDIES)
The safety and stability of underground coal
mine openings, coal pillars, water dams, ventila-
tion and isolation stopping in close proximity to
operating opencast mines are often endangered
from blast-induced vibrations. The serious concern
is for the possible damage to the nearby under-
ground structures due to large surface blasts. Any
vibration-induced rockfall or minor cracks in iso-
lation stopping would be recognized as an unac-
ceptable hazard (Singh, 2003).
Peak particle velocity has so far been considered
as the best criterion for evaluating blast vibrations
439
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 439
Table 7. Threshold values of vibration (measured on
roof) for the safety of roof in the underground workings
for different RMR.
RMR of roof Threshold values of vibration in terms
rock of peak particle velocity (mm/s)
2030 50
5070
4050 70100
5060 100120
6080 120
Table 8. Threshold values of vibration (measured
on pillars) for the safety of roof in the underground
workings for different RMR.
RMR of roof Threshold values of vibration in terms
rock of peak particle velocity (mm/s)
2030 20
3040 2030
4050 3040
5060 4050
6080 50
in terms of its potential to cause damage. The junc-
tions of the underground mine workings are more
susceptible to produce cracking than the galleries
away from the junctions. The threshold values of
vibration at the junctions in terms of peak parti-
cle velocity are given in Table 7 for different RMR
(Rock Mass Rating) of roof rock for the safety
of underground coal mine workings. The limiting
values in the pillars are given in Table 8.
11 NIRM STUDIES
The National Institute of Rock Mechanics
(NIRM), India undertook one R&D project
(NIRM, 2005) to study the effects of repeated
blasting on the residential type of structures. In
that study, frequencies of ground vibration were
categorized into: (1) Low frequency (<20 Hz)
those within or below the natural frequencies of
residential type of structure, where amplification
factor is greater than 2.5; (2) Medium frequency
(2050 Hz): those above the natural frequencies,
where amplification factor varies from 1.0 to 2.5;
and (3) High frequency (>50 Hz): those much
higher than the natural frequencies, where ampli-
fication factor is less than 1.0.
After carrying out numerical analysis using
3 DEC software, NIRM (2005) studies indicated
that a trench between the blasting site and the
10/3/2012 8:38:54 PM
 monitoring location could substantially reduce
ground vibration. The loading was done along the
walls of the blastholes and the unbalanced forces
in each block exerted acceleration to the blocks
which caused the blocks to move and transmit
forces to adjacent blocks. The ratio of the trench
depth (T) to blasthole depth (H) was proved to be
a crucial factor for reduction of vibration. At T/H
ratio equal to 1.0, vibration was found to reduce
by 5560 percent. The results of the model stud-
ies were corroborated by field measurements. For
controlling ground vibration NIRM recommended
that the maximum charge per delay should be
reduced by-
Utilizing the maximum number of delays
Using in-hole decking with two or more delays
Reducing the blasthole diameter.
In extreme cases, where the vibration limits can-
not be adhered to, non-explosive method of exca-
vation may be considered.
12 CONCLUSIONS
Predictions through site-specific equations, devel-
oped on the basis of experimental data happen to
be the most popular approach in the mining field
and almost everywhere, are accepted for the deter-
mination of vibration level at any desired distance
and they are compared with the damage thresh-
old levels stipulated in the country. However, the
disadvantage is that it cannot be used in general
purpose. On the contrary, the analytical form of
equations proposed by Dowding, Berta and Jimeno
et al. in Equations 1, 2 & 3 respectively can be used
for general purposes if the parametric values are
given rightly. However, it is the general observation
of the author that the predictor equations are bet-
ter suited than the analytical form of equations in
solving a site-specific problem.
Extensive work on the subject by various
authors has confirmed that damage can occur
when the strain induced by blast vibrations is
about 10 percent of the tensile failure strain of
the rock. It has also been realized that near field
vibration monitoring in conjunction with physi-
cal observation of rock mass alteration at critical
locations leads to a safe threshold limit for those
site conditions.
REFERENCES
Ambraseys, N.R. and Hendron, A.J., 1968. Dynamic
behaviour of rock masses, In Rock Mechanics in Engi-
neering Practice (K.G. Stagg and O.C. Zienkwicz,
eds.), pp. 203207, John Wiley and Sons, London.
440
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 440
Bauer, A. and Calder, P., 1978. Open pit blast seminar,
Course Note, Queens University, Kingston, Ontario.
Berta, G., 1985. LExplosivo strumento Di Lavoro,
Italexplosive.
Blair, D.P., 1987. The measurement, modelling and con-
trol of ground vibrations due to blasting. Proc. 2nd
International Symposium on Rock Fragmentation by
Blasting, Keystone, Colorado, pp. 88101.
CIMFR (erstwhile CMRI) S&T Project Report, 1991.
Investigations into the influence of blasting pattern
and geotechnical properties of the surrounding rock
mass on the ground vibration, fragmentation, flyrock
etc., Funded by the Ministry of Mines, Government
of India (Period of study: April 1986December
1990), May, p. 88.
CIMFR S&T Project Report, 2006. Standardization of
blast vibration damage threshold for the safety of resi-
dential structures in mining areas, Funded by the Min-
istry of Coal, Government of India (Period of study:
September 2002August 2006), August, p. 128.
Davies, B., Farmer, I.W., and Attewell, P.B., 1964.
Ground vibrations from shallow sub-surface blasts. The
Engineer, London, pp. 5539.
DGMS (Tech) S&T Circular No. 7 of 1997, Damage to
the structures due to blast induced ground vibration
in the mining areas, Directorate General of Mines
Safety, Dhanbad, India, pp. 912.
Dowding, C.H., 1985. Blast vibration monitoring and con-
trol, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, p. 287.
Duvall, W.I. and Petkof, B., 1959. Spherical propagation
of explosion generated strain pulses in rock. USBM
Report of Investigation 5483, p. 21.
Ghosh, A. and Daemen, J.K., 1983. A simple new blast
vibration predictor. Proceedings of the 24th US sym-
posium on rock mechanics, College Station, Texas,
pp. 151161.
Jimeno, C.L., Jimeno, E.L. and Carcedo, F.J.A.,
1995. Drilling and Blasting of Rocks, A. Balkema,
Rotterdam, Netherlands, p. 391.
Kamali, M., and Ataie, M., 2010. Prediction of blast
induced ground vibrations in Karoun III power plant
and dam: a neural network, The Journal of the South-
ern African Institute, Vol. 110, August, pp. 481490.
Langefors, U. and Kihlstrom, B., 1963. The modern
technique of rock blasting, John Wiley and Sons Inc.,
New York, p. 405.
NIRM S&T Project Report, 2005. Role of blast design
parameters on ground vibration and correlation of vibra-
tion level to blasting damage to surface structures, Project
No. MT/134/02 (G.R. Adhikari et al.), September, 96 p.
Pal Roy, P., 1993. Putting ground vibration predictors into
practice. Colliery Guardian, vol. 241, pp. 637.
Pal Roy, P., 1998. Characteristics of ground vibrations
and structure response to surface and underground
blasting, Geotechnical and Geological Engineering,
Vol. 16, pp. 151166.
Pal Roy, Pijush and Sinha, Amalendu, 2008. Technical
Guidelines for Controlled Blasting (for Opencast and
Underground mines) CMRI Publication, p. 54 (Certi-
fied by DGMS).
Pal Roy, Pijush, 2005. Rock blasting effects and opera-
tions, Oxford and IBH Publishing Company Pvt. Ltd.,
New Delhi (also published by Taylor & Francis Group
plc., U.K.), p. 345.
10/3/2012 8:38:55 PM
 Pesch, R. and Robertson, A., 2007. Drilling and blast-
ing for underground space, Procs. EXPLO Conference
Wollongong, NSW, 34 September, pp. 189193.
Persson, P.A., 1996. The relationship between strain
energy, rock damage, fragmentation and throw in rock
blasting, Proc. of the FRAGBLAST-V (International
Conference on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting),
Montreal, Canada, pp. 113120.
Persson, PER-ANDERS, Holmberg, Roger and Lee,
Jaimin, 1994. Rock blasting and explosives engineer-
ing (Chapter-13, Ground vibrations), CRC Press, Inc.,
USA, p. 540.
Richards, A.B. and Moore, A.J., 2002. Ground vibration
and airblast, Indian ConferenceINDOROCK, New
Delhi, India.
441
FRAGBLA_Book_01.indb 441
Singh, B. and Pal Roy, P. etc, 1993. Blasting in ground
excavation and mines, A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam,
p. 177.
Singh, P.K., 2003. Blast vibration damage to underground
coal mines from adjacent open pit blasting, International
Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences,
Vol. 39, Pergamon Press, pp. 959973.
Siskind, D.E., Stagg, M.S., Kopp, J.W. and Dowding, C.H.,
1980. Structure Response Produced by Ground
Vibration from Surface Mine Blasting, U.S. Bureau of
Mines, RI 8507.
Siskind, DAVID, 2000. Vibrations from blasting, Inter-
national Society of Explosives Engineers (ISEE),
USA, p. 120.
10/3/2012 8:38:56 PM
This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Measurement and analysis of vibration interrelated collapse process

in directional blasting demolition of a high-rise frame-shear structure
building

X.Q. Xie, Y.S. Jia, C.W. Han, H.G. Wang & C.B. Liu
Wuhan Blasting Engineering Co., Ltd., Wuhan, China

ABSTRACT: A 10-story frame-shear structure building was demolished using directional blasting
method. The collapse process was recorded by a digital camera. The vibrations of blasting and collapse
were measured with a mini-plus scale of seismic intensity. Through analyzing the collapse process image
and vibration date, we can draw the conclusion that directional blast demolition of a high-rise building
may be divided into four periods, namely the formation of the blasting cut, the free-dropping of the struc-
ture, its impact on the ground, and the rotation-collapse. Usually the periods of free-dropping and impact
were combined, to break up and disassemble the blasting building fully. The peak value of touchdown
vibration was intimately interrelated with collapse process. For a concrete measuring point, the maximal
value may appear when the middle or front row pillars impact the ground, and not always at the time of
rotation-collapse.

1 PROJECT OVERVIEW

The Wuhan Overseas Tourism building is located

between Yanhe Avenue and Huangpi Street. There
was a 52 meter stretch available in the northward
direction for a collapse. 31 meters to the east was a
new public building whose wall was a glass curtain.
27 meters westward there was a two-storey garage.
15 meters away in southward direction there were
community residences, constructed from which
were brick and concrete or brick and wood. Thus,
it was necessary to carefully control the influence
of collapse vibration. The explosion district and
the locations of measuring points are shown in
Figure 1.
The main part of the building was 10 storeys,
a 43 meters high frame-shear structure. The
13-level elevator shaft and interior stairway were
49.54 meters high. The 1st storey was 28.4 meters
long from east to west, and 14 meters from north
Figure 1. Surroundings of building and the location of
to south. The upper storey had a veranda at the measuring points.
east side. The outside stairway to the west was
32.6 meters long. There was also a veranda with
a 3 meter suspension in the north side. The gross Table 1. The distance between the building and the
area of the building was about 5000 m2. There measure points (unit: m).
were 3 rows of pillars from the north to south, and
9 from east to west. The A and B axis pillars had The nearest The distance The distance
dimensions 400 mm 800 mm for the 1st and 2nd Measure distance to to the center to the center
storeys, and 400 mm 600 mm for the upper lev- points the building of building of collapse
els. The same was the case of the C axis pillars. 1# 30.0 45.0 51.0
The girder had dimensions 300 mm 600 mm. 2# 32.5 39.5 65.0
Between axes and the elevator shaft, the

443

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 443 10/3/2012 8:42:02 PM


Figure 2. Schematic diagram of overall scheme.
frame-shear wall had a thickness of 20 cm. There
were stairways both inside and outside, and two
elevator shafts. The 12 cm thick floor was a rein-
forced concrete structure. Details of these struc-
tures and their respective quantities are illustrated
in Figure 2.
2 BLASTING SCHEME
A northward directional blasting demolition
scheme was used.
The A axis pillars were demolished at 4-storeys,
while the B axis pillars were demolished at
2-storeys. The bottom of the C axis pillars were
demolished by loose blasting. The blasting scheme
is shown in Figure 2.
3 VIBRATION TEST
3.1 Instrument characteristics
The Canadian designed mini-plus scale of seismic
intensity was used in this project. The test system
of this instrument can set the test parameters flex-
ibly. It also has a strong anti-interference ability,
and demonstrates high reliability and intelligence.
These characteristics made the result a dynamic
measure, with wide amplitude and frequency and
high range to fulfil the demand. The minimum
scale it can measure is 0.013 cm/s, and the mini-
mum vibration value that humans can perceive is
about 0.070.09 cm/s.
3.2 Arrangement of measuring points
To the south of the Wuhan Overseas Tourism
building there were old residential buildings, neces-
sitating the strict control of vibrations. Thus, one
444
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 444
measuring point was set in this area. In addition,
another measuring point was set on the east, near
the new public building. Each point measured the
vibration value of three directions. The 1st and 2nd
testing points were 32.5 m and 30 m away from the
building edge, respectively. The specific arrange-
ment of measuring points is given in Figure 2.
3.3 Test results
The monitoring vibration values are showed in
Table 2. And the time domain waveforms of the
blasting demolition recorded at points 1 and 2 are
shown in Figures 3 and 4.
3.4 Analysis of the test results
There was a brief interval between the blasting
vibration and the touchdown vibration of the rear
row pillar. Dense waves were formed because of
the collapse of the building structure during the
blasting. The touchdown of the structure pro-
duced vibrations constantly during the collapse of
the middle row and front pillars, while the vibra-
tion peak appeared at the touchdown of the mid-
dle row or front row column. The collapse speed of
the building reduced sharply after the front pillar
collapsed to the ground, and the rotation-collapse
speed increased. Finally, the 4 layers above col-
lapsed to the ground. The waves of blasting vibra-
tion and touchdown vibration can be divided into
3 stages: blasting vibration and the touchdown
vibration of rear pillars (01 s), the touchdown
vibration of the middle row and front column
(14 s), the touchdown vibration of the rotation-
collapse (47 s).
The distance between point 2 and the impact
locations near the columns was further than that
between the point 2 and the impact locations of
rotation-collapse. Thus, in 14 s, the peak caused
by the touchdown of the middle and front pil-
lar was bigger than that caused by the rotation-
collapse touchdown. The distance between point
4 and every impact location had little difference.
Therefore, the peak caused by the touchdown of
rotation-collapse was larger than that caused by
the touchdown of the pillar.
4 THE VIDEO OF THE PROCESS
OF BLASTING
In the analysis of the video recording of the blast-
ing, during 01 s, the blasting cut had been formed,
and building began to fall slightly forward, at about
5. From 12 s, the building collapsed quickly, with
the rear and middle row pillars destroyed under the
action of gravity. The forward angle increased to
10/3/2012 8:42:03 PM
 Table 2. The vibration values during the process of blasting.

Horizontal Horizontal
radial Vertical tangential

D* V** F*** V F V F
The number and position of monitoring points (m) (cm/s) (Hz) (cm/s) (Hz) (cm/s) (Hz)

1# North of Minquan Blast 32.5 0.85 5.25 0.37 3.00 0.33 2.75
road vibration
Impact 32.5 0.15 3.75 0.24 2.88 0.32 2.25
vibration
2# West of Changhang Blast 31 0.31 2.50 0.99 2.75 0.66 3.00
edifice vibration
Impact 31 0.50 2.50 0.75 2.69 0.43 2.19
vibration

*D: Distance; **F: Frequency; ***V: Velocity.

5 s rose to 80. Between 67 s, the building had col-

lapsed, and at 8 s, the collapse was all over with a
dust mass flight.

5 THE PROCESS OF COLLAPSE

AND VIBRATION ANALYSIS

According to the blasting scheme, digital video, and

Figure 3. Wave-shape of vibration velocity at point 1#.
Figure 4. Wave-shape of vibration velocity at point 2#.
about 2030 at 2 s. At 3 s, when the front pil-
lar collapsed to the ground, the front pillar was
destroyed under the action of gravity. Its drop
speed reduced but the forward speed increased. At
4 s, the inclination increased to about 45, and at
vibration test data, the analytical work was focused
on the stress of the collapse process. As discussed
below, the process of collapse can be divided into
4 periods (Cui et al 2007, Cui et al 2006, Tang et al
2004, Liu et al 2007, Zheng et al 2008).
5.1 The first period-blasting cut forming periods
Blasting cut forming phase: Because of structural
characteristics, the initiation order and initiating
delay, and the stress, were different. In addition,
during the formation of the blasting cut, there
was some localized damage to the structure. The
difference of the destruction location and time
also affected the stress modes and the process and
effects of collapse.
For example, in the blast engineering, each row
of pillars bore a vertical load before the blasting.
Between 00.46 s, row A of pillars were blasted,
while pillars in rows B and C row were not. The
structure between A and B was an overhang. The
cantilever was 8 m long, overhanging the balcony
convert 1 m. The support location between rows
B and C was 7 m wide. The loading mode of the
pillars in rows B and C were different. Row B pil-
lars bore pressure load and row C pillars bore pull
load, to balance the bending caused by gravity.
At this time, the structure between B and A did
not produce shear failure, but strain may have
appeared. In 0.460.66 s, row B columns were
blasted, and row C columns were not. Large bend-

445

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 445 10/3/2012 8:42:04 PM

 ing moments had formed, and the loading mode
of row C pillars had changed to from pull to pres-
sure load. Row C pillars could not bear such large
moment between rows C and A row, and crush
forces caused the pillars to rotate and collapse, (at
this time, the collapse speed was faster than the
rotation speed). At 0.66 s, when 2 blasting holes of
the row C pillars were blasted, the support location
was much smaller, so the crush and collapse speed
were increased.
In this period, the dangers of vibration were
caused mainly by blasting. Row A pillars were
blasted at 0 s (15.2 kg), row B pillars were blasted
at 0.46 s (12.4 kg), and row C pillars were blasted
at 0.66 s (1.2 kg). There were explosive packages
above the 2nd floor, but they had little influence
on vibration. Thus, the blasting vibration can be
calculated according to the charge in the first floor,
as given below:
V = K(Q1/3/R) (1)
where Q = largest charge amount per delay
interval, in kgs; R = distance between the protected
target and the blasting location, in m; V = particle
vibration velocity, in cm/s; and K, are the factors
related to the nature of the district that the seismic
wave has passed through, and the distance.
After the damping ditch was excavated, the old
residential buildings south of the building as the
protection object, choose K = 32.1, = 1.54.
Q1 = 15.2 kg, R1 = 46.5 m, V1 = 0.35 cm/s,
Q2 = 12.4 kg, R2 = 35 m, V2 = 0.49 cm/s.
It is clear that at time 0.5 s, the blasting vibra-
tion peak was larger in the middle row of pillars.
5.2 The second periodfree falling period
At 0.66 s, the blasting cut was formed. Row C pil-
lars and the building structure connected to the
row C pillars collapsed because of the large bend-
ing moment and pressure. The upper structure
began to collapse, gained speed, and then entered
free fall. The length of the free falling period was
dependent on the height of the blasting cut. In this
project, the standoff of row B on the second floor
was 1.8 m high, the drop height was 5.8 m. Accord-
ing to h = (1/2)gt2, the time of collapse of 12
layers was t1 = 1.1 s. At 0.66 s, row C pillars were
destroyed by blasting. Row C pillars produced the
first touchdown vibration within a very short time,
about 1 s. The formula for calculating collapse
vibration is below (Pang et al 1985, Zhou 2009):
V = kt [(mgh/)1/3/r] (2) of gravity of the building had offset the A axis, the
where, V = surface ground vibration value caused
by the collapse, in cm/s; m = mass of collapse
446
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 446
structural of the element, in tons; g = acceleration
due to gravity, in m/s2; h = height of the center
of the constructional element, in m; = strength
failure of ground medium, Mpa, (usually taken
as 10 Mpa); R = distance between the measuring
point and the center of the ground that the build-
ing impacted, in m; and kt, are the damping
parameters, kt = 3.37 = 1.66.
The first time, when the back row column
collapsed to the ground, m = 4500t, h = 0.5 m,
r = 15 m, v = 2.65 cm/s.
5.3 The third periodGround impact period
The ground impact period started from when the
roof and beams of the 2nd layer collapsed to the
ground. The ground had strong support action
to the upper structure. Support position was in
the B axis. At this time, the upper structure had
developed a forward angle, but usually not more
than 20. Because of the new strong point, the col-
lapse speed of the building decreased dramatically,
and the topple speed increased. When the beam
and the roof of the B axis in the 2nd layer impacted
the ground, the collapse speed rose to 8 m/s, which
destroyed the concrete structure. Thus, the struc-
ture of the BC axis was fragmented. During this,
the structure continued to fall forward. The sec-
ond touchdown vibration appeared at about 2 s
(1.1 s + 0.66 s = 1.76 s).
For the 2nd round, when the middle platoon
column impacted the ground, back platoon col-
umn had already done so, M = 2300 t, H = 6 m,
R = 22 m, V = 3.83 cm/s.
Similarly, row B pillars of 23 layers broke when
impacting the ground. The structure of the 4 layers
was destroyed when they were blasted. When pil-
lars of row A impacted the ground, the drop height
was 12 m. According to h = (1/2)gt2, collapsing
time of the 4 floors was t = 1.56 s. The collapse
speed of building decreased dramatically because
the delaying effect of the 13 layers of back and
middle row pillars and other structures that piled
in the process of collapse. The time elapsed for
the was about 3 s. When the front platoon column
collapsed to the ground, the middle platoon col-
umn had already do so, and M = 1800t, H = 16 m,
R = 29 m, V = 3.63 cm/s.
5.4 The fourth stagerotation-collapse period
After row A collapsed to the ground, the building
had a rotation speed as well. The aspect ratio of
the building was large, close to 3, and the center
structure rotated and fell. When the center of grav-
ity of the building impacted the ground, the fourth
touchdown vibration appeared, at about 6 s.
10/3/2012 8:42:04 PM
 In the 4th round, when rotating and impact-
ing the ground, M = 4000t, H = 14 m, R = 43 m,
V = 2.73 cm/s.
Statement of calculation: The height of the
blasting cut was 4 layers. After the blasting of pil-
lars, the weight of the 4 layers did not influence
touchdown vibration, though it did have a cush-
ioning effect. The weight of the 5 layers above was
about 4000 tons. When row A pillars broke after
impacting the ground, the drop height was nearly
16 m. The building turned on the row A pillars,
and the distance of collapse of the 10 layer main
structure was 43 16 = 27 m. The distance of col-
lapsed stair way was 49 16 = 33 m. The drop
height of the 5 layers was about 14 m, and the
distance from the row A pillars to the center that
impacted the ground was about 14 m.
In consideration of the residential buildings to
the south, the estimated value of the four touch-
down vibration was more than the permissible value.
Thus, measures were required to reduce the vibration
influence on those buildings. From these results we
can conclude that the vibration peak of row B pillars
was also greater than that of the rotation-collapse.
The collapse distance of the building was about
30 m. Slag walls of height 3.2 m and width 2 m
Figure 5. The process of collapse.
447
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 447
were 13 m from the collapsed building. One layer
of cotton quilts and two layers of sandbags were
laid on the slag wall. From the 4 m point south
of the building an absorption ditch of dimensions
2.5 m 1.5 m wide, was dug. Through these meas-
ures, vibration can be reduced by 6070%, mean-
ing that the vibration experienced at the residential
buildings can be reduced to about 1.15 cm/s.
The whole process is shown in following
Figure 5.
6 EXPERIENCE
For a high-rise, frame-shear building, the blasting
engineer will usually choose the simple method of
implementing a single directional cut at the root to
demolish it, if the collapse range is sufficient. But
the collapse process is not always easy, and often
requires consideration many complex problems.
The rigidity of the frame-shear structure is larger
than the frame structure, However, the extent of the
effects this might produces is not easily predicted,
and there is no certain conclusion on the collapse
range, the disassembling conditions, and ground
impact vibration when frame-shear buildings are
demolished. Only by a qualitative approach can we
think that frame-shear structure buildings demoli-
tion have a larger collapse range and poorer disas-
sembling conditions than frame structures. But we
cannot be certain, and further investigation and
discussion are required. The problem of ground
impact vibration is much more complex. Because
of the same geological conditions, we should not
only observe the position of the protected objects,
but also pay attention to the impulse of building-
ground impact.
Directional blasting, which uses a single direc-
tional cut at the root, can be understood as an
ordinary, triangular cut. The process may not be
performed on high-rise chimneys in reinforced
concrete by directional blasting. The triangular
cut in frame-shear structure buildings must be saw
toothed, and the process of impacting the ground
is from back to front. There is a little time for the
back platoon to remain after the formation of the
blasting cut, so the upper structure can get an ini-
tial velocity of rotation. Because the back platoon
breaks off, the process is accompanied by drop-
ping or rapid inclination of the upper structure.
This speed is due to the velocities of both drop-
ping and rotating. The velocity of dropping is far
greater than rotating, so the ground is impacted
several times. Take a 3 platoon column or frame-
shear wall building as an example. 3 storeys have
been blasted, the 1st storey for all platoons, the
2nd for the two front platoons, the 3rd for only the
front platoon. The ground is impacted at least four
10/3/2012 8:42:05 PM
 times, At least four times, by the back platoon, the
middle platoon, the front platoon and the bro-
ken twirl. When the back platoon collapses to the
ground, the force of the shear cut between the back
and middle platoons is the largest, and the build-
ing may be demolished by it. At the same time, the
velocity of the falling middle platoon can achieve
8 to 10 m/s or more, so a 3-storey structure must
be disassembled. If we increase the 1st platoon to
4 storeys, it will be disassembled as well.
REFERENCES
Cui, Xiao-rong, Zheng, Bing-xu & Wei, Xiao-lin. 2007.
Close-Range Photogrammetry Analysis Of Building-
Collapse. Engineering Blasting. 13(3):813.
Cui, Xiao-rong, Shen, Zhao-wu & Zhou Ting-qing. 2006.
Blasting Collapse Analysis Of Shear-Wall Structures.
Engineering Blasting. 12(2):5255.
448
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 448
Liu, Piao, Zhang, Ke-yu & Wang, Xing-yan. 2007. Appli-
cationOf Wavelet Transform In Vibration Analysis
On Blasting Demolition Of A High Chimney. Blast-
ing. 24(3):101103.
Pang, Wei-tai, Yang, Ren-guang & Zhou, Jia-han. 1985.
The Criterion Problems of The Collapse In Control-
led Blasting Demolition of Buildings. In Feng Shu-
Yu(ed.), The Corpus of Rock Blasting (the second
album): 147161. Beijing, China Metallurgy Industry
Press.
Tang, Yong, Xia, Wei-guo & Ouyang, Chun. 2004.
Measurement And Analysis Of Vibration In Blasting
Demolition Of A Highrise Building. Engineering
Blasting. 10(1):1921.
Zheng, Shui-ming, Yao, Yun-sheng & Zeng, Xin-chuan.
2008. Vibration-Isolating Effect Of Vibration-Isolating
Slot In Project Site. Blasting. 25(3):103106.
Zhou, Jia-han, 2009. Discussion On Calculation Formula
Of Collapsing Vibration Velocity Caused By Blasting
Demolition. Engineering Blasting. 15(1):14,40.
10/3/2012 8:42:05 PM
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Study of blasting vibration effects based on energy input

Chi En-an
Guizhou Xinlian Blast Engineering Limited Corp, Guiyang, China
School of Mining, Guizhou University, Guiyang, China

Zhao Ming-sheng
Guizhou Xinlian Blast Engineering Limited Corp, Guiyang, China

He Tie-zhu & Wang Dan-dan

School of Mining, Guizhou University, Guiyang, China

ABSTRACT: Damage from blasting vibrations can be related to structural response as well as to the
maximum amplitude, frequency and duration of vibrations. It is shown that the response spectra alone
cannot explain the degree of damage. In view of the limitation of the response spectrum theory, a mechan-
ical model of SDOF system is built, and from the viewpoint of energy response theory, a conception of
input energy of blasting seismic waves is proposed. The results show that, input energy can reflect the
collective effects of blasting vibration characteristics and structural parameters, especially the cumulative
effect of vibration damage due to blasting seismic waves; so the input energy is more comprehensive than
the response spectrum theory. The study provides a theoretical basis for anti-seismic and shock absorption
from the viewpoint of energy.

Keywords: blasting vibration, response spectrum, duration, input energy

The structural damage due to blasting vibration 1 EFFECT OF THE THREE FACTORS
is a combined effect of blasting vibration char- OF BLASTING VIBRATION
acteristics and structural dynamic response. The ON RESPONSE SPECTRUM
response spectrum is like a bridge, with the help
of which blasting vibration characteristics can 1.1 The response spectrum theory
be related to the structural dynamic response to
Response spectrum theory is a form of structural
vibration. Much research has been done on this
dynamic analysis based on response of viscous
subject (Fischer, 1987; Alwis et al, 1984; Modares
damping SDOF system under seismic wave load.
and Vennezia, 2000; Manu, 1986). However, there
The response cure of the spectrum shows the rela-
is a limitation that the response spectrum cant
tionship between the maximum seismic response
comprehensively reflect the influence of the three
and the structural natural period. Detailed deri-
factors, i.e. the maximum amplitude, frequency
vations in the literature can be found elsewhere
and duration of blasting vibration. In contrast, in
(Rong and Shua, 2008; Ding et al, 1997), and these
seismic engineering research the energy response
are omitted in this paper.
spectrum is considered to have a better perform-
ance in the reflection of effects of ground motion
intensity, spectrum characteristics and duration
1.2 Numerical calculation of response spectrum
of strong ground motion on structural damage
(Teng et al, 2009). Therefore, we first analyze the The response spectrum is calculated with the exact
influence of the three factors of blasting vibration algorithm from literature (Zheng et al, 2004). In
on the response spectrum. Then we introduce the this algorithm, the values between consecutive
mechanistic model of SDOF system to study anti- points of the recorded acceleration data of ground
seismic and shock absorption from viewpoint of motion are expressed with the piecewise linear
energy. interpolation, and then the expression of ground

449

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 449 10/3/2012 8:42:05 PM

 motion is obtained. All results are obtained with
the exact analytical methods, so that no round-
ing errors and truncation errors will be produced.
Because of the high precision due to no numerical
errors, this exact algorithm can be precise as other
methods with less operation.
1.3 Effect of the three factors of blasting
vibration on response spectrum
In order to analyze the influence of the three factors
of blasting vibration on response spectrum, firstly,
t selected seismic waves of measured data were cal-
culated as in literature (Xiao et al, 2003) and fil-
tered to remove noise. The resulting time-history
curves of acceleration are shown in Figure 1.
In order to analyze the effect of blasting vibra-
tion duration on response spectrum, the influence
of peak vibration velocity and frequency must be
excluded. Therefore, the acceleration signal (a)
in Figure 1 was adjusted to twice the duration
of the original signals and kept the same peak
Figure 1. Acceleration time-history curves.
450
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 450
acceleration and frequency as the original signals.
The structural damping ratio was assumed to be
= 0.05. The velocity response spectrum and the
standard velocity response spectrum (see Figs. 1
and 2) were obtained with the exact algorithm.
Figures 2 and 3 show that the velocity response
spectrum and the standard velocity response spec-
trum of two acceleration signals with different
durations are virtually the same, which indicates
that response spectrum can't reflect the effect of
blasting vibration duration.
Since the duration of blasting seismic wave cant
be reflected by response spectrum, the influence of
frequency must be excluded to analyze the peak
vibration velocitys impact on response spectrum.
Peak value of the acceleration signal (a) in Figure 1
was manually adjusted to 0.2 m/s2, 0.5 m/s2 and
0.8 m/s2 in turn. Then the velocity response spec-
tra and the standard velocity response spectra
were obtained by calculation with the exact algo-
rithm. The velocity response spectra are shown in
Figure 4, the standard velocity response spectra
10/3/2012 8:42:05 PM

Figure 2. Velocity response spectrum of different
durations.
Figure 3. Standard velocity response spectrum of dif-
ferent durations.
Figure 4. Velocity response spectra of different peak
accelerations.
which are the same as those in Figure 3 are skipped
here. Figures 3 and 4 show that, the peak vibra-
tion velocity has no effect on the standard response
spectrum, the velocity response spectrum increases
with increasing peak vibration acceleration with the
same multiples. Therefore, it can be considered that
451
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 451
the higher the peak vibration velocity, the stronger
the dynamic response of the structural system.
Since the duration of blasting seismic wave
has no effect on response spectrum, in order to
analyze the influence of vibration frequency on
response spectrum, the effect of peak accelera-
tion must be excluded. Therefore, we normalized
the peak values of the 3 acceleration signals in
Figure 1, and obtained the response spectra with
the exact algorithm. Because of the correspond-
ence between peak velocity and peak acceleration,
under condition of the same peak acceleration, the
velocity response spectrum is just a multiple of
standard velocity response spectrum with the same
frequency. As a result, only acceleration response
spectra are selected to explain the problem,
which are presented in Figure 5. Figure 5 shows
that under condition of the same peak accelera-
tion, peak value of response spectra and the cor-
responding structural natural vibration period
increase with decreasing frequency. Simpler fre-
quency domain information will result in simpler
corresponding velocity response spectrum. More
complex frequency domain information will result
in more oscillations in the corresponding response
spectrum.
The foregoing analysis shows that:
1. The blasting vibration velocity response spec-
trum and the standard response spectrum have
the same form. The standard response spectrum
is related to the frequency of input acceleration
signals and the selective amplification of that
frequency due to structures, but has no core-
lation with the input peak acceleration. As a
combined effect of structure, frequency and
peak velocity of blasting seismic waves, velocity
response spectrum is not only related to the peak
acceleration but can also reflect the structural
amplification on input acceleration signals.
Figure 5. Velocity response spectra of the same peak
accelerations.
10/3/2012 8:42:06 PM
 2. Under condition of the same frequency compo- which is the sum of hysteretic energy EH and
nent, peak value of velocity response spectrum elastic strain energy EE, EH = 0 for elastic system;
t
increases with peak velocity. Under condition of EI = U (t ) U
 (t )dt is the total input energy of the
g
the same peak velocity, peak value of response 0
system.
spectrum and corresponding natural vibra-
tion period of structure increases as frequency
decreases. The more complex a frequency 2.2 Solution of the energy response spectrum
domain information is, the more oscillations in The acceleration signals obtained from the
a response spectrum and a higher probability of measured blasting vibration data by differential
structural selective amplification there will be, calculation are discrete data, with which the
which is bad for structural safety. specific formula cant be got; therefore the energy
3. The blasting vibration response spectrum can spectrum is calculated by step-by-step integration.
be associated with structural dynamic response The researches of literatures [1012] show that the
with amplitude-frequency characteristics of Newmark- is unconditionally stable when is 1/4,
blasting vibration, but cant reflect the dam- the incremental equation of which is:
age due to blasting vibration duration which
is related to the structural nonlinear cumula-  + 1  1  1  1 
U
U U n + 4 0 1 U t
4 n
Un U
tive damage. For that reason, the application g
t 2 2 n
U =
of response spectrum in blasting seismic wave 1 1
0 + 0 +
2

analysis is limited. t

2

2 STUDY OF ENERGY RESPONSE
SPECTRUM OF ELASTIC SDOF SYSTEM
UNDER THE EFFECT OF BLASTING
VIBRATIONS
2.1 The conception of energy response spectrum
The effect of blasting seismic wave on structure is
a process of input, conversion, storage and dissi-
pation of energy. The relative energy equation of
SDOF system is
 (t ) + 2U
U  (t ) + 2 U (t ) = U
 (t ) (1)
g
In above equation, U  (t ), U
 (t ), U(t ) are accel-
eration, velocity and displacement respectively;
= c/2m is system damping ratio and be assumed
as constant, c of which is damping coefficient; is
natural frequency of system, 0 1 2, 0 of Figure 6 shows that:
which is the natural frequency of system without
damping, 0 = k m . When the structure is an
elastic system, k(t) is just a function of time and
also a constant. g(t) is acceleration of ground
motion, i.e. the input acceleration time-history
curve of blasting vibration.
Both sides of equation (1) multiply the differen-
tial dU(t), and the particles in the time range (0,t)
are integrated relatively to displacement, then the
relative structural energy response is obtained:
EK + ED + EH EE = EI (2)
t Therefore, the acceleration time-history curves
In above equation, E K = U  (t )U
 (t )dt is the
t
kinetic energy of the system; 0 E D = 0 2( U  (t ))2 dt
is the t damping energy of the system;
2 
EH EE = p U (t )dt is the deformation energy,
0
(3)
 = 1 U 1  1 
U Un 1 U n t (4)
2t 2 4
 = 1 1  1 
U U
U Un Un (5)
t 2
t 2
2.3 Effect of blasting vibration characteristics
on the input energy spectrum
In order to analyze the effect of blasting peak
vibration velocity, the effect of frequency spec-
trum, duration, and structural parameters shall
be excluded. Therefore, the acceleration signal (a)
in Figure 1 is selected, the peak acceleration of
which is adjusted to 0.2 m/s2, 0.5 m/s2 and 0.8 m/s2
respectively. The structural damping ratio is = 0.5.
The input energy spectra of different peak accel-
erations are obtained by calculation (see Fig. 6).
1. The peak value of blasting vibration accelera-
tion time-history curve has no effect on the form
of input energy spectrum.
2. The peak value of input energy spectrum
increases with the increasing peak acceleration,
the increment of which is as many as squared
times of the increasing peak acceleration.
In order to analyze the effect of frequency
of blasting seismic wave on input energy spec-
trum, the effect of peak velocity, duration
and structural parameters must be excluded.
in Figure 1 are adjusted, and be intercepted
the parts all of which including the dominant
frequency have a time range for 0.5 s and be
adjusted their peak value to 1 m/s2. The structural

452

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 452 10/3/2012 8:42:07 PM

 damping ratio is = 0.5. The input energy spec-
tra of acceleration time-history curves of differ-
ent frequencies are obtained by calculation (see
Fig. 7). Figure 7 shows that the dominant fre-
quency has quite an effect on the input energy
spectrum, the major effects are:
1. The higher the dominant frequency, the shorter
the natural period of the corresponding struc-
ture of the input energy spectrum.
2. The lower the dominant frequency of blasting
vibration, the higher the peak value of corre-
sponding input energy spectrum.
3. The frequency component of blasting seismic
wave with frequency 47.5 Hz is complex, as
some frequencies are close to the dominant fre-
quency and thus result in oscillations in input
energy spectrum. Therefore, it can be consid-
ered that the frequency spectrum is important
in factors affecting the form of input energy
spectrum; Dominant frequency and spectrum
characteristics have quite an effect on the peak
of input energy spectrum and the structural
natural period corresponding to that peak.
Figure 6. Effect of acceleration on the input energy
spectra.
Figure 7. Effect of frequency on input energy spectra.
453
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 453
2000 original
twice
1800
triple
1600
1400
1200
E(J)
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
t(s)
Figure 8. Effect of duration on input energy spectra.
In order to analyze the effect of blasting vibra-
tion duration on input energy spectrum, the effect of
peak, spectral characteristics and structural param-
eters must be excluded. Therefore, the acceleration
curve (a) in Figure 1 is selected, and be adjusted
to twice and triple multiple signals with the same
method, all peak accelerations of which are adjusted
to 1 m/s2. The structural damping ratio is = 0.5.
The input energy spectra of acceleration time-
history curves of different durations are obtained by
calculation (see Fig. 8). Figure 8 shows that:
1. The duration of blasting vibration almost has no
effect on the form of input energy spectrum.
2. The value of input energy spectrum increases
with the increasing duration of blasting
vibration. As a result, it can be considered
that the three factors of blasting vibration
can be reflected comprehensively by the input
energy spectrum of blasting vibration, of which
especially the ability of reflecting the effect of
the important factor vibration duration can
effectively overcome the defects and limitations
of the response spectrum theory in research of
blasting seismic effects.
3 EFFECT OF STRUCTURAL
PARAMETERS ON INPUT ENERGY
SPECTRUM
3.1 Effect of damping ratio on input
energy spectrum
In order to analyze the effect of damping ratio of
input energy spectrum, the blasting vibration char-
acteristics must be excluded. Therefore, the accelera-
tion signal (a) in Figure 1 is selected, peak acceleration
of which is adjusted to 1 m/s2. The structural damp-
ing ratios are 0.02 s 0.05 s and 0.08 s respectively.
The input energy spectra of different damping ratios
10/3/2012 8:42:12 PM
 under blasting seismic waves are obtained by calcu-
lation (see Fig. 9). Figure 9 shows that:
1. Although the peak value of input energy spec-
trum decreases as the structural damping ratio
increases, the spectrum values out of the peak
region of input energy spectrum curves increase
as the damping ratio increases.
2. Although the input energy spectrum becomes
smoother as the damping ratio increases, the
forms of the input energy spectra are almost
unchanged.
3.2 Effect of structural natural period on input
energy spectrum
In order to analyze the effect of structural natural
period on input energy, the blasting vibration
characteristics and the structural damping ratio
must be excluded. Therefore, the acceleration
signal (a) in Figure 1 is selected, peak acceleration
of which is adjusted to 1 m/s2, and the structural
Figure 9. Effect of damping ratio on input energy
spectra.
Figure 10. Effect of natural period on input energy.
454
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 454
damping ratio is = 0.5, the natural periods are
0.04 s, 0.08 s and 0.15 s respectively. The input
energy time history curves of blasting seismic
waves with different natural periods are obtained
by program calculation (see Fig. 10).
Figure 10, in which the frequency of the selected
blasting seismic waves is 12.5 Hz, and the corre-
sponding predominant period is 0.08 s, shows that:
1. The input energy time-history curves of blast-
ing seismic waves with different natural periods
are different.
2. The closer the characteristic period and natural
period of blasting seismic wave, the higher the
input energy value. Therefore, from the view-
point of input energy, this phenomenon is a fur-
ther proof that structural resonance will occur
when the natural period of structure and the
predominant period of blasting seismic wave are
close. That is really harmful to structure safety.
4 CONCLUSIONS
1. Using measured data of blasting seismic waves,
a spectrum analysis of blasting seismic waves
under the condition of different peak velocities,
frequency and duration have been made with
artificial adjustment, which demonstrates that
the response spectrum can reflect the effects
of peak velocity and spectrum characteristics
except one important factor, i.e. vibration dura-
tion. Therefore, the response spectrum theory is
considered deficient for a thorough analysis of
blasting vibration effect.
2. The forms of input energy spectra are mainly
related to the frequency spectra. The higher the
frequency of blasting seismic wave, the shorter
is the structural natural period corresponding to
the input energy spectrum. Under the same con-
dition, a lower frequency will result in a higher
peak of corresponding input energy spectrum.
Although the velocity and duration of blasting
seismic waves have no effect on the forms of
input energy spectra, the peak value of input
energy spectra will increase as squared times
of the peak ratio of vibration velocity with the
increasing peak acceleration. A longer dura-
tion of blasting vibration will result in a higher
peak value of the input energy spectrum; there-
fore the effect of blasting vibration duration is
reflected very well by input energy spectrum.
With the increasing structural damping ratio
which reflects a good smoothing effect, the peak
value of input energy spectrum of blasting seis-
mic waves decrease, and in contrast, the value of
input energy spectrum out of the peak region
increase under the same condition. Under the
10/3/2012 8:42:12 PM
 same condition, the time-history curves of input
energy response with different natural periods
are different, and the closer the structural natural
frequency and the predominant period of blast-
ing seismic waves, the greater the input energy.
3. Based on the assumption of elastic response
of structures under blasting vibration, which is
the basis of the elastic input energy spectrum
research, although the three factors of blasting
vibration and the natural characteristics can be
reflected comprehensively by the input energy
spectrum of elastic SDOF system, the plastic
cumulative damage of structures cant. As an
important factor of structural damage under
blasting vibration, cumulative damage of struc-
ture due to plastic deformation needs further
research.
REFERENCES
[1] Fischer L. Influence of explosion parameters on
response spectrum for blast ground vibration[J].
Bauingenieur Berlin, 1987, 62(5):231238.
[2] Alwis WAM, Lam KY. Impact Analysis of Fre-
quency on Blasting Vibration Response Spectrum[J].
Finite Elements in Analysis and Design, 1994,
18(13):203209.
[3] Modares Mehdi, Vennezia Adam. A Response Spec-
trum Approach for Seismic Performance Evaluation
of Actively Controlled Structures[J]. Earthquake
Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 2000, 29(7):
10291051.
455
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 455
[4] Manu Corneliu. Study on Blasting Vibration Damage
Based on Response Spectrum[J]. Computers and
Structures, 1986, 22(3):405412.
[5] TENG Jun, DONG Zhi-jun, RONG Bai-sheng.
Energy spectra of elastic SDOF systems[J]. Jour-
nal of Building Structures (Supplementary Issue 1),
2009(S1):129134.
[6] RONG Li-shuang, SUN Jian-shen. Analysis of
Rock Plug Blasting Vibration Acceleration Response
Spectrum[J]. Journal of Taiyuan University of
Technology, 2008, 39(4):415417.
[7] DING De-gang, SUN Wei-ce, CHEN Xiao-bo.
Research on Vibration Response Spectrum of
Millisecond Delay Blasting[J]. BLASTING, 1997,
14(3):2430.
[8] Zhang Xiao-zhi, Xie Li-li, Yu Hai-ying. Precision
Problems in Calculating Response Spectra by Using
Numerical Method[J]. Earthquake Engineering and
Engineering Vibration, 2004, (6):1526.
[9] ZHAO Ming-sheng, LIANG Kai-shui, LUO Yuan-
fan. Application of EEMD in Blasting Vibration Sig-
nal De-noising[J]. BLASTING, 2011, 28(2):1721.
[10] XIAO Ming-kui, BAI Shao-liang, LAI Ai-min.
Maximum Displacement Estimation of Seismic
Structures Based on Hysteresis Energy[J]. Journal
of Chongqing University, 2003, 26(3):133137.
[11] HU Rong-rong, WANG Ya-yong. Evaluation
of Long-period Structural Maximum Displace-
ment Response on Momentary Input Energy[J].
J. of HUST. (Urban Science Edition), 2006, 23(4):
100104.
[12] Park YJ, Ang AHS. Mechanistic Seismic Dam-
age Model for Reinforced Concrete[J]. Journal
of Structural Engineering (ASCE), 1985, 111(4):
722739.
10/3/2012 8:42:13 PM
This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Concept of effective explosive weight per delay for prediction

of vibration in open-pit blasting

M.P. Roy & P.K. Singh

CSIRCentral Institute of Mining & Fuel Research, Dhanbad, India

Vinay Kumar Singh & G. Senapati

Northern Coalfields Limited, Singrauli, India

A.K. Mishra & M. Jawed

Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad, India

ABSTRACT: A major concern in deep hole blasting at open-pit mines is the excessive generation of
ground vibration, air blast and their effect on nearby structures. The current accepted practise is to calcu-
late the weight of explosives detonated in 8 ms delay interval and is assigned as charge weight per delay
and subsequently it is being used in prediction of vibration. Uncertainty in vibration analysis from blast
can be attributed to the problem of determining the actual amount of explosives detonated within a spe-
cific time interval, and the numbers of holes effectively contributing to the resulting particle velocity. The
paper describes the result of a systematic study carried out to investigate these effects at Nigahi Project of
Northern Coalfields Limited, India, which is producing 14 million ton coal annually. The study involved
detonation of 35 blasts with varying blast designs and 305 vibration data were recorded. Six to eight tri-
axial vibration sensors were located on the ground surface along a array from 506500 m from the blast.
The compressive and tensile strength of the overburden rock was 31.73 MPa and 3.53 MPa with a average
density of 2054 kg/m3.
To investigate the changes in amplitude, frequency and duration with distance. The study compares
single-hole blast signatures with multi-hole ones, and provides guidelines on determining the effective
charge weight per delay vibration analyses of such blasts. The empirical relationship were developed for
the mine and effective explosives weight per delay is numerically equal to square root to cube root of
number of holes detonated within 8 ms delay interval multiplies by the average explosives in a holes.

1 INTRODUCTION rock mass movement increases particle velocity

The use of blasting vibrations, and the peak parti-
cle velocity in particular, has become indispensable
in providing guidelines for safe blasting in terms
of minimizing damage to residential structures
(Dowding, 1996; Oriard, 1999). It is also being
used increasingly to investigate the performance
of the explosives used in the blast (Mohanty and
Yang, 1997). The characteristics of blasting vibra-
tions depend critically on the amount of explosives
detonated at any given time, the delay intervals
employed in the blast design, and the prevailing
geological conditions. Of course, optimised delay
between holes and rows gives better fragmentation
and lower vibration levels (Singh et al., 1996). The
proper combination of explosive weight and delay
timing is such that which allows sufficient room
for expansion of the rock mass (swelling) between
rows in multiple row blasts. Such restrictions in
and decreases blasting efficiency.
The basis of vibration analysis consists of deriv-
ing a predictor equation from recorded vibrations
as a function of distance and explosive charge
weight. There are several unresolved issues in
this approach and they continue to be the subject
of extensive research. These include near-field
vs far-field recording, distinction between short
and long charges, determining the vibration limit
for blast-induced damage in rock, and the use of
seed waveform in controlling vibration ampli-
tude (Holmberg and Persson, 1978; Hustrulid and
Wenbo, 2002). In deriving predictive curves for
limiting blasting vibrations, the concept of explo-
sive weight per delay remains central. It is based
on the assumption that all the holes firing within
a nominal 8 millisecond delay interval must be
considered cumulative in terms of the total charge
weight. The usual firing time scatter characteristic

457

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 457 10/3/2012 8:42:13 PM

 of pyrotechnic detonators on one hand, and preci-
sion of the electronic detonators on the other, make
this assumption highly subjective (Farnfield and
Yuill, 2001; Mohanty and Wong, 2004). The inap-
plicability of the 8-ms rule has been demonstrated
by several researchers in the past (Anderson, 1989;
Moore and Richards, 2002).
This paper investigate the issue of explosive
weight per delay in detail and subsequently the con-
cept of effective explosive weight per delay for pre-
diction of blast induced ground vibration through
monitoring of specially designed as well as regular
production blasts in open-pit coal mine in India.
2 EXPERIMENTAL SITE AND
MONITORING ARRANGEMENT
Investigations were carried out at Nigahi project of
Northern Coalfields Limited. Draglines were used
for removal of overburden. The mine stands out as
a hilly plateau with elevation of about 400450 m
above the mean sea level. The rocks are of lower
Gondwana formation. There are three coal seams
namely Turra, Purewa (Bottom, Top and some-
times combined) seams. The thicknesses of the coal
seams are 1317 m, 1112 m and 79 m respec-
tively. The direction of strike is towards E-W with
broad swings. The dip of the coal seam is 1040
in northerly direction. The block has 491.8 Mt
of mineable reserves. In Turra, Purewa (Bottom,
Top and combined) seams, the average stripping
ratio is 1:3.76. The project is currently producing
14 million tonne of coal per annum. The over-
burden removal is 36.5 million cubic meters per
annum. View of the Dragline bench of the mine is
depicted in Figure 1.
In the field test, 500 kg of explosive (Qt) was
loaded in a single hole and the said amount of
explosives was distributed in number of holes. The
study involved monitoring of vibrations from a
single-hole blast, and the results were compared
with those from distributed charges containing
Figure 1. The overview of the dragline bench of Nigahi
Project.
458
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 458
the same amount of 500 kg of explosive in various
holes. The distributed explosive holes consisted of
two to five holes initiated at the same time. Figure 2
illustrates the initiation of single hole and multiple
hole initiation keeping the explosives weight per
delay (Qmax) of 500 kg. Simultaneous detonation
was achieved through a combination of downline
detonating cord and boosters at the toe of each
hole in the second set of experiment. To accommo-
date the varying explosive weights in the hole in the
tests, the spacing and burden as well as the respec-
tive hole depths were adjusted to yield equivalent
blast results from the different blasts. The bench
heights in these blasts employing emulsion explo-
sives varied from 35 to 46 m, and the borehole
diameter was of 311 mm whereas in case of shovel
bench blasting, the hole diameter was 270 mm and
bench height varied between 15 and 26 m. A total
of 35 blasts were monitored with up to 68 tri-axial
seismic stations, located in a linear array over
a distance of 50 to 6500 m from the blasts. The
explosive detonated in a blast round varied widely
and was from 2850 kg to 1,98,400 kg. The explo-
sive detonated in a delay also varied from 2850 to
24,800 kg respectively. Altogether, 305 vibration
data were separated and classified into two groups
of blasts. The first group dealt with the case where
the explosive weight per delay was the amount of
explosive detonated in a single hole. The second
group consisted of the same explosive weight dis-
tributed among two or more holes.
The concept of effective explosives weight per
delay were also hold good in case of blasting in sim-
ilar hole depth holes (same bench), having explo-
sives weight per delay of one hole (Single Hole:SH)
or more than one holes (Multi Holes:MH), keeping
the total explosives weight remains same. Figure 3
Figure 2. Concept of concentrated and distributed
charge taking 500 kg explosives in 1 hole and in 5 holes.
Figure 3. Concept of explosives weight per delay of sin-
gle hole or multi holes, keeping the same total explosives
weight in a blasting round.
10/3/2012 8:42:13 PM
 demonstrate the concept of single hole and multi- where, N is the number of holes fired in a delay,
holes explosives weight per delay keeping the total and Qavg the average explosive weight in each hole,
explosives weight in a blasting round same. and the exponent mis assigned a range of values
(i.e. 1.0, 0.85, 0.75, 0.67, 0.5, 0.33, 0.25, 0.15 and 0.0).
The two limiting cases represent the simple arith-
3 EFFECTIVE EXPLOSIVE WEIGHT IN metic sum of all the explosives in a single delay,
MULTI-HOLE DELAY BLASTS and the average weight of explosive in a single hole
respectively.
The vibration data recorded from detonation The range of the exponent yielded nine sets of
of more than one hole in a delay in a blast were scaled distance figures against which the corre-
grouped separately from those involving single- sponding vector sum of the peak particle velocity
hole blasts but containing the same explosive (ppv) could be plotted for the mine. The vibration
charge weight. The explosive weight per delay was plots are shown in Figures 614.
not concentrated in one hole but was distributed in It shows the percentage difference in recorded
multiple holes. ppv between singleand multiple-hole case
Figures 4 & 5 illustrate the field trial connection
conducted at the mine showing explosive weight
per delay of 2850 kg in a hole in case of Dragline
bench (hole depth 37 m) and further 2850 kg dis-
tributed in four holes (each hole contained 713 kg)
in case of shovel bench (hole depth 16 m). Total
explosives weight detonated in the blasting round
were same in both the blasts i.e. 59,850 kg.
The effective charge weight per delay in case of
distributed explosives in multiple holes was com-
puted and nine sets of effective charge weight per
delay were generated. The vibrations recorded at
various locations were plotted against their respec-
tive scaled distances.
The effective charge weight per delay, Qeff was
computed as:

Qeff = (Nm)*Qavg, kg

Figure 5. Blasthole delay sequence and time separa-

tion plot forshovel bench [Qmax = 2852 kg (713 4) &
Qt = 59,850 kg].

Figure 4. Blasthole delay sequence and time sepa- Figure 6. Plots of PPV due to blasting of single and
ration plot for dragline bench [Qmax = 2850 kg & multiple holes in a delay (considering Qmax is N1.0 times
Qt = 59,850 kg]. Qavg in multi-hole delay blast) at dragline bench.

459

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 459 10/3/2012 8:42:14 PM

 Figure 7. Plots of PPV due to blasting of single and Figure 11. Plots of PPV due to blasting of single and
multiple holes in a delay (considering Qmax is N0.85 times multiple holes in a delay (considering Qmax is N0.33 times
Qavg) at dragline bench. of Qavg) at dragline bench.

Figure 8. Plots of PPV due to blasting of single and

multiple holes in a delay (considering Qmax is N0.75 times Figure 12. Plots of PPV due to blasting of single and
of Qavg in multiple holes) at dragline bench. multiple holes in a delay (considering Qmax is N0.25 times
of Qavg) at dragline bench.

Figure 9. Plots of PPV due to blasting of single and Figure 13. Plots of PPV due to blasting of single and
multiple holes in a delay (considering Qmax is N0.67 times multiple holes in a delay (considering Qmax is N0.15 times
of Qavg in multiple holes) at dragline bench. of Qavg) at dragline bench.

Figure 10. Plots of PPV due to blasting of single and Figure 14. Plots of PPV due to blasting of single &
multiple holes in a delay (considering Qmax is N0.50 times multi-holes in a delay (considering Qmax is N0 times of
Qavg) at dragline bench. Qavg in multiple holes) at dragline bench.

460

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 460 10/3/2012 8:42:15 PM

 containing the same explosive charge weight in a
delay for whole range of the exponent m. This
range incorporates all the values, i.e. assuming
that the explosive weight in a delay is the simple
arithmetic sum of all the charges detonating at the
same time, to that only the average charge weight
in each hole tied to the same delay contributes to
the resulting particle velocity. The figure shows
a saddle shape, with the minimum difference
for ppv between single and multiple holes being
represented by the exponent m = 0.50 to 0.33.
In other words, in the case of multiple holes per
delay, the effective charge weight scales as either
square-root or the cube-root of the number of
holes.
Analysis of the results shows that the recorded
peak particle velocity is always higher for the sin-
gle-hole case than the multiple-hole case for iden-
tical explosive weight in a delay in the two cases.
This is clearly shown even for the whole range of
possible values for the exponent m (Fig. 15).
3.1 Discussion on effective charge weight per
delay
The analysis of data shows that vibration recorded
from detonation of each hole independently in a
blast round with certain charge weight and delay
interval, and similar amount of explosive distrib-
uted in two or more holes generated significantly
different levels of vibrations. In every case, single-
hole detonation yields higher vibration levels than
multiple holes with the same delay and contain-
ing the same total charge. It is observed that as
the scaling exponent varies, so does the percent-
age variation in peak particle velocity between
the single-hole blast and multi-hole blast with
identical total charge weights. It shows the differ-
ence to be maximum (45%) for the two extreme
cases, i.e. assuming the effective charge weight to
be the arithmetic sum (m = 1) or the charge weight
to be equal to that contained in a single hole in a
Figure 15. Calculated % difference of PPV due to blast-
ing of single and multiple holes in a delay with identical
total charge weight for various values of scaled distance
and scaling exponent m.
461
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 461
multi-hole delay blast. This is shown to hold for
all scaled distances. The minimum error between a
concentrated charge and a distributed charge is
found for the case when the scaling exponent m
is between 0.50 and 0.33 (i.e. between square-root
and cube-root of the number of holes detonating
at the same time).
This exponent scaling has strong parallels with
array design of antennae, geophones, or wher-
ever multiple sources or receivers are employed.
Through the principle of reciprocity, an array of
geophones can be replaced by multiple seismic
sources, which in this case are represented by the
blast holes, with identical results. It can be shown
that an array of geophones serving as receivers and
when their output is summed, the random signal
amplitude is scaled by a factor of N0.5, where N
is the number of geophones in the array (Telford
et al., 1976). In other words, the resultant signal is
not a simple summation of individual signals at the
geophones in the array, but scales as the square-
root of the number of geophones.
It is to be noted that in this investigation, it was
assumed that the geological conditions were con-
sistent throughout at the respective sites. Consid-
ering the relatively large distances for location of
the vibration recording stations, this would be a
reasonable assumption. This is further supported
by the relatively low scatter in the recorded data.
It was also assumed that explosive parameters
remained constant throughout. In future studies,
this will be ascertained through in-hole monitoring
of VOD and other relevant parameters.
3.2 Validation of the effective charge weight per
delay model
In the field test, 7 dragline bench blasts were
planned having average hole depth in the range
of 42 to 44.5 m. The average explosives in holes
varied between 3,085 to 3,310 kg. The total
explosives in a round were kept in the range of
190,330 kg to 224,448 kg. The explosives weight
per delay were 1 hole (3,085 to 3,270 kg) in two
rounds of blasts, 2 holes (6316 to 6586 kg) in two
rounds of blasts, 3 holes (9,870 to 9,930 kg) in
two rounds of blasts and 4 holes (13,016 kg) in
one round of blast. Analysis of the results shows
that the recorded peak particle velocity is always
higher in case of multi holes explosives weight
per delay compare to the single holes explosives
weight per delay, but the difference in PPV level
is minimum when the explosives weight per
delay were scaled with respect to concept of:
Qeff = (Nm)*Qavg, kg, having the value of m in the
range of 0.33 to 0.5. This is clearly shown even
for the whole range of possible values for the
exponent m (Fig. 1624).
10/3/2012 8:42:17 PM
 Figure 20. Plots of PPV due to blasting of single and
Figure 16. Plots of PPV due to blasting of single and
multiple holes in a delay (considering Qmax is N0.50 times
multiple holes in a delay (considering Qmax is N1 times of
of Qavg) at dragline bench.
Qavg) at dragline bench.

Figure 17. Plots of PPV due to blasting of single and Figure 21. Plots of PPV due to blasting of single and
multiple holes in a delay (considering Qmax is N0.85 times multiple holes in a delay (considering Qmax is N0.33 times
of Qavg) at dragline bench. of Qavg) at dragline bench.

Figure 22. Plots of PPV due to blasting of single and

Figure 18. Plots of PPV due to blasting of single and multiple holes in a delay (considering Qmax is N0.25 times
multiple holes in a delay (considering Qmax is N0.75 times of Qavg) at dragline bench.
of Qavg) at dragline bench.

Figure 19. Plots of PPV due to blasting of single and Figure 23. Plots of PPV due to blasting of single and
multiple holes in a delay (considering Qmax is N0.67 times multiple holes in a delay (considering Qmax is N0.15 times
of Qavg) at dragline bench. of Qavg) at dragline bench.

462

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 462 10/3/2012 8:42:17 PM


Figure 24. Plots of PPV due to blasting of single and
multiple holes in a delay (considering Qmax is N0 times of
Qavg) at dragline bench.
4 CONCLUSIONS
It has been conclusively demonstrated that the
vibrations resulting from a single-hole/delay blast
and a multi-hole/delay, both containing the same
total explosive charge, are significantly different.
For the same total explosive weight, detonation
of distributed charges fired simultaneously always
yielded a significantly lower vibration level than
the same charge contained in a single hole. The dif-
ference in the recorded peak particle velocity could
be as high as 45% between the two cases. This
applied to all scaled distances, and points to a seri-
ous weakness in the present method of vibration
analysis from production blasts, where a number
of holes are tied to the same delay and the effective
charge weight is taken to be the arithmetic sum of
the charge weight contained in these holes. This is
particularly relevant to the use of electronic deto-
nators in blasting, where there is no scatter in firing
times, and the holes tied to the same delay do indeed
detonate exactly at the same time. In calculating
the effective charge weight, either square-root
or cube-root scaling of the number of holes in the
same delay was found to minimize the error. Addi-
tional trials are planned to confirm these findings
through simultaneous monitoring of the explosive
parameters in the blasts at the same time.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors express their gratitude to Direc-
tor, CSIR-Central Mining Research Institute,
Dhanbad, India for his encouragement and sup-
port during the field study. The authors are also
thankful to the officials and mine personnel of
Nigahi Project, Northern Coalfields Limited for
providing the necessary facilities during the course
463
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 463
of this investigation. The opinions are those of the
authors and not necessarily the organisations to
whom they belong.
REFERENCES
Aimone-Martin, K., Faroni, K. & Gerolmino, T. 2000.
Fifteen years of vibration control and improved pub-
lic relations for two trap-rock quarries. Proc. 26th Ann.
Conf. Explosives and Blasting Tech. Int. Soc. Explo-
sives Engrs. 2000. pp. 187196.
Anderson, D.A. 1989. The 8-msec criterion: have we
delayed too long in questioning it?. Proc. 15th Ann.
Conf. on Explosives and Blasting Tech. Int. Soc. Explo-
sives Engrs. pp. 381395.
Dowding, C.H. 1996. Construction Vibrations, Prentice
Hall, New York, pp. 1610.
Farnfield, R. & Yuill, G. 2000. Variability of vibration
signals from single-hole quarry blasts. Proc. 27th Ann.
Conf. Explosives and Blasting Tech. Int. Soc. Explo-
sives Engrs. pp. 309318.
Hustulid, W. & Wenbo, L. 2002. Some general design
concepts regarding the control of blast induced dam-
age during rock slope excavation. Proc. 7th Int. Symp.
on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting X. Wang, Ed. Met-
allurgical Industries Press, Beijing. pp. 595604.
Keller, R. & Kramer, N. 2000. Considerations for drill
and blast excavation of a geologic repository for the
dispersal of high-level radioactive nuclear waste at
Yucca mountain. Proc. 26th Ann. Conf. Explosives and
Blasting Tech. Int. Soc. Explosives Engrs. pp. 3148.
Mohanty & Joyce. 1994. Explosives and initiation prac-
tice and their effect on energy release in commercial
explosives Part II. Proc. 10th Symp. on Explosives and
Blasting Res. Int. Soc. Explosives Engrs. pp. 149161.
Mohanty, B. & Yang, R. 1997. Blasting vibrations and
explosives performance. Proc. 13th Symp. on Explo-
sives and Blasting Res. Int. Soc. Explosives Engrs.
pp. 1528.
Moore, A & Richards, A. 2002. Time window vibra-
tion control techniquesCautionary tales for explo-
sives engineers. Proc. 28th Ann. Conf. on Explosives
and Blasting Tech. Int. Soc. Explosives Engrs.;
pp. 363380.
Oriard, L. 1999. The Effects of Vibrations and Environ-
mental Forces. ISEE. pp. 1284.
Pedgen, M., Birch, W.J. & Wetherelt, A. 2005. Is that nor-
mal? Fundamental observations for best practice blast
vibration analysis. Proc. 31st Ann. Conf. on Explosives
and Blasting Technique, Int. Soc. Explosives Engrs.
pp. 221236.
Singh, P.K., Vogt, W., Singh, R.B. & Singh, D.P. 1996.
Blasting side effects: Investigations in an opencast
coal mine in India. Int. J. of Surface Mining, Recla-
mation & Environment, Netherlands. Vol. 10. No. 4.
pp. 155159.
Telford, W.M., Geldart, L.P., Sheriff, R.E. & Keys, D.A.
1977. Applied Geophysics, Cambridge Univ. Press.
pp. 1860.
10/3/2012 8:42:19 PM
This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Comparison of two near-field blast vibration estimation models:

A theoretical study

Shrey Arora
Department of Mining Engineering, NITK Surathkal, India

Pradeep Murmu & Kaushik Dey

Department of Mining Engineering, IIT Kharagpur, India

ABSTRACT: Blast-induced rock damage has been directly related to blast vibration by many research-
ers. The common measurement of blasting vibration is in terms of peak particle velocity (PPV). The levels
of peak particle velocity at which the rock damage occur are termed as threshold levels of PPV for rock
damage. As rock damage is a phenomena occurring very close to the blast holes (<1 m), the peak particle
velocity levels at the point of damage cannot be measured directly. Thus, the threshold levels of peak
particle velocity for rock damage are estimated by using different near-field blast vibration estimation
models. These models essentially use the vibration predictors established from the vibration measure-
ments taken at a safe distance. The most common two techniques of near-field vibration estimation mod-
els are the mathematical summation of peak particle velocity resulting from the elemental charge column
and the integrated peak particle velocity for the charge length i.e., zero to charge height. However, till date
the scope of application of near-field estimation models is limited to single-hole blast only. This paper
incorporates a review of the near-field blast-vibration estimation models. Apart from this, an extension of
a near-field vibration estimation model for a row of periphery holes is also presented. A theoretical com-
parison is also made in between single-hole model and row of holes model for estimating the threshold
peak particle velocity levels for overbreak in a drift. Similarly, the damage profiles for both the cases are
also developed and presented.

1 INTRODUCTION levels of damage cannot be done by direct extrapo-

Mining industry relies heavily on drilling and blast-
ing for any excavation project as it is cost effective
and applicable for wide geo-mining conditions.
Thus, need of the hour is to make this method as
efficient as possible to achieve timely completion
of projects from higher drivage rates. During blast-
ing, only a small part of the shock energy released
from the explosive is utilized for fragmentation and
displacement of rockmass. The rest is dissipated as
ground vibration all around the blast hole. Ground
vibration is measured by seismographs in terms of
Peak Particle Velocity (PPV) at the point of moni-
toring. Statistical analysis of the measured PPVs
helps in establishing the vibration predictors, i.e.,
the ground and propagation characteristics. These
vibration measurements are carried out at a longer
distance to keep the seismographs safe and within
their measurable range and the explosive charge
is considered as a point charge. In case of blast
induced rock damage, the damage extent (point
of interest) is very close to the blast hole and thus
the seismographs cannot be placed at that spot.
Further, the prediction of vibration threshold
lation of far field vibration predictor as it does not
consider the length of the charge which has sig-
nificant impact on near-field vibration magnitude.
This paper aims at reviewing and comparing two
near-field vibration prediction models (Holmberg-
Persson model, 1979 and Arora-Dey model, 2010)
which consider the charge length in the hole, but
the site characteristics are taken from the far-field
observations. For the theoretical analysis, blast
data from a chromite mine of eastern India are
utilized.
2 BLAST-INDUCED ROCK DAMAGE
AND PPV
Dey (2001) classifies the rock damage due to blast-
ing in horizontal drivages into cracked zone and
overbreak zone as shown in Figure 1. Overbreak
zone is the zone of rock breakage beyond the
designed perimeter of the excavation following
the blast and subsequent to face dressing. Cracked
zone is the zone where the rock strength/integrity is
significantly decreased due to the blast.

465

CH054_Paper 138.indd 465 10/4/2012 3:27:37 PM

 R0c = allowable overbreak distance (m); ql = Linear
charge concentration (kg/m); K and are con-
stants based on site characteristics.
Arora & Dey (2010) considered that the PPVs
generated from elemental charges are superim-
posed and can be mathematically added consider-
ing the direction of arrival (Fig. 3).
Elemental PPV in X direction obtained from
elemental charge (q dy) can be calculated as,

dy
x Kq cos (3)
{ }

Figure 1. Zones of blast-induced rock damage. R Zy

and elemental PPV at Y direction obtained from

Many researchers attempted to relate PPV with the elemental charge (q dy) becomes
the blast-induced rock damage and estimated the
threshold level of PPV for different degrees of rock
dy
damage. y Kq sin (4)
{ }

However, there was a scarcity of data relating R Zy
PPV to rock damage in underground openings. In
some of the research works a few ranges of thresh-
old PPV values were proposed for different degrees Thus, the resultant PPV in X and Y direction
of rock damage as given in Table 1. can be calculated as
The above estimation was based on either
empirical equations or by the direct extrapolation h

q
dy
of far-field vibration monitoring except in the case pp x Kq (5)
of Bogdanhoff (1994) who directly measured near-
field acceleration.
{
y = 0 R Zy } 2

Holmberg & Persson (1979b) developed a

mathematical model for estimation of near-field h

q
PPV from the square root scaled distance inte- dy
pp y Kq i (6)
grated for the explosive column (Fig. 2) as given
below
y=0
R { Zy } 2

V = K [0DH dx/{R02 + (D x)2}/2]
where, V = resultant PPV (mm/s); R0 = horizon-
tal distance from blast hole to point of interest
(m); D = vertical distance from blast hole bot-
tom to point of interest (m); = linear charge
concentration (kg/m); K, , = Site specific
constants.
Dey (2004) developed a mathematical model
for determination of allowable charge per hole in
order to limit overbreak up to a desired level and
is given below
L v
tho
Q =q L R 0c tan tan1
l
(1) From the Equation 5 and 6, the resultant PPV
can be obtained using the root mean square of
PPVs at X and Y direction and thus resultant
PPV becomes
ppv = [(ppvx)2 + (ppvy)2]0.5 (7)
where x, y = the elemental peak particle veloc-
ity along X and Y co-ordinate axes; ppvx, ppvy =
components of peak particle velocity along X and
Y co-ordinate axes; ppv = Resultant PPV or vec-
tor sum of ppvx and ppvy; K, , are the empiri-
cal site constants; R0 = horizontal distance between
1
blast hole axis and point of interest (m) = (x2x1);
R 0c
Z = vertical distance between the blast hole bottom

R 0c K ql
and the point of interest (m) = (y2y1); q = linear
charge concentration (kg/m); dy = elemental
(2) charge length (m); h = total charge length in hole
(m); y = position of the elemental charge from bot-
where Q = charge per hole (kg); vtho = thresh- tom of the hole (m); and = angle with the X-
old peak particle velocity for over break (mm/s); axis so that

466

CH054_Paper 138.indd 466 10/4/2012 3:25:06 PM

CH054_Paper 138.indd 467

Table 1. PPV based damage estimation models proposed by different researchers.

Concept Proposed Methodology Merits and demerits

Edwards & Northwood (1960) V = K (R/W) A PPV of less than 50 mm/s would have low
where, V = PPV (mm/s); probability of structural damage to residential
R = Distance from blast hole (m); W = Maximum charge/delay (kg); buildings.
K, = Site specific constants.
Bauer & Calder (1970) observed that no fracturing of intact rock will occur for a PPV of 254 mm/s, PPV in the range of 254635 mm/s results in minor tensile slabbing
and PPV in the range of 6352540 mm/s would cause strong tensile and some radial cracking. Break up of rockmass will occur at a PPV of 2540 mm/s.
Langefors & Kihlstrom (1973) proposed that PPV in the range of 305 mm/s to 610 mm/s results in formation of new cracks and fall of rock respectively in unlined tunnels.
Oriard (1982) proposed that most rockmass suffer from damage at a PPV above 635 mm/s.
Rustan et al (1985) Used Holmberg and Perssons model. The PPV range was 300900 mm/s for smooth blasting. An extrapolation for 0.5 m range
gives PPVs in the range of 1000000 mm/s. This is consi-derably higher than the often-referred range of damage, i.e.,
7001000 mm/s. The damage with 700 mm/s extends to 0.1 m range. The observed damage range by direct methods is
0.5 m, which suggests that PPV for damages can be higher than 7001000 mm/s.
Hustrulid et al (1992) developed an empirical model for arriving at the peak vibration level considering rock, explosive and geometrical component based on the model
proposed by Favreau (1969). V 1.2247 P / c R
where, V = Near-field peak particle velocity (m/s), P = Explosion pressure (Pa), c = P-wave velocity of rock (m/s), = rock density (kg/m3), R = Distance of the point of
interest from the charge center (m), r = Radius of cylindrical hole (m)
467

Yang (1993) Used Holmberg and Perssons model at Queens University The actual damage data from the field related
blast testsite closely with theoretically estimated values.
Meyer and Dunn (1995) Used Holmberg and Perssons model at Perseverance Nickel mine Damage threshold PPV was found to be 600 mm/s
in Australia and minor damage above 300 mm/s
Blair et al. (1996) Developed a Dynamic finite element model to assess the damage zone
Persson (1996) Proved that the effective parts of elemental waves arrive at a point almost simultaneously; hence, difference in time of arrival of
elemental waves from different parts of charge can be neglected.
Bogdanhoff (1995) reported monitoring of near-field blast acceleration in an access tunnel at distances between 0.25 and 1.0 m outside tunnel perimeter holes. The
vibrations were filtered with the low and high pass filters for reducing noise & improve signal clarity. Accelerations were integrated to arrive at the near-field PPV level.
The PPV, in the assumed damage range, was found to lie between 2000 and 2500 mm/s.
Murthy and Dey (2003) reported a ground vibration predictor including the effect of free face in tunnel blasting and used PPV extrapolation technique for arriving at
threshold levels reported overbreak. The PPV threshold level for overbreak in a tunnel through a basaltic formation exceeds 2050 mm/s.

R
V = K 1
W 3 + S.F
where, V = PPV (mm/s), R = Distance (m), W = Maxmum Charge/delay (kg), S.F. = Stiffness factor (burden/hole length) ratio; K and are site-specific constants.
McKenzie and Holley (2004), found that the threshold PPV level exceeds 700 mm/s for intense damage, 400 mm/s for significant damage, 350 mm/s for open cracking and
300 mm/s for fine cracking in wall blasting.
Dey (2004) determined threshold level of PPV for overbreak in five development drivages of Q-index between 6 to 8 and found the PPV values lies in the range
10/4/2012 3:25:09 PM

of 7001200 mm/s.
 where ppvx1, ppvx2 = component of peak particle
velocity along X axis due to blast holes 1 and 2;
ppvy1, ppvy2 = component of peak particle veloc-
ity along Y axis due to blast holes 1 and 2; ppvx
and ppvy = net component of peak particle velocity
along X and Y axes.
Thus, the vector sum of resultant PPV becomes,

ppv = [(ppvx)2 + (ppvy)2]0.5 (12)

The equation 10, 11 and 12, can be extended for

Figure 2. Near-field PPV approximation as proposed
by Holmberg and Persson (1979). a number of holes (say for a row of periphery holes
blasted in the same delay) to arrive at the resultant
near-field PPVs.

3 THEORETICAL STUDY IN
A CHROMITES MINE

The case of an ore drive excavation in a Chromite

Figure 3. Near-field PPV approximation as proposed
by Arora and Dey (2010).
Figure 4. Near-field PPV estimation from the vector
sum of the elemental PPVs for two adjacent holes blasted
together.
mine of eastern India was considered for the
theoretical study with a face size of 2.5 2.5 m.
The horizontal drilling was carried out using
jackhammer with a drill hole depth of 1.6 m.
Diameter of reamer holes is 57 mm and the dia of
other blast holes is kept 32 mm. The blast pattern
being practised at the site is given in Figure 5 and
the charging details are shown in Table 2.
Vibration was monitored using accelerometer at
the closest possible point near to the blast and using
ordinary seismograph at the far-field. The accelera-
tions measured were integrated to arrive at the PPV.
The vibration predictor developed based on regres-
sion analysis between scaled distance and PPV, has a
correlation coefficient (R) of 0.96 and is given by,
1.16
R
v = 476.47 (13)
Q
where v = peak particle velocity (mm/s); R = radial
distance from the blast face to point of mon-
itoring (m); Q = maximum charge per delay (kg).

R0
cos = (8)
R0 2 ( Z y )2

(Z y)
sin = (9)
R 0 2 + ( Z y )2

Suppose ppvx1, ppvx2, and ppvy1, ppvy2 are

the x and y components of PPVs respectively at a
point due to two blast holes 1 and 2 (Fig. 4)
Thus the resultant PPV for the adjacent holes in
X-direction and Y-direction will become,

ppvx = ppvx1 + ppvx 2 (10)

ppvy = ppvy1 + ppvy 2 (11) Figure 5. Blast pattern of the face.

468

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 468 10/3/2012 8:42:23 PM

 Table 2. Explosive charging pattern.

Length of hole Charge/hole Total no.

Holes Delays No. of holes (m) (No. of cartridges) of cartridges

1st square 1 2, 3 2, 5 2 6 1.6 4 + 1P 30

2nd square I 4, II 4 8 1.6 4 + 1P 40
Easers III 4 4 1.6 3 + 1P 16
Easers IV 4 4 1.6 3 + 1P 16
Side contour V 2, V 2 4 1.6 3 + 1P 16
Top holes V 2, VI 2 4 1.6 4 + 1P 20
Bottom holes V 2, VI 2 4 1.6 4 + 1P 20
Total 34 158

P = Primer cartridges, Roman (I, II) = Long delays (300 ms), English (1,2) = Short delays (25 ms).

The fixation arrangement of vibration sensors

in the ore drive is shown in Figure 6.
The near-field PPV has been estimated as per
Holmberg-Person (1979) and Dey (2001) (using
direct extrapolation model) and the estimated
threshold values of PPV for overbreak were
found to be 683 mm/s and 852 mm/s respectively.
The recommended maximum charge per delay
for limiting overbreak is 0.52 kg and 0.45 kg
respectively.
In this paper the above cases is re-analyzed
using two modelsnamely periphery hole
model and adjacent hole model. In the periph-
ery hole model, it is considered that all the four
periphery holes (blasted at delay no VI) have
the influence over near-field vibration at (x, y)
point as shown in equation 10, 11 and 12. Thus,
the x and y components of near-field PPV at
(x, y) are calculated by,

ppvx = ppvx
ppv 1 + ppvx 2 + ppvx
ppv 3 + ppvx 4 (14) Figure 6. Fixation arrangement of accelerometers, seis-
mograph and overbreak profiler in an ore drive.
ppvy = ppvy1 + ppvy 2 + ppvy 3 + ppvy 4 (15)

and the resultant PPV is the vector sum of ppvx

and ppvy as given in equation 12.
The above mathematical expression necessarily
assumes that there is no scattering of delay in all
the four holes and there is no time lag between the
instances at which the blast waves from individual
blast hole reach at the point (x, y). Considering
the above expressions, near-field PPVs were esti-
mated for the desired periphery line as shown in
Figure 7.
The periphery hole model for near-field estima-
tion can also be extended to predict the damage
zone above the periphery line. A drift blast is con-
sidered successful if the complete excavation of the
desired periphery line is observed, i.e., there is no Figure 7. Variation of PPV at the desired excavation
under excavation at the corners. Thus, let us con- line (15 cm from periphery row of explosive column)
sider that the near-field PPV at the corner point considering the effect of all periphery holes.

469

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 469 10/3/2012 8:42:25 PM

 of periphery line (i.e., x = 0) is just equal to the
threshold level of PPV for overbreak which was
estimated to be 1662 mm/s. Considering this, the
line of breakage (damage profile) is plotted along
the face line and presented in Figure 8.
It can be observed from the Figures 7 and 8 that
the profile of the damage zone is almost similar
to the profile of the near-field PPV values along
the periphery line. Further, another important
assumption is that no look out is considered in this
calculation. In the inset of Figure 8, actual over-
break profile as measured in the mine is shown
which quite resembles the plotted profile. Line
y = 0.15 m represent the roof line.
In the adjacent hole model, it is considered that
the variation of PPV is only due a single hole or
Figure 9. Variation of PPV at the desired excavation
two adjacent holes (as the case may be). Thus, in
line (15 cm from periphery row of explosive column)
this case, the influence of hole 1 is considered for considering Arora & Dey (2010) model.
distance x = 0 m to 0.15 m; influence of hole 1 and
hole 2 are considered for distance x = 0.15 m to
0.95 m; influence of hole 2 and hole 3 are consid-
ered for the distance x = 0.95 m to 1.55 m; influence
of hole 3 and hole 4 are considered for the distance
x = 1.55 m to 2.35 m and influence of hole 4 is
considered for the distance x = 2.35 m to 2.5 m. The
near-field PPVs along the desired periphery line are
estimated using the equation 7 for single-hole case
and equation 12 for two-hole case. The profile of
the near-field PPVs are shown in Figure 9.
It can be seen from the Figure 9 that the PPV val-
ues are relatively less in the region x = 0 to 0.15 m
and x = 2.35 to 2.5 m. Thus, these region demands
the required look out angle to be provided with the
corner hole to achieve desired excavation.
Adjacent hole model for near-field PPV estima-
tion can also be extended to predict the damage
zones. Considering the PPV due to the first hole in Figure 10. Damage Zone at the desired excavation line
the row at the corner most point (x = 0) in roof line (15 cm from periphery row of explosive column) consid-
as the threshold PPV (767 mm/s) for damage, the ering Arora & Dey (2010) model.

profile of the damage zone is plotted and is shown

in Figure 10. This damage profile is also similar to
the profile of near-field PPV at periphery line.

4 CONCLUSION

Blast-induced rock damage is a point of concern

Figure 8. Damage zone considering the effect of all
holes in the periphery row (inset shows an actual over-
break zone plot).
during the excavation of underground development
drivages. Rock damage has been successfully related
to vibration level by many researchers. Near-field
vibration monitoring at the point of damage for
measuring the threshold PPV level for rock dam-
age is difficult. A number of near-field PPV esti-
mation model models are available and can be
useful to control the rock damage. A new near-field
PPV estimation model is developed and discussed

470

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 470 10/3/2012 8:42:27 PM

 in this paper. This new model is applicable for a
row of periphery holes or for the holes blasted at
same delay. The near-field PPV values at the line of
excavation are estimated using the new model and
the Arora and Dey (2010) model and the obtained
results are compared. Considering the PPV levels
at the extreme corners of the line of excavation as
the threshold level of damage, the possible post
blast excavation line is also plotted using the above
two models and presented in this paper.
The scattering of delay, anisotropy of the rock
present within the area of interest and the time lag
between the arrivals of the blast waves from dif-
ferent blast holes at the point of interest are not
considered in this analysis. The new model is also a
two dimensional model but can be extended for the
third dimension in future.
The PPV levels in the region between x = 0 to
0.15 m and 2.35 m to 2.5 m is significantly less than
the rest of the regions (as observed in Figures 9
and 10) for Arora and Dey (2010) model. This
result justifies the requirement of look out angle
to be maintained in the corner most blast holes for
increasing their effect upon these regions.
REFERENCES
Arora S. & Dey K. (2010), Estimation of near-field peak
particle velocity: A mathematical model, Journal of
Geology and Mining Research, Vol. 2 (4), September,
pp. 6873.
Bauer, A. & Calder P.N. (1970), Open pit and blasting
seminar Mining Engg. Dept. publication, Queens
University, Kingston, Ontario. P3.
Blair Dane & Minchinton Alan (1996), On the damage
zone surrounding a single blasthole, Proceedings of
Fifth International Symposium on Rock Fragmentation
by Blasting, FRAGBLAST-5, (Ed) Mohanty, Mon-
treal, Quebec, Canada, 2324 August, pp. 121130.
Bogdanoff I. (1995), Vibration measurements in dam-
age zone in tunnel blasting, Proceedings of Fifth
International Symposium on Rock Fragmentation by
Blasting, FRAGBLAST-5 (Ed) Mohanty, Montreal,
Quebec, Canada, 2324 August, pp. 177185.
Dey, K. (2004), Investigation of blast-induced rock
damage and development of predictive model in
horizontal drivages, Ph. D. thesis, Indian School of
Mines. Dhanbad. pp. 1203.
Dey, K. & Murthy V.M.S.R., (2008), Blast-Induced
Rock Damage in Drivage ExcavationA Review
of Assessment and Prediction Methods, National
Conference on Emerging Trends in Mining and Allied
Industry, Rourkela, India, February 0203, 2008,
pp. 164175.
471
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 471
Edwards A.T. & Northwood T.D. (1960), Experimen-
tal studies of effects of blasting on structures, The
Engineer, P211.
Favreau R.F. (1969), Generation of strain wave in rock
by an explosion in a spherical cavity, Journal of Geo-
physical Research, 74, pp. 42674280.
Hustrulid W., Bennett R., Ashland F. & Lenjani M.,
(1992), A new method for predicting the extent of the
blast damage zone, Proceedings of the Sprangteknisk
konferens, Nitro Nobel, Goteberg-Kiel January 1516,
P55.
Holmberg R. & Persson P.A. (1979b), Design of perim-
eter Blasthole pattern to prevent rock damage, Tun-
nelling 79, IMM London, pp. 280283.
Langefors U. & Kihlstrm B. (1973), The Modern
Techniques of rock blasting, John Wiley and Sons,
New York, P473.
Oriard L.L. (1982), Blasting Effects and Their Control,
SME of AIME, Littleton, Colorado, pp. 15901603.
Meyer T. & Dunn P.G. (1995), Fragmentation and
rockmass damage assessment Sunburst excavator and
drill and blast, Proceedings of North American Rock
Mechanics Symposium, pp. 609616.
McKenzie C. & Holley K. (2004), A study of dam-
age profiles behind blasts, Proceedings of the 30th
Annual Conference on Explosive and Blasting Tech-
nique, February 14, 2004, New Orleans, Lousiana,
pp. 203214.
Murthy V.M.S.R & Dey Kaushik, (2003), Predicting
Overbreak from Blast Vibration Monitoring in a Lake
Tap TunnelA Success Story, Fragblast, September,
Vol. 7 No. 3, pp. 149166.
Persson P.A. (1996), The relationship between strain
energy, rock damage, fragmentation and throw in rock
blasting, Proceedings of Fifth International Sympo-
sium on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting, FRAG-
BLAST-5, (Ed) Mohanty B., Montreal, Quebec,
Canada, 2324 August, pp. 113120.
Rustan A., Tarbjorn N., Bengt, & Ludvig, (1985),
Controlled blasting in hard intense jointed rock in
tunnels, CIM Bulletin, December, Vol. 78, No. 884,
pp. 6368.
Yang R.L., Rocque P., Katsabanis P. & Bawden W.F.,
(1993), Blast damage study by measurement of blast
vibration and damage in the area adjacent to blast
hole, Proceedings of Fourth International Seminar on
Rock Fragmentation by Blasting, FRAGBLAST-4, (Ed)
Rossmanith, Vienna, Austria, 58 July, pp. 137144.
10/3/2012 8:42:27 PM
This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

An equivalent simulation method for whole time-history

blasting vibration

J.H. Yang, W.B. Lu, M. Chen, P. Yan & P. Li

State Key Laboratory of Water Resources and Hydropower Engineering Science, Wuhan University,
Wuhan, Hubei, China
Key Laboratory of Rock Mechanics in Hydraulic Structural Engineering Ministry of Education,
Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei, China

ABSTRACT: Due to the complicated rock fragmentation and the requirement of huge CPU calcula-
tions, current numerical simulations of blasting vibrations are limited to the Peak Particle Velocity (PPV)
and the blast of a single blasthole. Modelling the whole time-history blasting vibration for the blasting of
multiple blastholes is still a considerable challenge. For the case of bench blasting, an equivalent model-
ling procedure using the Finite Element Method (FEM) is proposed in this paper. The crushed zone and
the fractured zone generated by the explosion are treated as parts of the vibration source, and the blasting
load is equivalently applied to the elastic boundary (the outer boundary of the fractured zone) around
each blasthole or to the excavation contour. Different loading methods and loading locations were ana-
lyzed, and the Excavation Damage Zone (EDZ) was considered in the model. Comparison of numerical
model results with the measured data reveals the feasibility of the model as a predictive tool for whole
time-history blasting vibrations.

1 INTRODUCTION blasting vibration including the PPV, vibration fre-

Drilling and blasting is still an economical and via-
ble method for the excavation of rock mass in the
fields of mining, hydropower and transportation.
Rock masses are fragmented by blasting energy.
However, it has been known that only 2030% of
the energy is used for the actual fragmentation,
and the rest is wasted in the form of blasting vibra-
tion, air-over pressure, fly rock and noise (Singh &
Singh 2005). Blasting vibration has a detrimental
effect on structures such as buildings, dams, roads,
natural slopes, etc. Also with emphasizing on eco-
friendly activities, blasting vibration has become a
major concern for the smooth running of a project
(Khandelwal 2010). Thus, it is imperative to predict
the vibration with greater accuracy prior to opera-
tions. A number of researchers have suggested
different vibration predictors according to their
own data obtained from different sites (Langefors
& Kihlstrom 1963; Mesec et al. 2010; Liang et al.
2011). All these formulae have their specific site
constants, and therefore, they cannot be used in a
generalized way.
The development of powerful and low-cost
numerical simulation methods, especially the Jones-
Wilkins-Lee (JWL) equation of state proposed to
describe the adiabatic expansion of detonation
products, allows studying the whole time-history
quency and the duration of time. Various numeri-
cal methods such as the finite element method
(FEM), the finite difference method (FDM) and
the discrete element method (DEM) are employed
by researchers to investigate the propagation of
seismic waves created by blasting, and to evaluate
some influencing factors (Chen & Zhao 1998; Lu &
Wang 2006; Torao et al. 2006; Park et al. 2009;
Wei et al. 2009; Li et al. 2011; Shin et al. 2011).
However, the JWL equation requires many con-
trolling parameters which affect calculated results
significantly. In fact it is very difficult to select
appropriate parameters which should be obtained
by experiments. Moreover, because dimension of
blasthole is much smaller than that of engineer-
ing rock mass, the use of JWL equation presents a
considerable challenge when developing the model
and dealing with the rock-explosive interaction,
especially for multiple blastholes detonating simul-
taneously. Therefore, a pressure-time function
is used to simplify the explosive detonation and
directly applied to the rock mass. In this regard,
Torao et al. (2006) simulated whole time-history
blasting vibrations during mining bench blasting
by applying the shape of the pressure pulse against
the bench face; Shin et al. (2011) studied the effect
of blasting vibrations on existing tunnels by apply-
ing a reduced detonation pressure to the outer

473

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 473 10/3/2012 8:42:28 PM

 boundary of plastic zone; Li et al. (2011) modeled
the PPV change with distance by adopting the
pressure history at the boundary of the crushed
zone as a load input, which is obtained from the
JWL equation of state. These equivalent methods in
g en Bench crest
ac rd
considerably reduce computational works for the Sp Bu
simulation of the whole time-history blasting vibra-
tion, but are mostly restricted to two-dimension
analyses in the single blasthole shot or the chamber
blasting. Production blasting vibrations, created by
multiple blastholes which are detonated in a shot

Blasthole length
or millisecond delay blasting, are rarely studied by

Charge length
Bench toe
researchers using numerical methods, and have not
yet been solved better.
For the case of bench blasting, an equivalent
procedure is proposed in the present study for
simulating the whole time-history blasting vibra-
tion induced by the detonation of multiple blast-
holes. This method is demonstrated by comparing
computational vibrations with measured data in (a) geometrical design
the field.

2 EQUIVALENT SIMULATION METHODS

Figure 1a presents a geometrical design of bench

blasting used in most slope excavation and mining
projects today. To avoid excessive charge weight
in a single shot, the millisecond delay blasting is
usually adopted in large-scale blasting excava-
tion of rock mass. Taking example for a row of
blastholes, a model of bench blasting is developed
shown in Figure 1b. It is a ground block measuring (b) FEM model
100 m 120 m 50 m (length width height),
with a bench height of 8.0 m in its upper zone. Figure 1. Bench blasting model used for the calculations.
Four blastholes are arranged in the middle zone
of the bench and detailed blasting parameters are Table 1. Design parameters for the bench blasting.
listed in Table 1. Blasting-induced vibrations are
calculated by employing the commercial software Item Value
LS-DYNA. It is an explicit, three-dimensional,
Explosive type 2# rock emulsion
dynamic finite element program, and allows ana- explosive
lyzing wide deformations and nonlinear behav- Velocity of detonation (m/s) 35004500
iors of materials. The simulation, which considers Explosive density (kg/m3) 9501300
vibration, impact and movement, is guided by the Charge diameter (mm) 90
widely known equation: Blasthole diameter (mm) 90
Blasthole length (m) 8.0
[M ]{a} + [C ]{v} + [K ]{d } = {F } (1) Charge length (m)
Burden (m)
6.4
2.0
Spacing (m) 2.1
where [M] = mass matrix; {a} = acceleration vec-
tor; [C] = damping matrix; {v} = velocity vector;
[K] = stiffness matrix; {d} = displacement vector; (5000 K). High pressure appears as shock wave
and {F} = external nodal forces vector. spreading in adjacent rock mass. A thin zone could
be seen in the immediate vicinity of the explosion
(Fig. 2), in which the rock mass is extensively bro-
2.1 Two simulation methods ken or crushed. The shock wave soon decays to a
A gigantic amount of energy is produced by explo- high-amplitude stress wave followed by gas pres-
sion detonation in the blasthole in forms of high sure load due to gas expansion. The former initi-
pressure (50,000 MPa) and high temperature ates cracks around the blasthole, and the latter

474

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 474 10/3/2012 8:42:28 PM

 Poisson coefficient = 0.21 and uni-axial compres-
sive strength c = 80 MPa.

2.2 Extent of the elastic boundary

Several models have been proposed to estimate
the extents of crushed zone and fractured zone
surrounding one blasthole. For example, to predict
the extent of crush, Esen et al. (2003) presented a
new engineering model by way of back-analysis
of direct measurements on crushed zone, and 92
blasting tests on concrete blocks have been done
with two commercial explosives.

0 812rb (CZI )
0.219
rc (2)
where rc = crushed zone radius; rb = blasthole radius;
and CZI = crushed zone index. CZI is a dimension-
less index that identifies the crushing potential of a
charged blasthole and calculated from:
Pb3
Z =
CZI (3)
K c2
Figure 2. Plan view of blasthole with zones and excava-
tion contour. where Pb = blasthole pressure; c = uni-axial com-
pressive strength; and K = rock mass stiffness.
Assuming the rock mass within the crushed zone is
penetrates into these cracks and causes their fur- homogeneous and isotropic, K is given by:
ther extension, forming a fractured zone. When the
stress wave is propagated to the outer boundary of Ed
K= (4)
the fractured zone, it has attenuated to a seismic 1 + d
wave, where only the elastic vibration arises in the
rock mass. where Ed = dynamic Youngs modulus; and
Blasting vibration is elastic response of rock d = dynamic Poissons ratio.
mass under dynamic loads. Therefore, crushed The crushed zone radius predicted by Equa-
zone and fractured zone generated by explosion are tion 24 is about 2 to 10 times the blasthole radius
treated as parts of vibration source in the numeri- that shows a satisfactory agreement with measure-
cal modeling, and the blasting load is equivalently ments by Onederra et al. (2004) in six full scale
applied to the elastic boundary (the outer bound- bench blasting operations.
ary of the fractured zone) around each blasthole Mosinets & Gorbacheva (1972) proposed the
(Fig. 2). Further simplification is conducted on this following equations for the identification of the
basis, and the blasting load is applied to the excava- crushed zone and fractured zone. They are in good
tion contour without taking the blastholes layout agreement with the ground penetrating radar stud-
into account, which simplifies the model meshing ies made by Grodner (2001) in South African gold
and reduces computational works. For the case of mines.
bench blasting, the real excavation contour is the
face consisting of the connecting line of blasthole Cs
rc = 3 q (5)
centers and the blasthole axis in the same delay. In Cp
view of large numbers of micro-cracks near the real
excavation contour in the remaining rock mass, in Cp
this simulation, the envelope of elastic boundaries rf = 3 q (6)
Cs
around each blasthole is regard as the numerical
excavation contour, shown in Figure 2. Compli- where rf = fractured zone radius; Cp = longitudinal
cated stress conditions and changes of continu- wave velocity; Cs = transverse wave velocity; and
ity state of rock mass due to rock fragmentation q = charge weight in TNT equivalent.
are skirt round in these two equivalent simulation Above equations indicate that the extents of
methods, so the rock mass can be treated as an elas- the crushed zone and the fractured zone depend
tic material. It is characterized by values: density on the explosive type, rock mass properties and
= 2610 kg/m3, Young modulus E = 20,000 MPa, blasting parameters. But owing to the extreme

475

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 475 10/3/2012 8:42:29 PM

 complexity of the dynamic fragmentation of rock
mass by blasting, the extents of the zones reported
by different researchers are quite different. The
crushed zone radius is about 2 to 5 times the blast-
hole radius, and the fractured zone radius varies
10 to 100 times the blasthole radius (Mosinets &
Gorbacheva 1972; Donze et al. 1997; Grodner 2001;
Esen et al. 2003; Onederra et al. 2004; Onederra &
Esen 2004; Saharan et al. 2006; Mandal & Singh
2009). Calculating the extents is not our empha-
sis, so rc = 2.0rb and rf = 10.0rb are taken approxi- (a) non-uniform load
mately in the present study, and the dimension
of excavation contour is 7.2 m 2.45 m 8.0 m
(length width height).

2.3 Blasting load

Pressure decay functions as direct inputs of dynamic
pressure are normally used to simulate the blast-
ing load (Cho & Kaneko 2004; Ma & An 2008).
Whereas, these equations require assumptions of
some parameters whose physical significance is
unknown. The triangular load function has also
been attempted to approximate the dynamic load.
This procedure, however, fails to fully consider
blasting parameters and the quasi-static pressure
of detonation gases, and hence not get close to real
physical characteristics of the blasting load.
A new pressure-time variation for the cylindri-
cal charge initiated at the bottom, fully describing
the expansion of blasthole volume, the growth of
cracks surrounding the blasthole, the ejection of
stemming and the outburst of detonation gases,
is introduced by the authors to approximate the
blasting load as a direct input in numerical mod-
elling (Lu et al. 2011). In this method, the gas
pressures at different cross-sections of blasthole
wall are non-uniform due to considering the out-
burst unsteady flow of detonation gases. When
the detonation wave is propagated to the involved
blasthole cross-section, the blasting load at this
section rises to a maximum. The peak blasthole
pressure can be estimated from the following
equation:
e (VOD )2
Pb = (7)
2(( + )
where e = explosive density; VOD = velocity of
detonation; and = adiabatic exponent. From
experimental results, the constant is expected to
be in the range 1.23.0.
The rising time of blasting load can be deter-
mined as:
tr = L x (8)
VOD
where tr = rising time of blasting load; L = blast-
hole length; and x = location of any cross-section
(b) uniform load and comparison with different
methods
Figure 3. Blasting loads applied to the blasthole wall.
in the coordinate axis with the origin being at the
orifice of blasthole.
For e = 1000 kg/m3, VOD = 3500 m/s and = 3.0,
five pressure-time curves at intervals of 2.0 m along
the blasthole length are computed and plotted in
Figure 3a. The peak pressure on the blasthole wall
is Pb = 1531 MPa, the rising time for different cross-
sections varies from 0 to 1.8 ms and the duration
is about 25 ms. If considering the average of these
five curves, a uniform pressure variation along the
blasthole length can be obtained as plotted in Fig-
ure 3b. It is in good agreement with the observed
profiles by Saharan & Mitri (2008). As can been
seen from the comparison that, the pressure-time
profile proposed by the authors better approxi-
mates the quasi-static load of detonation gases
than the profiles obtained by the pressure decay
function and the triangular load function.
It is generally believed that the distance-decay for
the blasting load follows the law of negative power
function. The attenuation exponent is = 2 + /
(1 ) in the crushed zone and = 2 /(1 )
in the fractured zone. Defining the blasting load
applied to any cross-section of blasthole wall at
any time as Pb(x, t), the blasting load equivalently
applied to the elastic boundary Pe(x, t) is:
2 2 +
r 1 rf 1
(9)
Pe (x
x t) Pb ( x, t ) c r
rb c

476

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 476 10/3/2012 8:42:32 PM

 The blasting load equivalently applied to the
excavation contour Pc(x, t) is given by:
2rf
Pc ( x, t ) P ( x, t )
S e
where S = spacing between adjacent blastholes.
From Equations 910, the peak pressures of
Pe = 19.5 MPa and Pc = 8.4 MPa are obtained and
blasting load variations are consistent with that on
the blasthole wall, as plotted in Figure 3.
3 COMPARISON BETWEEN TWO
EQUIVALENT SIMULATION METHODS
In order to get a preferable equivalent simulation
method for the whole time-history blasting vibra-
tion, these two methods are compared in terms of
horizontal radial PPVs right behind the blasting
area. The Saudorsky formula is adopted for the
fitting of calculated PPVs:
Q1 / 3
PPV = k
d
where k = a parameter describing the propagat-
ing media; Q = charge weight in a single shot, kg;
d = source-to-monitor distance, m; and = attenu-
ation exponent.
tance, PPVs begin to converge. Consequently, the
nonuniformity of blasting load, corresponding to
the propagation of detonation waves as well as the
non-steady flow of detonation gases out from the
(10)
blasthole, only influence the near-field vibrations.
Therefore, only the uniform load is considered in
the following calculations.
3.2 Appling blasting load to the excavation
contour
As the blasting load is applied to the excavation con-
tour, three cases are calculated (see Fig. 5): (I) uni-
form pressure is just applied to Face (A); (II) uniform
pressures are applied to Face (A), (B) and (C);
(III) uniform pressures are applied to Face (A), (B),
(C) and (D). PPV variations with distance in these
three cases are basically identical with the amplitude
difference of no more than 1.0 cm/s and the attenu-
ation coefficient difference of no more than 0.1
(Fig. 6). With regard to these monitoring points in
the rear of the present model, different loading loca-
tions have no effect on calculated results. Specific
(11) loading location depends on the model structure
and the arrangement of monitoring points.

3.1 Appling blasting load to the elastic boundary

Figure 4 gives the comparison of PPVs as the
non-uniform load (Fig. 3a) and the uniform load
(Fig. 3b) applied to the elastic boundary, where R is
the correlation coefficient of fitting. It is seen that
with 15.0 m of source-to-monitor distance, PPVs
of the non-uniform load are slightly larger than
that of the uniform load, and attenuate faster. It is
because that the surrounding rock mass is loosed
when the bottom load is firstly applied, and then
the following loads applied in the middle and top
sections will aggravate the vibration and the loose. Figure 4. Curves of PPVs attenuating with distance as
But outside the 15.0 m of source-to-monitor dis- blasting loads applied to the elastic boundary.

(a) Case I (b) Case II (c) Case III

Figure 5. Loading locations as blasting loads applied to the excavation contour.

477

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 477 10/3/2012 8:42:34 PM


Figure 6. PPVs at different distances as blasting loads
applied to the excavation contour.
Figure 7. Curves of PPVs attenuating with distance
from different equivalent simulation methods.
3.3 Comparison and selection
Figure 7 shows the outputs from two different
equivalent simulation methods, where Face (A),
(B), (C) and (D) are all loaded to be better in line
with reality when the blasting load is applied to
the excavation contour. From the comparison, it is
observed that within 20.0 m of source-to-monitor
distance, PPVs of loading on the elastic boundary
are slightly larger. Since the far-field zone is always
the interest of studying blasting vibrations, a sim-
plified treatment is feasible that the blasting load
is applied to the excavation contour instead of the
elastic boundary, in which the near-field differences
are ignored. This disposes the trouble of meshing
for multiple blastholes and improves the computa-
tional efficiency. As an approximate method, it is
no doubt more practical for the simulation of the
whole time-history blasting vibration.
478
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 478
4 SIMULATION OF WHOLE TIME-
HISTORY BLASTING VIBRATION
The equivalent simulation procedure presented in
our study is applied to a bench blast of the main
powerhouse in the Pubugou Hydropower Station
to demonstrate its adequacy.
4.1 Site description and field tests
The Pubugou Hydropower Station, with capac-
ity of 3300 MW, is located in the western part
of Sichuan Province in China and in the mid-
stream of Tatu River. Its underground pow-
erhouse consists of the main powerhouse, the
main transformer chamber, the gate chamber,
diversion tunnels and tailrace tunnels. Surround-
ing rock mass is granite characterized by density
= 2610 kg/m3, Young modulus E = 20,000 MPa,
Poisson coefficient = 0.21. The main power-
house measures 290.65 m 26.80 m 66.68 m
(length width height). According to the design,
the main powerhouse is excavated in nine layers
from up to down, each of which has a height of
about 8.0 m. In the forth layer, to protect the side
wall, the middle part is firstly excavated ahead of
two sides. Here the blast is divided into 8 delays
and odd series of pyrotechnic detonators labeled
as MS1-MS15 are adopted. Detailed blasting
design parameters are listed in Table 1. During
a blast, vibration monitoring was conducted by
employing a digital data logging and analysis sys-
tem. Two measurement points of vibration sensors
were respectively arranged on the floor of the main
powerhouse and on the side wall of the main trans-
former chamber directly toward the blasting area,
as shown in Figure 8. The obtained velocity histo-
ries can be seen in the following numerical simula-
tion section.
4.2 Numerical model
The geometric model (Fig. 9) is a under-
ground block measuring 190 m 130 m 120 m
(length width height), where the main power-
house and the main transformer chamber are exca-
vated in its middle area. A bench height of 8.0 m
is in the upper zone of main powerhouse which is
the area where the blasting is simulated. The model
mesh has 308,904 elements and 324,987 nodes. To
avoid the effect of possible wave reflections, the
model limits are set to transmitting boundaries.
The element sizes vary from 0.5 m near the pres-
suring point to 2.5 m in the border, thus obtaining
the inexistence of wave distortions. The time step
of 0.1 ms is selected in the present simulation. The
damping in the model is done through the Rayleigh
classical approach by making the damping matrix
10/3/2012 8:42:36 PM
 80.0 8.0
A A
Protective layer

4.0
Main powerhouse
26.8

MS13
MS9

MS1
MS5
1#
Blasting area
Measurement point

Free surface
2.1
41.9

18.8
2.0
Measurement point

MS11
MS15

MS3
MS7
2#
18.3

Main transformer chamber

685.2
Blasting area Protective layer

4.0
1#
Free surface
677.4
A A

Figure 8. Diagrammatic representation of the blasting vibration monitoring and blasting design (units: m).

Figure 9. Dynamic finite element model used for the calculations.

equal to a linear combination of the mass and stiff-
ness matrix. Values used in our case are respectively
4.0 and 0.00007.
4.3 Results and discussion
Despite making use of the equivalent method, enor-
mous computation is still required to simulate the
entire excavation of 8 delays. For simplicity, only
the whole time-history blasting vibrations induced
by the blast of MS1 delay are calculated here.
Figure 10 shows whole time-history velocities
obtained by the numerical simulation and the site
monitoring. It can be seen that the results are not
satisfactory, as the simulated waves with smaller
PPVs and higher frequencies are not so similar to
the measured ones. It is the authors belief that this
is a consequence of the high in-situ stress of about
20 MPa in the blasting area, and an EDZ would be
induced close to the surface of the remaining rock
mass due to the effects of stress redistribution and
blasting. Martino & Chandler (2004) found that
the micro-cracks mainly extended to 0.5 m close
to the tunnel wall, but did persist to a depth of at
least 1.0 m into the rock mass. The surface damage
is encountered likewise for the open-pit blasting
attributed to the temperature change, the pore pres-
sure change and the near-by excavations. Damage
causes the deterioration of the surface rock mass
that is not considered in above calculations.
In the improved model, two thin weak layers
extending respectively 00.5 m and 0.51.0 m from
the excavation perimeter into the rock mass are sim-
ply used to model the EDZ. There is no available
test data for the rock mass properties in EDZ, so a
parameter study is carried out to adjust the proper
values by comparing the numerical results with the
real waves. By applying reduction coefficients of 0.5
and 0.2 respectively to the elastic moduli of these
two weak layers, results of the modified model are
shown in Figure 11. With this adjustment, shapes of
simulated and real waves show a better agreement.

479

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 479 10/3/2012 8:42:37 PM

 (a) 1# measurement point
(b) 2# measurement point
Figure 10. Whole time-history blasting vibration veloc-
ities without considering the EDZ.
However probably owing to the drift error of moni-
toring instruments and local rock loosening at meas-
urement points during monitoring, simulated and
real waves differ widely at tails, which does not affect
the overall law of vibrations.
5 CONCLUSIONS
Although the JWL equation of state is the most
popular approach to modeling explosions, it
presents a considerable challenge when applying
in the simulation of the whole time-history vibra-
tion for the blasting of multiple blastholes. This
paper presents in detail an equivalent simulation
procedure for the case of bench blasting, in which
the crushed zone and the fractured zone generated
by explosion are treated as parts of the vibration
source without taking the rock fragmentation into
account, and the time-varying pressure as a load
480
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 480
(a) 1# measurement point
(b) 2# measurement point
Figure 11. Whole time-history blasting vibration veloc-
ities considering the EDZ.
input is equivalently applied to the elastic bound-
ary around each blasthole or to the excavation
contour. This equivalent method allows using sim-
ple elastic material for the rock mass, disposes the
trouble of modeling and meshing multiple blast-
holes, and reduces the computational works. From
the simulated PPV results, it is concluded that dif-
ferent loading patterns, locations and boundaries
only influence the near-field vibrations. Ignoring
the near-field differences, a simplified treatment of
applying the blasting load to the excavation con-
tour instead of the elastic boundary is more prac-
tical for the simulation of the whole time-history
blasting vibration. Comparisons with field moni-
toring waves at different distances are conducted
to demonstrate the adequacy of this equivalent
simulation method. The damage of surface rock
mass should be considered in simulation, and this
can be made by simply locating thin weak layers
close to the excavation perimeter.
10/3/2012 8:42:37 PM
 It should be pointed out that the emphasis of
this paper is to present an equivalent simulation
method for the whole time-history blasting vibra-
tion. Some assumptions and simplifications are
made. For example, geological structures and in-
situ stresses are neglected. As well, the numerical
whole time-history vibrations are only compared
with monitoring waves obtained in the far-field
zone, and the near-field differences are ignored.
Due to differences between the selected numerical
characteristic parameters and the real ones, the
values should be modified according to measured
velocity histories.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work is supported by Chinese National Pro-
grams for Fundamental Research and Development
(973 Program) (2011CB013501), Chinese National
Science Fund for Distinguished Young Scholars
(51125037), the Research Fund for the Doctoral
Program of Higher Education (20110141110026)
and the Academic Award Nominee for Excellent
PH.D. Candidates Funded by Wuhan University
(T2011206009).
REFERENCES
Chen, S.G. & Zhao, J. 1998. A study of UDEC model-
ling for blast wave propagation in jointed rock masses.
International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining
Sciences, 35(1): 9399.
Cho, S.H. & Kaneko, K. 2004. Influence of the applied
pressure waveform on the dynamic fracture processes
in rock. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and
Mining Sciences, 41(5): 771784.
Donze, F.V., Bouchez, J. & Magnier, S.A. 1997. Mod-
eling fractures in rock blasting. International Jour-
nal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences, 34(8):
11531163.
Esen, S., Onederra, I. & Bilgin, H.A. 2003. Modelling the
size of the crushed zone around a blasthole. Interna-
tional Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences,
40(4): 485495.
Grodner, M. 2001. Delineation of rockburst fractures
with ground penetrating radar in the Witwatersrand
Basin, South Africa. International Journal of Rock
Mechanics and Mining Sciences, 38(6): 885891.
Khandelwal, M. 2010. Evaluation and prediction of
blast-induced ground vibration using support vector
machine. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and
Mining Sciences, 47(3): 509516.
Langefors, U. & Kihlstrom, B. 1963. The modern tech-
nique of rock blasting. New York: Wiley.
Li, H.B., Xia, X., Li, J.C., Zhao, J., Liu, B. & Liu, Y.Q.
2011. Rock damage control in bedrock blasting exca-
vation for a nuclear power plant. International Jour-
nal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences, 48(2):
210218.
481
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 481
Liang, Q.G., An, Y.F., Zhao, L., Li, D.W. & Yan, L.P.
2011. Comparative study on calculation methods of
blasting vibration velocity. Rock Mechanics and Rock
Engineering, 44(1): 93101.
Lu, Y. & Wang, Z.Q. 2006. Characterization of struc-
tural effects from above-ground explosion using cou-
pled numerical simulation. Computers and Structures,
84(28): 17291742.
Lu, W.B., Yang, J.H., Chen, M. & Zhou, C.B. 2011. An
equivalent method for blasting vibration simulation.
Simulation Modelling Practice and Theory, 19(9):
20502062.
Ma, G.W. & An, X.M. 2008. Numerical simulation of
blasting-induced rock fractures. International Journal of
Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences, 45(6): 966975.
Mandal, S.K. & Singh, M.M. 2009. Evaluating extent
and causes of overbreak in tunnels. Tunnelling and
Underground Space Technology, 24(1): 2236.
Martino, J.B. & Chandler, N.A. 2004. Excavation-
induced damage studies at the Underground Research
Laboratory. International Journal of Rock Mechanics
and Mining Sciences, 41(8): 14131426.
Mesec, J., Kovac, I. & Soldo, B. 2010. Estimation of
particle velocity based on blast event measurements
at different rock units. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake
Engineering, 30(10): 10041009.
Mosinets, V.N. & Gorbacheva, N.P. 1972. A seismological
method of determining the parameters of the zones of
deformation of rock by blasting. Soviet Mining Sci-
ence, 8(6): 640647.
Onederra, I. & Esen, S. 2004. An alternative approach to
determine the holmberg-persson constants for model-
ling near field peak particle velocity attenuation. Frag-
blast, 8(2): 6184.
Onederra, I., Esen, S. & Jankovic, A. 2004. Estimation
of fines generated by blastingapplications for the
mining and quarrying industries. Mining Technology,
113(4): 237247.
Park, D., Jeon, B. & Jeon, S. 2009. A numerical study
on the screening of blast-induced waves for reducing
ground vibration. Rock Mechanics and Rock Engi-
neering, 42(3): 449473.
Saharan, M.R. & Mitri, H.S. 2008. Numerical proce-
dure for dynamic simulation of discrete fractures due
to blasting. Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering,
41(5): 641670.
Saharan, M.R., Mitri, H.S. & Jethwa, J.L. 2006. Rock
fracturing by explosive energy: review of state-of-the-
art. Fragblast, 10(12): 6181.
Shin, J.H., Moon, H.G. & Chae, S.E. 2011. Effect of
blast-induced vibration on existing tunnels in soft
rocks. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology,
26(1): 5161.
Singh, T.N. & Singh, V. 2005. An intelligent approach to
prediction and control ground vibration in mines. Geo-
technical and Geological Engineering, 23(3): 249262.
Torao, J., Rodrguez, R., Diego, I., Rivas, J.M. & Casal,
M.D. 2006. FEM models including randomness and
its application to the blasting vibrations prediction.
Computers and Geotechnics, 33(1): 1528.
Wei, X.Y., Zhao, Z.Y. & Gu, J. 2009. Numerical simula-
tions of rock mass damage induced by underground
explosion. International Journal of Rock Mechanics
and Mining Sciences, 46(7): 12061213.
10/3/2012 8:42:39 PM
This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Evaluation of the effect of ground vibration due to blasting on adjacent

structures in dam construction projects

H. Bakhshandeh Amnieh & A. Siamaki

Mining engineering department, Kashan university, Iran

ABSTRACT: Only a proportion of the energy released from blasting is consumed for fragmentation of
the rock mass. A sizable proportion of the energy is wasted in air-blast, ground vibration and fly-rock.
Stress waves propagated in the surrounding environment transfers the energy to the nearby structures.
In case induced ground vibration exceeds the allowable threshold for the specific structure, this will lead
to considerable damage and financial loss. In this article, the influence of ground vibrations produced
in 4 dams of Eevashan, Kangir, Shian and Gotvand have been investigated, on the adjacent structures
including local village house and power-plant infrastructure. Explosions were carried out at distances of
200700 m and having used 3-component seismographs (PG 2002), the vibrations were recorded. Having
studied these, relations and limitations have been proposed for all four dams, and an attempt was made to
introduce a general empirical relation for estimation of peak particle velocity. Since Shian, Eivashan and
Kangir dams are near residential areas, some relations for the prediction of the PPV at these areas were
presented based on the relation proposed by the USBM. In addition the amount of the permissible charge
weights for different distances from the blasting point was proposed based on DIN 4150-3:1999 and ISO
4866:1990. Gotvand dam blasts effect on tunnels linings and the concrete structure of phase 1 power
plant were investigated and a relation for the determination of the charge weight at different distances
from the concrete structure of phase 1 power plant was proposed.

1 INTRODUCTION effect causes a decrease in the wave range due to its

geometric propagation. They rewrote the relation
Vibrations caused by blasting have always been a proposed by the USBM based on the non-elastic
problem in construction projects because of the damping factor. Pal Roy (1991) assumed that when
damage to the surrounding residential and indus- vibrating waves propagate in the rock mass, there
trial buildings, and the complaints the residents is an increase in its volume which decreases the
have lodged. This is why blasting operations are density of the energy. The density reduction proc-
designed and performed so as to suit different ess, considering a geometrical propagation, causes
structures, considering the available standards. a reduction in the energy during the wave propa-
The amount of the allowable charge and the suit- gationhence, a reduction in its range [White &
able relation for the prediction of the Peak Particle Farnfielf, 1993; Bhandri, 1997; Singh & Lamond,
Velocity (PPV) are determined based on recorded 1993; Sastry & Singh, 1992; Pal Roy et al., 1992].
data. Table 1 shows some relations proposed by different
There are many relations for the prediction of researchers.
vibrations caused by blasting, among which the
ones presented by Cole and Lyakov in 1949 are
for concentration of the explosives in water and Table 1. Some relations proposed for the prediction of
PPV.
saturated soils. Duvall and Fogelson (1962) of the
United States Bureau of Mining (USBM) found Investigator Relation
that the PPV is scaled with the square of the charge
weight. Ambrasey and Hendron (1968) considered Duvall and Fogelson (1962) PPV = K(D/Q1/2)
the cube root of the maximum charge. Langefors Ambrasey and Hendron (1968) PPV = K(D/Q1/3)
and Khilstrom (1973) presented a relation for the
prediction of the PPV based on Q/D3/2, which is
acceptable for different charge weights. Ghosh
Langefors and Khilstrom
(1973)
=K ( Q D
)

Ghosh and Deamen (1983) PPV = K(D/Q1/2) eP.D

and Deamen (1983) stated that numerous non- PPV = K(D/Q1/3) eP.D
elastic factors cause a reduction in the energy of Pal Roy (1991) PPV = n + K(D/Q1/2)1
the wave during its propagation; this non-elastic

483

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 483 10/3/2012 8:42:39 PM

 In these relations, PPV is the peak particle veloc-
ity, D is the distance from the explosion point, Q is
the charge per delay, and K, are the area param-
eters. In the relations proposed by Ghosh and
Deamen, P is the non-elastic damping factor, and
in Pal Roys proposal, n is related to parameters
affected by ground discontinuities and rock mass.
In this article, to investigate the effects of blast-
ing in dam construction projects on residential
buildings and concrete structures near the blast
area, studies were done on four dams, namely
Shian, Kangir, Eivashan and Gotvand. Blasting
data of these dams were recorded using PG-2000
3-component seismographs. In this study, vibra-
tions caused by blasting as well as the determina-
tion of suitable relations for the estimation of the
PPV and the highest charge weight were examined,
all with regard to the threshold limits.
2 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL
SITUATION OF THE DAMS
Blasting is a low cost, economical method for
fragmentation of rock masses in mining and con-
struction projects, but the side effects are worth
considering. A serious problem in the blasting of
the above four dams was the undesirable effect of
blast vibrations on residential buildings and nearby
concrete structures.
Shian reservoir dam in the Kermanshah prov-
ince, west of Iran, is an earthen structure, and of
the homogeneous type. The height from the river
bed is 20.45 m, the crown length and width are
1005 m and 8 m, respectively, the reservoir volume,
in normal utilization range, is 9 million m3, and its
adjustment volume is 13.5 million m3. The nearest
village to the dam construction site is about 600 m,
and the residential buildings are built of mud and
bricks or adobe.
Eivashan reservoir dam in the Lorestan prov-
ince, central Iran, is an earth dam with a clay core.
The maximum height from the riverbed is 64 m, the
crown length and width are 529 m and 8 m, respec-
tively and the reservoir volume in normal utiliza-
tion range is 4.51 million m3. The village houses are
from 300 to 700 m from the dam construction site
and are of adobe, mud and wooden frameworks.
Kangir reservoir dam in the southwest of Iran
is a homogeneous earth dam. The height from the
riverbed is 42 m. The nearest village to it is about
1500 m away, with adobe, mud and brick houses.
Some have wooden frameworks and brick walls.
Gotvand dam and its power plant are in Khooz-
estan province. The main objective of this hydro-
electrical dam is to produce 4500 mkw/hr of energy.
It is an earthen dam with a clay core, 180 m in
height and a crown length of 640 m. The maximum
484
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 484
thickness of the crown is 15 m. The dam body is
estimated to be about 29 million m3, and the over-
all reservoir capacity is about 4.5 billion m3.
Geologically, Shian, Kangir and Eivashan dam
sites are in the Gachsaran formation which, in
general, consists of Asmari limestone. This forma-
tion consists of grey, green and red clay lime along
with Asmari limestone with silicate sandstone.
Gotvand dam is located in the stratified Zagros
zone, which includes the Bakhtiari and Aghajari
formations and a middle zone. The Bakhtiari is
formed by conglomeration of different degrees of
cementation in sandstone and mudstone veins. The
Aghajari formation consists of successively strong
and weak mudstone and sandstone layers [Mahab
Ghodss & Coyne et al., Bellier, 2000].
3 INVESTIGATION OF BLASTING
INDUCED GROUND VIBRATION
EFFECTS ON RESIDENTIAL AREAS
Eivashan, Shian and Kangir reservoir dams are
near rural and residential areas. This is why investi-
gating the vibrations due to blasting operations in
these dams and their effects on the structures and
the residential buildings around them are of spe-
cial importance. Determination of the allowable
range of the vibrations, considering the structure
type and the maximum charge weight per delay
for the blasts, is a precautionary measure taken to
reduce the rate of the vibrations and to eliminate
the damage to residential buildings.
To achieve safe vibrations in the above areas,
six 3-component records from Shian, six from
Eivashan and seven from Kangir have been
obtained from seven blasts. Table 2 shows the
number of the records for different distances.
3.1 Determination of a suitable relation for the
prediction of the PPV
The objective of recording the data obtained from
blasting operations in these three dams is not only
to determine the proper charge weight to lessen
the damage to residential buildings, but also to
find suitable relations for the prediction of the
PPV. A very important relation for the prediction
Table 2. Recorded data frequency at different
distances.
Distance from blasting (m) No. of records
200400 6
400600 5
600800 4
8001000 4
10/3/2012 8:42:40 PM
 of the blast induced vibrations is proposed by the
USBM. Figure 1 shows the changes in the PPV
of the recorded data for the scaled distance of the
above mentioned dams.
Consider Figure 1. To find the constants of
the relation proposed by the USBM, a regression
analysis was performed on the data recorded for
each dam. As seen in Figure 1D, it is not possible
to achieve a single relation for the prediction of the Figure 2. Gotvand dam tunnelsschematic view.
PPV because of the scattered data (due to different
geological conditions). Therefore, the constants K
and in the USBM relation and the correlation Table 4. Maximum charge weight for dif-
coefficient are found according to Table 3 by doing ferent distances from residential areas.
regression on the data found for each dam. In gen-
eral, if the correlation coefficient is more than 0.7, Distance from Maximum charge
the relation is acceptable [Azimi et al., 2010]. To blasting (m) per delay (kg)
make sure of the capability of the calculated con-
50 2.9
stants and coefficients, the relative error of the 100 11.6
results from the relations was determined. Accord- 200 46
ing to Table 3, the relative error found from these 3 300 104
relations is in the acceptable range. 400 185
Before blasting operations, we visited the residen- 500 290
tial areas near these dams to study the structures. 600 417
Most of them are made of adobe, mud and bricks 700 568
and few have wooden skeletons; metal structures are
rare. There were some radial and diagonal cracks
on the structures as a result of previous blasts.
According to the USBM, vibrations having frequen- The recorded wave frequencies of these 3
cies less than 40 Hz have more potential to harm dams are within a range of 10 to 40 Hz. There-
structures [Siskind et al., 1980]. This is why there will fore, we considered the structure type and vibrat-
be unforeseen damage if these points are neglected. ing frequencies, and the regulations applicable to
them. According to DIN 4150-3:1999 and ISO
4866:1990 codes, the allowable rate of vibration
for such structures is 4 mm/s, and according to the
USBM, it is 12.5 mm/s [DIN, 1999; ISO, 1990]. As
seen in Figure 2, only one wave with a vibration
of 6.7 mm/s is above the threshold, but consider-
ing the USBM code, it is within the safe limits.
Other records are less than 4 mm/s (the allowable
limit) and about 90% are below 1 mm/s. Therefore,
considering the structure types, the vibrations
caused by blasting in these areas are within the
safe limits.
Figure 1. The PPVscaled distance changes of To increase safety, the permissible amount of
the recorded data. AKangir dam, BShian dam, charge weight for Eivashan dam was determined
CEivashan dam, DComparison of the data of the according to Table 4.
3 dams.

4 STUDYING THE EFFECTS OF

Table 3. Results obtained by the analysis of the data BLASTING VIBRATIONS ON
recorded at Shian, Eivashan and Kangir dams. UNDERGROUND AND SURFACE
CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Dam K R2 (%) Relative
errors
Gotvand dam waterway system consists of 4 tunnels,
Shian 2.3 841.16 0.913 17.47 each with a diameter of 11 m, that channel water
Eivashan 2.514 19946 0.936 28.4 through the intake structure and hydro-mechanical
Kangir 1.73 175.49 0.811 15.71 equipment. Considering the water pressure, and to
prevent cavitation, the intake tunnels are connected

485

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 485 10/3/2012 8:42:40 PM

 to shock absorber storage tanks along their path To check the safety level of these vibra-
by some shafts. In their path, the intake tunnels tions, USBM and Oriard criteria were used.
reach a turnout and increase to 8 tunnels, 7 m in Figure 4 shows the maximum PPV at different dis-
diameter each. Then, after a short distance, they tances, evaluated for 48-day old concrete according
reach the vertical shafts and continue on a hori- to Oriard criteria. As seen, all the data points lie
zontal route, with high pressure, and finally, enter within acceptable levels [Lucca, 2003].
the power plant. Figure 2 shows the tunnel struc- Considering the results of the investigation of
tures of this dam [1]. the effects of the blasting vibrations on under-
Concrete structures, tunnel lining and other ground structures, the third root of the scaled dis-
concrete works in the power plant, existing on the tance was used to predict the PPV. The empirical
dam construction site, are among the structures relation for the prediction of the PPV with a cor-
susceptible to blasting vibrations. It is necessary, relation coefficient of 0.825 was achieved by per-
then, that special care be taken of such structures, forming a regression on the recorded data (Fig. 5),
according to the age of the concrete, so that the using the Ambrasey and Hendron relation.
probable damage may be prevented. The objective
of this section is to investigate the effects of the 2.804
blasting vibrations on the lining of Gotvand dam PPV = 9908.8(D/ Q ) (1)
under the pressure tunnels, and on the power plant
phase 1 concrete structure. where PPV is the peak particle velocity, mm/s.
D is the distance from the blasting point, m. Q is
the maximum charge weight per delay, kg.
4.1 Effects of Gotvand dam blasting on the Considering the proposed relation for the pre-
underground structures diction of the PPV and the USBM permissible
The objective of this section is to study the effects vibration for 48-hour old concrete, the maximum
of the blasting of the intake and surge tanks on the charge weight for the blasts of the tunnels bench-
lining of phase 1 intake tunnels. For this propose, ing was determined to be 180 kg.
the records of 7 blasts including 23 3-component
records were recorded. There were 4 blasts in the
intakes, 2 in the surge tanks, and 1 in the spillway.
The locations of the seismographs with respect to
the structures and the blasting blocks have been
chosen so as to make it possible to record the
data in a 120 degree radius of effect of the wave
propagation.
The maximum charge weight per delay for the
blasts of the intake face is 32 kg, and for the tun-
nels, benching is 120 to 300 kg. The seismographs
are located at 56.2 to 145.5 m from the center of
the blasting blocks. The maximum charge weight
per delay for the blasts of the surge tank face is
75 kg and for the tunnels, benching is 122 kg. Figure 4. PPVdistance graph based on Oriard per-
The distance of the seismographs from the blast missible vibration limits.
area is 36.5 to 172.8 m. Figure 3 shows the PPV
frequency graph of the recorded data.

Figure 5. Results of regression analysis on the vibra-

Figure 3. PPVfrequency graph of the recorded data tions data recorded near the lining of Gotvand water way
of Gotvand dam. tunnels.

486

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 486 10/3/2012 8:42:40 PM

 4.2 Effects of Gotvand dam blasts on the
structure of its phase 1 power plant
To study the effects of the vibrations caused by
blasting carried out near Gotvand dam crater on
the structure and equipment of the phase 1 power
plant, the vibrations of 12 blasting, including 27
3-component data, were recorded. The total charge
weight varied between 130 and 1050 kgs, and the
largest and the least distances of the seismographs
from the blasting point were 203 and 24.1 m,
respectively. Considering the range of frequencies,
the USBM code was used, which is in terms of
PPVfrequency. As seen in Figure 6, all the vibra-
tions lie in acceptable levels. Also the vibrations
for 48-hour old concrete are at an acceptable level,
according to the US Army code.
The purpose of recording the data, apart from
studying the blasting vibrations, is to determine
the area coefficients. Therefore, regression analysis
was carried out on the PPV and the scaled distance
parameters with a safety factor of about 90%,
using the recorded data. The correlation coeffi-
cient has been 72%, which is at an acceptable level.
Figure 7 shows the regression analysis of the data
Figure 6. PPVfrequency graph of the data recorded
near the structure of Gotvand dam phase 1 power plant.
Figure 7. Regression analysis on the vibrations recorded
near phase 1 structure of Gotvand dam.
487
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 487
recorded at the blasting operations of the power
plant crater of Gotvand dam.
Based on statistical findings, constant param-
eters of site (K and ) in this area are 183.35 and
0.86, respectively. Therefore, the proper relation
for the estimation of the PPV caused by blasting
at the power plant crater of Gotvand dam, based
on the relation proposed by Duvall and Fogelson,
is as follows:
0.86
PPV = 183.35(D/ Q ) (2)
Rewriting relation 2 on the basis of the amount
of the specific charge and using the US Army EM
2002-2-1110 code as a basis for the possible vibra-
tion limit in concrete structures, we may estimate
the charge weight per delay at different distances
from the power plant structure [Woodson, 2011].
On this basis, the permissible charge weight per
delay for concrete of age more than 48 hours
and for different distances can be determined as
follows:
2
Q D (3)
5 CONCLUSIONS
In this investigation, the effects of the vibrations
caused by blasting in dam construction projects
and on the nearby structures were studied. This
is important in Shian, Eivashan and Kangir dams
because they are near rural areas. This is the rea-
son the data recorded at these 3 dams were inves-
tigated, and some relations for the prediction of
the PPV at these areas were presented based on the
relation proposed by the USBM. Based on DIN
4150-3:1999 and ISO 4866:1990, the permissible
vibration levels for the rural houses were deter-
mined and, based on those, the amount of the
permissible charge weights for different distances
from the blasting point were estimated.
Gotvand dam blasts are important because
they are close to the tunnels linings and the con-
crete structure of the phase 1 power plant, and
may damage them. This is why the vibrations
in these two areas were studied, and some rela-
tions were presented for the prediction of the
PPV using the relations proposed by the USBM
and Ambrasey and Hendron. The permissible
charge weight amounted to 180 kg for the vibra-
tion near the waterway tunnels lining. Also, the
relation Q = 0.92D2 was proposed for the deter-
mination of the charge weight at different dis-
tances from the concrete structure of phase 1
power plant.
10/3/2012 8:42:41 PM
 REFERENCES
Azimi, Y., Khoshrou, S.H., Osanloo, M., Sadeghee, A.
2010. Seismic wave monitoring and ground vibration
analysis for bench blasting in Sungun open pit copper
mine. Fragmentation by Blasting: 561670. Taylor &
Francis Group.
Bhandari, S. 1977. Engineering Rock Blasting Opera-
tions: 213230. Rotterdam: Balkema.
DIN 4150-3:1999. 1999. Structural vibrationEffects of
vibration on structures.
ISO 4866:1990. 1990. Mechanical vibration and shock,
Vibration of buildings, Guidelines for the measure-
ment of vibrations and evaluation of their effects on
buildings.
Lucca, F.J. 2003. Tight construction blasting: ground
vibration basics, monitoring and prediction. Terra
Dinamica LLC.
Mahab Ghodss & Coyne et al, Bellier. 2000. Geotechnical
Characteristics of Gotvand Dam Foundation.
488
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 488
Pal Roy, P., Singh, R.B., Barman, B.K., Bhusan, V. 1992.
Significant characteristics on the prediction and con-
trol of ground vibration due to blasting in a Lead-Zinc
Mine in India. Regional Symposium on Rock Slopes,
India: 121126.
Sastry, V.R. & Singh, D.P. 1992. Ground vibrations pro-
duced due to blasting: Prediction and control. Regional
Symposium on Rock Slopes, India: 397404.
Singh, S.P. & Lamond, R.D. 1993. Prediction and meas-
urement of blast vibration. International Journal of
Surface Mining, Reclamation and Environment.
Siskind, D.E., Stagg, M.S., Kopp, J.W., Dowding, C.H.
1980. Structure response and damage. USBM.
White, T.J. & Farnfielf, R.A. 1993. Spatial relation
between laws of vibration from blasting, Interna-
tional Journal of Surface Mining, Reclamation and
Environment.
Woodson, D. 2011. Concrete portable handbook: 7075.
Elsevier.
10/3/2012 8:42:43 PM
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Analysis of peak particle velocity recorded at underground mine roof

generated by nearby surface blasting: A case study

A.K. Singh & A.K. Jha

Central Mine Planning and Design Institute, Ranchi, India

ABSTRACT: In India, several Underground (UG) coal mines operate in close proximity to active
surface mines where regular blasting is being practiced to remove overburden rocks and coal seam. Due to
this, safety and stability of underground mine openings and structures viz. coal pillars, roof, water dams,
ventilation, isolation stoppings and others underground structures are potentially susceptible to damage
due to blast induced vibration. In order to study the effects of surface blasting on nearby underground
workings, Peak Particle Velocity (PPV) was monitored at various locations in an underground Bord and
Pillar mine. The various scaling laws i.e. fixed and variable are discussed in this paper . The study finds
that, site-specific variable scaling law needs to be considered while calculating the scaled distance when
multiple layers of rock mass and coal strata are present between the UG structures and surface mines in
any geo-mining condition instead of using fixed scaling law. The paper deals with the development of
predictor equation for the case study mine by statistical method as well as by using the neural network
technique. The monitored data is analyzed using statistical techniques to develop a vibration predictor
equation. The data is further analyzed using neural network techniques to forecast PPVs at any under-
ground location based on distance and explosive charge per delay. The efficacy of vibration prediction by
statistical method and neural network techniques is also compared. In case of case study mine, parting
consists of multiple layers of rock mass and coal seams and 0.26 power of charge per delay provides the
best blast vibration prediction equation. The adjusted R2 between the measured and neural network esti-
mated PPVs can be as high as 0.95 as observed under case study mine. Based on the data collected from
case study mine, it can be concluded that performance of neural network techniques is better and reliable
as compared to regression analysis as far as PPV prediction is concerned.

1 INTRODUCTION weight, distance and the amplitude of the motion

There are several underground mines in India
which operate in close proximity to an operating
surface mines. Under such working conditions,
there exists an immense danger to the safety and
stability of underground mine openings and vari-
ous underground structures viz. coal pillars, roof,
water dams, ventilation and isolation stoppings
situated in close proximity to operating surface
mines. The prediction of the peak vibration level
normally measured by Peak Particle Velocity (PPV)
at the various underground structures caused by
neighbouring surface mine blasting is pivotal for
the safety of underground structures in terms of
pillar spalling, roof collapse and junction failure.
In addition, the prediction of vibration will help
the surface mine operators to carry out optimum
size controlled surface blasting with regard to the
safety of the underground mine structures.
The attenuation of vibration depends mainly on
the charge weight, frequency content of wave motion
and geotechnical properties of the transmitting
medium. The interrelationship between the charge
form the basis of describing an attenuation law.
Over the years, several predictor equations (attenu-
ation law) of PPV were developed based on quan-
tity of charge per delay and distance from the
source of blasting (Langefors et al., 1958, Duvall
et al., 1962). These equations are mainly used for
forecasting PPV at a surface point due to blasting
at a surface mine bench. In most of the predictor
equations, the square root of the charge mass per
delay is used in the scaled distance term to predict
the PPV. A few studies have been conducted to
forecast PPVs at an underground location due to
surface blasting. For the same charge and distance,
attenuation of particle vibration (acceleration
and velocity) is more at an underground point as
compared a surface point where free surfaces are
available (Fourie & Green 1993, Singh 2000, Deb &
Jha 2010, Jha 2010). Due to this reason, Fourie &
Green proposed that at an underground location,
PPV is related to 1/3 power of charge per delay. The
mine regulatory body of India, Director General
of Mines Safety (DGMS) requires to Observe
Square Root Scaled Distance (SRSD) to predict

489

CH057_Paper 165.indd 489 10/4/2012 3:28:13 PM

 the vibration level at the various underground and the HR-Seam IV was mined underground. As
structures caused by surface blasts. In a recent case shown in Figure 1, the parting is composed of car-
study it has been observed that PPV may be related bonaceous shale, coal seams and coarse-grained
to 1/4 power of the maximum charge per delay sandstone and shaly sandstone rock layers. Blast
if the transmitting medium contains several coal induced vibration was monitored in the roof, pillar
layers (Deb et al., 2010). and floor of the HR Seam-IV. Generally, coal face
This paper discusses the case study of an exten- is blasted by solid blasting as well as cut blasting
sive vibration monitoring conducted in the Hingir by deploying the coal cutting machine in under-
Rampur Underground Mine due to surface blast- ground galleries. Table 1 lists the brief description
ing at the Samleshwari Opencast Mine (OCM) of underground mine and related geotechnical
operated by Coal India Limited. The PPVs at parameters existing at case study mine.
underground coal mine roofs, pillars and floors
were monitored using eight channel Blastmate III 2.1 Method of work
instruments and Minimate Plus. Surface blasting
and underground monitoring has been synchro- As mentioned before, the Lajkura coal seam of
nized in such a way that the recorded vibrations 810 m thickness has been excavated by shovel
are generated only due to surface blasting. The dumper combination at the Lajkura OCM. The
monitored data are then analyzed using statistical average dip direction of the HR seam-IV was
techniques to develop a new predictor equation. S80oW with a gradient of 1 in 13. This seam was
being mined using conventional Bord and Pillar
method. The Hingir Rampur mine was in existence
2 MINE DESCRIPTION much before than the Samleshwari OCM. As the
Lajkura seam was being excavated, its active face
The case study mine falls in the Ib valley coal- gradually moved closer/over to the Hingir Rampur
field area. The Ib Valley is a part of large syncli- UG mine. During that time, the major influence of
nal Gondwana basin of the Raigarh-Hingir and surface blasting was felt in underground pillars and
the Chattisgarh coalfields (Mahanadi valley). The roofs. Figure 2 shows the Hingir Rampur UG mine
Barakar and Karharbari formations are the major overlaid by the Samleshwari opencast mine along
coal bearing formations. The area is generally free with underground vibration monitoring stations.
from major faults. Figure 1 depicts the schematic The drilling and blasting pattern practiced at
view of typical vertical section of the mine site. The Samleshwari OCM for overburden and coal bench
Lajkura seam has been excavated on the surface is shown in Figures 3 and 4 respectively.
and HR seam-IV has been mined underground The typical drilling and blasting parameters of
using Bord and Pillar mining method. The vertical the blast geometry practiced at overburden bench
parting between these two seams is around 100 m. is as follows:
In the Samleshwari OCM, overburden consists
of top soil, clayey shale and shaly coal having an
average thickness varies between 20 and 25 m. The Table 1. Description of underground mine and related
Lajkura top and bottom seams were extracted by geotechnical parameters.
opencast mining method using shovel-dumper
Name of the seam HRIV seam
combination. During underground monitoring,
the Lajkura top was being extracted on the surface Pillar size (corner to 29 29
corner) m
Gallery width (m) 4.6
Gallery height (m) 2.6
RQD (roof) 50.4
Geological strength index 50.4
(roof)
Support system Roof bolting,
props & cross bars
Average density (t/m3) 1.84
Average P wave velocity (m/s) 2250
(parting)
Weighted UCS (MPa), roof 24.6
Dynamic tensile strength 6.83
(MPa), roof
Immediate roof layer up Shale
Figure 1. Typical layout of Samleshwari OCM and to 2.0 m
Rampur UG mine.

490

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 490 10/3/2012 8:42:43 PM


Figure 2. Part plan showing the monitoring points.
Figure 3. Experimental blast design at overburden
benches at Samleshwari OCM.
Hole diameter (mm): 250
Hole depth (m): 88.5
Burden (m): 5.5
Spacing (m): 6.0
Stemming height (m): 5.0
Explosive charge per hole (kg): 162
Maximum explosive charge/delay (kg): 1620
Charge factor (kg/m3): 0.58
In the following, geometry and others blasting
parameters for coal bench blasting are mentioned.
491
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 491
Figure 4. Experimental blast design at coal benches at
Samleshwari OCM.
Hole diameter (mm): 160
Hole depth (m): 6.0
Burden (m): 3.50
Spacing (m): 4.0
Stemming height (m): 4.0
Average explosive charge per hole (kg): 44
Maximum explosive charge/delay (kg): 440
Charge factor (kg/m3): 0.52
3 MONITORING OF VIBRATION AT
UNDGROUND MINE STRUCTURES
Vibrations in terms particle velocity were recorded
in junction, roofs, coal pillars and mine floors.
Seismographs namely Blastmate III and Minimate
Plus had been used in the case study mine for
recording of vibration data. Monitoring stations
at underground is clearly marked in Figure 2.
Geophones were mounted at least 0.5 to 1 m inside
the roofs, coal pillars and floors. These sensors were
connected to the seismographs which were located
at a safe location in underground. Surface blasting
and underground monitoring were synchronized
such a way that during underground measurement
vibration occurred only due to surface blasting.
A total of 54 observations were recorded at
different locations in the roof.
3.1 Vibration predictor equationsa review
Over the years, the ground vibration generated by
blasting is predicted effectively by blast vibration
predictor equation. All over the world, PPV is the
accepted parameter which represents the mag-
nitude of vibration although in few cases, accel-
eration may provide better insight into the cause
of ground vibration. In general, the blast vibra-
tion predictor equation can be grouped into two
categories.
10/3/2012 8:42:43 PM
 a. Fixed Scaling Laws: In this case, a fixed
power index is assigned to the quantity of
explosive per delay for all cases. A site con-
stant differentiates between different geologi-
cal conditions.
b. Flexible Scaling Laws: In this case, power index
of quantity of explosive per delay as well as the
site constant varies depending on the mine site
conditions.
In real life situation, a site specific best-fit scal-
ing law will be neither square root scaled distance
or Cube Root Scaled Distance (CRSD). Because
of geological site variations and variability in
blasting sources, attenuation characteristics of
seismic waves through solid medium may not
be governed by the square or cubic root scaled
distance. Rather, it will be ascertained from the
best fit model equation of vibration predic-
tion while considering a flexible scaled distance
law. The wave energy and the associated ampli-
tude decreases with increasing distance from
the source due to following four primary causes
(Langefors et al., 1958):
i. Geometrical Spreading
ii. Dispersion
iii. Reflection at acoustic boundaries
iv. Damping
The generalized flexible scaling law of reduction
in PPV can be then written as
PPV = KQm Rn (1)
where, Q = Charge weight/delay (kg/delay), m and
n = Constants to be determined from the measured
data. Equation 1 can be rewritten in terms scaled
distance as
PPV = K(R/Qs)n (2)
where s = m/n. Taking natural log in both sides,
equation 2 becomes
4 DEVELOPMENT OF PREDICTOR
EQUATION
In order to measure the adequacy of the statistical
model, the coefficient of multiple determination
(R2), adjusted coefficient of multiple determina-
tion and F statistic has been used. The R2 and
R2adjusted show the measure of the amount of reduc-
tion in variability of dependent variable i.e. PPV
obtained by using independent variables. The F
statistic measures the goodness of fit.
As mentioned before, a total of 54 sets of vibra-
tion data were recorded at mine roof of Hingir
Rampur mine. The duplex algorithm is a standard
methodology of data splitting in line to the Cadex
algorithm. Using duplex algorithm 54 PPV data
are divided into 41 training data set and 13 vali-
dation data set. Predictor equation is developed
based on the training data set and then it is vali-
dated using rest 13 data set. Figure 5 shows the plot
of R2adjusted and F statistic for various values of s. It
can be clearly seen that the best fit model achieves
when the value of s = 0.26. The site constant K and
n have been estimated from the training data set.
The best fit predictor equation of case study mine
is found to be
PPV = 52301(D/Q0.26)2.008 = 52301(SD)2.008 (4)
Figure 6 depicts the relationship between PPV
and Scaled Distance (SD) of the best fit equa-
tion in respect of 41 training data set. It shows
that PPVs estimated by equation 4 matches fairly
well with the measured data. The scatter plot
between measured (both training and validation
data) and estimated PPVs also conform the fact
that the predictor equation 4 can be applied to
forecast PPVs at underground locations due to
surface blasting under similar geological condi-
tions (Fig. 7).

ln(PPV) = ln(K) n ln(R/Qs) (3)

It may be noted that in equation 3, K, s and n

are unknown. By applying least square method,
K and n can be estimated if the value of s is known.
In the following, equation 3 has been used to deter-
mine value of K and n for case study mine site by
varying values of s from 0.1 to 0.75. The s value
which provides the highest F statistic and R2adjusted
is considered to form the best predictor equation.
The R2adjusted is the coefficient of determination
of the model by considering the degree of freedom Figure 5. Relationship of R2adjusted and F statistic with
of the variables. parameters.

492

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 492 10/3/2012 8:42:45 PM

 Figure 6. Relationship between PPV and scaled distance.

Figure 8. Framework of neural network for vibration

analysis.

Table 2. Relationship between measured and estimated

PPVs using regression analysis.

Regression results
Measurement
parameters Training Validation

R2 0.80 0.95
R2adjusted 0.80 0.95
F-statistic 139.99 255.43

Table 3. Relationship between measured and estimated

Figure 7. Relationship between measured and estimated PPVs using neural network analysis.
PPVs.
ANN results
Measurement
5 VIBRATION ANALYSIS USING parameters Training Validation
NEURALNETWORK
R2 0.97 0.95
R2adjusted 0.97 0.95
Any statistical regression analysis presumes a pre-
F-statistic 1144.41 219.23
dictor model (equation) between dependent and
independent variables. The predictor equation of
PPV is given in Equation 1. In order to determine
the non linear relationship between PPV and inde- layer and output layer respectively. The optimum
pendent variables such as D and Q, without any number of neurons in the hidden layer is selected
predefined predictor model, neural network analy- for training and validating the network to minimize
sis is performed using the training dataset of case MSE as well as to control over-fitting of the data.
study mine. The results of neural network models For neural network model, it is found to be 39.
are then compared with those of equation 4.
A 3layer neural network is developed with Q
5.1 Vibration analysis using neural network for
and R as input and PPV as output neurons (Fig. 8).
case study mine
Feed forward back propagation network has been
considered with TRAINCGP as training function, Neural network training of case study mine has
LEARNGDM as learning function and MSE as produced Mean Square Error (MSE) of 0.00368
performance function in MATLAB software. Loga- after 150 epochs. The trained network has been
rithmic sigmoid transfer function and hyperbolic validated using 13 validation data set. The MSE of
tangent sigmoid transfer function are used in hidden validation dataset is found to be 0.002. Tables 2 and

493

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 493 10/3/2012 8:42:45 PM

 3 lists the R2, R2adjusted and F statistic values obtained
by performing regression analysis and neural net-
work techniques respectively between measured
and estimated PPVs. Figure 7 shows the variability
of the predicted PPVs from neural network model
with that of measured PPVs. From Table 2 and
Figure 7, it may be noted that PPVs predicted using
neural network are in close proximity to the meas-
ured PPVs as compared to PPVs estimated using
regression analysis.
6 CONCLUSIONS
The study finds that scaled distance derived based
on 1/2 power (square root) or 1/3 (Cube root) of
charge per delay may not be applicable for predict-
ing PPV at underground installations. A new site
specific predictor equation of the peak particle
velocity has been developed in this paper based
on the flexible scaled distance law. In India, there
are several surface and underground mines coex-
ist where stability of underground Bord and Pillar
mine is put to test due to neighbouring surface mine
blasting. The safety of underground structures in
terms of pillar spalling, roof collapse and junction
failure are of prime concern apart from production
losses from both surface and underground mines.
In this study, vibration of roof, pillar and floor have
been monitored in the Hingir Rampur UG mine
while blasting in adjacent surface mines was car-
ried on. The roof vibration data of the mine is ana-
lyzed to develop a new predictor equation of PPV
at an underground installation while blast vibration
is originated on the surface. However, site-specific
variable scaling law needs to be considered while
494
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 494
calculating the scaled distance when multiple layers
of rock mass and coal strata are present between the
UG structures and surface mines in any geo-mining
condition. In case of case study mine, parting con-
sists of multiple layers of rock mass and coal seams.
Hence, 0.26 power of charge per delay provides the
best blast vibration prediction equation. It is found
that forecasting ability of neural networks is better
as compared to regression analysis. The adjusted R2
of relationship between the measured and Artificial
Neural Network estimated PPVs can be as high as
0.95. However, more data may have to be trained to
suggest a particular method more decisively.
REFERENCES
Deb, D. and Jha, A.K., 2010, Estimation of blast induced
peak particle velocity at underground mine structures
originating from neighbouring surface mine, Mining
Technology, Vol. 119, No. 1, pp. 1421.
Duvall, W.I. and Fogelson, D.E., 1962, Review of crite-
ria for estimating damage to residences from blasting
vibration. U.S. Bureau of Mines, R.I. 5968, 19 pp.
Fourie, A.B. and Green, R.W., 1993, Damage to under-
ground coal mines caused by surface blasting. Int.
Journal of Surface Mining and Reclamation, Vol. 7,
No. 1, pp. 1116.
Jha, A.K., 2010, Evaluation of the effects of surface
blasting on adjacent underground mine workings,
PhD Dissertation, IIT, Kharagpur, 138 pp.
Langefors, U., Kihlstrom, B. and Westerberg, H., 1958,
Ground vibrations in Blasting, Water Power,
February, 1958, pp. 335338, 390395, 421424.
Singh, P.K., Evaluation of damages to underground coal
mines caused by surface blasting vis--vis establish-
ment of blast vibration threshold, Coal S&T Report,
Ministry of Coal, Govt. of India, August, 2000.
10/3/2012 8:42:46 PM
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

ANN approach for blast vibration control in limestone quarry

S.S. Rathore & S.C. Jain

Department of Mining Engineering, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture & Technology, Udaipur, India

S. Parik
Limestone Mines, Vikram Cement, Khor, Madhya Pradesh, India

ABSTRACT: During blasting only 1520% explosive energy is used for fragmentation and remaining
8085% energy is wasted without doing any effective work and creates nuisances in the form of ground
vibrations, flyrock, dust and air overpressure. Among these nuisances, blast vibration is common problem
at most of the mines. Blast vibrations are influenced by parameters such as physico-mechanical properties
of rockmass, explosive characteristics and blast geometry. Hence, it is essential to know the effect of these
parameters on blasting results for efficient utilization of explosive energy in a given rock mass and minimi-
zation of blast induced ground vibrations. The study was carried out at cement grade limestone quarry of
Vikram Cement situated in Madhya Pradesh, India, and thereafter applied the Artificial Neural Network
(ANN) approach to predict and control blast vibrations. The parameters were changed to determine an
optimal ANN model for predicting the Peak Particle Velocity (PPV) and frequency in bench blasting
for limestone quarry. Applicability of Artificial Neural Network (ANN) models for PPV and frequency
prediction of cement grade limestone is more reliable than the regression models. The parameters spac-
ing, maximum charge per delay, P-wave velocity and Youngs modulus have positive impact on the peak
particle velocity among the nine input parameters. Also, parameters such as burden, spacing, maximum
charge per delay, horizontal distance and Youngs modulus have positive impact on frequency.

1 INTRODUCTION (Yonghun and Chungin, 2002) and is considered

The ground vibrations generated during blasting are
influenced by parameters such as physico-mechanical
properties of rockmass, explosive characteristics
and blast geometry. We must know the impact of
these parameters on blasting results for efficient
utilization of explosive energy in a given rockmass
and minimize the blast induced ground vibrations.
Peak particle velocity and frequency are the two
important parameters for measuring ground vibra-
tions in respect to save structures surrounding the
blasting site. The design parameters such as burden,
spacing, charge length, maximum charge per delay,
delay time etc, considerably alter dispersion of seis-
mic energy. The maximum charge weight per delay
to control ground vibrations produced by blasting is
main aspect for safe working. Therefore, it is neces-
sary to identify parameters related to rock mass and
blast design to quantify their effects. Blast geometry
and explosive properties are the controllable param-
eters and rockmass properties including geological
discontinuities are non-controllable parameters
which affects ground vibrations (Bhandari and
Rathore, 2002; Rathore et al, 2009).
Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) have been
introduced in the several fields of rock engineering
to be one of the intelligent tools for optimization
and to understand the complex problems such as
ground vibrations in blasting. Yang and Zhang
(1998) studied an important degree for the sta-
bility analysis of underground openings by using
ANN. Moreover, Meulenkamp and Alvarez (1999)
presented applications of ANN to predict the con-
fined compressive strength from Equotip hardness.
Further, Son-Sen Leu et al (1998) applied the ANN
tool for prediction of powder factor using input
parameters as rock strength, Rock Quality Des-
ignation (RQD) and Rock Mass Rating (RMR).
During ANN process, once the network has been
trained with sufficient number of sample data sets,
it can make consistent predictions on the basis of
its previous learning. In this study, blast moni-
toring data of Vikram Cement limestone mines
of Vikram Cement, Khor, Neemuch, District of
Madhya Pradesh in India has been taken into con-
sideration. There after an attempt has been made
to predict the Peak Particle Velocity (PPV) and
frequency based on the rock properties, explosive
characteristics and blast design parameters. Con-
sequently, the predicted PPV and frequency by
ANN has been compared with the actual observed
PPV and frequency during blasting and it was

495

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 495 10/3/2012 8:42:46 PM

 found quite nearer to measured PPV in the field in 175 g & 250 g high explosive as primer and ANFO
comparison to multivariate regression analysis. as column charge. The Raydet-450 ms was used
for bottom hole initiation and milli second delay
detonators were used at surface for initiation and
1.1 Indian standards of ground vibrations providing the delay in blasting to maintain ground
In India Directorate General of Mines Safety vibration well within prescribed limit. The dry
(DGMS) is a regulatory body for safety of the and wet drill cuttings mixed with crusher screen-
mines and suggested standards of blast vibrations ing waste was used as stemming material. During
in their circular No.7 of 1997 are being imple- charging, length of stemming was varies from 2.25
mented. Accordingly, the permissible peak particle to 3.75 m.
velocity (PPV) at the foundation level of structures
in mining area is detailed in Table 1.
2 ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK
(ANN) MODEL
1.2 Study area description
Artificial neural networks are highly simplified
The Vikram Cement limestone mines, owned by models of the human nervous system. These mod-
Grasim Industries Limited is situated near vil- els consist of an interconnected assembly of sim-
lage Khor about 20 km from district Neemuch of ple processing elements, called neurons, which are
Madhya Pradesh in India. The mining lease area is organized in a layered fashion. It is large amount of
mostly flat and characterized by rocky and barren interconnections between these neurons and their
land and divided in Khor and Suvakhera blocks. capability to learn from data, which provide for a
A Vikram cement limestone mine is capable to strong predicting and classification tool. Hence,
produce 5.5 million tonnes limestone per annum. to solve the complex relations between the differ-
On the basis of colour, physical and chemical ent controllable and non-controllable parameters
properties, the five types of limestone beds were affecting ground vibration, the ANN approach
identified such as greenish grey, light greenish was selected. The several algorithms are available
grey, purple, grey, dark grey, which varying in for training of artificial network because it needs
CaO% from 34 to 49.9% and bedding thickness to be trained before interpreting new information
from 1.5 m to 3 m. (KhandelwalandSingh,2006).Theback-propagation
The deposit of limestone is being worked by algorithm is the most versatile and robust technique,
opencast mining method with five to six benches. which provides the most efficient learning procedure
During mining, 3.2513.00 m high benches were for multilayer neural networks. The feed forward
excavated by drilling and blasting. The deep hole back propagation neural network always consists
bench blasting was carried out using Kelvex slurry of at least three layers: input layer, hidden layer
cartridges of 1 kg & 2.78 kg and Emulboost 125 g, and output layer. Each layer consists of a number
of elementary processing units, called neurons and
connected to the next layer. During training of the
Table 1. Ground vibrationsIndian standards.
network, data are processed through the input layer
Peak particle velocity to hidden layer and hidden layer to output layer.
(mm/s) at dominant The output of a neuron is determined by the activa-
excitation frequency tion of the neurons in the previous layer and here
most widely used activation function sigmoid was
Type of structure <8 Hz 825 Hz >25 Hz used. Training algorithm network used in this study
is Levenberg-Marquardt approximation. It is more
(A) Buildings/structures not belong to the owner powerful than commonly used gradient descent
Domestic houses/structures 5 10 15 methods and makes training more accurate and
(Kuchha, Brick & Cement) faster near minima on the error surface (Demuth
Industrial Buildings (RCC & 10 20 25
and Beale, 1994).
Framed structures)
The parameters were changed to determine an
Objects of historical 2 5 10
importance & sensitive optimal ANN model for predicting the peak par-
structures ticle velocity and frequency in bench blasting for
limestone quarry. The criteria used to determine
(B) Buildings belonging to owner with limited span of life the optimal ANN model were the lowest Root
Domestic houses/structures 10 15 25 Mean Square (RMS) value of the errors of the pre-
(Kuchha, (Brick & Cement)
dicted values and the shortest ANN learning time.
Industrial buildings (RCC & 15 25 50
framed structures The input and output parameters and their ranges
have been decided on the basis of field data of

496

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 496 10/3/2012 8:42:46 PM

 Table 2. Description of input and output parameters 2.2 Assessment of the ANN model
and their range.
The prediction capacity of the selected ANN
S. no. Parameters used in study Range models for peak particle velocity and frequency
in limestone quarry blasting was assessed using
Input parameter sample data not used for ANN training. The
1 Number of holes 956 training performance and error elimination by
2 Diameter of holes (mm) 115 & 152 Mean Squared Error (MSE) method for dataset is
3 Depth of holes (m) 3.2513.00 shown in Figures 1 and 2 for PPV and frequency
4 Burden (m) 3.007.00 respectively. The predicted PPV and frequency by
5 Spacing (m) 4.508.00 ANN were compared with the results obtained
6 Charge length (m) 1.259.50 during study and given in Table 3 and these are
7 Stemming length (m) 2.253.75 crosschecked by predicted values with multi
8 Charge per delay (kg) 24.3115.5 regression model. The correlation coefficient
9 Distance of monitoring point 120300 for the predicted and observed values for PPV
from blast site (m)
and frequency was as high as 0.999 and 0.996
10 P-wave velocity (km/s) 3.374.86
respectively.
11 Youngs modulus (GPa) 4.396.98
Output parameter
1 Peak particle velocity (mm/s) 1.6511.0
2 Frequency (Hz) 26100

blasts carried out at limestone quarry of Vikram

Cement and are given in Table 2. In addition to
blast results, rock samples of three different zones
were collected and their properties such as P-wave
and Youngs modulus were determined in the lab-
oratory. All the input and output parameters were
scaled between 0 and 1. This was done to utilize
the most sensitive part of neuron and since out-
put neurons being sigmoid can only give output
between 0 and 1, the scaling of output parameter
was necessary.

Scaled value = (Max. value Unscaled value)/

(Max. value Min. value). Figure 1. Performance of ANN while training for PPV.

2.1 Network architecture

Architecture describes its network structure
that shows number of neurons in network and
their interconnectivity. Feed forward network is
adopted here as this architecture is reported to be
suitable for problem based on problem identifica-
tion. The objective of the present investigations
was to predict PPV from controllable parameter
related to blast geometry and explosive and non-
controllable parameter related to rock mass prop-
erties. The architecture of the network is tabulated
below.
No. of input neurons: 09
No. of output neurons: 02
No. of hidden layers: 01
No. of training epochs: 500
No. of training datasets: 141 Figure 2. Performance of ANN while training for
No. of testing datasets: 15 frequency.

497

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 497 10/3/2012 8:42:46 PM

 Table 3. Predicted PPV and Frequency with ANN and regression models with absolute error based on test data sets.

No. of Depth of Burden Spacing Stemming Max. charge/ Horizontal P-wave

S. no. holes holes (m) (m) (m) height (m) delay (kg) distance (m) (km/s)

1 11 9.00 4.50 8.00 3.75 99.6 120 3.51

2 14 6.50 7.00 7.00 3.50 65.6 150 4.24
3 15 9.00 4.50 8.00 3.75 82.5 150 4.13
4 17 9.00 4.50 8.00 3.75 91.5 150 4.86
5 51 3.50 3.00 5.50 2.25 42.6 125 4.56
6 13 6.50 3.50 6.50 2.50 23.4 125 4.48
7 16 7.75 4.50 8.00 3.50 80.5 100 3.87
8 14 8.00 4.25 7.50 3.75 90.4 200 4.77
9 51 3.50 3.00 5.50 2.25 42.6 150 3.98
10 15 6.00 3.00 6.00 2.50 33.9 200 3.45
11 10 11.00 4.25 7.50 3.50 82.9 300 3.44
12 12 13.00 4.00 7.00 3.50 115.5 200 3.37
13 15 5.00 3.00 5.00 3.00 24.3 300 4.19
14 9 8.00 3.50 6.75 2.75 40.9 125 3.88
15 56 3.25 3.00 4.50 2.00 67.3 150 3.69

3 MULTIVARIATE REGRESSION MODEL
Multivariate regression analysis solves the datasets
by performing least square fit. The multivariate
regression models were developed based on same
input independent variables as used in the neural
network model and output dependent variable
PPV and frequency. This resulted in the following
equation:
PPV (mm/s) = 09.24 0.061 [no. of holes] 0.359
[Hole depth, m] 0.638 [Burden, m] + 0.980
[Spacing, m] 3.038 [Stemming length, m] + 0.017
[Max. charge per delay, kg] 0.009 [Horizontal
distance, m] + 0.725 [P-wave, m/s] + 4.083
[Youngs modulus, GPa]
Frequency = 19.284 0.668 [no. of holes] 5.956
[Hole depth, m] + 10.543 [Burden, m] + 8.314
[Spacing, m] 52.317 [Stemming length, m] + 0.445
[Max. charge per delay, kg] + 0.142 [Horizontal
distance, m] 3.982 [P-wave, m/s] + 21.528
[Youngs modulus, GPa]
The above equations give the relationship
between input independent variables and out-
put dependent variable. The predicted values of
PPV and frequency have been given in Table 3.
The correlation coefficient for the predicted and
observed values for PPV and frequency was 0.98
and 0.94 respectively. The mean absolute error
was observed more in regression model than
ANN model. Above equations also indicate that
burden and spacing parameter have positive
and negative constant values respectively, which
implies that both have opposite directional effects
for each dataset of blast vibration. The equation
indicates that the charge length in a hole and
P-wave in rock mass, have positive impact on
peak particle velocity.
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The plots of observed verses predicted, determi-
nation coefficient and standard error of estimate
were used for the evaluation of the produced
models from the ANN and multivariate regres-
sion analysis. The determination coefficient
obtained from ANN models were 0.999 and
0.996 for PPV and frequency, and from regres-
sion models it was 0.981 and 0.940. Thus, accord-
ing to the determination coefficient, ANN has a
better performance compared to the multivariate
regression analysis. The standard errors of esti-
mates are shown in Table 4. It shows that stand-
ard errors of estimate for the ANN are much
lower than that of the regression model. Finally,
the both models were compared according to the
plots of observed and predicted PPV values. The
estimated PPV were plotted against the observed
PPV values for ANN and regression model and
shown in Figures 3 & 4 respectively. Similarly,
Figures 5 & 6 shows plots of estimated frequency
and observed frequency values for ANN and
regression models and shown.
The error in the estimated value is repre-
sented by the distance that each data point plots
from the 1:1 diagonal line. A point lying on the
line indicates an exact estimation. It has been
observed that predicted PPV and frequency

498

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 498 10/3/2012 8:42:47 PM

 Peak particle velocity (mm/s) Frequency (Hz)
Youngs
modulus Predicted by Predicted by Predicted by Predicted by
(GPa) Measured ANN model regression model Measured ANN model regression model

4.85 3.62 3.61 3.4 26 27.2 27.89

6.15 7.48 7.44 7.28 85 85.4 86.11
5.95 6.94 6.96 7.53 39 39.6 43.08
6.98 13.2 13.2 12.3 64 64.2 65.02
5.45 8.6 8.5 8.19 64 63.4 59.89
5.39 8.51 8.54 8.7 58 58.2 58.39
6.34 10.6 10.6 10.5 73 71.6 64.38
6.84 11 11.2 11.4 68 69.4 70.14
5.68 8.6 8.54 8.48 64 65.6 70.7
4.39 4.14 4.14 3.26 43 43.8 48.5
4.98 1.65 1.68 1.74 48 47.6 44.14
5.67 5.18 5.16 4.79 38 38 39.54
4.78 2.35 2.35 2.19 38 37.6 35.36
5.13 6.25 6.28 6.69 48 46.5 45.71
4.97 4.94 4.96 5.36 73 72.2 70.47

Table 4. Standard error of estimates.

Standard error Standard error

of estimate for of estimate for
Model PPV Model Frequency

ANN 0.00132939 ANN 0.281324

Regression 0.756 Regression 6.774

Figure 5. Predicted vs. measured frequency by ANN

model.

Figure 3. Predicted vs. measured PPV by ANN model.

Figure 6. Predicted vs. measured frequency by regres-

sion model.

by ANN model is quite nearer to measured in

the field. Hence, the prediction capability of
the ANN model is much better than that of the
regression model.

5 CONCLUSIONS

Figure 4. Predicted vs. measured PPV by regression Blast ground vibrations in the form of peak particle
model. velocity and frequency were measured in limestone

499

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 499 10/3/2012 8:42:47 PM

 quarry and then data were anylysed with Artificial
Neural Network (ANN) tool using Matlab 6.1 soft-
ware and regression analysis with Systat 8.0. The
following conclusions of the study were drawn:
Applicability of Artificial Neural Network
(ANN) models for Peak Particle Velocity (PPV)
and frequency prediction of cement grade
limestone is more reliable than the regression
models.
Both Youngs modulus and maximum charge
per delay are important parameters in determin-
ing peak particle velocity as well as frequency
and have positive impact.
Spacing, burden, horizontal distance and P-wave
velocity also have important role to control
vibrations in limestone quarry.
REFERENCES
Bhandari, S. and Rathore S.S., 2002. Development of
Microcrack by Blasting While Protecting Damages
to Remaining Rock, 7th International Symposium on
Rock Fragmentation by Blasting (Fragblast-7), held at
Beijing, China, August 1115, pp. 176181.
Demuth, H. and Beale, M., 1994. Neural Network Tool-
box Users Guide, Mathworks Inc., MA Huang, Y
and Stefan, W. (1998). The introduction of neural net-
work system and its application in rock engineering,
Engineering Geology 49, pp. 253260.
500
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 500
Khandelwal, M. and Singh, T.N., 2006. Prediction of
blast induced ground vibration and frequency in
opencast mine: A neural network approach, Journal
of Sound and Vibration, No. 289, pp. 711725.
Meulenkamp, F. and Alvarez, G.M.,1999. Application of
neural network for the prediction of the unconfined
compressive strength (UCS) from Equotip hardness,
Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 30, pp. 207222.
Rathore, S.S., Jain, S.C. and Parihar, C.P., 2009. Ground
Vibrations Prediction in Cement Grade Limestone
MineA Neural Network Approach, Mining Engi-
neers Journal, MEAI, Volume 10, N0. 12, July 2009,
ISSN 0975-3001, pp. 2730.
Sou-Sen, L., Sheng-Feng, L., Ching-Kuang, C. and
Shih-Wen, W., 1998. Analysis of powder factors for
tunnel blasting using neural network, Fragblast 2,
pp. 433448.
Yang, Y and Zhang, Q., 1998, The application of neural
networks to Rock Engineering System (RES), Int. J.
Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 35(6), pp. 727745.
Yonghun, J. and Chungin, L., 2002. Application of
neural networks to prediction of powder factor and
peak particle velocity in tunnel blasting, ISEE proc.
Volume 2, pp. 6876.
10/3/2012 8:42:48 PM
 Section 7 - Health, Safety & Environment

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 501 10/3/2012 8:42:48 PM

This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Toxicity of blasting fumes as a function of time after blasting

P.D. Katsabanis & K. Taylor

The Robert M. Buchan Department of Mining, Queens University, Kingston, ON, Canada

ABSTRACT: A series of tests have been conducted in the 1 m3 and 14 m3 vessels of the laboratory,
where the effects of composition, particle size, confinement as well as additives were examined on fume
production. Fumes were analyzed continuously using a flue analyzer, providing analysis every 15 seconds
and allowing monitoring of the changing equilibrium. The gases that were considered were NO, NO2,
CO and CO2. It was found that composition of the explosive was the most dominant factor and common
emulsion explosives produced the smallest amount of fumes. ANFO always produced NO2, even at sig-
nificantly negative oxygen balance, while additives such as limestone had a moderate effect in mitigating
fumes. The implications of the findings were examined in tests simulating blasting, where small quanti-
ties of explosives were detonated inside a pile of crushed rock. In such cases, fume concentration in the
chamber increased slowly as fume migrated slowly to the atmosphere. It was determined that significant
amounts of fumes are trapped in the muck pile and are released slowly in the mine atmosphere. More
importantly, it was found that significant amounts of fume are released while digging, suggesting that
potential health hazards are present well after the blast, where fume is produced. Available literature
regarding health effects of fumes is analyzed in view of the findings of this work. The data generated dur-
ing the experimentation allow investigation of composition, confinement, particle size and additives.

1 INTRODUCTION has been discussion around the orange clouds

Commercial explosives are mixes of oxidizers
and fuels. Typically their composition is of the
CHNO type and often it is stoichiometrically bal-
anced to avoid noxious fumes. Literature studies
have provided evidence that nitrogen oxides can
be present in the fumes of commercial explosives,
with consequences to health and safety as well as
energy output in blasting. The main toxic gases
produced by blasting are carbon monoxide (CO)
and oxides of Nitrogen (NOx). According to the
commonly used Russian formula for fume toxic-
ity, the relative fume toxicity (RFT) is expressed as
RFT = {CO} + 6.5{NOx} reflecting the higher tox-
icity of NOx than the toxicity of CO. Other gases,
such as NH3 are also toxic and have been used in
amended formulas (Wieland, 2006). The toxicity
and the impact of carbon monoxide on blasting
operations are well known (Harris and Mainiero,
2007), and remedial measures have been recom-
mended. To protect workers, many countries have
established test procedures and requirements for
the maximum permitted fume production per unit
mass of explosive. However, research has shown
that toxic fumes depend on the environment of
use, which may not be considered by regulations.
For example, explosives desensitized during blast-
ing, may produce fumes having increased toxicity
levels (Ruhe and Wieland, 1991). Recently, there
of NO2, produced in open pit operations conduct-
ing blasting in low strength overburden, typically
in coal mining and oil-sand mining applications.
The high visibility and toxicity of such clouds
have alarmed neighboring communities and con-
cern operators. Turcotte et al. (2002) examined the
common factors that produce fumes in coal mines.
Common factors were gaps in loading of explo-
sives in boreholes, low strength rock or uncon-
solidated rock and the presence of groundwater.
However the issue is more general and affects a
large number of mining and construction sites,
where blasting is used. Sapko et al. (2002) sug-
gested that operational parameters, such explosive
dilution with drill cuttings, water attack, loss of
fuel due to wicking, density of explosive and deto-
nation close to the explosives critical diameter can
result in increased nitric oxide and nitrogen diox-
ide production in the case of Ammonium Nitrate
Fuel Oil (ANFO), which they investigated. They
also suggested that ingredients decreasing the oxy-
gen balance of the explosive are beneficial to mini-
mize NOx production.
Fumes are obviously related to the stoichiom-
etry of the explosive composition. An explosive
with a negative oxygen balance is expected to pro-
duce carbon monoxide while an explosive with
positive oxygen balance is expected to produce
oxides of nitrogen. The current problem is not how

503

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 503 10/3/2012 8:42:48 PM

 stoichiometry affects fumes but why explosives
of proper stoichiometry produce objectionable
products of detonation. Rowland and Mainiero
(2000) have reported that in their experiments with
ANFO, decreasing the thickness of the confining
steel pipes resulted in increased NO2 production.
They also associated fume production to non-ideal
explosive behavior. They reported that remedial
measures included the increase of fuel content;
however increase beyond a point had a detrimental
effect and ammonia seemed to be on the rise with
such increases. Water contamination, even at minor
concentration appeared to also increase NOx. Such
effect is expected for ANFO, which is attacked by
water, although the percentage of water contami-
nation needed to produce NOx appears to be very
small. According to subsequent work by Rowland
et al. (2001) even emulsion explosives, which have
not been associated to NOx fumes, and to a larger
extent blends of emulsion and ANFO, produced
significant amounts of fume after prolonged con-
tact with water. The results of the investigation
suggested that sleeping times are of importance.
Traditionally, blasting engineers have looked into
sleeping times for loss of performance of explo-
sives. Apparently, prior to loss of performance, the
fume spectrum is modified.
Entrapment of fumes in the muckpile after
blasting is unavoidable unless the displacement
of the muckpile is significant. However in most
blasts the displacement is small and a signifi-
cant amount of fume may not be released in the
atmosphere. The question is how this amount of
fumes migrates through the muckpile. In extreme
cases, where blasting has been blamed for carbon
monoxide migration, it is known that a significant
time may be required to clear CO, which has been
pushed inside cracks of a rock formation by blast-
ing. In the case of mining blasts it is suspected that
a significant amount of fumes are trapped in the
muckpile. It is commonly believed that fumes in the
muckpile can be treated through proper practices
such as wetting the muckpile down (Holmberg,
Hustrulid and Cunnungham, 2001).
Azarkovich et al. (1995) have suggested that
NOx can combine with water vapor to produce
nitric acid and raise the acidity of ground water.
Mainiero et al. (2007) agree that NO oxidizes to
NO2, which is quickly absorbed by the ground.
However Bakke et al. (2001) have reported higher
concentration of NOx fumes close to vehicles
transporting fragmented rock. The same investiga-
tors have found that tunnel workers in operations
using ANFO were at an increased risk of produc-
ing obstructive pulmonary decease. The reported
health effects were temporary in nature, possibly
due to the low concentration of the noxious fumes.
It should be noted that it is not suspected that any
504
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 504
of the explosives malfunctioned or that blasting
was in any way flawed. Yet there was adequate dif-
ference between the two groups, whose health was
studied.
Recently the Explosives Inspectorate of Queens-
land (2009) issued safety alerts about post blast
gases, emphasizing the effects of Nitrogen Oxide.
The trigger for the report was an incident in the
Bowen Basin Coal mines, where people relatively
far from the blast (650 m) were hospitalized due
to exposure to nitrogen gas. In the same report
the death of a miner in the Philippines is attrib-
uted to inhalation of nitrogen oxides, something
that went unnoticed and was not recognized by
professionals.
Wieland (2004, 2005) has attempted to predict
toxicity using the work principle model in thermo-
dynamics. He has demonstrated that rock confine-
ment is important and lack of confinement allows
reactions to quench yielding out of equilibrium
fumes. He also showed that laboratory confine-
ment provided by metal pipes may not resemble
actual conditions in rock.
Wielands work is also important in examining
the toxicity in the commonly used blends of emul-
sion with ANFO. Fast reacting emulsions result
in quenching of reactions of the slow reacting
ANFO particles, again resulting in out of equilib-
rium gases.
Literature suggests that there is a NOx prob-
lem, associated with the use of commercial explo-
sives, with health and safety implications. Fumes
released in the mine atmosphere are a concern;
however another concern seems to be the fumes
that are trapped in the muckpile and are released
slowly or later due to the excavation of the muck-
pile or during its handling.
2 EXPERIMENTAL WORK
Fumes were analyzed for ANFO charges in prilled
and crushed form, having different oxygen balance,
different diameter, confinement and occasion-
ally additives as well as for an emulsion explosive.
The charges were detonated in one of two blast-
ing chambers, available at the experimental facility
(1 m3 and 14 m3 chambers). In the 1 m3 chamber the
maximum charge was 122 g, which practically lim-
ited the maximum charge diameter to 32 mm and
the length to about 160 mm. In the 14 m3 cham-
ber the charges had diameter up to 76 mm with a
length of up to 200 mm. Analysis was conducted
using a NOVA Analytical Systems Inc. continuous
7200 series flue gas analyzer, which allows for sam-
pling and analysis every 15 s. Gases that were con-
sidered were CO2, CO, NO, NO2 and O2, the last
one to examine the effects of dilution. However
10/3/2012 8:42:49 PM
 the chamber volume is substantially larger than
the volume of the product gases and the effect of
dilution could not be assessed by the oxygen level.
Instead, the concentration of each gas was divided
by the sum of carbon monoxide and carbon diox-
ide, providing a relative measure. Assuming that all
carbon in the composition would oxidize to CO
and CO2, the ratio indicates relative concentrations
relative to carbon in the composition. One can then
calculate concentrations of product gases multiply-
ing the ratio times the theoretical carbon content.
The velocity of detonation was recorded in most
of the experiments to provide additional informa-
tion on explosives performance.
Figure 1. Ratio of CO/(CO+CO2) for the various charge
Additional testing was conducted detonating
sizes tested.
explosive charges inside crushed rock, to simu-
late the role of muckpile in trapping fumes during
blasting. Small charges of pentolite were detonated
inside an 210 l barrel full of crushed rock (<12 mm).
Immediately after detonation the barrel was sealed
and fume analysis was conducted in the volume
above the rock. This volume was ventilated a few
times and fume concentration was measured con-
tinuously to evaluate fume migration from the rock
to the atmosphere as well as fume entrapment.
Results are presented and discussed in the
following:

2.1 Effect of scale

Figures 13 show the relative concentrations of Figure 2. Ratio of NO2/(CO+CO2) for the various
CO, NO2 and NOx in terms of CO/(CO+CO2), charge sizes tested.
NO2/(CO+CO2) and NOx/(CO+CO2) in the various
tests using ANFO containing 6% fuel for all tests
in terms of the size of the test.
The ratios do not seem to depend on the size
of the charge, suggesting that the ratio of any gas
to total carbon (CO+CO2) can be used to find the
amount of the specific gas in the fumes. Obviously
there is scatter, but the situation is acceptable.
The theoretical ratios, calculated using the Chee-
tah thermodynamic code with the products of
detonation frozen at the explosion state are 0.12,
0.0 and 0.0009 for CO, NO2 and NOx/(CO+CO2)
respectively.
The CO/(CO+CO2) ratio seems to be somewhat
higher to what is expected, suggesting that some
extraneous carbonaceous material may have par- Figure 3. Ratio of NOx/(CO+CO2) for the various
ticipated in the detonation. This may have come charge sizes tested.
from the detonator or the small primer, occasionaly
used for the detonation of some charges; however
2.2 Type of explosive
the concentrations of Nitrogen oxides also exceed
the theoretical predictions. Figures 4, 5 and 6 provide the ratios CO/(CO+CO2),
In the above data there are multiple influences of NO2/(CO+CO2) and NOx/(CO+CO2) for the vari-
a variety of parameters on fume production. Such ous explosives tested, considering the conditions
parameters are the expansion volume of the cham- of testing. Here A denotes results obtained with
ber as well as diameter, confinement and transient crushed ANFO in the large chamber; B denotes
zones. These will be discussed in the following. results with crushed ANFO in the small chamber;

505

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 505 10/3/2012 8:42:49 PM


Figure 4. Carbon monoxide produced in various test
configurations.
Figure 5. Nitrogen dioxide produced in various test
configurations.
Figure 6. Oxides of nitrogen produced in various test
configurations.
C results with prilled ANFO in the large chamber
and D results with emulsion in the large chamber.
The size of the chamber is related only to the dilu-
tion experienced, as the experiments are conducted
in the presence of air.
In accordance with the previous Figures the size
of the test was not important for toxicity. Compo-
sition however appeared to be a significant factor
506
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 506
Table 1. Fume concentrations from Roberts (1992).
CO/ NOx/
Explosive (CO+CO2) (CO+CO2)
Emulsion B 0.06 0.10
Emulsion C 0.06 0.11
Watergel 0.17 0.07
Dynamite 0.22 0.14
and the emulsion produced significantly less car-
bon monoxide as well as less Nitrogen Oxides.
The effect of explosive type has been examined
a few years ago by Roberts (1992) by experimenta-
tion in the 1 m3 chamber. Fume analysis was per-
formed using gas chromatography few hours after
each experiment on collected samples. The aver-
age ratios of CO/(CO+CO2) and NOx/(CO+CO2)
for the various explosives tested in that work are
shown in Table 1.
The ratios are not significantly different than
those of the current work for similar type explo-
sives. Clearly, water containing explosives resulted
in reduced amounts of toxic fumes. Also, it is evi-
dent that Nitrogen oxides can co-exist with carbon
monoxide. Comparing the results of Table 1 to
those of Figure 46, it is evident that ANFO as
well as dynamites produce larger amounts of NOx
and CO, resulting in higher toxicity.
2.3 Effect of oxygen balance
Oxygen balance is expected to be a significant
parameter in fume production. Positively balanced
explosives are of no interest, as they are expected
to produce significant concentrations of nitrogen
oxides; thus the base composition in this work had
a composition of ammonium nitrate (AN) of 94%
and fuel oil (FO) of 6% by mass. Initial testing with
crushed ANFO revealed the presense of NO2 or
NOx. The Oxygen balance was reduced using 8%
diesel or using ANFO/Al (98%/2% and 98%/1%)
the latter using paint grade Al. Table 2 presents
the effect of oxygen balance in the composition for
identical conditions of confinement, diameter and
charge length.
It is rather interesting that the change of the
concentration of NOx is rather insignificant com-
pared to the significant reduction in oxygen bal-
ance. NOx is still produced even with overfueled
mixes of ANFO or aluminized ANFO. Similar
observations have been made by Rowland and
Mainiero (2000) in larger scale experiments at
their underground experimental mine. The 8% fuel
composition as well as the aluminized composition
also produced elevated carbon monoxide concen-
trations, as expected from the poor oxygen balance
of the composition.
10/3/2012 8:42:50 PM
 Table 2. Effect of oxygen balance on fumes. Table 3. Effect of confinement on fumes produced by
crushed and prilled ANFO.
Gas concentration, l/kg
of explosive Gas concen-
VOD, tration, l/kg
Composition m/s CO CO2 NOx of explosive
VOD
ANFO 94/6 3500 19 76.8 13.8 Explosive Confinement m/s CO NOx
ANFO, 92/8 3400 36 91.8 12.9
Al/ANFO, 2/98 3100 19 75 15.8 Crushed Copper 3010 24 14
Al/ANFO, 1/99 24 71 15.3 ANFO Steel Sch. 40 3360 18 16
Steel, Sch. 80 3370 16 13
Steel, 12 mm 3660 12 9
Prilled Al 1100 23 13
2.4 Effect of confinement ANFO Sch. 40 Steel 1730 20 10
The effect of confinement was examined in the
case of crushed and prilled ANFO. Confinement
was modified using copper pipe and schedule 40,
schedule 80 and 12.4 mm thick steel. The diameter
of the charge was in all cases 25 mm. The results
are shown in Table 3.
Similar trends can be seen in both explosives,
however scant information is available for the
prilled ANFO product. It appears that confine-
ment affects fume production and toxicity seems
to decrease with the strength of confinement.
Previous work of Roberts et al. (1992) had sug-
gested that confinement affects fume production.
In that work confinement was expressed in terms
of the parameters of the rock material that con-
fined the explosive charge. Correlation of fumes
with confinement was attempted using various
parameters to quantify confinement (Roberts Figure 7. Fume concentration vs. impedance of confin-
et al., 1992). Such parameters were the strength ing medium (Roberts, 1992).
of the rock, its Youngs modulus, density, sonic
velocity and impedance. Figure 7 shows the effect
of impedance which showed the best correlation are completed. Rowland and Mainiero (2000) did
between fumes and confinement. not notice significant differences between CO pro-
Clearly, if one excludes the first point, there duced by ANFO confined in sheet metal vs. sched-
appears to be no effect of confinement, with the ule 80 steel, in 100 mm diameter experiments. The
exception of NOx where some effect of materials trend in NOx was similar to the one observed here.
offering moderate confinement may be observed.
This may be explained by the performance of the
emulsion, which is not as significantly affected by 2.5 Effect of charge diameter
confinement as that of ANFO. The present work A variety of diameters were tested with the expec-
shows a more significant effect of confinement. tation that the non ideal performance of ANFO
Here, confinement may be quantified by the energy should be a contributing factor in fume produc-
required to deform and break the pipe surrounding tion. The results for crushed ANFO at various
the charge. diameters under the same confinement of schedule
There is a noteworthy difference between the 40 steel are shown in Table 4.
concentrations of CO in low and higher confine- Although Velocity of Detonation increased,
ments. Table 3 suggests decreasing concentration suggesting decreasing non ideal performance with
of CO with increasing confinement, contrary to increased diameter, CO did not change signifi-
the result of Figure 7. It appears that in the work cantly although NOx may have decreased. Velocity
of Roberts et al. (1992) the reactions in the uncon- of detonation does not appear to be a good indi-
fined case did not come to completion, as total caqtor of fumes something that is in agreement to
carbon was substantially less unconfined than in the work of Roberts (1992) who was not able to
the other cases. This was not investigated in the correlate fumes to velocity of detonation and the
present work; it was rather assumed that reactions calorimetric work of Katsabanis and Liu (1993)

507

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 507 10/3/2012 8:42:50 PM

 Table 4. Effect of charge diameter on fumes of crushed Table 5. Effect of limestone additive on fumes of
ANFO. crushed ANFO.

Gas concentration, l/kg of D CO NOx NO2

explosive % mm ratio ratio ratio
Dia. VOD
mm m/s CO CO2 NOx 5 25 0.26 0.16 0.04
10 25 0.28 0.16 0.04
19 3260 18 78 14.9 15 25 0.34 0.01 0.00
25 3360 16.4 79.6 17.5
25 3370 19.7 76.3 13.7
25 3410 20 76 10.64
38 3720 20.6 75.4 13.2

who measured fumes close to theoretical in non

ideal but highly confined charges of ANFO.

2.6 Effect of additives

The effect of additives in modifying the fume spec-
trum was also tested in a limited number of tests.
Two types of additives were tested; one type, Al,
modified the explosive detonation performance,
energy output and detonation and expansion tem-
peratures while the second type, limestone or soda,
would possibly react with the fumes in the expan-
sion state. The effect of the former has already been
discussed in the previous. For the latter, soda was
dropped due to the production of ammonia fumes
when mixed with ammonium nitrate. Limestone
was ground to a very small size (below 200 mesh)
and mixed with ANFO made with crushed AN. The
fume results are shown in Table 5. Ratio refers to the
ratio of concentration to the total measured con-
centration of carbonaceous gases (CO and CO2).
Comparing against results for the same condi-
tions of confinement, it appears that a significant
reduction of NO2 and NOx occurred. The reduc-
tion is not due to the dilution of the explosive with
inert material. Since the ratios of the toxic gases to
total carbon have decreased, the reduction may be
attributed to reactions in the expansion zone.
2.7 Effect of transient zones
Since testing was conducted using a variety of
charges in various diameters, lengths had to be
controlled to ensure that the charge did not exceed
the maximum for the chamber. It is known that
there is often a transient detonation zone close
to the detonator/booster and this could effect the
fume spectrum of short charges. The fume con-
centration as a function of length to diameter
ratio of the charge is shown in Figure 8. There is
a decreasing CO/(CO+CO2) ratio but the Nitrogen
oxide ratio seems to be constant. The reason for
this may be related to the effect of the transient
zone but also to the simple fact that additional
Figure 8. Effect of length/diameter ratio on fumes.
combustible material, used in securing the detona-
tor in the charge also reacts and its contribution is
proportionately larger in the smaller charges.
2.8 Effect of muckpile
Figure 9, shows gas concentrations on top of a 210 l
barrel filled with crushed rock where a 20 g pentolite
charge was detonated 60 cm deep in the crushed rock.
Fumes were monitored inside a 171 l vessel placed
on top of the barrel to collect fumes. Due to the
composition of Pentolite no significant amounts of
NO, NO2 were recorded. The first spile corresponds
to the initial accumulation of the fumes in the vessel.
The second spike corresponds to the resumption of
sampling in the vessel after a 15 minute break indi-
cating that the concentration is constant.
The final spikes correspond to the concentration
of the fumes after removing the container and dig-
ging in the muckpile, 45 minutes later, suggesting
that significant amounts of toxic fumes are trapped
in the muckpile and remain there long after the
blast. Of interest is the higher concentration of
CO2 inside the muckpile. CO2 is a heavier gas which
remains trapped. NO2, if produced, is even heavier
and it would also be trapped, unless if it reacts with
water in the muckpile.
The results of a similar experiment in which sam-
pling was done on top of a covered barrel contain-
ing crushed stone in which a 20 g pentolite charge
was detonated, are shown in Figure 10. After the
initial increase of concentration of CO and CO2,

508

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 508 10/3/2012 8:42:51 PM

 Figure 9. Gas concentration in collection vessel vs. time
for pentolite charge.
Figure 10. Gas concentration above muckpile vs. time
for pentolite charge.
following the detonation of the charge, a series of
repeated inceases of gas concentrations, each cor-
responding to sampling in the closed vessel after
a period of 10 minutes in which the cover was
removed and the gases on top of the muckpile
cleared. Concentrations of CO dropped as a func-
tion of time, indicating a decreasing rate of CO
emission from the muckpile.
Figure 11 shows the gas concentrations at
the top of a muckpile as a function of time after
detonation of a charge of crushed ANFO. The
experiment was conducted in a 210 l barrel filled
with crushed rock, as previously. The charge had a
diameter of 25 mm and was confined by schedule
40 steel. To absorbe more energy and avoid ejection
of the rock from the barrel the charge was placed
in a 76 mm steel tube and the annular space was
filled with crushed rock. Monitoring of the fumes
was conducted 5 cm from the surface of the pile in
the open air. Small spikes in the record show con-
tinuous migration of fumes from the muckpile to
the atmosphere, however in small quantities. The
few large amplitude spikes at the end of the record
509
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 509
Figure 11. Fume concentrations vs. time for ANFO
charge.
correspond to measurements when the mucpile was
disturbed by digging. It is clear that a significant
amount of fume remains trapped in the muckpile
more than 4 hrs after detonation.
NOx was monitored but insignificant amounts
of this gas were found, probably due to the dilution
of the gas in the open air and the small amount
produced by the small charge used. Another rea-
son for the lack of NOx could be the significant
amount of moisture in the rock of the muckpile
that could have reacted with the small amounts of
NO2 that could have been produced.
3 DISCUSSION
It is clear from the previous that the explosive
type is the most significant factor in the toxicity
of explosives fumes as long as the explosive is bal-
anced. From the common explosives used today,
ANFO appears to produce the highest level of
toxicity as it generates nirtogen oxides, even at a
negative oxygen balance. This work showed that
confinement, related to the strength of the material
surrounding the explosive is an important factor
while additives appear to have a beneficial effect
worthy of further inverstigation.
Slow release or entrapment of fumes in the
muckpile was observed in the case of small scale
experiments in crushed rock. High concentrations
of monitored gases were reported for a significa-
nat amount of time after detonation of the small
charges in a simulated muckpile. It was clear in
all cases that gas migration through the muckpile
was slow and significant amounts of gases were
essentially trapped in the muckpile. According to
calculations using the Cheetah thermodynamic
code the detonation of 20 g Pentolite would pro-
duce approximately 4.5 l of CO which would result
in much higher concentration of CO than the one
recorded when the collection vessel was used on top
10/3/2012 8:42:51 PM
 of the muckpile, had the products expanded instan-
taneously. Apparently muckpile traps gases which
may migrate very slowly if the muckpile is left
undisturbed but are released quickly while digging.
The findings are consistent to what is reported
by Lazarov et al (1975) who measured NO2 in the
muckpile several hours after the blast. Consider-
ing that nitrogen dioxide was produced in all our
experiments with ANFO, even those that used fuel
rich ANFO, and given the high toxicity of Nitrogen
oxides, the implications of such entrapment for the
health an safety of personnel working during muck-
ing and transportatiuon operations are significant.
The current findings are in agreement with the find-
ings of Bakke et al. (2001), who observed measurable
quantities of NO2 close to transported rock blasted
with ANFO while NO2 levels were substantially
lower in the case of rock blasted with an emulsion.
4 CONCLUSION
A series of small scale tests revealed that the explo-
sive type is the most significant controllable param-
eter affecting the toxicity of detonation products.
Explosives with water in their mass appear to result
in the lowest toxicity as long as they are stoichio-
metrically balanced. ANFO produces oxides of
nitrogen even at fuel rich compositions. Limestone
additives have shown promise in reducing toxicity
and should be examined further. From the uncon-
trollable parameters, confinement appears to be of
significance. Muckpiles produced by blasting can
retain significant amounts of detonation products
for long periods. These products are released dur-
ing digging and can result in a significant momen-
tary increases of toxicity.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to acknowledge the finan-
cial support by grants from the Workplace Safety
and Insurance Board (WSIB) and the Natural Sci-
ences and Engineering Research Council of Canada
(NSERC).
REFERENCES
Azarkovich, A.E., Bolkhovitinov, L.G. and Pernik, L.M.
1995. Possibility of minimizing generation of nitrogen
oxides in blasting of ammonium nitrate explosives.
Journal of Mining Science, Vol. 31, No. 2 March, 1995,
147151. New York: Springer.
Bakke, B., Stewart, P., and Lund, M.B. 2001. Effects of
blasting fumes on exposure and short-term lung function
changes in tunnel construction workers. Scand. Journal
Work Environ. Health, 1001, Vol. 27. No.4: 250257.
510
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 510
Harris, M.L., Mainiero, R.J. 2007. Monitoring and
removal of CO in blasting operations. Safety Sci.
(2007), doi:10.1016/j.ssci.2007.10.003
Holmberg, R., Hustrulid, W. and Cunningham, C. 2001.
Blast Design for Underground Mining Applications.
Underground Mining Methods. Hustrulid, editor.
SME: 660661.
Katsabanis, P.D. and Liu, Q. 1993. Calorimetric Deter-
mination of the Heat of Detonation of Commercial
Explosives. Proc. 9th International Society of Explo-
sives Engineers Annual Conference on Explosives and
Blasting Research, San Diego, California: 3139.
Lazarov, S.B., Brinkley, R.F. and Tole, D.M. 1975. Explo-
sives and formation of Toxic gases in Large Scale Blast-
ing. Proc. 16th International Conference on Coal Mine
Safety Research, USBM, Pittsburgh, PA, Sep. 22.
Mainiero, R.J., Harris, M.L. and Rowland, J.H. 2007.
Danger of Toxic Fumes from Blasting. Proc. 33rd
ISEE Annual Conference on Explosives and Blasting
Technique, Nashville, TN, Jan 2831, Vol. 1: 7386.
Queensland Government, 2009. Post Blast Gases. Safety
alert No. 28, Explosives Inspectorate, July 9.
Roberts, W. 1992. Experimental Investigation of the
Fumes Produced by Modern Commercial Explosives.
M.Sc. Thesis. Mining Engineering, Queens University,
Kingston, Canada: 47214.
Roberts, W., Katsabanis, P. D. and deSouza, E. M. 1992.
Experimental Investigation of the Fumes Produced
by Modern Commercial Explosives. Proc. of the ISEE
8th Annual Conference on Explosives and Blasting
Research, January 1923, Orlando, FL: 5363.
Rowland, J. H. and Mainiero, R. 2000. Factors Affecting
ANFO Fumes Production. Proc. 26th ISEE Annual
Conf. on Explosives and Blasting Technique, Anaheim,
CA, Feb. 1013, Vol. 1: 163174.
Rowland, J.H., Mainiero, R. and Hurd, D.A. 2001. Fac-
tors Affecting Fumes Production of an Emulsion and
ANFO/Emulsion Blends. Proc. 27th ISEE Annual
Conference on Explosives and Blasting Technique, Las
Vegas, NV, Feb. 1013, 2002, Vol. 2: 133142.
Ruhe, T.C. and Wieland, M.S. 1991. Toxic Fumes from
Shock Damaged Permissible Explosives. Proc. ISEE
7th Conference on Explosives and Blasting Research,
Las Vegas, NV: pp. 4753.
Sapko, M., Rowland, J., Mainiero, R. and Zlochower, I.
2002. Chemical and Physical Factors that Influence NOx
Production During Blasting. Proc. 28th ISEE Annual
Conference on Explosives and Blasting Technique, Las
Vegas, NV, Feb. 1013, 2002, Vol. 2: 317330.
Turcotte, R., Yang, R., Lee, M.C. and Shoemaker, R.
2002. Factors Affecting Fume Production in Surface
Coal Blasting Operations. Proc. 28th ISEE Annual
Conference on Explosives and Blasting Technique, Las
Vegas, NV, Feb. 1013, 2002, Vol. 2: 307316.
Wieland, M. 2004. Work-Principle Model for Predict-
ing Toxic Fumes of Nonideal Explosives. Propellants
Explosives and Pyrotechnics, 2004, August, Vol 29,
No. 4: 236243.
Wieland, M. 2005. Toxic Fumes on the Rocks. Proc. 31st
ISEE Annual Conference on Explosives and Blasting
Technique, Orlando, FL, Feb. 69, Vol. 2: 155168.
Wieland, M. 2006. Reducing Overall Toxic Fumes in
Fixed Work Output by Formulating. Proc. 32nd ISEE
Annual Conference on Explosives and Blasting Tech-
nique, Grapevine, TX, Vol. 2: 121132.
10/3/2012 8:42:52 PM
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Fines and dust generation and control in rock fragmentation by blasting

Sushil Bhandari
Earth Resource Technology Consultants, Jodhpur, India

ABSTRACT: Fine materials resulting from blasting have varied utilization. Sometimes fines are con-
sidered useful in further metallurgical and chemical processing, while at other times fines are rejected and
become economical waste as well as environmental problem. Some fines get air borne and are dispersed
as dust. Considerable work has been carried out about reducing or increasing fines in blasting. It has been
proposed by many researchers that fines originate from crushed zone near the hole. Based on small scale
blasting tests, it is shown that fines not only come from the crushed zone but are also dependent on other
parameters such as the burden. Blast parameters and geology also influence them. Appropriate blasting
can reduce generation of fines and ejection of dust and fines during blasting. Another step is to stop fines
getting air borne. Modelling of dust plume and difficulties in measurements to quantify dust dispersal
through a particular area are described. Also practical examples of dust dispersal methods are given.

1 INTRODUCTION dust hazard. Blasting is carried out in most mines,

Fines and dust resulting from blasting operations
sometimes become both an environmental issue
and an economical loss for the producers. Dust
is a general term-fine particles (below 75 micron
range) that are suspended in the atmosphere. Dust
is formed when fine particles become entrained in
the atmosphere by the turbulent action of wind,
by the mechanical disturbance of fine materials,
or through the release of particulate-rich gaseous
emissions. In reality fines may be useful or detriment
to the operation. Most often less fines generation is
needed in overburden blasting, aggregate produc-
tion or in steel grade limestone production (where
anything less than 40/30 mm size is not used) and
often this material becomes waste. Whereas in situ-
ations where material is further crushed and proc-
essed, it is better to break the material by blasting to
the smallest size (Mine to Mill conceptJKMRC,
1998). Even in later situation dust continues to
be a matter of concern. Fines and dust resulting
from mining operations is a serious nuisance and a
health hazard to mine workers and population liv-
ing in the vicinity of a mine. Though the blasting
dust cloud is raised for few minutes but most of the
dust settles in and around mining area and some
of it is dispersed before settling down. Depending
on meteorological conditions this dust can disperse
to substantial distances endangering health of com-
munities. Some of the settled dust is raised again by
mining activities for example by travelling vehicles.
Damage to vegetation and agriculture is possible.
Modern surface mining often involves huge
tonnages thus increasing potential for greater
producing very large quantities of fines/dust. In
aggregate production, amount of fines produced
ranges between 20%40% (Mitchell et al, 2008,
Poscoe et al, 2008). Mines have to face the prob-
lem of storage and use of fines. It is important to
achieve the goal of reduced fines generation.
Two steps are needed to reduce the nuisance
resulting from blastinggenerate less fines/dust
during blasting and then reduce the dispersion
of dust which gets airborne. Fines/dust genera-
tion and dispersion are influenced by blast design
parameters and execution (Bhandari et al, 2004).
The fine material is assumed to originate from a
cylindrical crushed zone around the blast hole,
within which particles are generated by the crush-
ing of the rock due to comprehensive-shear failure
(Kanchibotla et al, 1999). The radius of zone is
assumed as the distance from the blast hole zone to
the point where radial stresses exceed the compres-
sive strength of rock mass. However, Svahn, (2003)
and others have shown that much of the fines gen-
erated in blasting do not originate in the crushed
zone around the blasthole. Efforts are needed to
understand the process of fines/dust generation
and dispersion. Labozratory blasting experiments
carried out by Bhandari (1975a and b), Bhandari
(1983), Bhandari and Badal (1990), Badal (1990)
have been reassessed. Size distribution has been
analyzed by Ouchterlony (2011) using Swebrec
function which throws important light on the gen-
eration of fines. During the intervening period
there has been new understanding of mechanism
of rock fracture and fragmentation (Fourney, 1993,
Bhandari, 1997, Liu and Kastabnis, 1997) and it

511

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 511 10/3/2012 8:42:52 PM

 is appropriate to find explanation to observations
about finesa part of fragmentation to which less
attention was paid at the time of experimentation.
This would help in steps to be laid out to reduce
fines/dust generation and dispersal for practical
blasting operations. Experiments were carried out
at full scale in limestone mines and simultaneous
measurements of dust plume dispersal, fragmen-
tation, displacement were recorded. Modeling of
plume movement also helps in getting some ideas
for controlling dust generation and dispersal.
2 GENERATION OF FINE FRAGMENTS
An occasional problem lies in the realistic assess-
ment of fines. It is felt that these fines can be gener-
ated both by the equipment loading the rock, and
through weak binding material between mineral
grains in addition to the intensive crushing of rock
around the boreholes during blasting. Within the
research project, Less fines production in aggre-
gate and industrial minerals industry, which was
funded by the European Union, Moser (2005)
states that Europe is consuming 2.25 billion tons of
blasted rock, 80% being building industry aggregate
and industrial minerals. Out of this blasted mate-
rial 10%15% cannot be sold, being too fine i.e.
smaller than 4 mm. In favour of fines to benefit the
SAG (semi autogenous grinding) mill throughput,
Grundstrom et al. (2001) state that the blast frag-
mentation affects mill throughput and finer ROM
(run of mine) from modified blasts increased the mill
throughput substantially. Similarly, Kanchibotla
et al. (1998) witnessed primary crusher product size
reduction and significant increase in throughput
due to the generation of more fines, achieved by
changing the powder factor.
2.1 Crushed zone model
Considerable research work has been going on
with regards to fines generation and size distribu-
tion (Hagan 1979, Moser 2005, Mitchel et al, 2008,
Damenegas, 2008, Djordjevic, 1999). Several models
have been used for fragment size distribution. The
models used are Kuz-Ram Model (Cunningham,
1987), Crushed Zone Model of JKMRC (Scott
et al, 1998, Kanchibotla et al, 1999, Onederra
et al, 2004) and KCO model combining extended
Kuzram and Swebrac function (Ouchterlony,
2005a and b). There are significant differences in
the model predictions for the finer ranges in the
fragment size distribution curve while the differ-
ences are reduced in the course range. Kanchibotla
et al. (1998) pointed out that the Kuz-Ram model
underestimates the contribution of fines. In the
case of the finer fractions, it is hypothesized that
512
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 512
they are produced by the pulverizing or crushing
action of the explosive in a blasthole. The crushed
zone radius around each blasthole is determined
based on the peak blasthole pressure and strength
of the rock. Although this has been generally
believed to be the major source, no one has so far
been able to prove it, as it was not known where
inside the bench such material originates.
How the blasting process can be refined to pro-
vide the optimum feed size range for the crushing
circuit fines in the blast muckpile has been sub-
ject of investigations (Scott et al, 1998). Kojovic
et al. (1998) state that rock in the crushed zone is
assumed to be completely pulverized to generate
fines, which are assumed to be less than 1 mm in
size. The coarse part of the distribution is predicted
using the conventional uniformity index based on
blast design parameters proposed by Cunningham
(1987) while the finer part is based on the percent-
age assumed pulverized around the borehole.
2.2 Test parameters and data collection
Small scale blasting tests were carried out in bench
shaped cement mortar and granite blocks to study
effect of variation of burden on fragmentation and
utilization of energy (Bhandari, 1975a, Bhandari,
1975b). Detonating cord (5.3 g/m) was used as long
cylindrical charges either single hole or two/three
simultaneously blasted holes. Some tests were car-
ried out using gun powder as an explosive charge.
In some granite blocks, simulated joint was created
parallel to face with three fillers namely air, plaster
of Paris and cement. Bhandari (1983), Bhandari
and Badal (1990) and Badal (1990) and others have
studied fragmentation on reduced scale in differ-
ent orientations of joints and on production scale.
Bhandari (1975a and b) distinguished between
optimum breakage burden and optimum fragmen-
tation burden (Fig. 1). At the optimum breakage
burden, maximum volume or mass of rock is bro-
ken but the fragmentation obtained is not essen-
tially acceptable as it has greater fines and some
large boulders. This was shown by laboratory scale
blasting where it was found that optimum frag-
mentation burden was 30%40% less than the opti-
mum breakage burden. In small scale blasting tests,
Figure 1 shows that smaller burdens produce very
high amount of fines with lesser values at opti-
mum fragmentation burdens. A typical Swebrec
distribution of fragments obtained in tests is given
in Figure 2. At optimum breakage burden though
the rock broken volume is maximum but there are
boulders and fines.
At lower burden, amount of fines is higher.
F-test indicates a significant influence of bur-
den (Ouchterlony, 2011) on the amount of fines
(Fig. 3). The mass of 3.33 mm fines is denoted
10/3/2012 8:42:53 PM

Figure 1. Sized fragments of 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45 and
50 mm burdens placed in vertcal rows for small to largest
sizes, .33, +3.33, +6.57, +12.7, +25.4, +38.1, +50.8 and
+63.6 mm.
Figure 2. Showing size distribution using Swebrec.
Figure 3. Fines generated vs burden during single and
multihole experiments.
by f (g), the burden by B (mm) and the spacing
by S (mm). There is no significant dependence
on spacing. If there was a zone that followed the
Crushed Zone Model lines (admittedly JKMRC
use 1 mm fines) and thus was based on the initial
513
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 513
blasthole pressure, then we would have no depend-
ence on the burden. If the crushed zone was the
only zone of origin of fines then significant
influence of burden would not have been there.
Amount of fines produced from 3 holes is almost
three times that is produced from single hole that
means fines are not dependent on crushed zone
alone. It is suggested that micro-structural dam-
age by stress waves help in branching of radiat-
ing cracks propagating under gas action. Further,
Liu and Kastabnis (1998) explain that two zones
of damage are formed by different mechanisms.
Immediately after the detonation of the explosive
charge, a thin layer of rock material confining the
explosive charge fails and forms a crushed zone.
The rock mass outside the crushed zone is again
experience two damage zones. The lower damage
zone is formed by tensile failure induced by two
tensile failures and by reflected stress waves. At
crater depth (burden) smaller than optimum value
there is excessive damage because of coalesce caus-
ing excessive fracture of material that has been
crushed. At crater depth greater than optimum
burden reflected damage zone disappears and thus
less fractured and fragmented rock.
Similar observations about fines and bur-
den were made with regard to granite blocks
(Bhandari, 1975a) and in homogeneous lime-
stone blocks (Badal, 1990). At smaller burdens,
stress waves cause scabbing and also create micro
cracking, extension of existing cracks along with
crushing near the hole. Low explosive tests show
fines with large amount of boulders (Fig. 4). The
amount of 3,33 mm fines from granite tests
(everything else being the same) is about twice the
amount from mortar tests, despite that the uniaxial
compressive strength of granite (172.4 MPa) is
more than three times higher than that (49,6 MPa)
of the mortar. According to crushed zone model
(CZM) lower compressive strength rock should
have given higher amount of fines.
Figure 4. Size distribution and retention for low
explosives.
10/3/2012 8:42:53 PM
 Stress wave action also has important influ-
ence on the generation of fines. At lower burden
stress waves are predominantly acting and hence
a large generation of fines occurs as stress waves
have an important role in the generation of more
micro-structural cracks and thus fines. When the
role of stress waves was further investigated then
it showed that at lower burdens mass of fines is
much higher.
To reduce role of stress waves decoupling tests
were carried out by keeping explosives diameter
same but increasing hole diameter. Less amount of
fines were produced (Fig. 6). Fines produced are
less at larger burden of 35 mm and with increased
decoupling which reduces the role of stress waves.
Further test were carried out with wave trapping,
Figure 5. Variable spacing at burdens of 20, 30 and
40 mm and spacing of 60 and 90 mm shows that by reduc-
ing role of stress waves in multihole fines get reduced.
Figure 6. Sized fragments, from single tests with vari-
ous hole diameters (4.8, 6.4 and 7.9 mm) shows much
larger amount of fines at smaller diameter.
514
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 514
by placing a plate on bench face with grease
between them. Figure 7 shows that when stress
waves participate, the amount of fines produced is
greater for corresponding burden.
Figure 5 shows that even in multihole tests the
burden has influence on the fines produced and
spacing at corresponding burdens has less effect on
the amount of fines produced. Statistical analysis
by Ochterlony (2011) also shows that spacing does
not have significant influence.
2.3 Influence of joints
Bhandari (1983), Bhandari and Badal (1990) and
Badal (1990) and others have studied on reduced
scale and on production scale, the relationship
between orientation of joints and some blast
parameters. The filler materials of the joints also
have influence on the fragmentation. Bhandari
(1975) showed that in tests on granite blocks,
the fine fragments increased in case of cemented
joints compared to joints which were filled with
weaker material or were open joints. Thus indicat-
ing that participation of stress waves was better
in case of joints filled with strong filler material
and produced greater amount of fines. Bhandari
and Badal (1990) and Badal (1990) observed that
maximum new surface area was created with
horizontal joints, whereas the parallel vertical
joints generated minimum amount of new sur-
face area. (Figs. 8 to 12). Homogeneous rock pro-
duced lesser fines compared to jointed rock tests.
Although shape of fragments changed with ori-
entation of joints.
Displacement of fragments indicated that it is
also affected by orientation of joints. For example
for dipping joints perpendicular to the face the
direction the displacement is directed towards
the up dip side, whereas for down dip joints
Figure 7. Sized fragments from single hole tests (a) wave
trapping tests (WB) and without wave trapping tests for
different burden values.
10/3/2012 8:42:53 PM

Figure 8. Size distribution for horizontal, parallel
to face and perpendicular to face joints with 35 mm
burden & spacing of 70 and 105 mm.
Figure 9. Fragment distribution and displacement for
horizontal joints.
Figure 10. Fragment distribution and displacement for
joints vertical perpendicular to face.
parallel to face and perpendicular to blasting direc-
tion, the scattering is widely spread. The shape of
particles is also influenced. For example in case
of vertical joints parallel to the face and perpen-
dicular to blasting direction thinner platy parti-
cles were generated, whereas joints parallel to face
515
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 515
Figure 11. Fragment distribution and displacement for
joints parallel to face.
Figure 12. Fragment distribution and displacement for
joints 30 dipping across the face.
and perpendicular to blasting direction resulted in
cubical shape of particles.
By providing liners in holes, crushing near the
hole were reduced thus fines generated in the
crushed zone reduce (Rathore and Bhandari,
2005). Thus fines can be reduced by providing
liners & providing air gap in the charge column or
using lower energy explosives.
3 DUST DISPERSAL
Meteorological parameters such as wind speed and
direction, temperature, cloud cover and humidity
affects the dispersion of dust. Wind provides the
mechanical energy for particle entrainment. A cer-
tain minimum wind velocity, often-called threshold
wind velocity is required, before the dust particles
raised in the atmosphere or lying on the surface,
begin to move. Above this level, particle entrain-
ment may be expected to depend strongly on wind
velocity. Atmospheric stability affects dispersion of
the emission plume, determining the extent of the
vertical and horizontal, transverse and axial spread-
ing of the emitted particulates (Evans et al, 1981,
Chock, 1997). Atmospheric stability depends upon
the extent of solar insulation, cloudiness and wind
speed. These factors determine vertical thermal gra-
dient and corresponding atmospheric turbulence.
10/3/2012 8:42:54 PM
 Stability is both seasonal and diurnal. For long-
term dust dispersion estimates, an average estimate
of stability condition is desirable.
Soil moisture content affects the cohesive forces
between soil particles and thus their entrainment.
Above certain soil moisture content, the particles
may be bound together so tightly that no fugitive
emissions may be expected. Moisture affects cohe-
siveness differently for different soils. For long-term
emission estimates, average soil moisture content is
needed along with frequency of precipitation. In
both cases one needs to carry out dust sampling.

3.1 Experimental measurements

Measurement of dust resulting from blasting has
been very difficult work. This is required because it
is important to see effectiveness of control measures.
Experiments were conducted at opencast mine site
at Sanu Limestone MinesJaisalmer, physical
measurement of particulate matter (P.M.10) dust
particles were made with the help of high volume
dust samplers. High volume air samplers were used
for the estimation of the mass (g) of the SPM in a
given volume of air (V.), where V is the known rate
at which air is drawn through the apparatus and is
the duration of sampling process.
Hence, good correlation between dust cloud
spread and the intensity of the turbulence exists
irrespective of the condition of the surface refer-
ence and stability. This is a significant result, in the
theoretical modeling of the dispersing puff of dust
cloud. Therefore, wind measurement and values
at blast site are of great importance in the disper-
sion process.
Five instruments were laid out in downwind
direction at safe distance from the blast. Three were
on the path central line of expected (1st, 3rd & 5th)
plume path. Transverse to 3rd instrument, two
instruments are kept at equal distance on either
side.
3.2 Experiments at Sanu mines, Jaisalmer
Experimental studies were carried out at Sanu
Limestone mines. This mine is located in western
part of Rajasthan in Thar Desert. The limestone
belongs to Khuila formation of Eocene age.
The area is deprived of the overburden except in
the northern region where a layer of 24 m top soil
exists. Limestone horizon is of 1520 m thickness
and is further divided into hard, compact bouldary
limestone and chalky limestone. Steel grade lime
stone is produced which is available in top layer only
which is 1 to 5 m thick. The lower limestone layer
is of cement grade. Steel mills need limestone of a
particular size. There is size restriction; in general
anything below 30 mm is of no use. This material
Figure 13. Poor fragmentation resulted in boulders and
fines.
Figure 14. Excessive fragmentation leads to the genera-
tion of a significant proportion of fine material.
is dumped back in the mine or sold at lower price.
Therefore, there is need to reduce generation of fines
and dust. Drill holes are of 120 mm diameter holes
for a depth ranging from 4.0 m5.0 m. The usual
blast parameters are 3.0 m of spacing and 2.5 m
of burden. These holes were blasted using ANFO
and aluminized slurry explosives as bottom charge.
Detonating cord and cord relays were used. Five
blasts were conducted where dust measurements
were carried out and blast results including frag-
ment sizes were analysed using Wipfrag software.
Measurements of the dust were made at various
distances from the point of blast. Table 1 gives
details of blasts and results obtained from these
tests showed that by change of explosives average
fragment size increased with ANFO and wood
dust compared to slurry explosives. Blast Nos. 1
and 2 used cap sensitive slurry explosive only. Blast
Nos. 3 and 4 utilised cap sensitive slurry explosive
as booster and ANFO as a column charge. In Blast
No. 5, 10% sawdust was added to ANFO and in
the stemming water filled cartridges (ampoules)
were put with the stemming. By the addition of

516

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 516 10/3/2012 8:42:55 PM

 Table 1. Blast observations from the blast carried out at Sanu limestone mine, Jaisalmer.

Slurry + ANFO +
Explosive used Slurry Slurry Slurry + ANO Slurry + ANFO water bag + saw dust

Average burden, m 2.27 1.93 2.44 2.42 2.62

Average spacing, m 2.83 2.10 2.19 2.85 2.08
Max. charge per delay 103.80 66.48 53.56 298.32 44.30
Average throw, m 5.80 7.43 6.00 9.00 5.95
Average back break, m 1.37 1.66 1.64 1.85 1.01
Average over break, m 0.65 0.85 1.77 1.80 1.66
Average fragments 727 755 275 317 106
size, mm
Powder factor 6.42 5.00 6.81 8.23 6.48
Fragmentation Not good Not good Good Good Good

dust is also given in vertical planes. It takes into

Figure 15. Monitoring dust concentration using high
volume dust sampler.
sawdust, energy of explosive is reduce and by the
addition of water ampoules in the stemming dust
ejected from the blasthole gets moistened thus
dispersal is hampered. Blast No. 5 shows more
uniform fragmentation than in Blast Nos. 1 and 2
where stronger slurry explosives were used. Many
large boulders and a greater amount of fines were
observed, indicating that much energy was being
consumed in crushing and energy utilization
was not optimum thereby producing boulders.
Figure 15 shows that dust was collected by high
volume respiratory sampler up to 70 minutes after
blast.
Software was developed for predicting dust
plume dispersion from blasting operations using
the Eulerian mathematical algorithm (Kumar and
Bhandari 2001, Bhandari and Kumar. 2002). This
model considers atmospheric stability and wind
velocity and direction for computing dust concen-
trations at different distances from the blast. The
software simulates movement of dust plume at a
given horizontal distance from the blast location
and time elapsed after the blast. Concentration of
account ground profile & atmospheric conditions
such as temperature, pressure, humidity, wind
velocity, wind direction & shear.
The impediment in establishing correlation
between the predicated and the observed results
was lack of information with respect to the total
quantity of dust (Q) spewed up in the atmosphere
due to initial blasting.
Possible causes of error and difficulties in field
measurement are as below:
a. Incorrect identification of central line of plume.
b. Incorrect rate of suction leading to erroneous
dust weight.
c. Uneven surface levels of instruments 1, 2, 3, 4
and 5.
d. Incorrect assumption of uniform dust distribu-
tion in the vertical column.
e. Wind direction, may sometimes, suddenly
change at the last moment, after the entire set
of instrument have been laid. This may result
in either partial dust capture by the set of dust
samplers or no dust, at all, may reach to any of
the five instruments. Exact identification of the
central line of plume is also, therefore, difficult.
4 DUST CONTROL MEASURES
Industry has been able to develop fines and dust
control measures. (Bhandari et al, 2004). By dis-
continuing use of detonating cord as downline
and also by use of aggregates as stemming mate-
rial in the holes compared to use of drill cuttings
has considerably reduced dust. Based on the above
analysis some ways to reduce dispersal were tried.
Water is important in controlling dust generated
by blasting. The area surrounding the blast should
be thoroughly sprayed beforehand. This precau-
tion will prevent dust settled out during previous

517

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 517 10/3/2012 8:42:55 PM

 operations from becoming airborne. A uniform
rock moisture content of only 1% greatly reduces
dust compared to dry rock. However, since it is dif-
ficult to wet rock uniformly under realistic mining
conditions, the optimum moisture content can be
much higher. The water used for dust suppression,
particularly in drilling and in blasting, should be as
clean as possible, because the evaporation of dirty
water can also release dust. The following were
tried during the experimental work:
a. Stemming Rock Lock filled with water.
High tensile, non-brittle plastic balls called Rock
Lock; have been used in stemming column
(Shann, 2002). In the experiments conducted
Rock Lock ball was filled with water (Fig. 16). The
ball works as a lock or obstruction to blown out of
stemming material for a little time where as water
inside when the ball breaks and sprays water, this Figure 18. Placement of water filled bags in stemming.
reduces dust dispersion. Trials were made with this
arrangement. Though there was some help but in
realistic situation this would involve lot of work.
fumes from blasting. Water filled plastic bags
The effort made did not give very good results.
are permitted device for stemming. In experi-
b. Water filled ampoule with stemming.
mental work water stemming bags have proven
PVC ampoules (water filled or gel filled) are
very effective in providing confinement and
used as safe stemming material in underground
reducing dust (Figs. 17 and 18). When shots
coal mines. They significantly reduce dust and
were fired with use of water ampoules, reduc-
tion in dust concentration was observed. The
ejection was reduced when water ampoules
were used, which resulted in better and uni-
form fragmentation and much lower degree of
projection of fragmented material.
c. Water sprinkling area surrounding the blast
area prior to blast helps in stopping dust being
raised. Besides bench being blasted when
fragmented material falls on the lower bench,
another dust cloud is raised. Therefore it is bet-
ter to sprinkle water on the lower bench also
before the blast.
d. Another method that is found to be effective
Figure 16. Placing water filled rock lock in blast hole. in protecting areas adjacent to the mine from
blasting dust involved is delaying blasting under
unfavorable wind and atmospheric conditions.
This required some flexibility in blasting sched-
ules, but can be highly effective.

5 CONCLUSIONS

Two steps are needed to reduce dust nuisance

resulting from blastinggenerate less fines/dust
during blasting and then reduce the dispersion of
dust which gets airborne. There are several blast-
ing parameters which would influence generation
of fines and dust. Type of explosives determines
amount of fines and dust generated during
blasting. Proper combination of blasting param-
Figure 17. Placing water bags into the blast hole. eters such as burden distance, blast hole spacing,

518

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 518 10/3/2012 8:42:56 PM

 stemming height, effective sub drilling and the ratio
of charge diameter to blast hole diameter may give
reduced fines. To achieve the goal of reduced dust
proper explosive type, blast parameters, initiation
sequence, and charge distribution need to be tai-
lored in such a way that they produce optimum
size distribution of fragments. Generation of dust
gets affected by many geological and blasting
parameters. Dust dispersal needs to be prevented
even if blast generated fines have particles which
can be raised as dust. Prediction of dust plume
movement and use of water to prevent dust disper-
sal can be made.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Finn Ouchterlony analysed data presented in S
Bahndari (1975), S. Bhandari and R. Badal (1990)
publications. Comments and questions raised by
him have immensely helped and are acknowledged
with gratitude.
REFERENCES
Badal, R. (1990) Studies on Rock Fragmentation by
blasting of rock with discontinuities, University of
Jodhpur, 1990, 215.
Bhandari, S. (1975a) Studies on Fragmentation of Rock
by Blasting. Ph.D. Thesis, University of New South
Wales, 201 p.
Bhandari, S. (1975b) Burden and Spacing Relationship
in the Design of Blasting Patterns, 16th Symposium
on Rock Mechanics, University of Minnesota,
pp 333343.
Bhandari S. (1983) Influence of Joint Directions in
Blasting, 9th Annual Conference on Explosives and
Blasting Techniques, Dallas, February, pp 359369.
Bhandari, S. (1997) Engineering Rock Blasting Operations.
A.A. Balkema Publishers, Rotterdam, Netherlands/
Brookfield, U.S.A.; 370 p.
Bhandari, S. and Badal, R. (1990) Relationships Between
Joint Directions and Blasting Parameters, Proc 3rd
International Symposium on Rock Fragmentation by
Blasting, Brisbane, 2631 August 1990 pp 225231.
AusIMM Publ Parkville.
Bhandari, S. and Kumar, P. (2002) Modelling of Near
Source Dust Dispersal after Surface Mine Blast in
Weak Wind over Undulated Terrain in Tropical Con-
ditions, APCOMApplication of Computers and
Operations Research in The Minerals Industry SME,
Phoenix, Arizona, USA.
Chock D.P. (1997) A Simple Line-Source Model for Dis-
persion Near Roadways. Atmospheric Environment
Vol. 12, pp 823829.
Cunningham, C. (1987) Fragmentation Estimations and
The Kuz-Ram ModelFour Years On. Proceedings
2nd International Symposium on Rock Fragmentation
by Blasting, August 2326, 1987. Colorado.
pp 450, 480, 481.
519
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 519
Dameneges, V. (2008) Fragmentation Analysis of opti-
mized blasting rounds in the Aitic MinesEffect of
Specific charge, Masters Thesis, Department of Civil
and Environmental Engineering, Lulea University of
Technology, 117 p.
Djordjevic, N. (1999) Two-component model of blast
fragmentation. Fragblast. South African Institute of
Mining and Metallurgy, Johannesburg. pp 213.
Evans J.S., Spedden S.E. and Cooper D.W. (1981) A
Study of the Relationship between Wind Speed and
Total Suspended Particulate Levels, Journal of the
Air Pollution Control Association. Vol. 31, No. 4,
pp 395396.
Fourney, W.L. (1993) Mechanisms of rock fragmentation
by blasting. Comprehensive Rock Engineering Princi-
ples, Practice and Projects, Vol. 4. Oxford: Pergamon
Press, pp 3969.
Grundstrom, C. Kanchibotla, S.S., Jankovichk A. and
Thornton, D. (2001) Blast Fragmentation for Max-
imising the Sag Mill Throughput at Porgera Gold
Mine, International Society of Explosives Engineers
2001G, Vol. 1, pp 213.
Hagan, T.N. (1979) The control of fines through
improved blast design, Proc. Aust. Inst. Mech. &
Metal. 9 p.
Jenkins, S.S., Floyd, J., Stemming enhancement tests,
General Proc. of ISEE, 2000G, Vol. 2, pp 191204.
JKMRC, (1998) Optimisation of Mine Fragmentation
for Downstream Processing, Final Report, AMIRA
P483 project.
Kanchibotla S.S., Valery W. and Morrell, S. (1999) Mod-
elling fines in blast fragmentation and its impact on
crushing and grinding, Proc. Explo-99 Conf. Kalgo-
orlie, Nov.
Kojovic, T. and Kanchibotla, S.S., Poetschka and
Chapman, J. 1998. The Effect of Blast Design
on the Lump: Fines Ratio at Marandoo Iron Ore
Operartions. Mine to Mill conference 1998, Brisbane,
Qld. 150 p.
Kumar, P. and Bhandari, S. (2001) Modelling Dust Dis-
persal near Source after Opencast Mine Blast in Weak
Wind Conditions over Flat Terrain in Tropical Condi-
tions, Explo 2001 Conference, Hunters Valley.
Liu, L. and Katsabanis, P.D. (1998) A numerical descrip-
tion of the formation of a crater in rock blasting, CIM
Bulletin, Vol. 91, No. 1023, pp 7581.
Mitchell, C.J., Mitchell, P. and Pascoe, R.D. (2008) Quarry
fines minimisation: can we really have 10 mm aggre-
gate with no fines? In: Scott, P.W., Walton, G. (Eds.),
Proceedings of the 14th Extractive Industry Geology
Conference. EIG Conferences td, pp 3744.
Moser, P. (2005) Less Fines in aggregate and indus-
trial minerals productionResults of an European
research project, in Proceedings 3rd EFEE World
Conference on Explosives and blasting (Ed. R. Hol-
mberg) pp 567574.
Onederra, I., Esen, S. and Jankovic, A. (2004) Estimation
of fines generated by blastingapplications for the
mining and quarrying industries Mining Technology,
Vol. 113, No. 4, pp 237247(11).
Ouchterlony, F. (2005a) The Swebrec function: linking
fragmentation by blasting and crushing. Mining Tech-
nology Transactions of the Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy A 114:A29A44.
10/3/2012 8:42:56 PM
 Ouchterlony, F. (2005b) What does the fragment size dis-
tribution from blasting look like? in Proceedings 3rd
EFEE World Conference on Explosives and Blasting
(Ed:R Holmberg) pp 189199 (EFEE: England).
Ouchterlony, F. (2011) Personal correspondence regard-
ing size distribution of fragment distribution in small
scale blasting. E-mail: finn.ouchterlony@unileoben.
ac.at.
Pascoe R.D, Mitchell C.J. and Mitchell P. (2008) Quarry
fines minimisation: Can we really have 10 mm aggre-
gate with no fines? 14th Extractive Industry Geology
Conference, Edinburgh, 14th17th Jun 2006, 2008,
pp 3744.
Shann, P.C. (2002) Stemming arrangement and method
for blast holes patent US006386111B1, May 14.
520
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 520
Svahn, V. (2003) Generation of fines in bench blasting.
Licentiate thesis, Department of Geology, Chalmers
University of Technology: Gothenburg. 87 p.
Scott, A., David, D., Alvarez, O. and Veloso, L. (1998)
Managing Fines Generation in the Blasting and
Crushing Operations at Cerro Colorado Mine. Mine
to Mill Conference 1998, Brisbane, Qld.
Rathore, S.S. and Bhandari, S. (2005) Controlled Frac-
ture Growth by Blasting While Protecting Damages
to Remaining Rock, Rock Mechanics and Rock Engi-
neering, Springer, Wien, December.
10/3/2012 8:42:56 PM
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Techniques for the control of environmental blast impacts

A.B. Richards & A.J. Moore

Terrock Consulting Engineers, Australia

ABSTRACT: A critical review is made of techniques that have been commonly used for the control of
environmental impacts, which include ground vibration, airblast overpressure, flyrock, dust, and fume
emission. Comparisons are made between commonly used time window techniques, including time of fir-
ing and time of arrival analyses, and wavefront reinforcement analyses. The latest developments in the use
of atmospheric refraction modelling to assess and predict the effect of meteorological effects on airblast
overpressure are presented. Recent developments in the management and control of dust and fume emis-
sion are also presented, including the use of modelling that includes meteorological data inputs to predict
the intensity and direction of dust and fume plumes.

1 INTRODUCTION mass. This limits the effectiveness of charge mass

Environmental impacts from blasting include
ground vibration, airblast overpressure, flyrock,
dust and fume emission.
2 GROUND VIBRATION
Important factors influencing blast vibration levels
are:
Charge mass and distance from blast;
Ground conditions;
Burden, spacing and sequential initiation
timing.
reduction as a method of reducing vibration lev-
els, as other factors are often more important.
2.2 Timing of firing window analysis
Time of firing window analysis is used to deter-
mine the number of blastholes being fired within a
specified time window.
Time of firing window analysis using an 8 ms
time window to determine the maximum instanta-
neous charge (M.I.C.), combined with charge mass
vs distance scaling analysis, is the most commonly
used method for the control of ground vibration
from blasting.

2.1 Charge mass vs distance scaling relationships
Ground vibration levels have been commonly
assessed using the square root scaling formula in
Equation 1:
b predicting blast vibration.
D
V K (1)
W cast (or throw) blast:
where V = ground vibration as peak particle
velocity (mm/s); D = distance from blast (m);
W = Charge mass per delay (kg); K = site constant;
b = site exponent.
Charge mass vs distance scaling methods are
widely used in the assessment and prediction of
ground vibration, and work well if charge mass
and distance are the only significant variables.
It should be noted that ground vibration is
proportional to the square root of the charge
2.3 Time of arrival of wavefront analysis
Time of firing window analysis does not allow
for the time taken for the vibration wavefronts to
travel towards a sensitive location from each blast-
hole, and this can result in substantial error when
This is illustrated in the following example of a
Time window analysis shows one blasthole
being fired within a 8 ms time window.
Ground vibration is transmitted as compres-
sive (P) waves, transverse shear (S) waves, and
surface Rayleigh (R) waves. In this case, wavefront
analysis shows that the shear waves and Rayleigh
waves reinforced in the east-west direction. This is
illustrated by the wavefront pattern analysis for
Rayleigh waves that is shown in Figure 2.
The resulting effect of this wavefront reinforce-
ment is shown in Figure 3.

521

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 521 10/3/2012 8:42:56 PM


Figure 1. Indicative part of a 16 hole per row by 13 row
cast blast.
locations, and examples have been presented in
papers that show good correlation between pre-
dicted and measured waveforms.
Predictive assessment of ground-transmitted
blast vibration is complicated by the fact that
ground vibration is transmitted in three modes (as
P, S, & R waves), and is affected by other factors
such as rock structure.
Current waveform superposition methodology
involves the Monte Carlo superposition of a sig-
nature waveform measured at one or more distances
from sensitive sites, to provide a range of outcomes.
Waveform superposition methods require con-
siderable computer power and expense, and the
expertise of specialist personnel.

2.5 Comparison between alternative ground

vibration control methods
Charge mass vs distance scaling methods can work
well if charge mass and distance are the only sig-
nificant variables. Caution should be used with
8 ms time of firing window analysis, particularly
when the period of the wavelength of the vibration
is well in excess of 8 ms.
Wavefront Pattern time of arrival analysis can
identify delay patterns that will reinforce ground
vibration in certain directions. When used in com-
bination with scaling analysis, this provides a rapid
method of predicting blast vibration that can be
used by on-site blasting personnel.
Figure 2. Wavefront Pattern analysis for Rayleigh
waves.
3 AIRBLAST OVERPRESSURE

Important factors influencing blast vibration levels

are:
Charge mass and distance from blast;
Face height and orientation;
Topographic shielding;
Stemming height and type;
Blasthole diameter to burden ratio;
Burden, spacing, and sequential initiation timing;
Meteorological conditions.

3.1 Charge mass and distance from blast

Air vibration levels for single unconfined surface
charges may assessed using the cube root scaling
formula in Equation 2:

Figure 3. Ground vibration assessment contours. D

P K3 (2)
W
2.4 Waveform superposition methods
Waveform superposition methods have the poten- where P = pressure (Pascal); W = explosives charge
tial to allow for both the time of firing and the mass (kg); D = distance from charge (m); K = site
spatial position of the blastholes and sensitive constant; a = site exponent.

522

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 522 10/3/2012 8:42:57 PM

 For unconfined surface charges, in situations Analysis of measurements taken for various
which are not effected by meteorology, a good shielding situations when blasting in different rock
estimate may be obtained by using a site exponent types has permitted a relationship to be developed.
(a) of 1.45, (which corresponds to an attenuation The relationship between secondary shielding
rate of 9 decibels (dBL) with doubling of distance), measured in decibels-linear (dBL), barrier height,
and a site constant (K) of 516. and incident angle is shown in Figure 6.
For confined blasthole charges, the site constant
is commonly in the range 10 to 100.
3.4 Effect of burden and stemming
It should be noted that air vibration is propor-
tional to the cube root of the charge mass. This The effect of burden can have a significant influ-
limits the effectiveness of charge mass reduction as ence on airblast levels.
a method of reducing vibration levels. The effect of burden is illustrated in Figure 7
Most blasting is conducted using multiple con- which shows the size and shape of 120 dBL con-
fined blasthole charges detonated in a delayed tours when front row burden is changed from 3.6 m
sequence. In these situations, other factors are to 2.8 m. Blasthole diameter remains constant at
often more important, and this has limited the 89 mm, and stemming height constant at 3 m.
effectiveness of simple charge mass vs distance Effective environmental control of airblast will
scaling methods. be achieved if stemming height and burden are in
the range 30 to 40 blasthole diameters.
3.2 Face height and orientations Good quality crushed rock or aggregate stem-
ming with a size range of 1/5th to 1/10th blasthole
When an explosive charge in a vertical hole is fired
diameter will consistently result in less air blast
towards a free vertical face, the resulting airblast
than if the same stemming height of drill cuttings
levels are greater in front of the face than behind it
is used.
due to the shielding effect of the face.
A computer-based model has been developed to
aid in airblast assessment based on elliptical con-
tours that are stretched in front of the face and
generally flattened behind the face. The develop-
ment and use of this model is described by Rich-
ards (2010).
An example of the use of the model to deter-
mine the effect of changing the orientation of the
face is given in Figure 4 below.

3.3 Topographic shielding

In hilly terrain or deep excavations, airblast levels
resulting in the surrounding area are reduced by
secondary shielding (Moore et al 1993). The rela- Figure 5. Shielding terminology.
tionship between shielding, the effective barrier
height and the incident angle, has been investi-
gated. These terms are illustrated in Figure 5.

Figure 4. Face orientation affecting air vibration levels. Figure 6. Secondary shielding relationships.

523

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 523 10/3/2012 8:42:59 PM

 The effect of reducing stemming from 3.0 m
to 1.6 m is given in Figure 8. Blasthole diameter
remains constant at 89 mm, and burden constant
at 3 m.
A method for the quantification of airblast
emission from confined blasthole charges is
described in Richards & Moore (2002). An alter-
native approach is described in King-Siem &
Moore (2004).
3.5 Wavefront superposition methods
Waveform superposition methods have the potential
to allow for both the time of firing and the spatial
position of the blastholes and sensitive locations.
The concept of these methods is described in Rich-
ards & Moore (2002).
A further example of the use of waveform
superposition of airblast is described in McKenzie
(2004.)
Figure 7. Contours for different burdens.
Figure 8. 120 dBL contour for different stemming
heights.
524
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 524
Although waveform superposition methods for
the quantification of airblast require considerable
computer power and expense, and the expertise
of specialist personnel, their development will be
assisted by the fact that that there is only one basic
mode of transmission (at the speed of sound),
compared with three modes of transmission (as P,
S, & R waves) for ground transmission. A compli-
cating factor is the need to differentiate between
stemming-based and burden-based emission.
3.6 Burden, spacing and sequential initiation
timing
When a single blasthole is fired, a vibration wave-
front is created which spreads uniformly in all
directions at the propagation speed (e.g. 340 m/
sec for sound waves). At any period of time after
firing, the wavefront will have travelled a distance
from the blasthole which is proportional to time.
If the distance between blastholes coincides with
the distance the wavefront has travelled, then a rein-
forcement will occur. For example, if a row of blast-
holes 3 m apart are fired with a 9 ms delay between
them, the resulting wavefront diagram is shown
in Figure 9. This pattern will result in a dramatic
increase in air vibration in the direction of initiation.
3.7 Effects of meteorology
Atmospheric refraction due to the effects of
meteorology can increase airblast levels by up
Figure 9. Wavefront reinforcement.
10/3/2012 8:43:00 PM
 to 20 dBL. Details of techniques that have been
developed to evaluate this are given in a later sec-
tion of the paper.

4 A COMPARISON BETWEEN TIME

OF ARRIVAL (8 MS TIME WINDOW)
ANALYSIS AND TIME OF ARRIVAL
(WAVEFRONT) ANALYSIS

The effect of wavefront reinforcement on airblast

overpressure is illustrated by the following example
of a cast blast drilled on a 10 m 7 m staggered
pattern. The delay sequence is shown in Figure 10.
Timing analysis for the delay sequence for this
blast shows that one blasthole detonates within an
8 ms time window.
Wavefront analysis shows strong reinforce-
ment in a direction of 55o in front of the face (see
Figure 11), due to strong emission from front row
blastholes. Emission from blastholes in subse-
quent rows was substantially reduced by the use of
aggregate stemming with stemming heights in the
range 56 metres. Figure 12. Basic airblast emission with wavefront
The effect of this strong reinforcement is shown reinforcement.
in the following airblast contour assessment that

has been superimposed over a scaled airphoto of

Figure 10. Effect of wavefront reinforcement on
airblastcast blast drilled on a 10 m 7 m staggered
pattern.
the mine and surrounding area (Figure 12).
The contour assessment compares the basic
emission that would have resulted in the absence
of wavefront reinforcement with the total emission
due to the effect of reinforcement.
Strong wavefront reinforcement can result in
airblast overpressure levels being increased by
more than 20 dBL. Further details about the quan-
tification of wavefront reinforcement for airblast
overpressure are provided in Richards & Moore
(2002), King-Siem et al (2002), and McKenzie
(2004).

5 FLYROCK

Flyrock models should be conservative and sim-

ple to use. An example of such model, which was
described in Richards & Moore (2004), is given in
Equation 3 below. The model is based on general
trajectory theory and a relationship between launch
velocity developed by Workman et al (1994).
2.6
k2 m
Lmax = (3)
9.8 B

where B = burden (m); m = charge mass/metre

Figure 11. Wavefront diagram reinforcement around (kg); k = a constant, that is determined by site
55 degrees to the face. measurements.

525

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 525 10/3/2012 8:43:00 PM

 Figure 14. Wind velocity profile.
Figure 13. Flyrock clearance diagram.

The model produces outputs that are superim-

posed on scaled airphoto-plans to specify clearance
zones for plant and personnel (see Figure 13).

6 EFFECTS OF METEOROLOGY

Airblast overpressure levels can commonly be

increased by up to 20 dBL by the effects of mete-
orology and wind shear. Evaluation of meteoro-
logical effects requires that the air temperature and
wind velocity be known at levels above the ground,
preferably up to 1000 metres.
A real-time system for the prediction and evalu-
ation of the effect of meteorology on airblast
levels has been established in the Hunter Val-
ley Coalfield in Australia. Real-time data from a
predictive meteorological model and sounding Figure 15. Temperature profile.
equipment is input to an atmospheric refraction
model that enables the effect of meteorology on
airblast levels in the area surrounding the blast site 7 DUST AND FUME EMISSION
to be evaluated. Details are given in Richards &
Howarth (2009). Considerable effort is currently being made to
The system consists of the ACARP/MM5 improve the level of control over dust and fume
predictive model, operated by the Hunter Valley emissions from blasting.
Meteorological Sounding Group (HVMSG) that The level of emission that will result in the area
produces wind velocity and temperature data as surrounding a blast will depend on the level of
shown Figures 14 and 15. dust and fumes produced at the blast site, and the
This data is input into an atmospheric refrac- manner in which these emissions disperse as they
tion model that produces outputs quantifying the leave the blast site. Control over the level dust and
effect of meteorology on airblast levels as shown nitrous fumes produced at a blast site is currently
in Figure 16. an imprecise science, although improved methods
When combined with inputs that quantify the and guidelines are being developed to minimise
effects of blasting specifications, the combined effects these emissions. An example of these guidelines is
of basic blast emission and meteorological effects given by the Australian Explosives Industry and
can be evaluated. Safety Group Inc. (2011).

526

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 526 10/3/2012 8:43:01 PM


Figure 16. Airblast increase photo plan.
Figure 17. Fume plume model.
Measurement of the concentration of dust and
fume resulting at the blast site provides a basis for
predictive assessment of current practice. This
must be supplemented by predictive assessment of
the dust and fume plume dispersion after blasting.
Current developments in the prediction of
plume dispersal in the Hunter Valley Coalfield in
Australia are given below.
Plume dispersal modelling requires:
Data on the level of dust and fume concentra-
tion at the blast site;
Meteorological data, which is obtained from
ACARP/WRF data outputs described above.
These outputs are further refined by models to
produce fine resolution meteorological data suit-
able for dispersion modelling.
527
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 527
An example of an output from a nitrous fume
dispersal model is shown in Figure 17.
This output shows the maximum concentrations
that will result in the area surrounding a blast site
as the plume disperses.
Current conservative practice is to a worst case
concentration at the blast site. The plume dispersal
models also produce a dynamic output that is used
to predict the manner in which the plume moves
over the surrounding area.
REFERENCES
Australian Explosives Industry and Safety Group Inc.,
Code of PracticePrevention and Management of
Blast Generated NOx Gases in Surface Blasting, Edi-
tion 1, June 2011.
King-Siem, R. & Moore, A. (2004). Calibration of an
Airblast Prediction Model, in the Proceedings of
EXPLO 2004ExplosivesA Time of Rapid Change,
The Australian Institute of Mining & Metallurgy;
Kalgoorlie, Australia.
McKenzie, C.K. (2004). Elemental Wavelet Overpres-
sure Modelling, in the Proceedings of EXPLO 2004
ExplosivesA Time of Rapid Change, The Austral-
ian Institute of Mining & Metallurgy; Kalgoorlie,
Australia.
Moore, A.J., Evans, R. and Richards, A.B. (1993). Blast
Vibration Control Model, in the Proceedings of
The Fourth International Symposium on Rock Frag-
mentation by Blasting, Fragblast 4, Vienna, Austria:
247252.
Moore, A.J. & Richards, A.B. (2004). Flyrock Con-
trolBy Chance or Design, in the Proceedings of
The 30th Annual Conference on Explosives and Blast-
ing Technique, The International Society of Explosives
Engineers, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA.
Moore, A.J. & Richards, A.B. (2008). Australian Coal
Association Research Project No. C14057, Effects of
Blasting On Infrastructure.
Richards, A.B. (2010). Elliptical Airblast Overpressure
Model in Mining Technology, The Australian Institute
of Mining and Metallurgy, Volume 119, 205211.
Richards, A.B. & Howarth, P.S. (2009). Evaluation of
meteorological effects on airblast levels, in the Pro-
ceedings of the 9th International Symposium on Rock
Fragmentation by Blasting (Fragblast 9) Granada,
Spain.
Richards, A.B. & Moore, A.J. (2002). Airblast Design
Concepts in Open Pit Mines, in the Proceedings of
The 7th International Symposium on Rock Fragmenta-
tion by Blasting, Fragblast 7, Beijing, China.
Richards, A.B. & Moore, A.J. (2004). Environmental
Blast Design and Effective Implementation, in the
Proceedings of EXPLO 2004ExplosivesA Time
of Rapid Change, The Australian Institute of Mining
& Metallurgy; Kalgoorlie, Australia.
Workman, J.L. and Calder, P.N. (1994). Flyrock Predic-
tion and Control in Surface Mine Blasting, in the
Proceedings of The 20th Conference of International
Society of Explosives Engineers, Austin, Texas, USA.
10/3/2012 8:43:02 PM
This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Parameters of dust-gas cloud spread resulting from a caving-in

explosion

K.N. Trubetskoy, S.D. Victorov, V.M. Zakalinsky & A.N. Kochanov

Institute of Comprehensive Exploitation of Mineral Resources, Moscow, Russia

M.B. Etkin
Gidrospetsproek, Moscow, Russia

ABSTRACT: Optical registration has been performed of dust-gas cloud development and spreading
that results from the explosion of heavy-weight charges. Computer modeling was used in the assess-
ment of cloud development. Research on microparticles settled at different distances from the explo-
sion epicenter has been carried out. Concentration of particles, their mineralogical composition and size
distribution have been estimated. Methods of optical, electronic microscopy and laser spectrometry of
particle size have been used. The analysis of 0.110 m particle distribution has shown their predominant
concentration in the 1.03.0 m range.

1 INTRODUCTION and 2160 tons, located in special mined tunnels. The

The construction of the Naryn River dam for
the Kambarata hydro power plant project in the
Republic of Kyrgyzstan was aided by a directed
caving-in explosion. Caving-in explosions involve
caving of fragmented rock mainly in one speci-
fied direction, due to the specially designed pat-
tern of charge laying on the inclined surface of a
slope. The technique was successfully used for the
construction of a mud dam near Alma-Aty, for the
Baipasinsk hydro system on the Vakhsh River, for
the construction of the Kassanaisk rockfill dam,
and for some other projects (Romashov, 1980).
Blasting processes are always accompanied by the
formation and atmospheric emission of significant
volumes of gaseous products and dust, often hav-
ing harmful environmental effects. The objective of
these experimental studies is the estimation of the
parameters of the dust-gas cloud with the variation
of its position in space, and the investigation of the
mineralogical composition and size distribution of
particles resulting from the explosion and settling
from the dust-gas cloud in the course of its spread.
general view of the gallery for explosive charges
and the reach of the Naryn River, where the dam
was constructed, are shown in Figure 1. Rocks bro-
ken by explosion were interstratified aleurolite and
sandstone of 6080 MPa, as well as a very thin layer
of sandy clay with detritus of up to 5 m thickness.
Industrial explosive material was created by mix-
ing ammonium nitrate and diesel fuel at a ratio of
19:1. After packaging in plastic bags, explosives
were delivered by truck to a special area, and were
delivered to the tunnel with the help of a forklift.
Figure 2 shows the development of the dust-gas
cloud after the explosion with time. Its formation
was complete within the first 200300 s. The wind
speed was about 37 m/s.
Figure 3 is the general view of the dam built with
the application of a directed caving-in explosion.

2 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
CONDITIONS OF CARRYING OUT
EXPLOSIVE WORK

The planned volume of caved-in rock was

3 106 m3, corresponding to the specified dam
height and width of 60 and 75 m. The construction
of the dam was carried out with a single-blasting to Figure 1. The general view of the reach of the Naryn
reset linear and concentrated charges of mass 700 River before dam construction.

529

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 529 10/3/2012 8:43:03 PM

 3 METHODOLOGY AND RESULTS

Photo and video filming were provided for the

assessment of the dust-gas cloud development.
The data were processed using methods and
software described by Victorov (1996). Specially-
designed analytical filters placed at a fixed dis-
tance from the explosion epicenter were used
for the estimation of the quantity of flour min-
eral particles settled from the dust-gas cloud in
the course of its spreading. The amount of set-
tled dust was estimated by the results of the filter
weighting before and after the explosion. For the
estimation of the mineral composition and size
distribution of the flour particles, fraction inves-
tigations were carried out using X-ray diffraction
analysis, optical and electron microscopy, and
laser spectrometry of particle size.
Data on the dust-gas cloud parameters gener-
ated with the help of computer modeling is pre-
sented in Figure 4.
Based on the results of research and filter
weighting before and after the explosion, the val-
ues of dust surface concentration were calculated,
taking distance from the epicenter into account
(Table 1).
X-ray diffraction analysis has shown that
flour particle fractions are mainly quartz (52%)
and feldspar (32%), as well as some chlorite,

Figure 2. Dust-gas cloud development within 15 s (a),

60 s (b) and 300 s (c).

Figure 4. Results of the dust-gas cloud development

estimation:cloud maximum height; 2cloud center point
height; 3cloud maximum length.

Table 1. Concentration of flour particles depending

on the distance from the epicenter.

Distance from the 0,7 1,4 4,0 5,0 6,0

epicenter, 103 m
Concentration of flour 305,0 9,4 0,76 0,35 0,23
Figure 3. The general view of the reach of the Naryn particles, mg/cm2
River before after dam construction.

530

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 530 10/3/2012 8:43:03 PM

 calcite and mica (Table 2). The analysis was per-
formed with a SHIMADZU XRD 7000 X-ray
diffractometer.
With the help of optical and electron micros-
copy, the particle images were produced for the
estimation of the particle size distribution. The
analysis of the size distribution of mineral par-
ticles was performed with an Olympus SZ 61
optical microscope and standard techniques for
the assessment of microparticle distribution.
Figure 5 shows particle distribution by size at
740 and 1,410 m from the epicenter, suggesting
that larger particles of 100500 m prevail at
shorter distances from the explosion epicenter,
while 50200 m particles dominate at longer
distances.
Table 2. Content of mineral components in samples.
Mineral Mica and
components Quartz Feldspar Calcite other
Content, % 52 32 8 8
Figure 5. Microparticle distribution by size at 740 m (a)
and 1,410 m (b) distance from the epicenter.
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 531
Figure 6 shows images of mineral particles
developed using a LEO 1450VP scanning electron
microscope. Based on these images, the presence
of two particle sizes was identified by geometri-
cal dimension: large particles of 200300 m and
numerous small particles of less than 10 m.
A specially-designed technique was used for the
assessment of the size distribution of particles less
than 10 m, while a HAND HELD 3016 laser-
beam particle counter was used for the analysis of
size distribution of settled mineral particles within
a 0.310 m size range. Test results are presented
in Table 3. Up to 60% of microparticles prevail
at the 1.05.0 m range, while the prevalence of
Figure 6. Electron micrographs of particles settled from
the dust-gas cloud, 100 (a) and 1000 (b) magnification.
Table 3. Size distribution of micron particles by data
of experimental studies performed with the use of laser
spectrometry.
Range, m 0,30,5 0,51,0 1,03,0 3,010,0
Content, % 12,6 24,0 44,5 18,9
531
10/3/2012 8:43:04 PM
 smaller submicron mineral particles of less than
0.5 m does not exceed 13%.
4 CONCLUSIONS
As applied to conditions of the directed explosion
made for the Kambarata hydro power plant con-
struction project, the assessment has been made
of the development of the cloud spread, geomet-
ric parameters, and concentration of particles at
different distances from the explosion epicenter. It
has been found that at a distance of nearly 1 km
the surface concentration of particles exceeds the
background value approximately 1,000-fold, while
at a 56 km distance it is actually similar to this
value. Mineral particles are mainly quartz (52%)
and feldspar (32%). The analysis of the distribution
532
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 532
of particles of less than 10 m size with the use
of laser spectrometry has shown their prevailing
concentration within a 1.03.0 m. Environmental
consequences of the large-scale caving-in explosion
in terms of gas and dust factors are estimated to
be similar to those of a conventional industrial
explosion at surface mining operations.
REFERENCES
1. Romashov A.N. (1980) Peculiar effect of large-scale
underground explosions. M.: Nedra Publishers. 512
(in Russian).
2. Victorov S.D. (1996). Technique and software for the
estimation of the formation and spreading of a dust-
gas cloud resulting from bulk blast at an open pit/
Gorny Zhurnal, 5. 5052. (in Russian).
10/3/2012 8:43:05 PM
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Validation of underwater blast emissions modelling in relation

to the protection of marine fauna

R.A. Godson, A. Parker & S.C. Brown

SLR Consulting Australia Pty Ltd., Sydney, NSW, Australia

ABSTRACT: This paper is a sequel to that presented at FRAGBLAST 9, in relation to recommended

blast emissions criteria for the protection of marine mammals and the preferred method of their detec-
tion when in the vicinity of underwater construction blasting (Godson 2005, Godson 2009). The paper
presents a detailed description of the equipment employed and the measurement/analysis procedures
adopted together with the results of attended passive acoustic monitoring of marine fauna conducted and
underwater acoustic measurements taken in order to protect marine fauna from the potential impacts of
underwater construction blasting operations for a shiploading berth (the Project).

1 UNDERWATER BLAST NOISE Figure 1 presents the predicted attenuation with

distance curves for the 50 kg MIC scenario. In
1.1 Overview turn, Table 1 presents the predicted safe distances
for different marine fauna impact categories for the
The measured blast noise level data resulting from
two modelled MIC values (of 20 kg and 50 kg).
underwater blasting was processed in order to pro-
A review of Figure 1 and Table 1 indicates the
duce typical blasting sound metrics (such as the
following:
Peak Sound Pressure Level, Lpk and the Sound
Exposure Level, SEL) at different offset distances The predicted noise levels attenuate by approxi-
from the blasting operations (nominally at the off- mately 6 dB per doubling of distance.
set distances that coincide with the recommended The predicted noise levels increase by approxi-
marine fauna exclusion zone boundaries). Valida- mately 2 dB per doubling of MIC (noting that
tion of the computer noise modelling undertaken the SEL prediction assumes the same weight of
at the environmental approvals stage of the Project explosives per delay).
was subsequently conducted, as well as defining the
measured underwater noise propagation site law
1.3 Underwater blast noise measurements
(noise level versus distance from the blast graph)
for the underwater blasting operations. The main objective of this study was to provide vali-
dation of the underwater noise modelling undertaken
during the EA stage of the Project, based on the
1.2 Underwater blast noise predictions
During the Environmental Assessment (EA) for
the Project, an underwater noise propagation study
was undertaken in order to predict the potential
impacts of underwater construction blasting oper-
ations on a variety of marine fauna. The results of
this assessment were presented in an Underwater
Blasting Ecological Impact Assessment (Huber
2009).
The impact assessment report provided predic-
tions for two blasting scenarios, namely 24 blast-
holes with a Maximum Instantaneous Charge
(MIC) of 50 kg per hole and 24 blastholes with an
MIC of 20 kg per hole. The 50 kg MIC/24 blast-
hole scenario represented a likely worst case for the Figure 1. Predicted attenuation (dB re 1 m) with
construction blasting operations on the Project. range (m).

533

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 533 10/3/2012 8:43:05 PM

 Table 1. Predicted safe distances to meet noise criteria for marine fauna.

Distance (m)

Criterion Metric Type of impact Species 20 kg MIC 50 kg MIC

Lpk criteriano frequency weighting

224 dB Lpk TTS/behavioural Humpback whales, dolphins, 165 230
re 1 Pa disturbance dugongs and turtles
230 dB Lpk PTS/organ Humpback whales, dolphins, 80 115
re 1 Pa trauma dugongs and turtles
SEL criteriano frequency weighting
183 dB SEL TTS/behavioural Humpback whales 840 1150
re 1 Pa2 s disturbance and turtles
195 dB SEL No injury 0.1 g fish 205 280
re 1 Pa2 s
198 dB SEL PTS/organtrauma Humpback whales, dolphins, 145 200
re 1 Pa2 s dugongs and turtles
200 dB SEL No injury 1 kg fish 115 155
re 1 Pa2 s
SEL criteriausing M-weighting for mid-frequency cetaceans
183 dB SEL TTS/behavioural Dolphins, dugongs 585 793
re 1 Pa2 s disturbance

Source: Project Environmental Management Plan.

measured underwater blast pressure levels, such 2.1 Instrumentation

that variations to the actual blast design, blast pro-
gramme and monitoring procedures could have been
implemented for the remaining works, if necessary.
The blast design parameters of most signifi-
cance to this study include the:
MIC.
Accurate source to receiver distance.
Number of blastholes per blast and the total
weight of explosives per blast.
Full details of the relevant parameters for each
blast are provided in Table 2. The following obser-
vations were made during the monitoring period
with regard to the actual blast design parameters
versus the modelled blast design parameters.
The MIC varied from 9.4 kg to 37.5 kg with an
average of approximately 30 kg (ie less than the
modelled maximum of 50 kg).
The total weight of explosives per blast varied
between 9.4 kg and 634 kg (ie less than the mod-
elled maximum of 1200 kg).
The total number of holes per blast varied between
1 and 24 (with the majority of blasts having less
than the modelled maximum of 24 holes).
2 UNDERWATER NOISE MEASUREMENT
METHODOLOGY
The following sections present a detailed description
of the equipment employed for the underwater acous-
tic measurements of the construction blast events.
Each boat-based noise monitoring system com-
prised the key components presented in Table 3.
All instrumentation, excluding the hand-held
GPS, was powered from a 12V (DC) Deep Cycle
battery whilst monitoring was being conducted.
All relevant acoustical instrumentation carried
current manufacturers calibration certification.
2.2 Measurement procedure
All equipment was pre-assembled onshore and
packed securely in order to be easily and quickly
loaded onto the survey vessels. Heavy items not
used in the post-blast analysis were normally
stored on the boats overnight. Each monitor-
ing system was set up and deployed generally
in accordance with Figure 2. Full details of the
noise monitoring procedures are provided in the
Marine Fauna Observers ManualDredging,
Drilling and Blasting report developed for the
Project.
2.3 Measurement locations
In accordance with the Projects Dredging and
Blasting Environmental Management Plan and
Marine Fauna Observers Manual, the blast noise
measurements were undertaken by boat-based
monitoring teams. The monitoring vessels were
located at the prescribed target distances of 1150 m
and 2000 m from the blast site.

534

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 534 10/3/2012 8:43:06 PM

 Table 2. Blast and hydrophone data log.

Hydrophone data (Lpk dB re 1 re 1 Pa and SEL dB re 1 Pa2 s)

Vessel A Vessel B
Existing berth (1150 m position) (2000 m position)
Total mass
Blast Number of explosives MIC Dist. Peak Dist. Lpk SEL Dist. Lpk SEL
no. of blasthole (kg) (kg) (m) (dBL) (m) (dBL) (dBL) (m) (dBL) (dBL)

1 1 9.4 9.4 349 982 191 170 188 167

2 4 59.4 15.6 342 1084 198 177 189 171
3 6 165.6 34.4 337 1018 196 173 187 170
4 22 468.8 31.3 326 970 193 178 1899 190 173
5 16 321.9 31.3 325 218 998 211 182 1899 211
6 20 462.5 31.3 320 200 1052 192 173 1937 186 169
7 8 162.5 25 319 203 1058 194 173 1877 185 166
8 14 318.8 34.4 315 205 1034 195 176 1895 190 170
9 14 262.5 25 318 196 1081 189 171 1957 185 167
10 22 456.3 31.3 312 205 998 189 169 1895 187 169
11 19 459.4 34.4 307 204 1105 192 174 1893 190 173
12 14 346.9 31.3 305 199 1051 192 171 1954 185 165
13 11 240.7 37.5 238 209 1107 198 178 2030 192 174
14 4 96.9 31.3 312 198 1027 181 163 1951 182 163
15 14 321.9 31.3 303 201 984 193 173 1930 187 170
16 24 634.4 37.5 299 208 1032 191 173 1960 192 176
17 4 118.8 31.3 305 205 1025 193 173 1934 186 167
18 17 425.0 31.3 293 216 1209 201 179 1780 195 176
19 10 262.5 31.3 292 211 1039 198 176 1944
20 23 597.5 31.3 285 212 974 193 174 1951 189 171
21 15 400.0 37.5 288 207 971 193 174 1951 187 169
22 19 409.4 31.3 281 205 1098 193 175 2024 189 172
23 18 446.9 34.4 273 209 1061 191 173 2046 189 170
24 20 487.5 31.3 266 202 1111 196 178 2041 191 173
25 2 34.4 15.6 266 195 1111 188 166 2041 184 163
26 10 221.9 34.4 262 200 1003 193 171 1925 188 169
27 10 265.6 37.5 259 201 1118 189 169 2018 184 165
28 14 406.3 34.4 253 204 1194 190 170 2183 190 170
29 17 500.0 37.5 260 203 202 179 200 177
30 20 503.1 31.3 241 208 184 168

Table 3. Instrumentation.

Equipment Type Qty Comments

Hydrophone Reson TC4033 1 Robust field hydrophone. Ideally suited for marine fauna
(with 40 m cable) and blast noise measurements.
Signal conditioning/ Reson EC6061 1 Enabled the adjustment of gain and the optimisation of
preamplifier the signal dynamic range.
Data acquisition card, Laptop, DasyLAB. 1 Enabled the preamplified pressure signal from the
digital recorder and Capable of sampling hydrophone to be captured and stored on a laptop
signal analyser up to a maximum of computer. Monitoring real time signals and performing
750 kHz per channel simple signal analysis. Recording signals on a computer
hard drive as well as on a digital solid state recorder.
Headphones Enclosed 2 Monitoring of real time signals.
Depth finder Boat based 1 Checked depth at every location in order to adjust the
marine sounder position of the hydrophone to mid water.
Hand-held GPS Garmin eTrex 1 Provided positioning and offset distance information.

535

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 535 10/3/2012 8:43:06 PM


Figure 2. Single hydrophone system setup
deployment.
Figure 3. Hydrophone positions and blast locations.
The drill and blast coordinator also deployed
a hydrophone from the near existing berth (situ-
ated approximately 300 m from the blast site).
Peak underwater sound pressure levels from the
hydrophone were provided for most blasts, this
information was included in the analysis, where
appropriate.
The location of each survey vessel during each
blast event was recorded using a hand-held GPS.
GPS coordinates of each blast location were pro-
vided by the drill and blast contractor. The dis-
tances between the measurement locations and the
blast locations were determined on the basis of
these GPS coordinates. The locations of all of the
blasts as well as the corresponding noise measure-
ment locations are presented in Figure 3.
2.4 Underwater environment
The water depth at the blast sites and the blast
noise monitoring locations (identified on the map
presented as Fig. 3) was approximately 15 m plus
or minus tidal variation. The sea bottom in the
Project vicinity was predominantly sandy.
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 536
3 MEASUREMENTS AND ANALYSIS
3.1 Acoustic terminology
Specific acoustic terminology is used within this
report. The two main acoustic parameters are the
Peak Sound Pressure Level and the Sound Expo-
sure Level, which are defined below.
3.1.1 Peak sound pressure level (Lpk)
The Peak Sound Pressure Level of a blast event is
expressed in dB re 1 Pa and is calculated from the
and formula:
Lpk = 20 log (max(|p(t)|))
where p(t) is the measured pressure time signal of
the pulse.
3.1.2 Sound exposure level (SEL)
The Sound Exposure Level of a blast event is
calculated by integrating the square of the sound
pressure waveform over the duration of the blast.
The duration of the blast is, in turn, defined as
the region of the waveform containing the central
90% of the energy of the pulse, where the start-
time and end-time of the pulse are taken as the 5%
and 95% cumulative energy mark, respectively. The
Sound Exposure (SE) calculation is defined by the
formula:
t 95
SE 90 = p
2
(t )dt
t5
The SEL value is then expressed in dB re 1 Pa2 s
and is calculated from the formula:
SE
SEL = 10 log 990
SE0
where SE0 is the reference value of 1 Pa2 s.
3.2 Measured underwater blast noise levels
A typical underwater blast pressure waveform and
cumulative SEL plot (measured at 1150 m, in this
example) is presented in Figure 4.
The measured Peak Sound Pressure Level and
the SEL for each blast at each monitoring location
(offset 1150 m and 2000 m from the blast respec-
tively) are presented in Figure 5. The correspond-
ing most stringent criteria for the protection of
marine fauna (with reference to Table 1) are also
shown.
The data presented in Figure 5 indicates that the
measured sound pressure levels had not exceeded
the proposed criteria at any stage up to the time of
536
10/3/2012 8:43:06 PM
 3.3.1 Peak sound pressure level
Figure 6 presents the measured Peak Sound Pres-
sure Level versus distance from the blast.
Further, Figure 7 presents the measured sound
pressure level attenuation with distance curve. The
predicted 1 kHz attenuation curve from Figure 1 is
overlayed for reference.
It can be seen from Figures 6 and 7 that the meas-
ured attenuation is approximately 6 dB per dou-
bling of distance for the measured/predicted range
of distances. Also, that the measured attenuation
graph presented in Figure 7 closely matches the
predicted attenuation values presented in Figure 1.
The measured site law correlates to approximately
250 dB 19 Log(D) in units of dB, where D is the
distance between the blast and the measurement
location in metres.
It should be noted that, for the purpose of
deriving the site law, the key parameters in terms
of peak blast sound pressure level (as per the mod-
elling) are the MIC and the distance between the
Figure 4. Blast pressure time signal and analysis. blast and measurement location, assuming that all
other parameters remain constant (eg water depth,
blasthole depth, stemming etc).
Consequently, it is important to determine a
relationship between the MIC and the peak blast
pressure level on the basis of the measured param-
eters. Figure 8 presents the measured Peak Sound
Pressure Levels versus the MIC, as advised by the

Figure 5. Measured noise levelsPeak pressure and

SEL.

reporting. However, on one occasion (Blast No. 5),

the SEL was measured to be within 1 dB of the 183
dB SEL criterion. Figure 6. Peak sound pressure level versus distance
It is noted that the noise levels from Blast No. from the blast site.
5 were significantly higher than all other measured
blast noise levels. This phenomenon could not be
explained by any information provided (ie number
of blastholes, MIC, total weight of explosives, etc)
and was therefore most likely related to the positions
of the charges or the timing of the detonations.

3.3 Blast noise propagation site laws

Blast noise level propagation site laws were subse-
quently derived from the measured data by plot-
ting the unweighted Peak and SEL noise levels
of each blast as a function of the distance of the Figure 7. Sound level attenuation versus distance from
measurement location from the blast site. the blast site.

537

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 537 10/3/2012 8:43:08 PM

 Figure 8. Peak sound pressure level versus MIC.

drill and blast contractor, together with the site law

for each monitoring location.
A review of the data presented in Figure 8 indi- Figure 9. SEL versus distance.
cates that there is a large scatter in the results (eg
even the data for the thirteen blasts with an MIC
of 31.3 kg gave a range in Peak Sound Pressure
Level of up to 30 dB).
A curve fitted through the measurement results
indicates a trend for the Peak Sound Pressure
Level to increase with increasing MIC at a rate
of approximately 0.5 dB to 1.5 dB per doubling
of MIC (which is comparable to that of the noise
modelling results).
On this basis, the predicted Peak Sound Pres-
sure Levels for the 20 kg and 50 kg MIC scenarios
are within approximately 1 dB of the measured
data site law, for an average MIC of approximately Figure 10. SEL versus total weight of explosives.
30 kg.

3.3.2 Sound exposure level

Figure 9 presents the measured Sound Exposure
Level (SEL) versus distance graph.
The majority of blasts had a total weight of
explosives detonated of between 300 kg and
500 kg. It can been seen from Figure 10 that there
is a large scatter in the measured results but that
there is a tendency for an increase in the SEL with
increasing total weight of explosives detonated.
This increase in the SEL corresponds to approxi-
mately 0.5 dB to 1.0 dB per doubling of the total
weight of explosives detonated.
On this basis, the SEL for the 1200 kg total
weight scenario would typically be 1 dB to 2 dB
higher than the measured levels.
The measured SEL site law presented in Figure 9
correlates to approximately 231 dB 19 Log(D) in
units of dB re 1 Pa2 s, where D is the distance
between the blast and the measurement location in
metres.
In the absence of any detailed information in
relation to the design and initiation system for
each blast, the controlling parameters with regard
to the measured SEL are the distance between the
blast and the measurement location together with
the total weight of explosives detonated per blast
(as opposed to the MIC). However, this assumes
that all other variables remain relatively constant
(ie water depth, blasthole depth, stemming etc).
The measured relationship between the SEL and
the total weight of explosives is presented graphi-
cally in Figure 10.
4 CONCLUSION
4.1 Measured versus predicted noise levels
The originally proposed criteria and corresponding
predicted safe offset distances for the protection of
marine fauna from underwater construction blast-
ing are presented in Table 1. The blast emission
measurement results presented in Table 2 show
that the proposed criteria were not exceeded at any
stage up to the time of reporting.
The measured noise level from Blast No. 5,
being the single highest level, was approximately
211 dB Peak Sound Pressure Level and 182 dB
Sound Exposure Level at 1150 m from the blast.
These values correlate well with those predicted in

538

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 538 10/3/2012 8:43:09 PM

 Table 1 (if a distance correction is applied to the
peak levels in order to represent the 1150 m dis-
tance from the blast). However, it is noted that this
particular blast was atypical and all other blasts
were well below the respective criteria.
4.2 Exclusion zones
On the basis of the measured underwater blast
noise levels, it can been seen that the exclusion
zones of 1150 m and 2000 m were required for
Blast No. 5 only and that the exclusion zones could
have been smaller for all other blasts, without any
exceedances of the respective criteria.
Using the established distance attenuation site
law, it can be seen that the outer exclusion zone (of
2000 m) for cetaceans could have been reduced to
approximately 750 m without exceedances of the
criteria presented in Table 1.
Alternatively, the results indicate that the total
weight of explosives detonated could potentially
have been increased by up to 1500 kg without any
exceedances of the criteria at the outer edges of
539
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 539
the current exclusion zones, providing that due
diligence was followed with regard to the confine-
ment of the blasts.
The peak noise levels are well below the criteria
presented in Table 1 which indicates that the MIC
could also potentially have been increased without
any exceedances of the Peak Sound Pressure Level
criteria providing that due diligence was followed
with regard to confinement of the blasts.
REFERENCES
Godson, R.A. 2005. Dredging and Blasting Impact
Assessment. Report 20-1609-R1, Heggies Pty Ltd,
Sydney.
Godson, R.A. 2009. Blast emission criteria and detection
methods for the safeguarding of marine mammals in a
blast environment. In proceedings of FRAGBLAST 9,
Rock Fragmentation by Blasting, Spain 2009, CRC
Press, Sanchidrin, J.A. (ed): 683691.
Huber, Dr M. 2009. Underwater Blasting Ecological
Impact Assessment. SKM (Sinclair Knight Merz) on
behalf of BMA (BHP Mitsubishi Alliance).
10/3/2012 8:43:10 PM
This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Safety analysis of blasting near natural gas pipeline

Yao Jinjie
College of Hydraulic & Environmental Engineering, China Three Gorges University,
Yichang, Hubei, China

Li Wanyou & Wang Guizhu

Yichang Daxing Blasting Co., Ltd., Yichang, Hubei, China

Cai Minhui
Sinopec Corp. Natural Gas Transmission Branch, Wuhan, Hubei, China

ABSTRACT: Pipeline transport is an important measure in natural gas transposition, and engineering
blasting near the long natural gas pipeline is one of the important aspects on pipeline safety. The seis-
mic waves from blasting represent the main safety issue with respect to natural gas pipeline. The way of
avoiding hazard due to these waves (i,e, blasting vibrations) is to control the vibration amplitude caused
by blasting. By introducing the characterizations of natural gas pipeline and the features of blasting
engineering near the pipeline, this This paper analyzes the vibration modes of the pipeline with respect to
amplitude of seismic waves. It is found that a limit of 3 cm/s for buried pipelines and 1 cm/s for pipelines
in tunnels would provide adequate protection against blasting vibrations from blasting.

1 INTRODUCTION Table 1. Main parameters of natural gas pipeline.

Modern oil and natural gas energy must be Area Outside diameter Wall thickness
transported over long distances through pipelines. classification (mm) (mm)
There are over 2,000,000 km transmission pipe- I 1016 14.6
line in the world, and about 75% of natural II 1016 17.5
gas pipeline is underground. China had built III 1016 21.0
over 10,000 km natural gas pipeline as well. IV 1016 26.2
Long distance pipeline can hardly avoid pass-
ing hazardous areas such as chemical plants, *Area classification divide criterion: arbitrary select 2 km
explosive storage, blasting engineering and so lot within 200 m scope of pipeline, divide into 4 areas
on. These pose potential hazards natural gas according the contain housing.
pipeline. Blasting near the pipelines is the most Iless than 15 housing; II15100 housing; IIIgreater
common hazard, as this might lead to leakage than 100 housing; IVconcentrated housing.
through rupture, and eventually to gas explo-
sions as in the case of the Ural Mountain tunnel
disaster [Du, 2005]. 2.2 Lay-out of gas pipeline
The transmission distance of a natural gas pipeline
is always over 20003000 km and the transmission
capability could achieve to 120 108 m3/a, the work
2 CHARACTERIZATION OF PIPELINE
pressure of gas pipeline is over 10.0 MPa, the design
yield stress achieve to 485 MPa. Pipelines are laid
2.1 State characterization
in three different modes. The buried mode is the
Natural gas pipeline always use X70 spiral seam common mode of gas pipeline and the burial depth
steel tube or straight seam submerge-arc welding is 2.05.0 m. In the tunnel mode, the gas pipelines
steel tube in trunk line; the pipeline diameter is pass through mountain by tunnel and the tunnel
1016 mm and wall thickness is 14.626.2 mm. length about 5%10% of all the mountain area.
The main parameters of pipeline are shown in the In the bridge mode, the gas pipelines cross river by
Table 1. bridge. Figures 13 show the different layouts.

541

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 541 10/3/2012 8:43:10 PM


Figure 1. View of pipeline buried mode.
Figure 2. Photo of pipeline tunnel mode.
Figure 3. Photo of pipeline in bridge mode.
3 CHARACTERIZATION OF BLASTING
NEAR PIPELINE
Because one natural gas pipeline is long over 2000
3000 km and can cover a large area, it can impact
on engineering structures, mines, and transport
areas. Those engineering development of pipeline
excavation includes mainly includes bench blasting,
leveling, and development blasting. The distance
to gas pipeline may range from 20 m to 400 m or
more, and the total mass of explosive charge may
change from a few kg to a few ton; most of those
blasting involve hard rock mass. The main method
of initiation in blasting is short delay blasting
using millisecond delay detonator but a handful o
initiation involve no delays. Some typical blasting
procedures are shown in Table 2.
542
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 542
4 ANALYSIS OF ADVERSE EFFECTS
OF BLASTING
4.1 Adverse effects of blasting to embedded
pipeline
Blasting engineering near gas pipeline at a distance
of 2050 m or much less, dynamite blasting in
rock-soil medium bring out some obvious adverse
effects, those effects include: (1) seismic wave
transmission; (2) flyi rock; (3) blasting fumes. The
first adverse effect directly affects the natural gas
pipeline. The seismic waves may affect the pipe-
line in two ways; (1) oscillations of the pipeline,
dynamic stress amplification, and effect on flaws
in the material, resulting in inadmissible yield
stress on the pipeline; (2) the seismic waves causing
damage to the surrounding rock mass.
The dynamic response of buried pipeline is
analyzed according to methods shown below:
1. The stress of blasting seismic wave can
expressed as:
R
= P0 (1)
r0
where P0 = blasting peak press; R = distance of
explosive source; and r0 = radius of charge.
2. The pipeline structure appear dynamic stress
form blasting stress by dynamic amplification
factor :
1
= and = 2
(2)
1
where = natural vibration frequency of pipe-
line structure; and = blasting seismic wave
load frequency.
Dynamic amplification factor is relation to
the radio /, shown in Figure 4.
The natural vibration frequency of buried pipe-
line structure is among 1.010.0 Hz [Liu, 2008];
the blasting seismic wave load frequency is around
1060 Hz for long-hole type blasting and 40100 Hz
for short-hole blasting. So we can infer that the ratio
/ is more than 3.0 and the dynamic amplification
factor is only about 0.1. Then we can calculate the
typical dynamic stress shown in Table 3.
This shows that dynamic stress generated is very
small and therefore can be ignored.
Blasting seismic wave influences ground archi-
tecture mainly through surface waves, but the body
waves become important for buried structures.
The vibration velocity (i.e. particle velocity) is an
important physical quantity in surface wave and be
10/3/2012 8:43:10 PM
 Table 2. Main characterization of typical blasting engineering near pipeline.

Distance/R Average-ch/Q
Engineering Type (m) (kg) Initiation

Engineering1 Bench cut 120 700 Short delay

Engineering2 Development 330 50 Short delay
Engineering3 Bench cut 60 1200 Short delay
Engineering4 Development 210 90 Short delay
Engineering5 Leveling 20 14 No delay

*Engineering4 near the tunnel pipeline, and the other near the buried pipeline.

Table 4. Particle velocity measurements from five blasts.

Engineering R/m Q/kg v/cm/s State

Engineering1 120 86 0.66 Safe

Engineering2 330 22 0.09 Safe
Engineering3 60 60 1.55 Safe
Engineering4 210 25 0.10 Safe
Engineering5 20 14 2.66 Safe

Table 5. The natural vibration frequency of tunnel

Figure 4. Relation of and radio /. pipeline.

Outside diameter Wall thickness Span Frequency

Table 3. Dynamic stress of buried pipeline. (mm) (mm) (m) (Hz)

Engineering R/m r0/m /MPa 1016 14.6 20 80.0

1018 14.6 30 35.5
Engineering1 120 0.045 0.10 0.27
Engineering2 330 0.02 0.10 0.02
Engineering3 60 0.045 0.10 0.08
Engineering4 210 0.02 0.10 0.03 GB6722-2003 Blasting Safety regulations regu-
Engineering5 20 0.02 0.10 0.12 late various on-ground facilities in terms of particle
velocity limits vibration velocity criterion, but in
the absence of such limits for buried structures, it
is recommended this limit be 3.0 cm/s.
regarded as the breakage criterion in blasting. The
more important quantity in body wave is vibra-
tion acceleration and displacement, but we select 4.2 Adverse effects of blasting to tunnel pipeline
the vibration velocity as the breakage criterion Tunnel pipeline is different than the buried pipeline.
of blasting seismic wave in accord with current The blasting vibrations not only affect the pipeline
practice. self but also to the pipeline bearing and tunnel
3. The vibration velocity of blasting seismic wave support, so the tunnel pipeline is more suscepti-
can be expressed as: ble to blasting vibrations. The natural vibration
frequency of a can be calculated on the basis of a
simply supported beam:
R
v k (3)
3 Q 9.87 EI
= (4)
l2 m
where Q = maximum instantaneous charge, kg;
and k, = attenuation coefficient and index.
Obviously the natural vibration frequency of
Particle velocity is the main criterion to judge the tunnel pipeline is more than buried pipeline; it is
effect of blasting on the other structures. The vibra- actually in the range of blasting vibrations. We
tions recorded from five blasts are shown in Table 4. know that if load frequency is close to the natural

543

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 543 10/3/2012 8:43:12 PM

 vibration frequency of structure, resonance will
occur and there would be significant amplification
of stress. Therefore, blasting near a tunnel pipeline
is more dangerous to tunnel pipeline than a sim-
ply buried one. Of course the vibration amplitude
of blasting will be lower for the tunnel pipeline.
Therefore, the criterion recommended for this case
would be 1.0 cm/s.
5 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Blasting near natural gas pipeline will produce
different vibration levels in terms of distance
and charge weight employed.
Protection Law of Petroleum and Natural
Gas Pipeline stipulates that blasting or seismic
exploration operations in the vicinity of a pipe-
line (i.e. 200 m) must apply to Administrative
Department (Clause 35), and further stipulates
blasting must not regulate that to ban blasting
operations must not be carried out within
1000 m of a tunnel pipeline (Clause 33). These
regulations appear reasonable.
To protect the safety of natural gas pipeline, the
vibration amplitude must not exceed 3.0 cm/s for
simply buried pipeline, and 1.0 cm/s for tunnel
pipeline.
The secondary geologic hazard in terms of
damage to in situ rock of cannot be ignored,
especially for high and steep slopes.
544
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 544
REFERENCES
Chen, J., Song, H. & Shen, Z. 2011. Practice of construction
blasting vibration control for tunneling under residen-
tial area. Journal of China Three Gorges University
(Natural Sciences) (33):5557.
Chen, Z. & Zhao, H. 2010. Optimal design of steel-
lined concrete penstocks based on ANSYS. Journal
of China Three Gorges University (Natural Sciences)
(32):4244.
Du, D., Deng, Z. & Zhang, P. 2005. Numerical
simulation for dynamic stress of buried pipelines
underground shock waves of explosion in soil medium.
Blasting (22):2024.
Liu, J. & Chen, W. 2008. Dynamic response study of
buried pipeline subjected to blast loads. Engineering
Blasting 14:2024.
McDonough, P.W. & PEM, ASCE. 2009. Seismic Issues
Finally Addressed in Federal Natural Gas Pipeline
safety regulations, Lifeline Earthquake Engineering in
a Multihazard Environment ASCE: 365371.
Yao, A., Zhao, S. & Yao, H., 2009. Numerical simulation
of response of underground explosion ground shock
to buried gas pipeline. Journal of South west Petroleum
University (Science & Technology Edition) 31:
168172.
Young-Do, J. & Daniel, A.C. 2008. Individual risk analysis
of high-pressure natural gas pipelines, Journal of Loss
Prevention in the Process Industries 21:589595.
10/3/2012 8:43:13 PM
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Theoretical considerations and control measures for dust reduction

during building demolition by blasting

Z.J. Li & B.X. Zheng

Guangdong Honda Blasting Co., Ltd. China

ABSTRACT: With the rapid development of urban construction, the number of buildings demolished
by blasting increases yearly. However, due to the complexity of the targets surroundings, public haz-
ards arising from blasting demolition, such as vibration, noise, flyingrock, concussion waves and blasting
dust, must be strictly controlled. Of these public hazards, blasting dust, clearly visible, attracts concern.
This paper, through theoretical analysis and engineering practice, conducts a helpful investigation of the
dust reduction mechanisms and techniques during demolition blasting that have made some progress in
recent yeas. For the dust control purposes, the authors make some recommendations: (1) Cleaning up the
deposited dust and building ruins before the demolition blasting; (2) Water-spraying and air-moistening
measures are also of use in controlling dust; (3) Foam-covering and other covering measures have been
demonstrated to greatly improve dust control. Low dust pollution and low noise were achieved success-
fully in the blasting demolition of the Shenyang Wulihe gymnasium and the west tower of Guangzhou
Tianhe town in China using these techniques.

1 INTRODUCTION particles is directly proportional to the square root

Blasting demolition programs in cities are rising
with the development of city construction projects
in China. However, harmful blasting effects as
blasting vibration, noise, shock wave, flying rock
and dust induced during blasting demolition are
all seen as disgusting by society, and should be
controlled or removed completely in order to mini-
mize their damage to the surroundings. Of harm-
ful blasting harmful consequences, blasting dust
control is given priority because of its visibly ugly
appearance. With advancing social development
and the importance attached to environmental
protection, calls for the treatment of these public
hazards are getting louder. This paper, through
theoretical analysis and engineering practice, con-
ducts a helpful investigation on the dust reduction
mechanism and technique during demolition blast-
ing and has made some progress in recent years.
2 THEORETICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH
2.1 The diameter of dust particles affecting
the starting speed of wind of dust particles
The diameter of the dust particles has a certain
relationship with the speed of wind of the fly-
ing dust. In light of the theory of wind and dust
dynamics, the starting speed of wind of the dust
of the particles. This proportional relationship
holds water within a certain range and has been
repeatedly verified. In combination with theoreti-
cal and experimental conclusions, the method of
starting speed of wind can be added by coagulat-
ing the dust particles and increasing the diameter
of dust particles so as to reduce the flying dust.
(Zhanjun & Bingxu 2003, Hongjiang 2000).
2.2 The physical cohesive affinity between dust
grains
Research on powder dynamics proves that there
are different kinds of attractive forces between
solid grains that cluster together. In promoting the
grains to gather, the most basic active forces are as
follows.
2.2.1 Van Der Waals force (Shouci 2003,
Zhanjun et al. 2004)
Van Der Waals, force, which is aroused by the rise
and fall of the electronic cloud around the nucleus,
is a kind of short-path force, but its range of action
is larger than the force of chemical bonds.
2.2.2 Electro-static acting force (Israelachivili
1991, Guoquan 1987)
The grains bear electricity in the process of produc-
tion. For instance, during the abrasion process with
a drying method, they carry electricity by depending
on surface friction; their contact with the charge-

545

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 545 10/3/2012 8:46:33 PM

 able surface may cause them to come in contact
with the electric load, and the diffusion action of
the gas state causes the particles to carry electricity.
The inter-granular static electricity in the gas has
attractive forces that are displayed chiefly in two
forms: the electro-static attractive force caused by
the potential difference of contact and the electro-
static attractive force arising from the image force.
The electro-static action force arising from contact
potential is very small. In general, the image force
between the grains and objects is negligible.
2.2.3 Liquid bridging force (Hougen 2003,
Fan Zeng et al. 2001)
Liquid bridges exist where there are liquids between
the points of contact between the powder and sol-
ids or powder grains or between the clearances.
Both the capillary pressure arising from the curved
surface of the liquid bridge and the adhesive force
arising from the surface tension between the dust
grains are referred to as the liquid bridging force.
Due to the difference in the steam gas pressures
and the action of the unsaturated force field on the
surfaces of the grains, the water in the atmosphere
can be condensed or adsorbed on the surfaces
of the particles, thus forming water membranes,
whose thickness depends on both the water wetness
on the surfaces of the particles and the dampness
in the air. The stronger the water affinity and the
greater the dampness, the thicker the water mem-
branes will be. When the surface water is sufficient
for a lenticular or annular liquid phase to form
where the particles are in touch with each other, a
liquid bridging force that quickens the gathering of
the grains begins to appear.
When the relative dampness exceeds 65%, the
water vapor begins to accumulate on the surfaces
of the grains or between the grains. Therefore,
liquid bridges form between the grains, greatly
strengthening the cohesive force.
2.2.4 Comparison of the size of the inter-granular
physical cohesion
Research indicates that the three aforementioned
inter-granular forces cause particles to attract and
absorb each other and cumulate as big ones. Their
sizes assume a linear relationship of expansion
with the increase of the radius of particles.
Distinct action forces play the dominant role
between dry and humid grain flow. In the case
of aridity, there exists no liquid bridging force
between the grains, and Van Der Waals force plays
the dominant role. In the case of humidity, the liq-
uid bridging force plays the dominant role. Moreo-
ver, the liquid bridging force is much greater than
the electro-static force (Hans 1990).
In the case of a definite assumption (Hans
1990), a magnitude analysis of the liquid bridging
546
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 546
force showed that the Van Der Waals force and
the electrostatic force in the diameters of the four
kinds of grains and their own weights that the liq-
uid bridging force was 104 greater than the electro-
static force and Van Der Waals force. Therefore,
the occurrence of the liquid bridging force will
promote the inter-granular cohesion, making small
grains into big ones. Concurrently, as the liquid
bridging force is relatively strong, the starting wind
force of powder bound up by means of the liquid
bridging force is greatly strengthened and is not
easy to stir up compared to the dry grains [10].
Therefore, the creation of a humid environment or
spray of water may lower dust levels.
In a series of experiments, (Zheng 2003), one
study made of the starting wind speed and the
wind scale of the sand layer with different water
contents. The results indicated that the starting
wind speed increased with the humidity of sand.
The study also shows that the liquid bridging force
could play an important role in the reduction of
flying dust.
2.2.5 Solid bridging force between the particles
The solid bridging force arising from chemical reac-
tions, sintering, melting and re-crystallization, is a
strong combinative one. The solid bridging force
is also an important factor in the accumulation of
the particles. It is usually difficult to calculate, but
can be measured in experiments (Fan et al. 2001).
A viscous dust inhibitor was made by mixing a
0.8% membrane-forming agent, 2% natural macro-
molecular compound containing mostly sugar, 2%
absorbent, 0.1% surfactant, and water. Such a dust
inhibitor, when sprayed on dispersed materials, and
under the joint action of air vapor and chemical
reactions, can bind the dispersed objects and greatly
increase the combining force between them. It can
be seen through experiments (Fan et al. 2001) that
the new substance formed after the viscous dust
inhibitor reacts with sand is strong enough to remain
unmoved under the influence of an 8 m/s strong
wind, while the bound body (sand mass) formed
due to the physical force after the spray of water is
blown off by 21.9% under the same conditions.
3 DUST REDUCTION TECHNIQUE
FOR DEMOLITION BLASTING
In light of the source of dust in demolition blast-
ing and the specific engineering conditions, the fol-
lowing methods and measures can be adopted to
reduce dust in blasting demolition projects.
1. Clear off the dust that has accumulated for a
long time on the roof and floor of the building,
the dust formed after the building collapsed onto
the ground, and the dust formed during drilling.
10/3/2012 8:46:34 PM
 2. Clear off the residue and rubble that have
heaped during drilling and pre-demolition to
ensure that no dust and residue can be displaced
or blown up on air waves during the collapse of
the building.
3. The removal of dust can be combined with the
spray of water so as to guarantee the blasting
effect.
4. Bonding cover. Because dust particles are
extremely small, loose and easy to blow up, the
bonding overlapping dust inhibitor can be used
to suppress dust. This substance is sprayed on
the building to be demolished or on the surface
of the building residue and can bind up the sur- Figure 2. Field experiment B.
face dust to form continuous layers. So long as
the shells are not broken, dust will not be blown
up, thereby suppressing the dust. and foam agent. The netted texture wrapping the
5. Foam cover. Foam is characteristic of low den- foam is 1.2 metres high.
sity and large specific surface area. Because of
this characteristic of foam, a foam cover can be
used to inhibit dust. However, foam has poor sta- 4 A CASE DUST REDUCTION
bility and poor pile-up characteristics, so foam ENGINEERING BLASTING
produced by conventional methods has very
limited output and its pile-up height is generally 4.1 Dust reduction technique for the blasting
no more than half a metre, and only lasts for a demolition of the Wulihe gymnasium
dozen minutes. The special equipment and foam in Shenyang
agent we produce can produce a large quantity
The Wulihe host gymnasium in Shenyang, covering
of foam in a short period of time, whose mass
an area of more than fifty thousand square metres,
is up to tens of thousands, and even hundreds
was seated in the residential quarters, close to busy
of thousands of, tons. It lasts six to ten hours,
streets and a vital traffic hub in very complex sur-
from forming the foam in large quantities to its
roundings. In the process of blasting demolition,
complete disappearance. The pile-up height can
dust reduction measures were taken as follows:
range from 4 metres to as high as 10 metres. An
added benefit is that it does not bring secondary 1. The construction site was enclosed and shielded
pollution. Prior to blasting, if the whole build- so as to minimize the range of dust diffusion.
ing immersed in foam, the source of dust is cov- 2. Prior to blasting, parts that did not support any
ered so as to use the adhesive force to capture load such as brick walls and concrete were demol-
dust. In this way, the spread and diffusion of ished first so as to minimize the possibility of dust
dust can be prevented fundamentally. flying during the disintegration of the building.
3. The dust that had accumulated on the floor, and
Figures 1 and 2 were taken from the field experi-
the residue and broken bricks and concrete that
ments, 30 minutes after the foam was produced.
were heaped during drilling and pre-demolition
The foam was made from the special equipment
construction were all removed so as to sup-
press the dust spreading during the buildings
collapse.
4. Prior to blasting, as much water as possible was
sprayed on the building, to wash off the dust.
The building was allowed to absorb as much
water as possible. To reduce the evaporation of
moisture, a damp-preserving dust inhibitor was
added to the water.
5. Colored oilcloth was used to wrap the blasting
column along the inner side two metres high at
each floor and the inner side of the oilcloth was
filled with viscous dust foam up to two metres
high so that the building collapsed in the foam
and the dust was reduced as much as possible.
Figure 1. Field experiment A. (see Fig. 3 ).

547

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 547 10/3/2012 8:46:34 PM


Figure 3. Photograph of foam filling up to 2 m depth
contained by oilcloth on each floor of the building prior
to demolition.
The demolition blasting of the Wulihe gym-
nasium in Shenyang achieved the desired effects
effect of lower noise, less flying dust, less pollution
and less vibration.
4.2 Dust reduction technique of the blasting
of the west tower at the Tianhe town
in Guangzhou
The west tower at the Tianhe Town in Guangzhou
was situated at a busy commercial center and near
a subway station in very complex surroundings. To
reduce the dust pollution as much as possible, dust
reduction measures were taken as follows:
1. Spray units or water spray units were used the
walls, floors and top surfaces of the building, so
as to maximize the water content.
2. Water ponds were built on the site of the dem-
olition, and on each floor and the top of the
building. The depth of each pond was 1020 cm.
A foam dust-binding agent was added to the
water of the ponds.
Then, in combination with a manual method,
a foaming machine produced foam, which was
used to fill all the rooms. A sea of foam of four
metres high filled the building to be demolished.
3. A water-fog curtain to surround the building
was made.
Measures such as staged millisecond delay blast-
ing were adopted as well. The time from detona-
tion till collapse lasted about three seconds. The
maximum blasting noise was 7080 dB. Suspended
dust particles were reduced to less than 0.5 mg
per cubic metre at the environmental monitoring
point. From the railings five metres away from the
blasting site, no dust could be seen. Therefore, a
blasting effect of no concussion wave, low dust
pollution and low noise was achieved successfully,
as shown in Figure 4 (taken soon after the blast).
548
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 548
Figure 4. The blasted west tower at the Tianhe town in
Guangzhou.
5 CONCLUSION
1. Cleaning up the deposited dust and building
ruins before the demolition blasting is necessary
for the dust control.
2. Water-spraying and air-moistening measures
are of advantage to the dust-raising control of
building blasting demolitions.
3. Foam-covering and the other covering measures
have been demonstrated to greatly improve dust
control.
REFERENCES
Fan Zeng & Yongping Hu & Yi Yang, et al. 2001. Particle
Technology of Mineral Processing (2nd Ed). China
University of Mining and Technology Press, Xuzhou,
pp. 168209.
Guoquan Zhang. 1987. Aerosol Mechanics. China Envi-
ronmental Science Press, Beijing, pp. 286.
Hans Rumpf. 1990. Particle Technology. Chapman &
Hall,. New York, pp. 116120.
Hans Rumpf. 1990. Research and Application of the
technology of Cohesion-style Dust Suppression (doc-
toral thesis). Beijing: Beijing Graduate School, China
University of Mining and Technology, pp. 41.
Hongjiang Zhang. 2000. Soil Erosion Principles. China
Forestry Publishing House, Beijing, pp. 70.
Hougen Lu. 2003. Introduction to Powder Technology
(2nd ed.-). Tongji University Press, Shanghai, pp. 44.
Israelachivili J.N. 1991. Intermolecular and Surface
Forces (2nd ed). Academic Press, London, pp. 450.
Shouci Lu. 2003. Powder Processing Technology. China
Light Industry Press, Beijing, pp. 4250.
Zhanjun Li & Bingxu Zheng. 2003. Mechanism of
the Movement of Dust Particles. Blasting, 20(4),
pp. 1723.
Zhanjun Li & Xuguang Wang & Bingxu Zheng. 2004.
Mechanism of Blasting Dust Control by Pre-wetting
Demolished Buildings. Blasting, 21(3), pp. 2139.
Zheng Wu. 2003. Geomorphology of Wind-drift Sands
and Their Controlled Engineering. Science Press.
Beijing pp. 140.
10/3/2012 8:46:35 PM
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Quantification of the levels of risk of flyrock

A. Blanchier
EGIDE Environnement, Le Horps, France

ABSTRACT: Because in Europe and in many other countries as well every new project (quarry, mine,
public work) needs a risk estimation to prove its feasibility, a model to estimate flyrock risks became nec-
essary. This paper presents the basic hypothesis which should underlay such a model to estimate statistical
flyrocks range for not only some single blasts but a whole project and in particular the way to take into
account rockmass or blast pattern parameters variability. It describes a first usable quantitative flyrock
model based on the characteristics of the blasting plan and of the generic laws utilised in casting and
selective blasting operations and on a statistical approach of rockmass. In a second step, this paper discuss
an approach of risks estimation compared to the classical one used in pyrotechnics studies for explosive
magazine risks assessment.

1 INTRODUCTION the propulsion of a rock fragment of varying size

Accidental flyrock in blasting operations has a
major impact on the external environment of quar-
ries and open pit public works sites, due to the haz-
ards involved and is more significant than vibrations
or airblast. The direct effect is potentially fatal for
man. Damage to infrastructures can be considera-
ble, depending on the size of the element projected,
the speed and the angle of its path.
And yet, even if it is normal practice in these
zones to take into account the impact of possible
vibrations and even the effects of airblast when
modelling the project, flyrock risks are not dealt
with in initial studies, other than by way of integrat-
ing general safety distances. These risks are only
sometimes taken into account much later in the
operation and most often, following an accident or
significant flyrock being recorded externally.
Consequently, we have attempted to define a
quantitative model that evaluates flyrock risk and
that is used in the project phase, that is, before the
opening of a new site, in the case of an extension
to an existing site or even at the time of redefin-
ing operating methods following an accident. This
model is to be used in the aim of covering all blasts
likely to be carried out during the operation over
the whole surface area and height of the operat-
ing site.
2 IMPLICATIONS OF THE OBJECTIVES
ON THE FLYROCK MODEL
Flyrock, or wild flyrock if we refer to the
terminology used by Little & Blair, corresponds to
over a large distance from the blast, more precisely
exceeding the acceptable distance or exclusion
zone limits that have been determined or estimated
by the blaster.
This propulsion depends on the explosive energy
used, the geometry of the confining rock mass and
the explosive charges as well as the capacity of the
rock mass to confine the explosive detonation.
The detonation timing of the different explosive
charges used in the blast is also an important factor
in the occurrence of flyrock in as far as it is likely
to modify the way the explosive charges function
and to affect the geometry of the faces developed
during the blast dynamics.
Flyrock risk is therefore linked to controlling
these different parameters during the entire
operation. Explosive energy and geometric blast-
ing parameters seem to be controllable parameters
as much as the confinement capacity of the rock
mass tends to vary considerably over the term of
the project.
The model should determine a risk level to be
compared to acceptable thresholds possibly stated
in local regulations.
2.1 Consideration of blasting plan parameters
Our flyrock investigations inevitably begin by exam-
ining the real blasting conditions or prescribed
conditions. This includes, not only drilling equip-
ment, the choice of explosives, initiation and geo-
metric parameters, but also methods for inspecting
these parameters and the teams working methods.
The most easily controllable parameters in blast-
ing plans are the explosive energy and the use of

549

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 549 10/3/2012 8:46:35 PM

 delays. On the other hand, even if the height of the
stages is generally an easily controlled parameter,
it is not the same case for rock thickness around
(confining) explosive charges. These varying thick-
nesses depend on the structure of the massif and
on the orientation of the faces within this discon-
tinued volume, on the blasting plan being adapted
to these conditions, and also, on the accuracy of
the drilling already carried out.
Controlling these variations mainly depends on
the level of equipment used to check the burdens.
Over and above the instruments used to check
thicknesses, the human factor remains one of the
most important factors in geometry variability,
insofar as the operators care and choice of bur-
den variation which above a certain level a change
of explosive charge would need to be envisaged.
When carrying out flyrock surveys that lead to an
increased awareness of these risks among the com-
panies employees, whether they are due to a regu-
latory requirement or the result of an accident, we
find ourselves most often working in situations
in which relatively high importance is placed on
checking rock thickness.
Finally, blasting delays, controlling the blast
dynamics, can also influence the quality of
confinement.
Initial blasting condition audits make it pos-
sible for us to quantify the energy used and the
variability of the geometric confinement of the
charges.
2.2 Consideration of the rock mass to be blasted
The flyrock estimation model should cover all
types of geology and geological structures likely
to be encountered at each stage of the operation
and the models to determine the different pos-
sible configurations of the rock mass are still
only in development phase. For this reason, con-
sidering the limited knowledge of the rock mass
at the survey stage, the behaviour of the rock
mass can only be taken into account statistically.
This approach is not surprising since initial sur-
veys of vibration impact or airblast are generally
carried out in the same manner using laws of
propagation.
In this study, we are interested in flyrocks relat-
ing to infrequent events and which, in most cases,
are therefore linked to particular geological situ-
ations and high-risk situations, significantly dif-
ferent from the situations commonly encountered
in operations. Such high-risk situations are likely
to appear in different geological contexts even
if they are of a different nature. Thus, karsts or
cavities in limestone massifs, areas of weather-
ing in granites, faults or open joints, etc. could be
encountered.
550
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 550
Considering the lack of systematic recording of
flyrocks connected with precise blasting parameter
measurements, there is insufficient information
from past work to differentiate between the
geological contexts and even the broad geological
formations: sedimentary, plutonic rocks, etc. At
first approximation, each situation, in which dif-
ferent risk levels are present, appears to present
connected risk levels: almost the same percentage
of accidental flyrock can be found in the different
main geological formations.
3 CHOICE OF FLYROCK MODEL
As a general rule, flyrocks can come from either the
upper zone of the blast (flyrocks generated from
the head of drilling holes), or the lateral clearance
zones (flyrock generated from the face) as is the
case for bench blasts.
Flyrock generated from the head of drilling
holes follows a bell-shaped trajectory and can
travel in any direction; however, its range is com-
paratively short for blasts carried out in accord-
ance with good practices (that comply with the
depth and quality of the stemming material etc.).
Flyrock generated from the face follows a
straight trajectory if it is positioned towards
the front of the face (a half-space opposite the
blast) and travels a relatively long distance for
bench blasts carried out in accordance with good
practices. Risk linked to this type of flyrock can
be completely eliminated by choosing appropriate
orientations of the face.
Based on our experience of accident analysis,
long-distance flyrock comes from isolated blocks
or in a small number of cases which, for this
reason, interact with each other very little once
ejected from the original rock mass. Considering
the geometry (slightly spherical) and the long-
distance flyrock block density, the effects of con-
tact in the air are negligible. The trajectories of the
cast blocks can therefore be represented as parabo-
las and the flyrock will therefore be determined
entirely through its speed and initial orientation, at
the time of the blast.
3.1 Estimation of flyrock range
The variability of rock mass confinement abil-
ity, of the thickness of rock confining explosive
charges and of blasting situations prompted us to
find a model that was both stable and simple to
determine flyrock parameters.
The formula put forward by Frank Chiapetta
(1983) allows us to obtain a good estimation of
the flyrock speed of the blocks coming from the
face. It can easily be adapted for flyrock produced
10/3/2012 8:46:35 PM
 from the blasting surface. This formula is noted as
follows:
1.17
B
V K (1)
3 El
here V is the flyrock speed expressed in m/s, B is
the depth of the rock perpendicular to the explo-
sive expressed in m, El is the linear energy of the
explosive charge expressed in MJ/m and K is a
coefficient expressing the probability of attaining
the estimated speed.
This relation is dependant on the explosive
energy being implemented, the rock depth and
on coefficient K which represents the blasting
situation, and particularly the rock mass char-
acteristics, as in the coefficient in the laws of
propagation of vibrations and airblast. Our own
experiments lead us to slightly modify K factor
from original one.
This approach of the rock can therefore be
expressed through a statistic variation of the coef-
ficient K. The first estimation of this variation was
established assuming that there was a normal dis-
tribution of deviations around a mean value based
on studies carried out in the United States since the
1980s: the evaluation of the speed of moving frag-
ments from the working face through high speed
imaging.
Figure 1. Areas affected by flyrock generated from
blast faces.
551
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 551
Table 1. Evolution of K with probability.
Probability of
speed attainment 50% 5% 1% 0.1% 0.01%
K 14 25 32 40.7 50.4
The variation of coefficient K varies depending
on the level of probability according to a normal
distribution. This variation is expressed in Table 1.
Any air drag is negligible. The movement
illustrated in each block is therefore regarded as
ballistic.
The trajectory of a block, subjected to the initial
speed of V at an angle of on horizontal ground
and situated at a height of h with relation to the
landing surface of the block, is defined by the fol-
lowing parametric relationships:
X V cos t
1 2 (2)
Z V sin tt gt h
2
The trajectory of a block, subjected to the initial
speed of V, at an angle of on horizontal ground
and situated at a height of h with relation to the
landing surface of the block, can also be expressed
in the following form:
V cos
X= V i siin2 + 2 gh
V 2 sin (3)
g
Here X represents the maximum range of
flyrock and g the acceleration of the weight at an
estimated point.
In these estimations, we take angle as that cor-
responding to the maximum flyrock distance d.
It is an unfavourable hypothesis.
The distances of the flyrock depend on the rela-
tive altitude of the explosive charge and on the
potential recipient.
3.2 Impact probabilities
In our model based on a normal distribution of
flyrock distances around a mean value, there is no
maximal flyrock distance. In reality, the explosive
energy implemented is a limited, known quantity
and the flyrocks range is bounded. But considering
the small number of inventories of long-distance
flyrock, it is difficult to establish the effect of a
maximal distance by substituting the normal dis-
tribution by a bell-shaped distribution.
Based on the exploitation hypotheses prescribed
for a site, the previous model makes it possible to
determine the following consecutively.
10/3/2012 8:46:35 PM
 The distance of maximal flyrock d for a blast
according to the level of probability p is written
d = f (p).
The impact zone for a given level of probability;
this surface is calculated as a crown (or a half-
crown for bench blasts):
for flyrock generated from the working face

S = d . d = f ( p ) f ( p ) p (5)

p p
S f( ) f p +
f p (6)
2 2

for flyrock generated from the blasting surface

S = 2 d . d = 2 f ( p ) f ( p ) p (7)

p p
S f( ) f p + 2 f p 2 (8)

The probability pa that a person is impacted by

the flyrock by taking the hypothesis of the visible
surface Sa of a person. Note this surface is in the
region of 0.1 m2, taking into account the incident Figure 3. Flyrock generated from the surface.
angles.

pp direction under consideration. For flyrock gener-

pa = Sa (9) ated from the working face, only holes on the edge
S
of the face are taken into account.
The annual probability of impact pa,i taking into
account the number N of blasts per year in the pa,i pa N (10)

This evaluation could be completed by an esti-

mation of the probability of serious or fatal injury
in order to express the danger level for people. In
the present paper all impacts are presumed fatal.

4 RISK AND ACCEPTABILITY

In classic pyrotechnic risk analyses, like those

defined by NATO regulations and utilised at a
European level, the probability of a pyrotechnic
accident occurring and the effects of this accident
on people are analysed separately. These effects,
whether those of pressure or thermal effects from
accidental explosions, decrease according to the
distance from the accident zone.
In the case of accidental flyrock, the trigger-
ing event is the blasting. In addition, the effects of
flyrock do not decrease with distance: a 200-gram
projectile can be fatal at 20 m, as at 1,000 m.
Consequently, the approach to risk is notice-
ably different from those of other hazards, like
Figure 2. Flyrock generated from the working face. for the risk of accidental explosion of explosive

552

CH067_Paper 075.indd 552 10/3/2012 9:11:35 PM


Figure 4. Probability of death, FranceINED 2008.
deposits, in which the effect varies considerably
depending on the distance, like for example and
airbourne shockwave where the pressure decreases
with the distance: the effect of flyrock does not
change markedly according to the distance; it is
only the probability that changes. Indeed, the prob-
ability if impact decreases with distance and at the
same time the impact zone increases with distance.
4.1 Effect on people
In fact, the risk of fatality is the product of the
probability of an accident by the fatal probability
in a defined danger zone, knowing that an accident
has occurred. In our case, this risk corresponds to
the probability of impacting a person at a given
place, since we have presumed that each impact
was fatal.
These risks are compared to the risk of annual
natural mortality. In the case of France, the prob-
ability of death is given in the following graph. The
values are similar to those from a number of other
countries.
The lowest annual risk of death (between 5 and
14 years of age according to French statistics) is in
the region of 104. Added-on risks that increase the
probability of death by less than 1% are considered
as being unacceptable. Levels of negligible risk can
also be defined.
In this way, the NATO rulings integrated in the
main into different European regulations accept
a maximal risk of 106 (for a probability pair of
event P1. and limit of the danger zone Z2) for the
external environment. These limits are reinforced
for areas with a high-density population for which
the maximal risk of 108 is generally accepted.
4.2 Effect on infrastructures
The same flyrock leading to significant effects
on people only lead to minor damage on infra-
structures: The main risks are indeed risks of
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 553
glazing breakage or damage to roofs or unsturdy
partitions.
5 CONCLUSION
A flyrock model making it possible to estimate risk
levels in the environment has been built using a
similar approach to that used in classic pyrotech-
nic risk studies. It is intended to estimate the risk
level for an entire quarry or public works project
and therefore foresees the variability of geological
and geometric blasting parameters within a large
volume.
In our experience, long-distance flyrock gener-
ally corresponds to particular situations of rock
confinement in which it is difficult to predict the
occurrence with precision but which can possibly
be estimated from a statistic model based on cases
already recorded.
This model is supported by:
a statistic estimation of the confinement capac-
ity of the rock mass,
quantifying the variations of the confinement
geometry and of the explosive energy based on
audits of the equipment and manpower avail-
able to carry out and inspect blasting.
determining flyrock parameters with the help of
a simple, stable model.
These components converge to determine risk
levels, compared to the annual death rate of the
population.
This flyrock model, which is as simple to use as
are the laws of propagation for vibrations or air-
blast, could be put in place in numerous quarry
or public works sites and make it possible to
improve knowledge on the variability of rock mass
confinement.
REFERENCES
Chiapetta, F. et al. 1983. Increasing productivity through
field control and high speed photography. Holmberg &
Rustan (eds). First International Symposium on Rock
Fragmentation by Blasting, LULEA, Sweden: TECE-
Tryck AB.
Little, T.N. & Blair, D.P. 2010. Mechanistic Monte Carlo
models for analysis of flyrock risk. Sandrichian (ed).
Rock Fragmentation by blasting. 641647 London:
Taylor & Francis group.
553
10/3/2012 8:46:41 PM
This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Analysis of blasting related accidents with emphasis on flyrock

and its mitigation in surface mines

A.K. Mishra
Department of Mining Engineering, Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad, India

D.K. Mallick
Directorate General of Mines Safety, Dhanbad, India

ABSTRACT: In India, around 90% of coalproduction comes from surface mines. In any surface mine,
blasting plays a crucial role for production and explosives in large quantities are used for fragmentation
of rock. Blasting practices provide quick, efficient and cheap over-burden removal compared to other
processes. But only a part of the explosive energy is used in doing the useful work, the rest is consumed
towards unwanted work such as ground vibration, flyrocks, noise and air blast. In surface mines there
are many sources causing injuries and blasting is being one of them. Usually blasting related injuries are
due to flyrocks, lack of blast area security, premature blast and misfire. Out of these, flyrocks and lack of
security account for majority of total injuries incurred by blasting practices. Serious injuries and fatalities
result from flyrock are usually caused due to improper blast planning, judgment, practices during rock
blasting. This paper mainly discusses the accidents trend with emphasis on blast related fatalities, serious
injuries in coal and non-coal mining sectors in India for last two decades, and also analyses the causative
factors, and emphasizes preventive measures to be taken to avert such menace.

Keywords: Flyrock, blasting hazard, surface blasting, blast area security, explosives, accidents, mining

1 INTRODUCTION Sheridan, 2002; Little, 2007; Mishra & Gupta,

Blasting is an essential component of surface min-
ing. It serves as a leading role in fragmenting the
overburden, although blasting presents numerous
hazards, the mining industry consider blasting
as indispensible element of rock excavation. Any
mismatch between the distribution of the explo-
sive energy and geo-mechanical strength of rock
mass and confinement creates potential for flyrock
(Bajpayee et al., 2004; Raina et al., 2011; Lundborg
et al. 1975; Kecojevic & Radomsky, 2005). Flyrock
originates from the vertical highwall face and bench
top. Danger and damage from flyrock and rock
blasting has been serious problem ever since the
introduction of blasting. The movement of blasted
rock (also known as muck pile) depends on shot
design parameters, geological condition and min-
ing constraints (Mishra & Rout, 2011). In some
mining practices, it is desirable to throw or cast as
much of rock as possible to the soil heap. Prob-
lem of flyrock is concern of researcher as well as
mining engineer. Study of researchers is based on
throw of flyrock which contributes most in blast-
ing accidents. Some of the researchers detailed
the major reasons for and control of flyrock with
an exhaustive literature survey (Ludwiczak, 1985;
2002; Bhandari, 1984). Many models are also
made by researchers to estimate the throw of flyr-
ock in terms of bore hole diameter, specific charge,
burden etc (Konya & Walter, 1990).
According to sub-regulation 1(A) of regula-
tion 170 of Coal Mine Regulation, 1957, shot firer
shall not fire or charge a shot hole unless sufficient
warning has been given by effective signals or other
means approved by manager over the entire area
falling within 300 m from the place of firing (also
known as Danger Zone).
1.1 Explosive used in surface mines
More than 90% of the domestic explosive and blast-
ing agent formulations generally used are Ammo-
nium Nitrate (AN) based. A mixture of ammonium
nitrate and fuel oil commonly known as ANFO
gained acceptance for blasting at surface mines. The
major advantages of ANFO are related to safety,
economy, and ease of handling when compared to
nitro-glycerine (NG)-based high explosives. Various
forms of NG-based high explosives were used in
surface blasting before the introduction of ANFO.
Formulations of ANFO have undergone numerous
innovations during the past two decades to improve

555

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 555 10/3/2012 8:46:41 PM

 performance, shelf life, density, porosity, specific Table 1. Details of accidents due to explosive during
energy, and water resistance. Since its introduction, 19962011.
ANFO has replaced many grades of dynamites and
other high explosives. ANFO-based explosives are No. of
now available in various sizes, styles, and consisten- Fatal accidents Fatalities
cies. Because of the diverse mechanical and geologi-
cal properties of rock and the unique conditions at Coal Non-coal Coal Non-coal
each blast site, a wide variety of products are avail- Causes mine mine mine mine
able. The comprehensive ban on the class 3 Nitro
Glycerine (NG) based explosives was notified in the SBP 9 2 9 4
Government of India Gazette on January 21, 2004 DHBP 7 9 7 10
stipulating that manufacture, transportation, stor- SeBP 2 2
age, sale and use of NG based explosives was an OP 5 21 7 21
offence from April 1, 2004. Now emulsion explosives M/S (WD) 2 8 2 8
in the form of bulk or packaged explosives are pop- M/S (OD) 1 4 1 8
ular in India. Some of the manufacturers still supply DI 1 1
slurry explosives. Emulsion explosives have under- BTS 6 8
gone various changes from its introduction. Various OEA 4 17 4 30
Total 35 63 39 85
doped variants are available with variable energy
and density to match with the varying geology and *SBPSolid Blasting Projectile; DHBPDeep Hole
site conditions. A variety of emulsified and gelled Blasting Projectile; SeBPSecondary Blasting Projectile;
products are specifically designed for wet blastholes. OPOther Projectile; M/S(WD)Misfire/Sockets
Ingredients have been developed to improve density, (While Drilling into); M/S (OD)Misfire/Sockets (Other
sensitivity, water resistance, and detonation velocity than Drilling into); DIDelayed Ignition; BTSBlown
of packaged and bulk products. Last year explosives Through Shots; OEAOther Explosive Accidents.
consumption in India was almost 7,94,000 tonnes of
explosives in mining quarrying and constructions.
Out of this, coal mining used 66.75%. 2 METHOD

1.2 Trend in accidents in coal and non-coal mines
during 19912011
The trend of fatal accidents in coal and non-coal
mines during 1991 and 2011 has been presented in
Figure 1 as bar chart. Due to increase in mechani-
zation and awareness of workers, numbers of acci-
dents reduced in subsequent years. Overall trend of
shown figure indicates the reduced number of acci-
dent compared to that in 1991. After the analysis
of these accidents, details of fatal and serious acci-
dents have been measured and shown in Table 1.
2.1 Data and data description
Non-fatal and fatal injury data were obtained from
the Directorate General of Mines Safety (DGMS)
Annual report. Most of the accidents occurred in
underground mine due to explosive are because
of projectile generated from solid blasting. One
such accident occurred in one of the underground
coal mine in December 2007. One of the helpers
received serious injuries due to hitting by projec-
tiles which proved fatal within half an hour. Other
than solid blasting projectiles, Blown through
shots and misfires also causes mine accident.
While in opencast mines, deep hole blasting and
secondary blasting projectiles are major cause of
blasting accident.
Tables 2 and 3 shows the details of fatal accidents
along with the fatalities caused by such accidents
due to explosives during 19962011 in coal and
non-coal mines respectively. Weightage of different
causes is also presented below.

3 CAUSES OF ACCIDENTS

Mining accidents can have a variety of causes,

including generation of flyrock from blasting site,
leaks of poisonous gases such as hydrogen sulfide
Figure 1. Bar chart showing the fatal accidents in coal or explosive natural gases, especially firedamp
mines and non-coal mines. or methane, dust explosions, collapsing of mine

556

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 556 10/3/2012 8:46:41 PM

 Table 2. Year-wise trend of accidents for flyrock. Flyrock originates from the vertical
due to explosives in coal mines. highwall face and bench top.
Flyrock can occur due to following causes:
Year Fatal accidents Fatalities
Geology
1996 1 1 Hole deviation
1997 4 4 Improper delay between holes
1998 4 4 Improper stemming
1999 5 7 Inappropriate burden
2000 1 2 Misfire handling
2001 2 2 Secondary blasting
2002 4 4
2003 3 3
3.1.1 Geology
2004 5 6
Geology plays an important role. Mud seams,
2005 2 2
voids, joints, extended cracks and fissures may
2006 0 0
causes potential problems. A void within the rock
2007 1 1
could allow high explosive concentration leading
2008 1 1
2009 0 0
to excessive localized energy density in a portion
2010 1 1
of blast hole, causing a blowout. Mud or clay
2011 1 1 seams and voids are common sources of flyrock
and allow the explosive gases to vent through these
zones of weakness and accelerate rock fragments.
Table 3. Year-wise trend of accidents Effects of cracks and other geological features are
due to explosives in non-coal mines. illustrated below.

Year Fatal accidents Fatalities 3.1.2 Hole deviation

Deviation of holes from their predetermined course
1996 2 5 may reduce the toe burden, thereby minimizing the
1997 6 6 distance between toe charges in consecutive hole
1998 3 4 giving too high concentration of explosives at bot-
1999 7 7 tom of hole, which may cause pieces to flyrock
2000 5 5 over longer distances.
2001 6 6
2002 8 11
2003 5 6
3.1.3 Improper delay between holes
2004 3 4
Optimum fragmentation and displacement is
2005 4 5 achieved by using sufficient inter-row and in-row
2006 3 3 delays. Too long delay cause diminished burden.
2007 2 2 Insufficient delay can cause movement from back
2008 2 10 rows upwards rather than forward, giving rise to
2009 1 3 flyrock. Effect of improper delay is illustrated
2010 3 3 below.
2011 3 5
3.1.4 Improper stemming
Stemming ejection and poor fragmentation gen-
erally results from the insufficient or poor quality
stopes, mining-induced seismicity, flooding, or stemming. If there is insufficient stemming height
general mechanical errors from improperly used or or poor quality stemming material is used (e.g.
malfunctioning mining equipment (such as safety Drill cutting in wet blast hole), material may be
lamps or electrical equipment). Use of improper projected from the collar region of the blast hole
explosives underground can also cause methane at a high trajectory into the air around the blast
and coal-dust explosions. site resulting in flyrock.
This paper contains the study of accidents due
to potential flyrock.
3.1.5 Inappropriate burden
It is possible to obtain crater effects from the
3.1 Causes of flyrock
front row of holes if burden is inadequate. This
Any mismatch between the distribution of the may be due to incorrect design, drilling errors and
explosive energy and geo-mechanical strength geological weakness. Proper care and precautions
of rock mass and confinement creates potential need to be taken while marking and drilling the

557

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 557 10/3/2012 8:46:42 PM

 holes, particularly for the front row of holes. Front
row burden may be identified precisely for loading
of front row holes.
3.1.5.1 Low burden
Physics of detonation waves indicate that the
shock waves have a tendency to follow the path
of least resistance. The cracks induced by shock
waves may reach the free face from the region
having much less burden as compared to the other
regions, providing the wave a route to escape,
leading to flyrock from that region. A cavity in
a high wall face could reduce the effective bur-
den and may cause flyrock. A burden less than
25 times the charge diameter gives rise to high
specific charge, hence excess energy may result in
long flyrock distance.
3.1.5.2 Large burden
Excessive burden and top priming have caused
flyrock due to cratering. Explosive energy con-
centrated at the collar region of the hole, finds the
least resistance from the collar zone and creates
crater to generate severe flyrocks. Proper burden
mapping will reduce the chance of flyrock.
rock. A total number of 124 fatalities occurred
during same period due to explosive which is
4.16% of total fatalities caused during accidents
due to different reasons. Coal mines accounted
for 39 (31.45%) fatal accidents and non-coal
mines accounted for 85 (68.55%) fatal accidents.
Year-wise average of these fatalities in coal mines
was 2.44 (95% CI: 1.333.54) and for non-coal
mines it was 5.31 (95% CI: 4.016.61). Annual
distribution of fatal accidents and fatalities are
shown in Tables 2 and 3 for coal mines and non-
coal mines respectively, along with a graph show-
ing year wise distribution of fatalities in coal and
non-coal mines Figure 2.
Figures 3 & 4 clearly indicates that the risk factor
of fatality in non-coal mines due to explosive is
more than that in coal mines.
Accidents due to explosives have occurred dur-
ing 19962011 due to following reasons:
1. Deep Hole Blasting Projectiles: Sixteen fatal
accidents are occurred in different mines from
19962011. Total 17 fatalities were accounted

3.1.6 Misfire handling

Most of the flyrock incidents have occurred dur-
ing misfire handling. If any misfire has occurred
in blasting means undetonated charge is sur-
rounded by fractures and fragmented rock mass.
If proper muffling and correct procedure has
not been under taken while handling the misfire,
it may create lot of flyrocks which are potential
source of hazards.

3.1.7 Secondary blasting

Secondary blasting has been source of flyrock Figure 2. Year-wise distribution of fatalities in coal and
since its introduction. If it is not executed by non-coal mines due to explosives.
trained and certified person with all precautions,
becomes potential source of flyrocks and risk of
accident increases.

4 RESULT

From 19962011, total 2491 fatal accidents were

occurred in both coal and non-coal. Accidents
due to explosives contributed 3.93% of total
accidents. Ninety eight fatal accidents due to
explosives were occurred during same period.
Coal mines contribute 35.71% (35 fatal accidents)
of these fatal accidents and non-coal contributes
64.29% (63 fatal accidents). More numbers of
accidents in non-coal mines is mainly because Figure 3. Pie chart showing the fatal accidents in coal
of huge problem of generation of potential fly- mines due to explosives.

558

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 558 10/3/2012 8:46:42 PM


Figure 4. Pie chart showing the fatal accidents in non-
coal mines due to explosives.
from these accidents. Coal mines accounted
for 7 (41.18%) fatalities and non-coal mines
accounted for 10 (58.82%) fatalities. This cause
was accounted 17.35% in total accidents due
to explosive in both coal and non-coal mines.
All of them were due to deep hole projectiles.
These accidents were caused due to negligence
of workers and blaster due to which they were
hit by flying projectiles. To mitigate this, proper
signal must be send by blaster before blasting
and all the person should take proper shelter
during blasting and no one should come out till
all the fragmented particles comes to ground.
2. Blown Through Shots: It includes blown out
of rock from opposite side of blasting face and
occurs due to insufficient parting between both
sides of face. Six fatal accidents were caused
due to this during period of 19962011. Total
8 fatalities were accounted in these accidents in
coal mines which accounts 20.51% of total fatal-
ities due to explosives in coal mines. To avoid
this no shots should be fired till sufficient part-
ing is present; otherwise, all the persons from
opposite side of working face are removed.
3. Solid Blasting Projectiles: It includes genera-
tion of potential projectile from blasting face
in underground. Eleven fatal accidents were
occurred during same period due to Solid Blast-
ing Projectiles, causing 13 fatalities. Coal mines
accounted 9 (69.23%) fatalities and non-coal
mines accounted 4 (30.77%) fatalities. This
cause accounted 26% in total accidents in coal
mines and 3% in non-coal mines. To avoid this,
shot-firer must ensure that each and every per-
son had taken proper shelter as required under
Reg. 170 (1) of the Coal Mine Regulation.
4. Other Projectiles: This may cause due to lack of
shelter or lack of proper signal. Twenty six acci-
dents were accounted during 19962011 due
559
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 559
to other projectiles, causing 30 fatalities. Coal
mines accounted 7 (23.33%) fatalities and non-
coal accounted 23 (76.67%) fatalities. This cause
accounted 14% in total accidents in coal mines
and 33% in non-coal mines. In one of the acci-
dent due to other projectile, three persons were
approaching toward face and hit by flying frag-
ments of blast. To avoid this, shot-firer must
ensure that all the persons in the vicinity had
taken shelter and he had posted guards to pre-
vent persons from approaching the site of blast
before firing the shots as required under the
provisions of Reg. 170 (1) of CMR, 1957.
5. Misfires/Sockets (While Drilling Into): when
undetected misfired hole was detonated during
next drilling in Mine A, it caused accident kill-
ing one of the worker. Ten fatal accidents were
accounted during 19962011, causing 10 fatali-
ties. Coal mines accounted 2 (20%) fatalities
and non-coal mines accounted 8 (80%) fatalities
during same period. This cause accounted 6%
in total accidents in coal mines and 13% in non-
coal mines.
6. Misfire/Socket (Other than Drilling Into): Five
accidents were accounted due to this cause dur-
ing 19962011, causing 9 fatalities. Coal mines
accounted 1 (11.11%) fatalities and non-coal
mines accounted 8 (88.89%) fatalities during
same period. This cause accounted 3% in total
accidents in coal mines and 7% in non-coal
mines.
7. Other Explosive Accidents: It includes causes
other than above causes that can cause seri-
ous accidents. Twenty one accidents were
accounted during 19962011 due to other
explosive accidents, causing 34 fatalities. Coal
mines accounted 4 (11.77%) fatalities and non-
coal accounted 30 (88.23%) fatalities. This cause
accounted 11.43% in total accidents in coal
mines and 27% in non-coal mines.
Reasons behind these causes are lack of area
security/lack of shelter, improper communication
between blaster and helpers, mining factor and
other operational factor. Other operational fac-
tor includes expulsion of gases or fall of roof after
blasting. Other explosives accidents come under
this category. This cause accounted for 4 (10.25%)
fatalities in coal mines and 30 (35.29%) fatalities
in non-coal mines during 19962011. Accidents
due to Solid blasting projectiles, Deep Hole Blast-
ing Projectiles, Secondary Blasting Projectiles
and Other Projectiles are caused because of lack
of area security and improper communication
between blaster and helpers. Deep hole blasting
projectile are major problem in opencast mine.
It accounts for 7 (17.94%) fatalities in coal mines
and 10 (11.76%) fatalities in non-coal mine during
10/3/2012 8:46:42 PM
 same period. Solid blasting projectiles accounted Coordination of drilling and blasting crew
for 9 (23.07%) fatalities in coal mines and 4 (4.70%) Design and execution of blast plan
fatalities in non-coal mines. Other cause comes Super vision of priming, loading, hook up and
under the category of improper mining practices. tie-ins
On critical evaluation of above stated incidents Supervision of decking and stemming
we may find that the cause of incidents may be put Procedure for obtaining the clearance before
under either one of them. firing
i. Human factor Procedure to secure blast area
ii. Site factor Procedure for warning signal
iii. Management/Administrative factor Use of designated, permanent or portable
shelter
These factors have been described briefly in Specified minimum distance between blast site
following paragraphs. and shelter
Post firing procedure to examine the blast site
4.1 Human factor and provide all clear signal for mine operation to
resume.
It includes the behavioral and other qualities/com-
petencies of an individual who is involved with
blasting. The various parameters and the human 5 CONCLUSION
factor may include the following.
Education Detonation of explosive releases tremendous
Formal professional training and retraining amount of energy which is utilized in rock frag-
Attitude mentation and throw of blasted muckpile. If a
Health mismatch occurs between distribution of explosive
Fatigue due to over work energy, geotechnical properties of surrounding
Previous history of accident rock mass and confinement, it creates a poten-
Haste in working tial source of flyrock hazard by release of energy
Overall behaviour through least resistance path. Such conditions
can cause release of flyrock from face or bench
top or from sides depending on the scenario. It is
4.2 Site factor very difficult to forecast the trajectory and exact
It includes the site geology, site condition and location of flyrock release for practicing mining
other mine condition which would add on flyrock engineers.
generation if due care is not provided. These may Thorough analysis of flyrock incidents in last
be clubbed as: two decades in India, indicate the major reasons
for such fatalities are lack of area security, lack of
Geological condition shelter, improper communication between blaster
Uneven burden and helper, human factor and management fac-
Uneven bench tor and site factor. The blaster must follow the
Undercut safe operating procedure and should stick to the
Excessive toe steps described by statutory/regulatory body such
Presence of clay or mud seam as Directorate General of Mine Safety (DGMS) to
Joint sets guard against accidents.
Wet holes The major reasons for flyrock related accidents
Type of stemming materials have been identified as human factor, manage-
Fractured strata ment factor and site factor. The various preventive
measures such as training, retraining and periodic
4.3 Management factor evaluation of blasting crew members by accred-
ited third party or regulatory body may be imple-
It may include the management policies towards
mented to avert the catastrophic consequences of
workings and safe operating procedures. This
flyrock incidents. The fatalities have reduced in last
would be mainly the work culture and approach
decade compared to the previous decade in coal
towards safety, health and environment of the man-
mining while in non-coal sector it is inconsistent.
agement. These may be described by following:
The efforts put by researcher, academia, regula-
Preparation and implementation of safe operat- tory body and mine management will reduce the
ing procedure for blasting crew. incidents.

560

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 560 10/3/2012 8:46:43 PM

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are thankful to Mr. SatishPuri, Director
General, DGMS, for his guidance and help since
the inception of this paper. They are also grateful to
him for permitting to publish this paper.
REFERENCES
Bajpayee, T.S., Rehak, T.R., Mowrey G.L., & Ingram D.K.
2004. Blasting injuries in surface mining with empha-
sis on flyrock and blast area security, Journal of Safety
Research, vol. 35: 4757.
Bhandari, S. 1984. Flyrock during blasting operations-
Controlled environmental hazard, Proc. 2nd National
Seminar on Minerals and Ecology, Oxford & IBH
Publishing Co., New Delhi: 279308.
Kecojevic, V., Radomsky, M. 2005. Flyrock phenomena
and area security in blasting-related accidents, Safety
Science, Vol. 43: 739750.
Konya, C.J. & Walter, E.J. 1990. Surface Blast Design.
Prentice Hall Inc., NJ: 303.
Little, T.N. 2007. Flyrock Risk, EXPLO Conference,
Wollongong, NSW, 34 September 2007: 3543.
561
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 561
Ludwiczak, J.T. 1985. Determining the Blast area, The
journal of Explosives Engineering, Vol-2(2): 2023.
Lundborg, N., Persson, A., Ladegaard-Pedersen, A., &
Holmberg, R. 1975. Keeping the lid on flyrock in open
pit blasting, Engineering and Mining Journal, May
1975: 95100.
Mishra, A.K., & Gupta, R.N., 2002. Design of blast
using high resolution camera, Proc. of 7th Inter-
national Symposium on Rock Fragmentation by
Blasting (Fragblast-7), Metallurgical Industry Press,
Beijijng: 378389.
Mishra, A.K. & Rout, M. 2011. FlyrocksDetection and
Mitigation at Construction Site in Blasting Operation,
World Environment, Vol. 1(1): 15.
Raina, A.K., Chakraborty, A.K., Choudhury, P.B. &
Sinha, A. 2011. Flyrock danger zone demarcation
in opencast mines: a risk based approach, Bulletin
of Engineering Geology and the Environment, Vol.
70(1): 163172.
Sheridan, R.A. 2002. Precautions against flyrock.
Explosives Information Bulletin. Explosives
Inspectorate, Safety and Health Administration,
Queensland Government: 3.
10/3/2012 8:46:43 PM
This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Spatial distribution of flyrock using EDA: An insight

from concrete model tests

A.K. Raina & A.K. Soni

Central Institute of Mining and Fuel Research, Nagpur, India

V.M.S.R. Murthy
Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad, India

ABSTRACT: Flyrock is a pertinent problem in surface blasting but least understood due to lack of
proper data and reporting. In order to understand the distribution of the flyrock in space, 67 concrete
blocks were blasted varying the blast geometry. A total of 170 flyrock points data were obtained from
such tests. The data was put to Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA). The results of the analysis indicate
that there are certain zones around the face which can be treated as No Flyrock or Green Zones.
These zones extend in a geometric fashion away from the blast site. The relative frequencies of the flyrock
occurring on different quadrants with respect to blast face have been worked out. In contrast to the recent
notions of elliptical shape of the flyrock area, this study shows a circular lemniscate spatial spread of the
flyrock. The results thus provide further insight into fixing the extent of flyrock danger zones and orient-
ing the benches so that the objects of concern face the No Flyrock zones.

1 INTRODUCTION 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Flyrock is not only a complex problem associated
with surface blasting but is less understood and
least reported (Davies, 1995), also. The reasons for
such anomalies are varied in nature. These include
a casual approach to the problem, less stress on aca-
demic front and less effort by the legal and statu-
tory authorities for ensuring the blast-wise records
of flyrock travel. The problem has been dealt in
with by different workers in different manner.
The aim of this paper is to understand the spa-
tial distribution of flyrock. In order to achieve the
objectives it was desired to study the occurrence of
flyrock with the help of concrete models. Physical
modeling of blasting is a very difficult premise
owing to the scaling problems of the models.
However, despite such constraints the experiments
provide a useful insight to ascertain the spatial dis-
tribution of flyrock.
Study in physical models was made wherein
desired rock conditions were simulated repeat-
edly and blasts were conducted under controlled
conditions. Creating typical rock environment for
number of trials is not possible in actual field con-
ditions. However, the results and inferences of the
model study can help in conceptual development
and planning the bench orientation, although these
may have restricted direct application in actual
blasting operations.
Flyrock as mentioned has received scant atten-
tion in the mining fraternity despite of the
accidents, injuries, fatalities and damage to the
property associated with it. A review of litera-
ture indicates that flyrock has not been a con-
cern in yester years at all. We have based our
literature analysis on the occurrence of refer-
ences in the internet and on the scientific search
engines like Google Scholar and Scirus. The ear-
liest reference dates back to 1973. The related
R&D has focused on different predictive models
thereon. An overview of the pre-reviewed papers
published after 1973 is presented in Figure 1.
A perusal of Figure 1 indicates that the thrust on
R&D in flyrock has increased after 1973. This is
a good indicator as the thrust on such R&D has
been consistent in past couple of decades. The
real boost can be seen from 1995 onwards. The
above facts are also indicative of lack of com-
plete understanding of the subject and the need
for perusing the theme further.
It will not be out of place to mention the refer-
ences that had an impact on the R&D related to
the subject (Table 1) and have been cited in the lit-
erature. Table 1 indicates some relevant references
which have word flyrock in the title. A greater
degree of concern towards the flyrock is evident
from the Tables 2 & 3.

563

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 563 10/3/2012 8:46:43 PM

 The works of Lundborg (1974), Lundborg et al.
(1975), Roth (1979) were focused on the predic-
tive models of the travel distance of the flyrock
using empirical methods. The limitations of such
approach have been brought out by Raina et al.
(2006). There have been attempts to predict flyr-
ock using the advanced computational techniques
like artificial neural networks, fuzzy logic (Rezaei,
et al. 2011) & support vector machines (Amini
et al. 2011). While prediction methods and mod-
els have been proposed by above researchers, the
problem with such models is that the occurrence
of flyrock is quite uncertain and not a regular
Figure 1. Number of research papers published on fly- phenomenon unlike ground vibration, air over-
rock in different years.
pressure, fragmentation and throw. The risk based
analysis of the phenomenon as proposed by Davies
Table 1. Flyrock references of importance. (1995), Little (2007), Little & Blair (2010), Raina
et al. (2011) are more realistic in nature as these
No of
have a potential to help in demarcating the danger
Author Year Citations papers
zone. Little (2007) conducted several simulations
Lundborg et al. 1975 16 of the blasts for flyrock occurrence but the spa-
Bajpayee et al. 2004 14 tial distribution of flyrock has not been attempted
Fletcher & DAndrea 1986 11 earlier probably because of less data on flyrock in
Rehak et al. 2001 9 general and more scant data on direction of throw
Kecojevic & Radomsky 2005 9 of flyrock.
Lundborg 1974 9 Although real-time data analysis is always pre-
Shea & Clark 1998 7 ferred, the data/studies pertaining to model studies
Workman and Calder 1994 6 for flyrock are practically negligible. This study is
Lundborg 1981 6 probably the first to attempt spatial distribution
Rezaei et al. 2011 5 of flyrock. With the above assertion in mind the
Bajpayee et al. 2002 5 present study is a step forward in this direction
Richards & Moore 2004 5 despite of several physical modeling constraints
Ladegaard-P. & Persson 1973 5 and is aimed to stimulate research in this area of
Others up to 4 citations 21 blasting.
Others with no citations 21

Table 2. Number of papers of flyrock and percentages 3 DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS

in different periods. AND SUMMARY OF DATA
Period No of papers % age
A total of 75 no of concrete models each of 18
19731993 12 21 18 6 (L W H) size were blasted using micro
19942011 46 79 charges. The models were made of sand, cement
Number of hits Google scholar Scirus and aggregate mixtures with the following propor-
Flyrock in title 59 31 tion (Table 3).
Flyrock in text 1180 845 The models were cured in water for a period of
ISEE 436/1908 more than 30 days. Data of only 67 blasts were
Ground vibration in title 357 118 considered for analysis owing to some constraints
Ground vibration in text 34800 38802 of monitoring and design. The following varia-
tions in the blasting design and physical properties
in the model blasting were exercised:
Table 3. Composition of the model mixture.
1. Strength
No. Cement Sand Aggregate UCS (MPa) 2. Burden
1 1 1.5 3 12.9
3. Stemming length
2 1 1.7 3.5 10.2
4. Explosive charge length/hole
3 1 2 4 7.32 5. Hole diameter
6. Joint direction

564

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 564 10/3/2012 8:46:43 PM

 7. Joint frequency (Fig. 2)
i. Models without any joint set
ii. Models with 2 nos. of horizontal joint sets
iii. Models with 8 nos. of vertical joint sets
iv. Models with 2 nos. of vertical joint sets par-
allel to free face and 2 joint sets perpendicu-
lar to free face
8. Explosive typea) PETN, b) ANFO and c)
Slurry. Explosive including ANFO was fired
using small quantity of PETN and ordinary
detonator as primer.
The model configuration is shown in Figure 2.
The variations in the blast and explosive design
parameters are listed in Table 4.
The blocks were confined properly from 4 sides
leaving free face and top open. A single vertical
hole was drilled at the top center of all the blocks
towards the free face while varying the burden,
drill diameter and other parameters, and were
filled with explosives and fired.
3.1 Video monitoring
The blasting process in all the models was monitored
using the high-speed camera (at 500/1000 frames/s,
fps) and a normal video camera. The maximum
actual horizontal distance covered by a fragment
and other parameters were also physically meas-
ured. The coordinates of the flyrock(s) location(s)
(final resting position of the flyrock fragment) with
respect to respective blocks and maximum travel
distance (Rmaxobs) were recorded for further analysis.
The recorded events obtained by the high-speed
camera were analyzed for movement with Motion
Analysis Software (Blasters MAS) to estimate the
projectile velocity and the ejection direction of the
maximum traversed fragment. Further, the veloc-
ity and the ejection direction of the fragment that
attained the maximum height were also obtained
from Blasters MAS. The terminology and method-
ology used for the analysis is shown in Figure 3.
Thus, 171 data points of flyrock were com-
piled from the model tests and were subjected
to further treatment. Other parameters regarding
the fragmentation and cratering radius were also
monitored but are not a part of this paper.
3.2 Estimation of horizontal flyrock distance
The, initial velocity, Vo (m/s) and the launch angle
(degree) or the direction of ejection (with respect
to horizontal) were obtained through Blasters
MAS. The maximum horizontal (Rmaxc) distance
traversed by any fragment was calculated using the
kinematic trajectory equations. Since the objective
of this study was to ascertain spatial distribution
of flyrock and not to predict the flyrock distance,
the known predictive models were not applied for
ascertaining the travel distance of flyrock(s).
The observed maximum horizontal distance
(Rmaxobs) covered by any fragment measured in the
various blasts were found to be different than cal-
culated (Rmaxc). The relation between Rmaxobs and
Rmaxc in various blasts is shown in Figure 4. The
reason for the variation is because of rebound of
the fragment that is dependent on many factors
and can have a bearing on the distance of travel
of the flyrock and the exact definition/prediction
of flyrock travel.

3.3 Summary statistics of the data generated

Figure 2. Configuration of the model blocks.

The summary of the data generated is presented
in Table 5.
The distribution of the horizontal flyrock
Table 4. Variations in the blast design parameters in the points obtained during the tests is represented in
model blasts. Figure 5. As can be seen from Figure 5 the occur-
Sl. no. Parameter Maximum Minimum

1 Strength, MPa 12.90 7.32

2 Drill diameter, mm 12.75 8.07
3 Hole depth, mm 98.49 70.51
4 Burden, mm 114.00 36.70
5 Stemming, mm 50.96 11.43
5 Charge per hole, g 0.97 0.45
6 Charge length, mm 74.60 37.20 Figure 3. Schematic diagram of the projectile of flyrock
in the model blast.

565

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 565 10/3/2012 8:46:44 PM

 hole blasts the maximum travel distance of flyrock
recorded was 28 m. However, the flyrock travel dis-
tance and its relative frequency need further vali-
dation in actual field blasts.

4 ANALYSIS

4.1 Distribution of flyrock in space

EDA techniques have been used to ascertain the
spatial relationships of flyrock observed from the
single hole test blasts. The x and y coordinates
data of flyrock points obtained from model blasts
has been plotted in Figure 6, where +x indicates
Figure 4. Variation in calculated and observed distance
of flyrock. free face side of the blocks (located at point zero) &
y indicates the strike direction of the blocks,
which clearly points towards the occurrence of
flyrock in different directions. Most of the move-
Table 5. Summary and statistic of the data.
ment is recorded in the front direction by virtue
Ratio Min. Max. Avg. of the free face. There are two clear zones where
flyrock is either negligible or not registered.
ls/B 0.16 1.01 0.51 The above assertion is made explicit from the
B/DD 3.78 11.76 8.05 angular plot of the flyrock points (Fig. 7), which
dd/B 0.74 2.16 1.13
Bht/B 1.34 4.15 2.01
Bht/ls 2.99 13.33 4.16
Rmaxobs/Bht 9.19 183.73 58.93

lsstemming (mm), BBurden (mm), DDDrill Diam-

eter (mm), BhtBench height (mm), RmaxobsMaximum
travel distance of flyrock (m).

Figure 6. Plot of flyrock points in space.

Figure 5. Distribution of the travel distance of hori-

zontal flyrock points.

rence of flyrock is greatest for 10 m and signifi-

cantly reduces up to 30 m, beyond which there is
no occurrence of flyrock. Since the diameter of
the hole and the charge was small the distance
of travel of flyrock is restricted and that higher
launch velocities cannot be achieved in such tests.
Since the data was generated from small single- Figure 7. The angle of flyrock showing Green Zones.

566

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 566 10/3/2012 8:46:44 PM

 indicates at least two zones in which flyrock is neg-
ligible or absent. The green zones or no flyrock
zones are in the ranges 75131 and 225268
with respect to the direction of the free face. This
may probably due to the angle of breakage and
hence the corresponding throw of the fragmented
material. Similar results can been seen in the simu-
lation study of Little (2007). The case with fully
buffered blasts or cratering experiments can how-
ever be different.
The data obtained was further resolved through
statistical method. The probability function of the
flyrock distance thus, could be deduced from the Figure 10. Occurrence of flyrock in different zones
data and is presented in Figure 8. This is in agree- about the free face.
ment with the assertion of Lundborg (1979). How-
ever, full scale blast data can provide further insight
into the probability of flyrock travel distance. occurrence of flyrock in different directions with
A further statistic can be observed with the help respect to the free face.
of Figure 9 which indicates the relative occurrence
of flyrock in different directions with respect to the
free face.
The distribution of the flyrock points in space 5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
is presented in Figure 10 and gives an idea of the
Flyrock is a contentious issue in blasting and
has received scant attention from the research-
ers despite of the fact that recent time has shown
some better concern about the same. Experimental
blasts on concrete models revealed that the spatial
distribution of flyrock plots assumes a lemniscate
shape in contrast to the existing models and there
are at least two zones about the free face which
can be referred to as Safe Zones or Green
Zones with respect to flyrock. This leads to the
conclusion that the strike of the bench is direction
where flyrock travel distance is the least, thus sug-
gesting that the dwellings towards these sides are
relatively much safer than across the strike of the
bench. This may need further validation in the field
and once established can provide an approach to
the miners for re-aligning their benches so that the
Figure 8. Probability distribution function of flyrock critical areas, wherever flyrock is a problem, face
distance (limited to the block tests conducted in this
study).
the Safe Zones. The study also reveals that the
distance of flyrock predicted by classical physical
equations may need to be corrected for rebound of
the fragments.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks are due to Director CIMFR for his

permission to publish the study. The study forms
a part of the Ph.D. of the 1st author. Financial
help from the MOM-GOI is acknowledged. The
authors are thankful to the management of ACL,
Rawan, M. Ramulu and P.B. Choudhury for their
help. We wish to express our sincere gratitude to
Figure 9. Relative occurrence in relation to angle of Late Dr. A.K. Chakraborty who was instrumental
flyrock. in framing the study.

567

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 567 10/3/2012 8:46:45 PM

 REFERENCES
Amini, H., Gholami, R., Monjezi, M., Torabi, S.R. &
Zadhesh, J. 2011. Neural Computing and Applica-
tions (2011): 19.
Bajpayee, T. Rehak, T. Mowrey, G. Ingram, D. 2002.
A Summary of Fatal Accidents Due to Flyrock and
Lack of Blast Area Security in Surface Mining, 1989
to 1999. Proc. of the 28th Annual Conference on Explo-
sives and Blasting Technique, ISEE, 2: 105118.
Bajpayee. T.S., Rehak, G.L., Mowrey, G.L. & Ingram, D.K.
2004. Blasting injuries in surface mining with empha-
sis on flyrock and blast area security, Journal of Safety
Research, 35(1): 4757.
Davies P.A. 1995. Risk based approach to setting of flyr-
ock Danger Zones for blasting sites, Trans. Inst. Min
and Met., MayAugust: 96100.
Fletcher, L.R. & D Andrea, D.V. 1986. Control of flyr-
ock in blasting. Proc. of the 12th Annual Conference on
Explosives and Blasting Technique, ISEE: 167175.
Google Scholar, Scirus Search Engines.
Kecojevic, V. & Radomsky, M. 2005. Flyrock phenomena
and area security in blasting-related accidents, Safety
Science, 43(9):739750.
LadegaardPedersen, A and Persson, A. 1973. Flyrock
in blasting II, Experimental investigation, Swedish
Detonic Research Foundation Report, DS1973:13.
Little, T.N. & Blair, D.P. 2010. Mechanistic Monte
Carlo models for analysis of flyrock risk. Rock Frag-
mentation by BlastingSanchidrin (Ed.), Taylor &
Francis:641647.
Little, T.N. 2007. Flyrock risk. Proc. EXPLO Confer-
ence, Wollongong, NSW, 34 September:3543.
Lundborg, N. 1974. The hazards of fly rock in rock blast-
ing. Swedish Detonic Research Foundation Report
DS1974: 12.
Lundborg, N. 1979. The probability of flyrock dam-
age, Swedish Detonic Research Foundation, Report
DS1979: 8.
568
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 568
Lundborg, N., Persson, N., LadegaardPedersen, A.
and Holmberg, R. and Holmberg, R. 1975. Keeping
the lid on flyrock in open pit blasting, Eng. Min. Jour-
nal: 95100.
Raina, A.K., Chakraborty, A.K., Choudhury, P.B. &
Sinha, A. 2011. Flyrock danger zone demarcation
in opencast mines: a risk based approach. Bull Eng.
Geol. Environ. 70:163172.
Raina, A.K., Ramulu, M. Choudhury, P.B. &
Chakraborty, A.K. 2006. Flyrock prediction and con-
trol in opencast metal mines in India for safe deep-
hole blasting near habitatsa futuristic approach.
CMRI India Project Report GAP/003/MT/NRC/
DOM/02-03:198.
Rehak, T. Bajpayee, T. Mowrey, G. Ingram, D. 2001. Fly-
rock Issues in Blasting, Proc. of the 27th Annual Con-
ference on Explosives and Blasting Technique, ISEE,
1:165176.
Rezaei, M., Monjezi, M. & Yazdian Varjani, A. 2011.
Development of a fuzzy model to predict flyrock in
surface mining, Safety Science, 49: 298305.
Richards, A. & Moore, A. 2004. Flyrock Controlby
chance or design, Proc. of the 30th Annual Confer-
ence on Explosives and Blasting Technique, ISEE, 1:
335348.
Roth. J, A. 1979. A Model for the determination of fly-
rock range as a function of shot condition. US Dept.
of Commerce NTIS Report No PB81222358:61p.
Shea, C.W., Clark, D., 1998. Avoiding tragedy: lessons
to be learned from a flyrock fatality, Coal Age, 103
(2): 5154.
Workman, JL and Calder, PN, 1994. Flyrock prediction
and control in surface mine blasting, Proc. 20th Annual
Conference on Explosives and Blasting Technique,
ISEE: 5974.
10/3/2012 8:46:46 PM
 Section 8 - Innovative Blasting Technologies

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 569 10/3/2012 8:46:46 PM

This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Shock initiation and malfunction of commercial explosives

and accessories: An approach using the critical energy fluence

P.D. Katsabanis
The Robert M. Buchan Department of Mining, Queens University, Kingston, ON, Canada

ABSTRACT: Explosives sensitivity relates to the minimum stimulus for deliberate initiation of a charge
as well as the ability of a charge to withstand impact and thus detonate on time and at full strength after
the detonation of neighboring charges in the case of delayed blasting applications. Shock sensitivity is
typically assessed using gap tests, which however depend on geometry and confinement, making compari-
sons between tests difficult and prediction of explosives behaviour in practical blasting troublesome or
impossible. Modelling of shock sensitivity requires calibration through difficult and expensive tests and
is typically done for well known military compositions. In this paper, knowledge of shock sensitivity of a
variety of commercial explosives is based on the calculation of the critical energy fluence, which is derived
from the interpretation of available Pop plots, derived experimentally by wedge shots, while impact tests
are used for verification of the critical energy values. Numerical modeling, using a hydrodynamic code, is
used to calculate pressures and impact energies away from donor charges to explain the important param-
eters for shock sensitivity problems encountered in the field and in the laboratory. The configurations
analyzed include high amplitude impact, interaction between parallel cylindrical charges as well as decked
charges. Prediction of pressure pulses using numerical modelling was deemed to be acceptable. High
amplitude, short duration impacts appear to initiate charges according to the critical energy fluence crite-
rion. However, at the long duration impacts of axisymmetric configurations, the impact energy delivered
is high and the critical energy fluence criterion does not appear to explain sensitivity well. It appears that
there is a critical pressure that needs to be surpassed for initiation to occur. Nevertheless, the pressures are
high enough to result in malfunctions at commonly used stemming distances.

1 INTRODUCTION environment. A common conclusion is that dis-

Delay blasting introduces a hostile environment to
explosives, primers and detonators designed to deto-
nate at later delay times. Any out of sequence deto-
nation is generally classified as malfunction and can
be defined as a detonation at the wrong time, with or
without the wrong amount of energy delivery by the
explosive to the surrounding medium. Malfunction
in general continues to be a problem in blast design.
Mohanty (2009) reviewed sympathetic detonation
and malfunction phenomena on the explosive charge
system, which is employed in blasting applications
and consists of the explosive, a primer and a deto-
nator. He suggested that decking applications and
stemming practices must be reviewed. The blasting
industry, through monitoring of detonation veloci-
ties in the field (Lee, Rodgers and Whitaker, 2000)
have definitely observed problems in sequencing
and occasionally monitored pressures to understand
sympathetic detonation and malfunction. Findings
vary but they are plagued by the difficulty in achiev-
ing reliable measurements in a mining production
tances that were assumed to be safe in avoiding any
shock interaction in boreholes are often inadequate
to eliminate the problem. Furthermore, predictabil-
ity is often inadequate, due to the variability in con-
ditions between the different blasting environments.
Katsabanis and Yeung (1993) suggested a critical
ignition criterion as a threshold to sympathetic
detonations, to explain the long distances at which
decked charges malfunctioned as well as the scatter
of their experimental observations.
While malfunction of charges denies blasting
the advantage of application of scientific findings
with regard to timing and blast design, sensitivity
studies on commercial components are scant. This
was evident in Mohantys review paper of 2009.
This is partially due to the difficulty and cost of
experimentation in dynamic and equipment hos-
tile environments. In this work, we will attempt to
combine various experimental findings and link
them through the application of numerical mod-
elling to derive conclusions about the function of
explosives and accessories.

571

CH070_Paper 222.indd 571 10/4/2012 3:28:59 PM

 2 SHOCK SENSITIVITY
Shock sensitivity of explosives, as far as blast engi-
neering is concerned, has been linked to impact
energy through the energy fluence criterion (Walker
and Wasley, 1969). The criterion utilizes the shock
amplitude and its duration to claim that the energy
per unit area, the energy fluence, is proportional to
the square of the pressure amplitude and the dura-
tion of the pulse. This is valid for a square pulse;
for an arbitrary pulse the energy fluence can be
described by:
E PU
U p dt
where E is the energy fluence, P is pressure, Up is
the particle velocity and t is time. The above inte-
gral can be easily calculated using numerical mod-
elling codes, since all parameters are known at each
time step. In the case of a square pulse, the above
equation becomes:
E= P t
2 equation (2), resulting in the energy fluence value.
0U
where 0 is the initial density and U is the shock
wave velocity. Experimentally the energy flu-
ence is often calculated using flyer plate impact
experiments.
Flyer plate experiments for commercial explo-
sives have been conducted several years ago by the
author (Katsabanis, 1987); however these involved
Aluminum plates having a higher than the explosive
impedance, meaning that the pulse in the explosive
was not exactly square but had a long tail due to the
secondary loading from the rarefaction in the plate.
Bullet impact tests, also conducted on commercial
explosives have the same complexity as well as the
effect of side rarefactions, making experimental
determination difficult. However, at the same time,
using wedge tests, the author determined the rela-
tionship between distance of run to detonation (x*)
to impact pressure (P), the Pop plot, for the same
explosives, which can be interpreted to calculate
the energy fluence required for shock initiation. It
(1) can be claimed that for an explosive to reach initia-
tion, the pressure pulse should result in a detona-
tion before any rarefaction catches up and begins
to attenuate the pulse (Cooper, 1996). Thus, one
can calculate whether a low impedance flyer plate
would initiate an explosive target at a given veloc-
ity. Through trial and error a critical velocity can be
found for a given thickness flyer plate, which would
marginally initiate the explosive. The critical veloc-
ity can easily be used to calculate the parameters of
(2) Table 1 shows the information used (Pop plots,
sonic wave velocity, C0, and Hugoniot shock
particle velocity slope, S), and the critical energy
fluence for initiation. It must be noted that the
pressure pulse due to impact had to exceed the
minimum experimental pressure of the tests used to
obtain the Pop plots. As described earlier, impact
tests with aluminum plates and 13 mm brass pro-
jectiles had been used to assess the impact sensi-
tivity of the above explosives. The computer code

Table 1. Sensitivity data of explosives used in modelling.

Pop plot, C0 Critical energy

Explosive P(GPa), x*(mm) m/s S fluence, J/cm2

Detonator sensitive emulsion log(P) = 1.493 1.114log(x*) 1100 1.7 200

Detonator insensitive emulsion log(P) = 1.181 0.367log(x*) 1300 1.6 1140
Detonator sensitive slurry log(P) = 1.352 0.978log(x*) 1700 1.22 112

Table 2. Summary of results related to high velocity impact.

Velocity Energy fluence,

Explosive Impact m/s Experiment J/cm2

Detonator sensitive emulsion Brass projectile 711 Failed 247

Diameter = length = 12 mm 745 Detonated 275
Detonator insensitive emulsion Brass projectile 1300 Failed 996
Aluminum flyer plate, 3.2 mm thick 1230 Failed 572
Aluminum flyer plate, 9.5 mm thick 1820 Detonated 1220
1660 Detonated 3320
Detonator sensitive slurry Aluminum projectile 435 Failed 258
Diameter = length = 50 mm 447 Detonated 274

572

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 572 10/3/2012 8:46:46 PM

 Autodyn (ANSYS, 2010) is then used to model the
impacts and calculate energy fluence according to
equation (1). The results are given in Table 2.
It is evident from the two tables that energy flu-
ence values derived from the interpretation of Pop
plots are in reasonable agreement with those from
the interpretation of impact experiments. We will
attempt to use these in the understanding of sym-
pathetic detonations and malfunction in parallel
and axisymmetric configurations.

3 PARALLEL CHARGE CONFIGURATION

Figure 1. Calculated pressure pulses away from 170 g
3.1 Charges in water primer.

Mohanty (1992 and 2009) has provided critical dis-

tances for the sympathetic detonation of an emul-
sion, a slurry and a detonator inside water, away
from a 170 g primer charge, as well as recorded
pressures away from detonating cord and the 170 g
primer. His experiments were modelled with Auto-
dyn for calculation verification. Figure 1 presents
pressure profiles recorded at various locations
away from the centre of the charge in the case of
the primer.
Clearly pressures decay rapidly while the dura-
tion at half amplitude, close to the charge is
between 15 and 50 s. As distance increase, pulse
duration, obviously, increases. The following rela-
tionship between peak pressure and distance was Figure 2. Calculated pressure pulses 2 m away from
derived: detonating cord and 170 g primer.

P 287580 x 1.275 (3)

where P is the Pressure in MPa and x is the distance

from the centre of the charge in mm (x > 20 mm).
Figure 2 presents pressures calculated 2 m away
from a 2 m long charge consisting of 170 g of det-
onating cord at different azimuthal directions as
well as the pressure from the primer explosive. The
maximum amplitudes of the pressures 2 m away
are in good agreement with the measurements by
Mohanty and Deshaies (1992) for all cases, sug-
gesting that the model accurately describes the
shock waves of the experiments.
Figure 3 shows the calculated energy fluence as
a function of distance away from the primer.
The calculated values of the energy fluence in
water were 675 J/cm2, 250 J/cm2 and 30 J/cm2, at Figure 3. Energy fluence vs. distance from primer.
the respective distances of 6 cm, 13 cm and 48 cm
at which the emulsion, the slurry and the detona- observed at those distances can be considered to
tor detonated sympathetically. The values for the be strictly related to shock initiation.
commercial explosives are not drastically different The situation becomes more complex when one
than the values in Tables 1 and 2 while the value for examines critical distances for sympathetic detona-
the detonator exceeds the reported critical value tion of the emulsion and the watergel cartridges
for PETN (Cooper, 1996). Thus the phenomena when they contained detonators. These were

573

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 573 10/3/2012 8:46:47 PM

 reported to be 800 mm and 2000 mm respectively sand and not in the dummy explosive, the agree-
(Mohanty and Deshaies, 1992). At these distances ment is considered satisfactory.
the energy fluence is 8 J/cm2 and 1 J/cm2, too low Considering that malfunction of the explosive
to result in shock initiation. Even if one considers and the detonators were observed at the distances
the fact that the pressure in the cartridge inside the of the graph, it is worth examining the calculated
explosive is different that the pressure in the sur- pressure pulses, which are shown in Figure 5.
rounding water, the difference is astounding. The Pressures are clearly lower than in the case
pressures may be too low to result in sympathetic of water used as attenuator at similar distances,
detonation of the main components, but have a but the durations are increased to 100300 s at
long duration, enough to transfer enough energy half the pressure amplitude. Energy fluence val-
to crush the detonator shell and produce a mal- ues at these levels are between 38 J/cm2 and 8 J/cm2
function. Katsabanis et al, (1994) determined that at distances of 76 mm and 152 mm respectively.
threshold pressure to crush a detonator and pro- At the distance of 76 mm full desensitization and
duce a malfunction would be between 1215 MPa, detonator sympathetic detonations were observed,
pressures that were calculated here and recorded while at the distance of 152 mm occasional desen-
experimentally by Mohanty and Deshaies (1992). sitization occurred. The distance of 178 mm was
However it is known that pressures change safe. From the data presented in the previous,
inside the explosive, something that Mohanty sympathetic detonation of the detonator is fully
observed in his experiments. He noticed that there explained by the critical energy fluence for PETN,
was significant attenuation in the emulsion and while the emulsion is not expected to detonate
some amplification in the watergel and this is the sympathetically.
reason for the reported difference in the distance in
which the combined watergel/detonator and emul-
sion/detonator systems malfunctioned. To express
this numerically, equations of state are needed to
describe the behaviour of the watergel and the
emulsion under pressure. In the absence of such
models, gross approximations were used to deter-
mine a porous model for the case of the watergel
and a compaction model in the case of the micro-
balloon sensitized emulsion, which produced simi-
lar pulses to the ones reported by Mohanty and
Deshais (1992).
Thus, in the case of parallel charges, pressures
drop rapidly with distance and the durations do
not appear to be excessively long. Any sympathetic
detonations appear to be explained by the energy
fluence criterion. When the energy is low, pressures
may still be high enough to result in malfunction. Figure 4. Calculated vs. experimental maximum pres-
We will attempt to model two more experimen- sures in sand.
tal sets, in drastically different environments.

3.2 Charges in sand

Fitz (1993) obtained pressures in cartridges filled
with silicone, to simulate an emulsion explosive,
away from 32 mm diameter detonating charges
placed in sand. The experiments are modelled
here, using Autodyn. To describe the attenuator
material the Compaction equation of state, avail-
able in the library of data of the code, which modi-
fies the elastic bulk modulus based on density and
plastic compaction, was used. Figure 4 shows the
calculated Pressure-distance relationship as well
as the experimental results, obtained using carbon
resistor gauges inside the dummy cartridges. Given
the approximation in describing the attenuator and Figure 5. Calculated pressure pulses in sand at various
the fact that the calculated measurements are in the distances.

574

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 574 10/3/2012 8:46:49 PM

 3.3 Charges in rock Liu and Tidman (1995) have measured pres-
sures in water filled boreholes and their experimen-
Liu and Tidman (1995) have measured pressures
tal measurements are of importance in examining
in water filled boreholes around a borehole with
results from numerical modelling approaches. Mod-
a detonating explosive. The study calculated the
elling of their experiments require a three dimen-
pressures in the rock from the pressure measure-
sional approach to describe the parallel donor
ments in the water on the basis of the impedance
acceptor boreholes in the rock medium. Here we
mismatch of the media. The pressures compared
used a different approach; the velocitytime his-
favourably against pressures calculated on the basis
tories at a known distance from the charge, calcu-
of an equation developed by Liu and Katsabanis
lated in an axisymmetric geometry, were used as a
(1993) earlier. The application of the one dimen-
velocity boundary in a planar geometry, in which
sional impedance mismatch equation, which was
the water filled borehole was placed. The calcu-
used, is however questionable when the geometry
lated pressures at the distances of interest as well
is cylindrical and the assumption of hydrodynamic
as Liu and Tidman (1995) experimental values are
conditions is also not realistic. We will address
shown in Figure 7.
these issues subsequently; however we will first
Calculations are close to the experimental val-
examine the idea of using a simple semi-empirical
ues; also one can observe that the attenuation in
equation to calculate pressures in the rock.
pressure amplitude when the pulse transfers into
The equation by Liu and Katsabanis (1993) is
the water is substantial, not due to the mismatch
expressed as:
in impedance but rather due to the strength of the
rock. If the rock is assumed to be a hydrodynamic

P Pm R (4)
R0

with

C
0.25

Pm 1.62 0 D 2 r (5)
0 D

and

( )
0.33
= 1.35 (6)

where P is the pressure at distance R from the bore-

Figure 6. Comparison between calculation with
hole, R0 is the borehole radius, D is the velocity
Autodyn and Lius simple model.
of detonation in km/s, C is the sound speed in the
rock in km/s and 0 and r are the densities of the
explosive and rock respectively in g/cm3. Using a
sound speed of 5.6 km/s for the rock (granodior-
ite), density of rock equal to 2.72 g/cm3 and den-
sity for the explosive of 1.25 g/cm3 and velocity of
detonation of 5.7 km/s, Lius equation becomes:
1.36

P = 86.8 R (7)
R0

The equation for 32 mm diameter charges is plot-

ted against what was calculated using Autodyn using
the shock equation and a linear strength model
for the rock in Figure 6. Apparently Lius equa-
tion and the numerical model used are in sufficient
agreement with regard to stress wave propagation
around a borehole. We can then examine whether it Figure 7. Comparison between calculation with Autodyn
can predict pressures in surrounding boreholes. and experimental values (Liu and Tidman, 1995).

575

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 575 10/3/2012 8:46:49 PM

 material, a much higher pressure would be materi- 3035 cm in a borehole. Primers did detonate sym-
alized in the borehole. pathetically at distances over 2 m, although some
It is clear here that at the distances of interest, of the events may have been influenced by the mal-
malfunction may be possible but it is not due to function of the detonator, which fired at a much
sympathetic detonation. The pressures are low, earlier time than the delay time of its design. So,
thus the most likely phenomenon is that of desen- there is an apparent failure of the energy fluence
sitization or out of sequence detonator firing. criterion or of its application in the case of decked
charges.
The following are possible reasons for the
4 AXISYMMETRIC CHARGE discrepancy:
CONFIGURATION
1. The critical energy values of Table 1 may be too
low; however these have been consistent in the
Decked charges have produced interesting and
high impact pressureshorter duration pulses
controversial results. Mohanty (2009) has sug-
and are not vastly different from other non det-
gested a separation distance of 20 diameters while
onator sensitive explosives.
the author has shown malfunction at distances of
2. The duration of the pulses appear to be substan-
20 diameters. We will try to analyze the results with
tially longer than previously. However, these are
the aid of numerical modelling.
consistent with experimental findings of Katsa-
Figure 8 shows the pressures at various dis-
banis and Yeung (1993) which however may be
tances from a 10 cm diameter emulsion charge
flawed as carbon resistors, as any other gauge
(density: 1.25 g/cm3) in water, as measured and as
with leads in the path of stress waves, may not
calculated using Autodyn. The agreement is quite
be capable of recording the entire pressure-time
good, suggesting that the pressure-time histories,
pulse.
predicted by Autodyn can be used in calculating
fluence energy as a function of distance.
Some pressure time histories are given in Fig-
ure 9. It is apparent that the duration of the pulses
is long, compatible to the measurements shown by
Katsabanis and Yeung (1993), which suggests that
the energy fluence will be high. Calculated values
of energy fluence as a function of distance from
the charge are given in Figure 10. The values are
such that sympathetic detonation would occur
even at the 2 m distances with the emulsion as the
target.
Experimental evidence has however suggested
that the same emulsion, without a primer and
a detonator would have a critical distance of
Figure 9. Pressure pulses at different distances away
from emulsion donor in water filled hole.

Figure 8. Comparison between measured and cal-

culated pressures away from a charge in a water filled
borehole. Figure 10. Energy fluence vs. distance from donor.

576

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 576 10/3/2012 8:46:52 PM

 3. The pressures in the emulsion are smaller than
in the water. Mohanty and Deshais (1992) have
demonstrated this experimentally. We were able
to demonstrate this qualitatively in numerical
modelling using a porous equation of state.
However such models, to our knowledge, do
not exist for commercial explosives and must be
developed, if an in depth investigation is to be
undertaken.
4. Finally the energy fluence criterion may be lim-
ited in the range it applies. The critical energy
criterion was developed on the basis of impact
by rectangular shock waves, like in the case of
flyer plates. Verbeek and Bouma (2010) have
suggested that there is a gradual change in the
initiation threshold from minimum energy for
short pulse duration, to minimum pressure,
for long pulse duration. A schematic is shown
in Figure 11. Thus, in this particular case of
sympathetic detonations in boreholes, the pulse
has to exceed a pressure threshold. It appears
that the specific impact energy fluence criterion
provides a single point in the energy fluence
pressure relationship! Such relationship may
be built using calibrated gap tests in which the
diameter of the chargeattenuatoracceptor
assembly is varied to result in different impact
energy pressure relationships.
Explosive decks contain primers and detona-
tors, so their behaviour under shock is related to
the function of the accessories. The primer has a
significantly lower critical energy fluence value;
however it exhibits a similar shock to detonation
threshold curve as shown in Figure 11, meaning
that a critical pressure must be exceeded. In some
of our experiments primers detonated at distances
3 m away from the donor in 100 mm diameter
boreholes. In any case all three components have
Figure 11. Energy fluence vs. pressure at different
durations.
577
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 577
to be rugged at the high pressures calculated. This
pressure for a stemming distance of 20 diameter
is of the order of 100 MPa according to Figure 8.
Comparing the pressures in decked charges with
parallel holes, it appears that in the axisymmetric
case, the pressure pulses have a longer duration
and attenuate slowly. Thus, pressures and energies
are high resulting in a more common and signifi-
cantly more complex problem of malfunction in
the case of decked charges.
5 CONCLUSION
Numerical modelling has been of some assistance
in examining sympathetic detonation and malfunc-
tion in general. Critical energy fluence values can
explain sensitivity in short pulse duration applica-
tions, such as high velocity impacts and interaction
between parallel charges. Pressures, which can be
predicted reliably through numerical modeling of
semi-empirical equations, can suggest the onset of
malfunction in a variety of blasting applications
with parallel boreholes. Decked charge applications
typically result in relatively long duration pulses
and significant specific energy values, which tend
to be higher than the critical energy fluence values
derived with high amplitude short pulses. It appears
that the critical energy fluence is related to the dura-
tion of the pressure pulse, and deviates significantly
at very long times. The amplitude of pressures in
the stemming distances of interest between decked
charges have been shown to be much higher than
the critical pressures recorded in typical distances
of interest of parallel charges, suggesting that even
if sympathetic detonations may not occur, mal-
function of explosives and accessories should be
expected in any component that cannot sustain
pressures pulse having amplitude of approximately
100 MPa and significantly long durations.
REFERENCES
ANSYS, 2010: Autodyn Users Manual.
Cooper, P. 1996. Explosives Engineering. VCH Publishers.
Fitz, G. 1993. Desensitization in Multiple Borehole and
Decked Charges. B.Sc. thesis, Mining Engineering,
Queens University:181.
Katsabanis, P.D. 1987. Studies in Explosives Performance
and sensitivity. Ph.D. Dissertation. Queens University.
Katsabanis, P.D. and Yeung, C. 1993. Effects of low
amplitude shock waves on commercial explosives
The sympathetic detonation problem. FRAGBLAST
4 (Ed. H.P. Rossmanith): 401408.
Katsabanis, P.D., Yeung, C., Fitz, G. and Heater, R. 1994.
Explosives Malfunction. From Sympathetic Detona-
tion to Shock Desensitization. Proc. 10th ISEE Sym-
posium on Explosives and Blasting Research.: 6373.
10/3/2012 8:46:53 PM
 Lee, R.A., Rodgers, J.A. and Whitaker, K.C. 2000. Explo-
sives malfunction in decked blasts. Proc. 26th ISEE
Symposium on Explosives and Blasting Technique.:
Vol. 2: 2535.
Liu, Q. and Katsabanis, P.D. 1993. A theoretical approach
to the stress waves around a borehole and their effect
on rock crushing. FRAGBLAST-4, ed. P. Rossmanith,
Vienna., Austria: 916.
Liu, Q. and Tidman, P. 1995. Estimation of dynamic
pressure around a fully loaded borehole, MRL 95-014
(TR), CANMET. pp. 15.
Mohanty, B. and Deshaies, R. 1992. Conditions for sym-
pathetic initiation of explosives in small diameters.
578
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 578
Proc. 8th ISEE Symposium on Explosives and Blasting
Research. pp. 117.
Mohanty, B. 2009. Intra-hole and inter-hole effects in
typical blast designs and their implications on explo-
sives energy release and detonator delay timeA criti-
cal review. FRAGBLAST 9 (Ed. J.A. Sanchidrian).,
2331.
Verbeck, R. and Bouma, R.H.B. 2011. Evaluation of the
Energy Fluence in the Small Scale Gap Test. Propel-
lants, Explosives and Pyrotechnics, 2011, 36. 1621.
Walker, F.E. and Wasley, R.J. 1969. Critical Energy for
Shock Initiation of Heterogeneous Explosives. Explo-
sivstoffe, 17,9.
10/3/2012 8:46:54 PM
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Evaluation of ANFO performance with cylinder test

L.M. Lpez, J.A. Sanchidrin, P. Segarra & M.F. Ortega

Universidad Politcnica de Madrid, E.T.S.I. Minas, Madrid, Spain

ABSTRACT: Cylinder test allows knowing the expansion of a copper cylinder by the detonation of
an explosive charge inside. This test, originally designed for high explosives, has been adapted for indus-
trial explosives with non-ideal behavior. The cylindrical geometry of the charge, the expansion ratio, the
Velocity of Detonation (VOD) and the behavior of the explosive are in line with typical conditions in
rock blasting. Pins are located at different radial distances to record time-displacement curve, from which
tube velocity is obtained. A total of 10 cylinder test were carried out: 5 with 50 mm diameter (C-50) and
5 with 100 mm diameter (C-100). ANFO with a charge density of 0.83 g/cm3, was located inside the cop-
per cylinder with the VOD cable, so the tube wall expansion and VOD were measured simultaneously. The
repetitively of the test can be considered satisfactory since the relative uncertainties obtained for Gurney
energy, are 2.5% for C-50 and 3% for C-100. The influence of the diameter on cylinder test results has
been investigated, concluding that diameter affects to the VOD and initial acceleration. Although both
Gurney energy and Gurney velocity increases as the cylinder diameter does, no statistical differences
between the means can be assessed.

1 INTRODUCTION Table 1. Cylinder test configuration in different

references.
Cylinder expansion test has been chosen as the
most suitable test to measure the initial work capac- L Di s
(mm) (mm) (mm) z Reference
ity of civil explosives in realistic geometry and
charge size. This test was developed at Lawrence 305 25.4 2.54 0.2 Souers et al. 2001
Livermore Laboratory with the aim of obtaining 305 25.4 2.6 0.2 Hornberg &
the metal acceleration capability of an explosive Volk,1989
and obtain the equation of state. 305 25.4 1.27 0.1 Souers et al. 2001
Two kinds of cylinders were used over 45 years 305 50.8 5.19 0.2 Garza et al. 1992
(Souers et al. 2011). The full wall cylinder with a Souers & Kury 1993
wall thickness of a 1/5th of the radius (z = 0.2), it is 1016 101.6 10.69 0.2 Garza et al. 1992
the currents standard everywhere, usually with cyl- 299.7 25.4 2.54 0.2 Catanach et al. 1999
inders of 12.2 mm radius. For many years the half 1000 100 5 0.1 Nyberg et al. 2003
wall cylinder, with a wall thickness of a 1/10th of 600 50 2.5 0.1 Present work
the radius (z = 0.1) and mostly with a 25.4 mm 1000 100 5 0.1 Present work
radius, was used to get a higher wall velocity and
hence, more resolution. Table 1 summarizes the L: Cylinder length; Di: inner diameter; s (mm): wall
thickness; z: wall thickness to inner radius ratio,
different configuration of cylinder test used during i.e. s/Ri.
the last 25 years.
The cylinder test was originally developed for
high explosives (ideal detonation) so the cylinder This work describes a methodology based on
diameter of 25.4 mm was suitable and the wall the test procedure developed by Swebrec. It also
expansion is measured with streak camera or fabry shows and analyzes results from 10 tests in two
interferometer which involves high inversion labo- diameters.
ratories. Swebrec modifies the cylinder test con-
figuration to determine the energy of commercial
explosives which commonly presents non ideal 2 GURNEY MODEL
behavior (Esen et al. 2005a) . The diameter used
(non ideal detonation) was 100 mm and contact The Gurney model allows estimating the velocity
pins were used to measure the expansion of the of a metal which is in contact with an explo-
copper tube. sive charge. After the detonation, during the gas

579

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 579 10/3/2012 8:46:54 PM

 expansion explosive chemical energy available
is transformed into kinetic energy. This energy,
named Gurney energy, EG, represents a fraction
of the chemical energy (i.e. explosive energy) deliv-
ered during detonation.
The Gurney model (Walters & Zucas 1989 and
Kennedy 1997) relates Gurney energy with the cyl-
inder expansion velocity as:
1

M 1 2
UL 2 EG +
C 2
or

U L2 M 1
EG = + (1)
2 C 2
Figure 1. Direction of metal projection.
where UL = Gurney velocity; EG = Gurney energy;
M = metal mass; and C = explosive mass in the
cylinder. (Hornberg & Volk 1989). Under these conditions,
The ratio of the copper mass to the explosive the centre or mid-wall radius, rm, is calculated from
mass can be evaluated as follows: the half cross sectional surface area:

=
(
M ccu Ry Ri
2 2
) (2) ( 2
y
2
m) ( m2 i
2 1
)= ( 2
y
2
i ) (5)
C e . Ri2 2

where ry and ri = outer and inner radii; ry is meas-

where Ry and Ri are initial outer and inner radii of ured in the test as a function of time.
the cylinder, respectively and cu and e are copper The radial change of the centre radius, rm, can
and explosive density, respectively. be estimated with:
The radial velocity distribution inside the gases
is assumed to be linear. The energies due to heat,
deformation and friction are considered negligible Ri2 Ry2 Ri2 Ry2
rrm rm Rm ry2 + Ry2 +
compared with kinetic energy of explosive and 2 2
metal. The Gurney velocity is the final stationary
velocity during the later stages of the cylinder wall (6)
expansion. Figure 1 shows that the angle between where Rm = initial center of midwall radius.
the metal movement direction and the original The calculated expansion curves can be obtained
metal position is /2. The velocity registered in the by fitting a combined linear an exponential func-
experiment is Um and forms an angle of /2 with tion to the experimental data (Hornberg & Volk,
the velocity UL. From the velocity of detonation 1989; Nyberg et al, 2003):
D of the explosive during the test, both the angle
and the velocity UL can be estimated:
rrm

a t t0

1
b
( e bt t
) (7)
U
= arctan m (3)
D
where a, b and t0 are fitting parameters.
The value of t0 is subtracted from t in order to
have the same time origin for different tests. The
UL 2 D sen (4)
2 time constant in Equation 7 is 1/b, and it describes
the length of acceleration phase.
In order to evaluate the kinetic energy prop- The tube wall velocity perpendicular to the tube
erly, the velocity of the copper should be cal- axis, Um is obtained by differentiating Equation 7
culated at the centre radius of the tube, which with respect to time:
could be estimated under the assumption of
d rm drrm
incompressible deformation and no material Um = = = a( e bt ) (8)
flow in the length direction of the copper tube dt dt

580

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 580 10/3/2012 8:46:54 PM

 Replacing the value of Um from Equation 8 into
Equations 3 and 4, leads to the true wall velocity UL.
Introducing the latter into Equation 1, brings EG.
The tube wall acceleration am is obtained differ-
entiating Equation 8 with respect to time:

dU
Um
am = = ab e bt (9)
dt

Finally, the volume expansion ratio v/v0 can be

approximated by:

2 1 2
ri2 rm R Ri2 )
v
= = 2 y (10)
v0 Ri2 Ri2

Figure 2. Test setup (C-100, E6).

3 TEST DESCRIPTION

A total of 10 cylinder test were carried out: 5 Table 3. Pin position and expansion ratio.
with 50 mm diameter (C-50) and 5 with 100 mm
diameter (C-100). The explosive was ANFO with E1E5 E6 E7E10
a charge density of 0.83 g/cm3. Cylinder dimen-
ry ry ry
sions, copper an explosive mass data are collected Pin # (mm) v/v0 (mm) v/v0 (mm) v/v0
in Table 2. Soft free oxygen annealed copper EN
12449 was used for the tests. P1 0.5 1.04 0.5 1.02 0.5 1.02
The explosive charge is located inside a copper P2 5 1.43 5 1.23 10 1.48
cylinder with the VOD cable, so the tube wall expan- P3 10 1.93 10 1.48 20 2.04
sion and VOD were measured simultaneously. The P4 15 2.49 15 1.75 30 2.68
charge was initiated with an instantaneous detona- P5 20 3.12 20 2.04 40 3.40
tor and a 250 g pentolite booster in order to obtain P6 25 3.81 25 2.35 50 4.20
a detonation as plane as possible. Two wooden P7 30 4.57 30 2.68 60 5.08
discs were used to maintain the cylinder upright P8 35 5.40 40 3.40 70 6.04
until detonation. Figure 2 shows the test setup. P9 40 6.29 50 4.20 80 7.08
A set of 10 pins were radialy mounted on a pin P10 45 7.25 60 5.08 90 8.20
support specially designed for the test. The contact
pins, manufactured by Dynasen Inc. were con- ry: distance from the pin to original wall tube; v/v0:
nected to a pin-mixer which sends a signal to an expansion ratio.

oscilloscope each time the pin is ionizated. The

Table 2. Test parameters. distances from every pin to the original wall tube
surface, ry and the corresponding expansion ratios,
Di L s C M
Test # (mm) (mm) (mm) (g) (g) M/C v/v0, are presented in Table 3 for each of the tests.

E1 50 600 2.5 952 2191 2.30

4 RESULTS
E2 50 600 2.5 955 2194 2.30
E3 50 600 2.5 955 2191 2.29
Radial expansion of the cylinder is obtained by fit-
E4 50 600 2.5 952 2196 2.31
ting the time-displacement points registered during
E5 50 600 2.5 952 2176 2.29
E6 100 1000 5 6390 14810 2.32
the test according to Equation 7. Figure 3 shows
E7 100 1000 5 6412 14816 2.31
as an example the output for test E2 with cylinder
E8 100 1000 5 6405 14805 2.31 C-50. Tables 4 and 5 show the times recorded by
E9 100 1000 5 6394 14815 2.32 the 10 pins for the tests with 50 and 100 mm diam-
E10 100 1000 5 6409 14811 2.31 eter cylinders, respectively.
Table 6 shows the VOD for each experiment.
Di: cylinder diameter; L:cylinder length; s: tube thick- The mean VOD registered in the tests with a cylin-
ness; C: explosive mass; M: copper mass. der of 50 mm of diameter (C-50) was 3233 m/s and

581

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 581 10/3/2012 8:46:59 PM

 Table 6. VOD, fitting parameters of the radial expan-
sion (a, b, t0), Gurney velocity (UL) and Gurney energy
(EG) for each test.

VOD a b t0 UL EG
Test # (m/s) (mm/s) (1/s) (s) (m/s) MJ/kg

E1 3038 1.153 0.145 2.317 1152 1.68

E2 3200 1.103 0.096 4.278 1095 1.54
E3 3369 1.077 0.135 2.739 1076 1.50
E4 3311 1.108 0.104 3.959 1102 1.57
E5 3245 1.062 0.164 2.435 1062 1.45
E6 3870 1.116 0.058 5.109 1099 1.60
E7 3879* 1.078 0.082 3.195 1078 1.54
E8 3886 1.141 0.061 5.175 1138 1.71
E9 3879* 1.112 0.055 5.257 1108 1.63
Figure 3. Output for test E2. E10 3881 1.188 0.054 7.2 1181 1.83

(*) No VOD signal, average based on shots E6, E8 and

E10.
Table 4. Arrival times in s for tests E1 to E5 (C-50).

Tests

Pin # E1 E2 E3 E4 E5

P1 0 0 0 0 0
P2 8.015 8.085 7.805 7.020 7.125
P3 13.050 14.175 14.140 13.650 13.250
P4 16.190 16.695 17.250 18.460 18.000
P5 21.850 24.805 23.890 23.720 22.875
P6 28.185 29.320 28.115 28.270 27.625
P7 31.205 33.870 33.250 33.410 32.250
P8 35.925 38.710 38.190 37.760 36.625
P9 38.585 42.910 42.410 42.380 43.250
P10 44.465 47.110 46.790 46.800 46.125

Figure 4. Radial expansion for cylinder test C-50.

Table 5. Arrival times in s for tests E6 to E10 (C-100).

Tests

Pin # E6 E7 E8 E9 E10

P1 0 0 0 0 0
P2 9 15.750 15.370 16.750 13.500
P3 16.625 27.625 27.000 28.375 25.000
P4 22.75 37.625 37.125 39.000 35.250
P5 28.125 47.375 47.000 48.875 44.870
P6 33 56.750 57.375 58.620 54.370
P7 38.25 65.750 74.810 67.370 61.750
P8 48.625 74.125 74.810 76.370 71.000
P9 57.5 83.000 82.435 86.870 79.870
P10 66.625 95.815 91.310 94.500 87.750
Figure 5. Radial expansion for cylinder test C-100.

3888 m/s in the cylinders of 100 mm (C-100). The
calculated expansion curves have been obtained by
fitting Equation 7 to the experimental data; the fit-
ting parameters a, b and t0 are shown in Table 6.
The expansion curves for experiments E1 to E5
(cylinder C-50) are shown in Figure 4 and the
expansion curves corresponding to experiments E6
to E10 (cylinder C-100) are presented in Figure 5.
The tube wall velocity perpendicular to the
tube axis, Um is represented in Figure 6 for all

582

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 582 10/3/2012 8:47:01 PM

 Figure 6. Radial velocity versus time; continuous
curves are used for C-50 tests, and dashed ones for C-100
experiments.
Figure 7. Radial acceleration versus time; continuous
curves are used for C-50 tests, and dashed ones for C-100
experiments.
10 experiments, and the normal acceleration is
shown in Figure 7. For each test, the maximum of
the Gurney velocities and Gurney Energy are also
given in Table 6.
The evolution of Gurney energy versus volume
expansion ratio for all the experiments is shown in
Figure 8.
5 DISCUSSION
The uncertainty of a measured quantity is esti-
mated from the ratio of the standard error of the
mean to the mean:
583
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 583
Figure 8. Gurney energy versus volume expansion
ratio; filled markers are used for C-50 tests, and empty
ones for C-100 experiments.
s
= n (11)
x
where x and are mean and standard deviation of
the measured values, respectively; and n = number
of experiments (i.e. measured values).
Table 7 shows the main statistics for: velocity of
detonation, Gurney velocity, maximum accelera-
tion, and Gurney energy. The resulting uncertain-
ties show, on one hand, that measurements can
be quite precise, 0.1% for VOD measurements for
C-100), and on the other that higher errors of 9.7%
can be incurred when accelerations are measured.
Uncertainties for the main output of the cylinder
test, that is the Gurney energy, are 2.5% for C-50
and 3% for C-100. These low values imply that the
reproducibility of the test is good.
For each of the parameters in Table 7 (i.e. VOD,
UL, am, and EG), a t-test has been applied to compare
the means from C-50 and C-100 tests; the resulting p
values are listed in Table 7. The aim is to determine
which parameters are influenced by the diameter of
the cooper tube. Although both Gurney energy and
Gurney velocity increases as the cylinder diameter
does, no statistical differences between the means
can be assessed with a significance of 0.05, so the
work capacity of ANFO is independent of the diam-
eter. This conclusion is in agreement with research
studies that tested emulsion and 80/20% emulsion/
ANFO blend in copper cylinders between 51 and
102 mm (Esen et al. 2005, Garza et al. 1992) Table 7,
shows however, that the velocity of detonation and
on the acceleration are, on their side sensitive to the
effect of the diameter of the cylinder; notice that the
p-values in Table 7, are less than 0.01).
10/3/2012 8:47:02 PM
 Table 7. Statistics and results of a t-test for VOD, Gurney velocity (UL),
radial acceleration (am), and Gurney energy (EG).

Di
(mm) x s (%) CI (95%) p value

VOD 50 3233 126 1.7 30763390 0.0003

m/s 100 3879 8.19 0.1 38593899
UL 50 1097 34.4 1.4 10661140 0.3523
m/s 100 1121 40.2 1.6 10711171
am 50 0.14 0.03 9.7 0.10.18 0.0044
mm/s2 100 0.07 0.01 6.7 0.060.08
EG 50 1.55 0.09 2.5 1.441.66 0.1048
MJ/kg 100 1.66 0.11 3.0 1.531.8

x: mean; s: standard deviation; : uncertainty; CI (95): confidence

interval.

Figure 9. Boxplot, Gurney energy with different diam-

eter C50 and C100. Figure 10. Boxplot, maximum acceleration with differ-
ent diameter C50 and C100.

In order to display graphically such results,

Figures 9 and 10 show Gurney energies and maxi-
mum acceleration, respectively; the box plot for
other parameter have not been shown for the sake
of simplicity. The boxes are represented with the
common criterion that their upper and lower limits
are the first and third quartiles and the central line
is the median; whiskers outside the box extend a
length 1.5 times the interquartile range; values out-
side are represented as crosses. The notches about
the median represent robust estimates of the 95%
confidence interval about those values (McGill
et al. 1978).
It is well known the diameter and confinement
effect on velocity of detonation in non-ideal
explosives like ANFO. Figure 11 show experi-
mental velocity of detonation for ANFO with
different diameter and confinement. Two ten- Figure 11. Experimental velocity of detonation for
dencies can be extracted from plot in Figure 11: ANFO.

584

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 584 10/3/2012 8:47:03 PM

 6 CONCLUSIONS

This study analyzes 10 cylinder test with ANFO:

5 with 50 mm diameter (C-50) and 5 with 100 mm
diameter (C-100). The uncertainty of the Gur-
ney energy measured has been 2,5% for C-50 and
3% for C-100. These low uncertainty values con-
firms the goodness of the test procedure and its
repeatability.
The influence of the diameter on cylinder test
results has been investigated, concluding that
diameter affects to VOD, initial acceleration, final
Gurney energy and velocity. Although both Gur-
ney energy and Gurney velocity increases as the
cylinder diameter does, no statistical differences
between the means can be assessed.
Most of the expansion work of the explosive
has been done by the time when v/v0 = 7, and com-
Figure 12. Ratio of Gurney energy delivered versus pared to it explosion energy this work represents
expansion ratio; continuous curves are used for C-50 only the 41%.
tests, and dashed ones for C-100 experiments. Cylinder test is the only experimental technique,
which plots the full expansion energy (work done
to the surroundings) curve under real, i.e. non-ideal
Table 8. Summary of Gurney and available energies. conditions. The velocity of detonation obtained
during the tests are similar to those expected dur-
D EG EG/E0 ing rock blasting.
Source (kg/m3) (m/s) (MJ/kg) n (%) (%) For non-ideal explosives like ANFO, there
is a clear influence of diameter on VOD but the
Nyberg 902 4317 1.86 1 48 influence of diameter on work capacity (Gurney
et al. 2003 850 4000 1.626 3 4.3% 42
energy) cannot be confirmed. Previous research
776 4086 2.017 2 8.1% 52
studies with emulsion and bled emulsion-ANFO
This work 830 3879 1.66 5 3.0% 43
show similar results, so VOD may not be a good
: explosive density; D: VOD; EG: Gurney energy; n: descriptor of the explosive performances in terms
number of tests; EG/E0: ratio of the Gurney energy to the of work capacity.
heat of explosion.

One linear fit for unconfined ANFO (Esen et al.
2005b) and other linear fit for rock confinement.
The linear fit for rock blasting data including the
VOD registered in the cylinder test at present
work, has a R2 > 0.9. This means that the con-
finement conditions during rock blasting affects
to the velocity of detonation in a similar way of
cylinder test.
Figure 12 shows the ratio EG/EGmax versus the
expansion ratio v/v0. More than 99% of the Gurney
energy is delivered before v/v0 = 7 for all the tests.
This energy represents between 40 and 43% of the
available energy; such figures are the ratio of the
mean of the Gurney energies for C-50 and C-100
to heat of explosion obtained with the thermo-
dynamic code W-Detcom. Table 7 summarizes
existing data for ANFO cylinder test with 100 mm
diameter. It can be seen that for ANFOs with dif-
ferent densities and VODs, the Gurney energy is
ranged between 1.626 to 2.017 MJ/kg.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to thank the Swebrec team for their
help in setting up the test and sharing their experi-
ence with us. We also thank Maxam for its contin-
ued support to our research work.
REFERENCES
Catanach, R., Hill L.; Harry, H.; Aragon, E. & Murk, D.
1999. Cylinder Test Specification. LA-13643-MS, Los
Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New
Mexico.
Esen S., Nyberg U., Arai H. & Ouchterlony F. 2005a.
Determination of energetic characteristics of com-
mercial explosives using cylinder expansion test
technique. Swebrect Report 2005:1.
Esen S., Souers P.C. & Vitello P. 2005b. Prediction of
the non-ideal detonation performance of commercial
explosives using the DeNE and JWL++ codes, Int.
J. Numer. Meth. Engng 2005; 64: 18891914.

585

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 585 10/3/2012 8:47:04 PM

 Garza, R., Helm F., Souers P.C. & Simpson R.L. 1992.
Performance properties of the emulsion explosive
QM-100. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
report UCRL-ID-112431.
Hornberg H., & Volk F. 1989. The cylinder test in the
context of phisical detonation measurement methods.
Propellants, Explosives, Pyrotechnics 14, 199211.
Kennedy J.E. 1997. The Gurney model of explosive out-
put for driving metal. Zukas J.A & Walters W.P. (eds)
Explosives Effects and Applications: ch 7. New York:
Springer.
McGill, R., Tukey, J.W., & Larsen, W.A. 1978. Variations
of box plots, The American Statistician: 32(1): 1216.
Nyberg U., Arvanitidis I., Olsson M. & Ouchterlony F.
2003. Large size cylinder expansion tests on ANFO
and gassed bulk emulsion explosives. EFEE 2nd
World Conference on Explosives and Blasting, Prague
1012 September 2003.
586
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 586
Souers P.C. & Kury J.W. 1993. Comparison of Cylin-
der Data and Code Calculations for Homogeneous
Explosives. Propellants, Explosives, Pyrotechnics 18:
175183.
Souers P.C., Forbes J.W, Fried L.E., Howard W.M.,
Anderson S., Dawson S., Vitello P. & Garza R. 2001.
Detonation Energies from the Cylinder Test and
Cheetah V3.0. Propellants, Explosives, Pyrotechnics
26: 180190.
Souers P.C., Garza R., Horning H., Lauderbach L.,
Owens C. & Vitello P. 2011. Metal Angle Correction
in the Cylinder Test. Propellants, Explosives, Pyrotech-
nics 3: 915.
Walters W.P. & Zukas J.A. 1989. Fundamentals of Shaped
Charges. Baltimore, MD, USA: CMCPress.
10/3/2012 8:47:04 PM
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Research on performance of aluminum-fiber explosives

Ma Hong-hao, Shen Zhao-wu & Liao Xue-yan

Modern Mechanics Department, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China

ABSTRACT: Aluminum usually exists in powder form in traditional aluminized explosives. In this arti-
cle, e Al-fiber is introduced into aluminum explosives. The purpose of Al-fiber replacing Al-powder is
to enhance both energy output and strength of the explosive. Experiments have been done to investigate
the performance of Al-fiber explosives. Results show that Al-fiber could clearly improve pressure, energy
output, detonation heat both in air blasts and underwater explosions, and it also improves the strength
of the explosive.

1 INTRODUCTION 2 THEORETICAL ANALYSIS

Aluminum (Al abbreviated) particles are common
ingredients in explosives. The particles are used
to increase energy, raise the flame temperature,
enhance late-time effects such as air blast, and
increase the bubble energy in underwater weapons.
Researchers have found that smaller diameter
Al particles would produce larger pressure and
energy, especially Al nanoparticles, because of
large surface area (Lefran 2001). When shock
wave reach Al particles, the particles become hot
spots, in which temperature rises so rapidly that
a chemical reaction takes place. Although smaller
diameter Al particles are known to make fast reac-
tions, they are prone to oxygenation. Al oxides are
useless as detonators. Thus, the smaller the diam-
eter of the Al particles, the fewer active Al parti-
cles there are.
Furthermore, explosives that contain particu-
late are weak in strength. Though carbon fibers
have been mixed to enhance strength, they make
no contribution to detonation energy (Liu 1999).
Attempts to solve the problem of how to
increase surface area of Al particles, keep more
particles active, and increase its strength are being
made. Al exists in form of fiber, as an ingredient
of explosives. Experiments show that it performs
well. It could be interpreted that fiber is some
kind of reinforced material, which could increase
the explosives strength. Otherwise, when the
explosive is detonated, the Al fibers will inevita-
bly be torn to small units by high temperature and
pressure. Fresh Al surfaces which have not been
oxygenated are revealed and immediately par-
ticipate in late-time reactions, producing a great
quantity of heat. Experiments have been made to
research output energy and strength of Al fiber
explosives.
Detonation of aluminized explosives is a compli-
cated process, because it is not an ideal detonation.
The explosive performance is determined by many
factors, such as component, size and shape, and
constraint conditions. J.M. Philip (1996) separated
the detonation reaction of Al explosives into two
steps: the first takes place in the wavefront, where
the explosive components are reacting, detonation
products are produced, and a small amount of Al
reacts. In second phase, the Al component reacts
rapidly and produces a great quantity of heat.
Total energy output is described as:
Ee = WCH ECH + WA1A1QA1 (1)
where Ee is the whole energy output of the explo-
sive released, ECH is the energy output of the explo-
sive component, WCH is the mass fraction of the
explosive component, WAl is the mass fraction of
the Al component, A1 is the reaction degree, and
QAl is the heat produced by the Al reaction. The
output energy can be changed by changing each
factor in the equation above, t. The reaction rate
of Al is described as:
.
 A1
m A1 SP N P H(T
TG T* ) (2)
where A1 is the density of Al, SP is the specific sur-
face area, NP is the volume number of particles, 
and H(TG T*) are constants.
 A1 can
According to equation (2), it is clear that m
be improved by increasing SP and NP. It is inferred
that nanometer-sizes Al produces more heat than
micro-sized, and micro-size produce more heat
than ordinary-sized particles. But this inference
disaccords with facts. For example, Alex (Patrick
et al. 2002) is the most widely known ultrafine Al

587

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 587 10/3/2012 8:47:04 PM

 powder, having a diameter of 100200 nm. The
active Al component is only 85%88% (M. Mench
et al. 1998), compared to over 99% content in
ordinary Al powder. When the diameter of Als
nanoparticles reduces from 50 nm to 20 nm, reac-
tion heat would decrease from 3.721 MJ/Kg to
0.928 MJ/Kg (Guo et al. 2006). So, large specific
surface area and a larger content of active Al are
both required to increase output energy, conditions
which are contradictory to each other.
In order to solve the contradiction, Al fiber was
been designed to substitute for Al powder.

3 EXPERIMENT Figure 2. Explosive (TNT/Al-fiber) made by melt casting.

3.1 Preparation for Al-fiber explosives

1. Al-fiber
Producing Al-fiber with a small diameter is the
key technique. Two different methods have been
used: a) wire drawing: evolving from wire draw-
ing, Al-fibers with 0.1 mm minimum diameter
could be made. b) hot jet: Using this technique,
Al-fiber with 50 um diameter can be made
(Fig. 1). The latter method was used in the cur-
rent experiments.
2. Al-fiber explosives
According to the requirement, the following
preparation methods have been developed:
a. Melt-casting method:
This method is suitable for the TNT compo- Figure 3. Explosive (RDX/TNT/Al-fiber) made under
nents contained in the explosive. First, the com- high pressure.
ponents are mixed. The mixture is heated to
over 81C in a water bath. As soon as TNT has
melted, the components are mixed uniformly. lower density, and TNT is harmful. Pressure
Finally, the mixture is cast into shape (Fig. 2). casting fits more explosives, and can be used to
b. Pressure-casting method: achieve high density. However, it is complicated,
Some explosives (not TNT, but RDX ot PETN) and it is difficult to mix the Al-fiber uniformly.
are usually used as a matrix. Though the melt- In these experiments, TNT and RDX were
casting method cannot be used, the mixture separately used as matrices, and unless other-
could be shaped under high pressure (Fig. 3). wise specified, pressure casting method was
Comparing the methods, melt-casting is sim- used for comparison.
ple but suitable for lower Al-fiber content and
3.2 Explosion in air
Pressure was measured to research performance of
explosives with Al-fiber, and relative parameters
were calculated (Zheng 1990). Explosives used in
the air blast are shown in Table 1. The experimen-
tal system is shown in Figure 4.

3.3 Explosion underwater

The pressure of the underwater explosion was
measured, and other parameters were calcu-
lated. Samples of explosives were 20 g, and the
component proportions are shown in Table 2. The
Figure 1. Al-fiber with 5090 um diameter. experimental system is shown in Figure 5.

588

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 588 10/3/2012 8:47:06 PM

 Table 1. Formulations of explosives (explosion in air). Table 3. Formulations of explosives (strength test).

Sample TNT TNT/Alf RDX RDX/Alf Relative mass content %

Relative mass content/% Sample (g/cm ) 3

Alf TNT EP Observation
TNT 100 80
RDX 95.0 75.0 TNT 1.40 0 100 0 Macrovoid
Al-fiber 20.0 20.0 TAF-1 1.40 4 96 0 Voidless
Additive 5.0 5.0 TAF-2 1.57 14 85 1 Voidless
Parameters TAF-3 1.64 16 83 1 Voidless
d/mm 45.0 45.0 25.2 25.2 TAF-4 1.54 20 79 1 Voidless
h/mm 28.0 28.0 25.0 25.0 TAF-5 1.70 23 76 1 Voidless
m/g 50.0 50.0 20.0 20.0
*EP is epoxy resin, TAF is abbreviated for TNT/Al-fiber.
*Alf means Al-fiber, diameter of Al-fiber is 5080 um.

3.4 Strength test

MTS (material testing system) was used for the
strength test. Samples used are shown in Table 3.
Epoxy resin was useful in enhancing flow and
uniformity. Samples were made by melt casting
method (Liao 2010a).

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Explosion in air

Figure 4. Experimental system (distance from Charge Results are shown in Figure 6 and Table 4. Each
to Sensor is 94 cm). experiment was repeated three times. It can be seen
from Figure 6 that the performance of RDX and
RDX/Alf is similar. The pressure reached a peak
Table 2. Formulations of explosives (explosion value in 4us, and attenuated to zero after 150us.
underwater). From Table 4, it is clear that each value of the
Density TNT RDX Al-fiber RDX/Alf pm was larger than that of RDX, and the
Sample g/cm3 w% w% w% average value of the RDX/Alf pm was 20.3% larger
than that of RDX, which means that Al-fiber bene-
TNT 1.4 100 fits pressure of RDX. The same happened to TNT.
RDX 1.4 100 Each value of the TNT/Alf pm was larger than that
RDX/Al-fiber-1 1.4 90 10 of TNT. The average value of the TNT/Alf pm was
RDX/Al-fiber-2 1.4 80 20 19.4% larger than that of pure TNT. Thus, at least
in comparison to aluminum powder, Al-fiber plays
*Alf means Al-fiber; *diameter of Al-fiber is 5080 um a similar role in enhance the pressure.
Consider the data of explosion heat. Because of
limited conditions, we could not obtain heat data
experimentally. However, we can calculate those
values according to the formula below, given by
Henrych (1987):
2 3
3 WT 3 WT 3 WT
pm = 0.076 + 0.25 + 0.65
R R R
R
1 15 (3)
3 W
T

WT is the equivalence mass of the explosive

compared to TNT:
Figure 5. Experimental system (distance from Charge
to Sensor is 1.5 m). WT = WA3(QA/QT) (4)

589

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 589 10/3/2012 8:47:06 PM

 than TNT/Alf. The QA/QT value of the RDX/Al-
powder value of is 1.481, 9.7% less than RDX/
Alf. Thus, it seems that the Al-fiber is superior to
the Al-powder in RDX, but not in TNT. Further
investigations are required.

4.2 Explosion underwater

Each experiment was repeated about four times.
The ideal values are shown in Figure 7 and Table 5.
From Figure 7, we see that the pressure of the shock
wave reaches its maximum value (pm) in 4 us, then
attenuates exponentially. If is the pressure value
changing from pm to pm/e (e = 2.7183), Table 5 dem-
Figure 6. Curves of pressure. onstrates that that the RDX/Alf value is larger
than the RDX value ( = 31 us), and the RDX/
Alf-2 value ( = 39 us) is larger than the RDX/
Table 4. Experimental results of air blast (Ou 2006). Alf-1 ( = 36 us). It can be concluded that the Al-
fiber increases the reaction time of the RDX, and
pm p the increased quantity of the Al-fiber increases
Sample (g/cm3) (KPa) QA/QT (KPa) QA/QT attenuation time, although this advantage is not too
TNT 1.35 106.6 0.99 107.1 1.00
1.33 105.1 0.97
1.35 109.5 1.03
TNT/ 1.27 128.4 1.29 127.9 1.29
Alf 1.25 131.2 1.31
1.22 127.0 1.27
RDX 1.70 69.2 1.30 67.4 1.25
1.57 66.3 1.22
1.60 66.7 1.23
RDX/ 1.72 80.1 1.63 81.1 1.64
Alf 1.76 81.7 1.68
1.78 78.6 1.61

*pm (KPa) is peak value of pressure, QA/QT is TNT equiv-

alence ratio of explosive used to standard value of TNT,
p (KPa) is average value of pm, QA/QT is average value of
QA/QT.
Figure 7. Curves of pressure.

So, the value of QA/QT can be calculated by (3)

and (4). The results (in Table 4) show that the aver-
age value of the RDX/Alf QA/QT (=1.64) increases
by 31.2% than that of the RDX QA/QT (=1.25),
and the TNT\Alf QA/QT increases by 29% more
than pure TNT. These results imply that Al-fiber
in RDX increases the output energy to a greater
extent than when it is used in TNT. The reason is
related to oxygen balance. The oxygen balance of
TNT is 74.0%, and the oxygen balance of RDX
is 21.6%. More oxygen favors the reaction of
Al-fiber.
For explosives with Al-powder, the heat of
the TNT/Al-powder (80/20, 1.651.72 g/cm3) is
7.406 MJ/Kg, and the heat of the RDX/Al-powder/
Additive (76/20/4, 1.790 g/cm3) is 6.696 MJ/Kg. If
the heat of the TNT is 4.522 MJ/Kg, the QA/QT
value of the TNT/Al-powder is 1.638, 27.0% larger Figure 8. Curves of specific shock wave energy.

590

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 590 10/3/2012 8:47:08 PM

 Table 5. Experimental results of underwater explosion. Al-fiber seems much more useful in air blasts than
in underwater explosion. As the energy is included
Sample pm QA/QT ES RES ES in shock wave and bubble pulse, there is some dif-
ference in QA/QT values between RDX/Alf-2 (1.45)
TNT 26 7.52 1.00 0.713 1.00 1.01
of the underwater explosion and RDX/Alf (1.64)
RDX 31 8.32 1.30 0.881 1.24 1.29
in the air blast.
RDX/Alf-1 36 8.52 1.36 0.941 1.32 1.37
RDX/Alf-2 39 9.08 1.45 1.014 1.42 1.43
Analyzing the shock wave energy in Figure 7
and Table 5, we can see that the ES of RDX/Alf are
*All the samples are 20 g and 1.4 g/cm3, distance from 6.3% and 10.9% larger than RDX, which means
sample to sensor is 1.5 m; *(us) is attenuation time, Al-fiber benefits the output energy of RDX. The
pm (MPa) is peak value of pressure, QA/QT is TNT equiv- parameter ES is introduced to evaluate the dis-
alence, ES(MJ/Kg) is shock wave energy within attenua- tribution of shock energy. By analyzing the ratio
tion time ((us)), RES is ratio of, samples ES to TNTs of ES and ES, we can see that ratios of TNT,
ES, ES (MJ/Kg) is specific shock wave energy. RDX, RDX/Alf-1, RDX/Alf-2 are respectively
70.6%, 68.3%, 68.7%, 70.9%. These ratios indi-
cate that the shock wave energy is concentrated in
Table 6. Strength test results. the attenuation period. Comparing ES and ES of
samples with RDX, difference of the RDX/Alf-1
Stress Max Elastic ES is 0.08 MJ/Kg and of ES is 0.06 MJ/Kg. The
rate strength Max modulus difference of RDX/Alf-2 ES is 0.14 MJ/Kg and
Sample S1 MPa stress MPa Damage of ES is 0.133 MJ/Kg. It means that the Al-fiber
TNT 2 Smash
could increase specific shock wave energy, and also
TAF-1 Flaw
increase/generate attenuation time.
TAF-2 310 4.7 0.013 387 Flaw, bulge
TAF-3 3100 5.3 0.023 268 Flaw, bulge 4.3 Strength test
TAF-4 31 5.1 0.037 153 Flaw, bulge Using the melt-casting method, irregular holes
TAF-5 310 6.8 0.039 241 Flaw, bulge would appear because of heterogeneous distri-
bution of temperature during cooling progress
*diameter of samples are 40 mm.
of pure TNT (Table 3). But there were no visible
holes in the TNT with Al-fiber. The holes become
breaking points during compression. TNT flaws
obvious. The maximum pressure of RDX/Alf-1 is are inclined to be generated during compression.
1.13 times that of TNT, 2.4% larger than RDX. Usually, when the strain reaches 0.007, pure TNT
The maximum pressure of RDX/Alf-2 is 1.21 is broken into several parts (Fig. 9). TAF-1 with
times more than TNT, 9.13% larger than RDX. 4% Al-fiber performed well, only a single crack
Although there is increase of pressure (2.4% and could be seen (Fig. 10) when broken (Liao 2010b).
9.13%), compared to 20.3% increase of air blast, Increasing the Al-fiber content would help to
Al-fiber seems not to benefit pressure significantly increase the limit that stress and strain could be
in underwater explosions. By raising the content of withstood (Fig. 11). The limit stress and strain of
Al-fiber within a certain range, the pressure may TNT with 14% and 23% Al-fiber are 4.7 MPa and
be improved gradually. 0.013, 6.8 MPa and 0.039, respectively, larger than
Similar to air blast situation, the value of QA/QT pure TNT (2.0 MPa and 0.009). When broken,
can be calculated by formula below: drum shapes appeared in TAF-5 (23% Al-fiber),
which showed good durability. Thus, Al-fiber can
Pm k ( 3 WT / R )

(3)

Parameters k and are constants, taken by cal-

culation of TNT as k = 52, = 1.13. The calcu-
lated value of QA/QT is shown in Table 5. Values
of QA/QT for RDX/Alf are, separately, 1.36 and
1.45, which are 4.6% and 11.5% greater than RDX
(Table 5). This means that Al-fiber is helpful for
RDX in increasing the energy output in underwa-
ter explosions. Compared to relative results in air
blasts, we can see that the increase of the energy
output in the air blast (31.2%) is much larger than
that of underwater explosions (4.6% and 11.5%). Figure 9. Compressing result of TNT.

591

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 591 10/3/2012 8:47:08 PM


Figure 10. Compressing result of TAF-1.
Figure 11. Stress strain curves.
strengthen the structure of explosives, and it could
be suggested that increasing the Al-fiber content
would produce a stronger effect.
5 CONCLUSIONS
Air blast and underwater explosion experiments
show that Al-fiber can efficiently increase the peak
value of pressure and explosion heat. Results of
underwater explosion indicate that Al-fiber could
prolong attenuation time, increase specific shock
wave energy, and increase/generates attenuation
time. These effects are identified with the view that
shock wave energy is concentrated in the attenua-
tion time zone. Thus, it can be concluded that Al-
fiber may used in explosives to enhance pressure
and energy output.
A strength test shows that explosives with Al-
fiber are high in strength, and possess a higher
592
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 592
stress limit. Higher Al-fiber content could produce
a better effect.
Comprehensively, Al-fiber performs well in sat-
isfying both the demands of pressure (heat) and
strength. Good performance of explosives with
Al-fiber would be of use in many fields.
Thus far, explosives with Al-fiber are made by
melt-casting and pressure casting methods. These
production methods should be improved to make
the explosives more uniform and stable.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by the National Natural
Science Foundation of China (51174183).
REFERENCES
Guo Lian-gui Song Wu-lin, Xie Chang-sheng, etc.
2006. Effect of particle size on activity of aluminum
nanopowders produced by high frequency induc-
tion heating. Chinese Journal of Energetic Materials.
14(4):276279.
Henrych J. 1987. Blasting dynamic and its applications.
Beijing: Science Press. (in Chinese).
Lefran Aois A. & C. Le Gallic. Expertise of nanomet-
ric aluminum powder on the detonation efficiency
of explosives. 32nd Int. annual conference of ICT,
Karlsrube, Germany, July 36, 2001, 36:114.
Liao Xue-yan. 2010a. Research on explosives containing
aluminum fiber. Doctoral dissertation of USTC.
Liao Xue-yan, Shen Zhao-wu, Yao Bao-xue, etc. 2010b.
Energy output and mechanical strength of aluminum-
fibre reinforced composite explosives. Explosion and
Shock Waves 30(4):424428.
Liu Yan-qiu, Ma Zhong-liang, Xiao Zhong-liang, Zhang
Xu-zhu. 1999. Study on effect of carbon fiber on
mechanical property of caseless ammunition. Chinese
Journal of Explosives and Propellants, 3:2931.
Mench M. K.K. Kuo, C.L. Yeh, et al. 1998. Comparion
of thermal behavior of regular and ultra-fine alumi-
num powders (ALex) made form plasma explosion
process. Comb. Sci. Tech, 135:269292.
Ou Yu-xiang. 2006. Explosive. Beijing Institute of Press.
Patrick Brousseau & C. John Anderson. 2002. Nanomet-
ric aluminum in explosives. Propellants, Explosives,
Pyrotechnics 27:300306.
Philips J.M. 1996. A reaction folw model with coupled
reaction kinetics for detonation and combustion in no-
ideal explosives. Materials research society, 413420.
Zheng Meng-ju. 1990. The capability and test technique
of explosive. Beijing: Weapon Industry Press.
10/3/2012 8:47:09 PM
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Experimental research on bubble pulsation parameters in underwater

explosion at unsteady pressure

Zhang Li, Xiong Su, Huang Lin & Li Xue-jiao

School of chemical engineering, Anhui University of Science and Technology, Huainan, China

ABSTRACT: Underwater explosion in the unsteady pressure environment where high altitude under
deep water is relative to low altitude under shallow water. It has special significance to research on bubble
pulsation parameters of low frequency oscillation in special conditions, using explosion where in high
altitudes (5004500 m) and deep water (5.6150.6 m). Conclusions can be drawn that the bubble pulsa-
tion period increases with increasing altitude, but decreases with increasing water depth, at the same
charge condition, due to total hydrostatic pressure. There is a linear attenuation in double logarithm
coordinates of the bubble pulsation period and the total hydrostatic pressure water column. Based on this,
the coefficient of bubble pulsation period at unstable pressure is obtained. The formula for calculating the
following parameters can also be obtained: the bubble pulsation period, specific bubble energy, and net
specific bubble energy, which performs work on water medium. Compared to the experimental results of
blasting cement mortar blocks, there are no obvious changes of in the breaking rate of large blocks when
simulating for a plateau. The rate of breaking for large blocks for deep water increases with the increasing
water depth. When the water depth exceeds 110.6 m, only cracks can be observed on the blocks, and the
blocks themselves do not disintegrate. This further demonstrates the accuracy of calculation of bubble
pulsation parameters at unstable pressures.

Keywords: underwater explosion, unsteady pressure, bubble pulsation period, specific bubble energy

1 INTRODUCTION 500 m4500 m could be simulated by changing the

Underwater blasting is a widely used technology
for submerged environments, whether located in
high altitude or deep water. For example, in the
construction of the Qinghai-Tibet railway, the aver-
age altitude was more than 3000 m at many places
along the railway. Many construction projects are
required to adopt underwater blasting. In specific
operations, deep water explosions are also required.
These include cutting the pile leg of an oil drilling
platform, perforation and case cutting of oil and
gas wells, disassembly and refloatation of wrecks,
underwater reef explosions, waterway dredging as
well as the underwater blasting demolition of con-
crete cofferdams, and so on. The explosion energy
and threat diameters in deep water environment
should also be studied for military ammunition,
such as deep water bombs and detonators that are
resistant to high water pressure. Due to the limited
published literature devoted to studies on under-
water explosions at the high altitudes and deep
water, this paper may offer theoretical and practi-
cal insight to the research efforts in this field.
In our previous work, closed spherical explo-
sion vessels with water filling were designed
[Zhang, Yan, Sun, et al, 2009]. High altitudes, from
total hydrostatic pressure. Deep water environ-
ments of 5.6 m150.6 m would be man-made in
this way. No.8 detonator was used as the explosion
source. The experimental results showed that there
was no change of shock wave pressure and spe-
cific bubble energy with the hydrostatic pressure
[Zhang, Li, Sun, et al, 2011; Huang, Zhang, Gao,
et al, 2011]. However, significant changes in bubble
pulsation period were observed. In present paper,
we focus on the changes in bubble pulsation with
the hydrostatic pressure in the two environments.
2 DEFINITION OF UNDERWATER
EXPLOSION AT UNSTEADY PRESSURE
When the charge is initiated underwater, it will be
born to two kinds of pressure at the same time,
atmospheric pressure and the hydrostatic pressure.
The relationship between them can be expressed as
follows.
PH Pi + Ph pi + w gh (1)
where, PHtotal hydrostatic pressure at the
charge depth, pa; Piatmospheric pressure, Pa;

593

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 593 10/3/2012 8:47:10 PM

 Phhydrostatic pressure at the charge depth, Pa;
wdensity of water, 1000 kg m3; ggravity defined as an underwater explosion at unsteady
acceleration, 9.8 m s2; hcharge depth, m. pressure.
Pi decreases as altitude increases, and there is a
linear relationship between Pi and the altitude when
the altitude is less than 5000 m. Though tempera-
ture and gravitational acceleration differ by region,
they comply with the general law that an altitudinal
increase of 9.5 m results in a Pi decrease of 100 Pa.
Figure 1 shows the relationship between altitude
and atmospheric pressure (Pressure value is only
provided in case of 2500 m in [Yxj, 2010], and the
value between 2500 m and 4500 m is obtained by
extrapolation).
Ph is dependent on the water depth. Every 10 m
depth will be equivalent to 1.013 105 Pa. If slight
variations in gravitational acceleration are ignored,
any changes of Pi or Ph will results in a change in
PH. The plateau environment can be simulated
by extracting the air from the closed vessel while
injecting air with high pressure into the vessel.
It can simulate the deep water environment. The
water depth values are shown in Figure 2, which
are conversed from the hydrostatic pressure at the
charge depth based on the experimental results in
case of air injection. The two kinds of water pres-
sure environment are different from that of a low
Figure 1. Relationship between altitude and atmos-
pheric pressure.
Figure 2. Relationship between water depth and air
pressure.
594
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 594
altitude, shallow underwater explosion. So, it is
3 SIMULATIONS OF EQUIPMENT
OF UNDERWATER EXPLOSIONS
AT UNSTEADY PRESSURE
The vessel is spherical and can bear the homogene-
ous load. The inner diameter of the cell is 1.5 m,
and its the volume is 1.767 m3 and the thickness is
16 mm. The raw material is 16 MnR steel. There
are four 250 mm observation windows equidis-
tant from one another, where the blind plate or
anti-explosion transparent sight glass is installed.
The pressure sensor can be placed at the center of
the blind plate. If the pressure sensor is replaced
by the sight glass, expansioncompression of the
bubble pulsation or flying apart process of frag-
ments of charge with the shell can be recorded.
There is an 400 mm manhole cover on the top of
the vessel. In addition, there is a nozzle for intake
and exhaust for gas and water.
Hydrostatic pressure and actual pressure
designed were 2.5 106 Pa and 2.625 106 Pa
respectively. No.8 detonator (the TNT equivalent
is 1.07 103 kg) was placed in the center of the
vessel 0.6 m under the water.
Altitude of 500 m4500 mm was simulated by
increasing with step sizes of 500 m. The gas above
the water was extracted by using a vacuum pump.
Gas pressure inside was shown by vacuum meter.
Water exists as ice and snow when the altitude is
above 4500 m, so it cannot be considered.
Figure 3. Diagram of explosion and test system
1-manhole cover; 2shell; 3air valve; 4observation
window; 5water valve; 6landing leg; 7computer;
8memory oscilloscope; 9amplifier; 10pressure
sensor; 11-detonator.
10/3/2012 8:47:10 PM
 Water depth of 5.6 m150.6 m was simulated with
two different step sizes, 5 m for the 5.6 m25.6 m
and 10 m for the 30.6 m150.6 m. The pressure
was added to the surface of water using high pres-
sure gas cylinders, and the PH value was monitored
by a pressure meter with 0.4 level precision. The
error of simulated deep water is 0.64 m. Water
temperature changes with the altitude and the
water depth, the influences of water temperature
on explosives donation, and propagation of shock
waves and bubbles were not taken into considera-
tion. Structure of the explosion vessel and the test
system are shown in Figure 3.
Figure 5. Relationship between water depth and bubble
pulsation period.
4 BUBBLE PERIOD AT UNSTEADY
PRESSURE

The bubble pulsation period tb was defined as the

time duration from the detonation to the first com-
pression to minimum radium of the bubble. It was
also the time interval between the occurrences of
the shock wave and bubble wave. The pt curve
at the distance of R can be obtained during this
process.

4.1 Relationships between altitude, water depth

and bubble period
The relationships between altitude, water depth
and bubble period are plotted in Figures 4 and 5.
It can be seen that for a given weight of explosive,
bubble period increases with as altitude increases.
However, bubble period decreases when the water
depth increases. The period change is relative to
total hydrostatic pressure PH of charge at the place
of water depth. In order for a comprehensive anal-
ysis, PH in the two environments is converted to
a total hydrostatic pressure water column (h + A)
using formula (6), and the total hydrostatic pressure
against the bubble period is depicted in Figure 6, in
Figure 6. Relationship between total hydrostatic pres-
sure water column and bubble pulsation period.
the form of double logarithm coordinates. Linear
dependence can be obtained with the correlation
coefficient of 0.999, which indicates the conform-
ity between them is very good. It further demon-
strates that the bubble period is only dependent on
the total hydrostatic pressure. That is, the bubble
period increases when the total hydrostatic pressure
water column decreases in a plateau environment.
However, the bubble period decreases when the
total hydrostatic pressure water column increases
in deep water environments.

4.2 Discrimination of empirical formula

Figure 4. Relationship between altitude and bubble
pulsation period.
of bubble period formula
4.2.1 Revising to the standard atmosphere
pressure
It is difficult to determine the atmospheric pres-
sure due to the complexity of the meteorological
conditions. So, tb and Pi were obtained based on
the experimental results revised to Tb under the
atmospheric pressure P0 [Ding, Cui, 1994].

595

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 595 10/3/2012 8:47:11 PM

 5/6 5/6
P Ph P of specific bubble energy. Formula (4) can be used
Tb tb i = tb H (2)
P 0 Ph PH 0
where, P0 is the standard atmospheric pressure
near the water surface, 101325 Pa, and PH0 is the
standard pressure at the charge depth, Pa.
4.2.2 Willis formula
The bubble period is directly proportional to the
density of water, specific bubble energy and charge
weight, but inversely proportional to total hydro-
static pressure [Cole R H, 1948].
w1/2 E1b/3 W1/3
Tb = 1.135
PH5/6
where, w is the density of water, kg/m3. Eb is the
specific bubble energy, MJ/kg. W is the TNT
equivalence of the charge, kg.
4.2.3 Cole empirical formula
The bubble period is related to such factors as the
charge weight, atmospheric pressure near the water
surface, and charge depth. The empirical formula
for the casting TNT with a density of 1.55 g/cm3
in infinite water depth can be described as follows
[Cole R H, 1948].
k W 1/3
Tb =
( h + 10.33)5/6
where, k is the coefficient, 2.11 s m5/6 kg1/3. 10.33 is
the atmospheric pressure on the water column, m.
4.2.4 Formula for considering the arrival
time of shock wave
The bubble period is defined as the time interval
between the initial shock wave at the interface and
gas bubble after the explosive is initiated. td is the
time interval from the occurrence of shock wave
to its recording at a certain distance. There will be
a deviation if td is ignored for the small weight of
charge. And also it will result in more significant
effects for the deep water experiment [Zhang, Lu,
Wang, 2001].
Tb td + tb
td k W
where, k is the coefficent, 0.689 ms/g. tb is the experi-
mental bubble period, s. is the exponent, 0.0098.
The formula can be applied to different envi-
ronments. Formula (2) should be used in case of
large changes of Pi. Formula (3) is the same as
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 596
Formula (7), and both are used for the calculation
to calculate Tb as the empirical formula. Formula
(5) and (6) will be adopted when tb, W is lower or h
is higher. Bubble periods from Figures (4)(6) are
revised by formulas (5) and (6).
4.3 Determination of coefficent k of bubble
period under unstable pressure
Regression equation Y = 0.208X0.839 in Figure 6
correspond to the formula (4). X0.839 = (h + 10.33)5/6,
W = 1.07 103 kg, kW1/3 = 0.208, when altitude is
5004500 m and the water depth is 5.6150.6 m,
k = 2.034. The relative error is 3.74% compared
(3) with that of K between formula (4). The average
density of the No.8 detonator is 1.26 g/cm3. The
detonation velocity and explosion heat are less
than those of cased TNT, which has a density of
1.55 g/cm3. In addition, part of the energy will be
consumed due to throwing and crushing of the
detonator shell. The regression coefficient K is
suitable for the environment in the present paper.
5 CALCULATIONS OF SPECIFIC BUBBLE
ENERGY AND DICUSSIONS
The specific bubble energy is shown in formula (7),
which is expressed by the total hydrostatic pressure
[Zhang, Lu, Wang, 2001] as follows:
(4)
5/ 2
Tb3 PH5/2 T 3 ( h + A)
Eb = 0.684 =C b (7)
w W
3/2
W
where, Eb is the specific bubble energy, MJ kg1.
C is the coefficent, 0.206 kg3/2 m9/2. A is the
simulated plateau, 10.33-H/931.8, H is altitude,
m. Water depth is simulated for 10.33 atmospheric
pressure on the water column.
There is only little change for specific bubble
energy calculated by formula (7), when the altitude
or water depth increases. However, it indicates the
close relationship between the total hydrostatic
pressure and the bubble period because of the
changes in the bubble period. Thus, there may be
some factors that affect the work done by the total
hydrostatic pressure on the expansion of detona-
(5) tion gas products.
Only the net specific bubble energy after the
(6) total hydrostatic pressure decreases or increases
(caused in turn by altitude or water depth increas-
ing) can contribute to perform work in the water
medium. This value should be the difference
between total hydrostatic pressure at the steady
pressure (the charge is 0.6 m under the water sur-
face, and the atmospheric pressure near the water
596
10/3/2012 8:47:12 PM
 surface is 101325 Pa) and at the unsteady pressure.
Therefore, the offset bubble period, which is due
to changes of total hydrostatic pressure, should be
described as follows.
For plateau Tb Tb( m) Tb( .6 m )
For deep water Tb Tb( .6 m ) Tb(5.6 150.6 m )
Substituting formulas (8) and (9) into
formula (7), the offset specific bubble energy, which
is due to changes of total hydrostatic pressure, can
be obtained as follows:
Tb3 ( h + A) 5 /2
Eb = 0.206
W increased as the water depth increased. However,
Net specific bubble energy, which produces
work to water medium (+ for plateau, and
for deep water):
Eb Eb Eb
Figure 7 shows the calculation results of specific
bubble energy. There is a slight linear attenuation
for Eb from formula (7). This indicates that the total
hydrostatic pressure is not relevant to it. Both Eb
from formula (10) and Eb, from formula (11) show
a second order polynomial relationship with total
hydrostatic pressure After regression. The changes
are very minor in case of the plateau simulation.
Eb increases and Eb decreases as deep water is
simulated gradually. It is a feature of underwater
explosions under unsteady pressure.
Zhang, Zhang, Sun, et al, (2011) have exam-
ined the simulation with the same water depth,
5.6150.6 m, as the present investigations. No. 8
detonators were used to blast the cylindrical cement
Figure 7. Relationship between total hydrostatic pres-
sure water column and specific bubble energy.
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 597
(8)
(9)
Figure 8. The relationship between altitude and block
degree percentage.
mortar test blocks, with specific charge 0.155 kg/m3.
The effects of the total hydrostatic pressure were
(10) verified by the broken pieces. The large block rate
when the water depth exceeded 110.6 m (total
hydrostatic pressure of 124.56 m, shown with
arrow in Fig. 7), only cracks were observed, but
the structure could not disintegrate.
The weight of water column was applied to the
(11) blocks, and the blasting charge must overcome the
resistance. At the moment, Tb = 24.612 103 s,
Eb = 159.989 KJ kg1, and the work done on water,
Eb = 1.572 MJ kg1. The shock wave pressure and
specific shock wave energy do not vary with water
depth. The phenomenon that large block increases
with increasing water depth without disintegrat-
ing is determined by the total hydrostatic pressure
with increasing water depth. The changes in the
total hydrostatic pressure water column caused by
increasing of altitude are not significant. There is
also almost no change in the large block rate (shown
in Fig. 8). Thus, the accuracy of formulae (8), (9),
(10) and (11) of the calculation of bubble pulsation
parameters in underwater explosions at unstable
pressures is verified here.
6 CONCLUSIONS
The bubble period of underwater explosions at
unsteady pressure is only related to total hydro-
static pressure at the charge depth. At the same
charge condition, the bubble pulsation period
increases with altitude, but decreases with increas-
ing water depth. The coefficient k of the regressive
empirical formula is 2.034, with error 0.374%, rel-
evant to the classical equation.
The calculation formula of net specific bubble
energy of the work done by the charge on the water
is equal to Eb + Eb at the altitude environment, but
it is Eb Eb in deep water environments.
When the water depth is equal or greater than
110.6 m, the blasting test block that was used by
the specific charge with 0.155 kg m3 only cracks,
but does not disintegrate. From this, we can
597
10/3/2012 8:47:15 PM
 conclude that water depth is proportional to the
specific charge, but the effect of rock breakage is
not relative to the specific charge when the altitude
changes.
This research has theoretical and practical sig-
nificance to investigations of the change of the
bubble period and the specific energy of underwa-
ter blasting at unsteady pressure. The next step of
such research is to demonstrate these findings in
full, physical high-altitude and deep water environ-
ments, rather than simulated ones.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We give our sincere thanks to Zhong Shuai, Sun
Yue-guang, Wang Shen-song, Gao Yu-gang for
assisting with the experiments.
REFERENCES
Cole RH. 1948. Underwater Explosions. Princeton NJ:
Princeton University Press.
Ding Chang-Xing, Cui Ying-juan. 1994. Determination
of Intrinsic Constants of Bubble Energy with Least
Square Method. Explosive Materials, 23:16.
598
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 598
Huang lin, Zhang li, Gao Yu-gang, Xiong su, Li Xue-jiao.
2011. Experimental Research on underwater Explo-
sion Energy in the Simulated Plateau Condition. New
Development on Engineering Blasting. Beijing: Metal-
lurgical Industry Press:159162.
Yxj0991. 2010. Altitude atmospheric pressure table.http://
wenku.baidu.com/view/4c9482fb770bf78a652954b4.
html.
Zhang Li, Yan Shi-long, Sun Yue-guang, Zhang Ming-xiao.
2009. Explosion for Simulating Exploding in Deep Water
of Small Charge. New Development on Engineering
Blasting. Beijing: Metallurgical Industry Press:
142146.
Zhang Li, Li Shu-qi, Sun Yue-guang, Zhang Ming-xiao.
2011. Research on Charge Utilization Ratio of Explo-
sive Energy under Different Water Depth. Theory and
Practice of Energetic Materials. Beijing: Science Press:
634639.
Zhang Li, Lu Shou-xiang, Wang Da-li. 2001. Test
research of exploded energy of coal mineral industrial
explosive under limited water field. Journal of China
Coal Society, 26:274278.
Zhang Li, Zhang Ming-xiao, Sun Yue-guang, Zhong
Shuai, Gao Yu-gang. 2011. Research on Blasting
Fragmentation and Charge Weight in Simulating Deep
Water New Development on Engineering Blasting.
Beijing: Metallurgical Industry Press:4754.
10/3/2012 8:47:18 PM
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Measurement of borehole pressure during blasting

G. Teowee & B. Papillon

Austin Powder Co., Cleveland, Ohio, USA

ABSTRACT: This paper describes the use of a modified piezoelectric sensor and the supporting
electronics which were used to measure instantaneous borehole pressures from adjacent boreholes during
blasting. The key features of this measurement approach are the relatively low cost and ease of set-up in the
field rather than bulky electronics on-site or complicated pre-calibration procedures. SPICE (Simulation
Program Integrated Circuits Emphasis) was used to simulate the time-dependent outputs from the
circuitries. The system was compared with respect to a commercial pressure sensor inside a water tank
where an underwater testing of standard output electronic detonators were utilized; excellent agreements
between the measurements of both systems were obtained at 34128 MPa range. The actual outputs also
compared well with the SPICE simulation results. Results are presented on several blasts where non-electric
and electronic detonators were used. Single primed and decked shots were monitored; in dry holes, sympa-
thetic pressures from neighboring boreholes or underlying decks of 3448 MPa were measured while wet
holes can exhibit almost 69 MPa of peak pressure. This system can measure a maximum pressure of 138
MPa in the boreholes.

1 INTRODUCTION with external pressure and they usually require

elaborate mounting, constant current source, the
1.1 Borehole pressure proper voltage divider, thermal compensation and
auto-zeroing via a bridge circuit. Manganin foil
Boreholes can develop tremendous amount of
gauges are used when high detonation pressure up
pressures during blasting. Excessive pressures
to 40 GPa) is expected (Bernstein & Keough 1964,
can impair detonators, especially electronic
Gupta 1983 & Vantine et al. 1957). Manganin
detonators. Electronic detonators are increasingly
gauges are attractive because of their extremely
being adopted in the last few years in a variety of
low thermal coefficient of resistivity and high
applications. Electronic detonators offer several
sensitivity towards hydrostatic pressure. Typical
distinctive features over electric and non-electric
piezoelectric sensors are expensive and require
detonators, including safety, traceability, field
complex charge amplifier and filtering electron-
programming of delays, better timing accuracy
ics to acquire the signals (Karki 2000). This paper
resulting in improved fragmentation, reduced
shall describe the use of a modified piezoelectric
vibration and noise control. Dynamic pressures
sensor and the supporting electronics which were
during blasting, especially sympathetic pressures
used to measure such sympathetic borehole pres-
from adjacent holes or underlying decks, have
sures during blasting. The key features of this
been suspected to cause misfires in electronic
measurement approach are the relatively low cost
and non-electronic detonators. Measuring the
and ease of set-up in the field rather than bulky
pressures during blasting can aid to understand
electronics on-site or complicated pre-calibration
the magnitude of the pressure developed as a
procedures.
function of blasting conditions on the resulting
fragmentation.
2 MODIFIED PIEZO TECHNIQUE
1.2 Conventional measurement techniques
2.1 Testing set-up
Classical methods to measure pressure consist of
carbon resistors(Austin et al. 1991a, 1991b & 1995), The block diagram of the set-up is shown in
strain gauges (Hoffmann. 2002) or piezoelectric Figure 1. Pressure waves on the sensor result
sensors (Grinenko et al. 2004, Huni et al. 1970 in piezoelectric charge generation (see Equ. 1)
and Wang et al. 2010). Carbon resistors and strain which is then sensed by the interface circuitry and
gauges are piezo-resistive i.e. the resistance changes transformed into voltage (Jaffe et al. 1971 and

599

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 599 10/3/2012 8:47:18 PM

 Figure 2. Circuit schematic to simulate piezoelectric
transduction under a pressure wave.

Figure 1. Block diagram of the piezoelectric pressure

measurement showing the piezoelectric sensor at fixed
distance from the donor detonator.

Lines & Glass 1977). The voltage is then captured

analog or digitally via an ADC to a scope or data
logger.

Q = A*d33*P (1)
where Q = piezoelectric charge generated; A = area
of sensor; d33 = piezoelectric longitudinal charge
voltage coefficient; and P = pressure. Figure 3. SPICE results of simulated single pressure
wave on a piezoelectric element.
2.2 SPICE simulation
A simplified circuit to simulate the piezoelectric
circuit is shown in Figure 2. Pressure waves to the
piezoelectric sensor are simulated by transducing
the pressure dynamics into piezoelectric charges
which are then sensed into voltages across the inte-
grating element. The piezoelectric element is mod-
eled a linear current source with a finite rise time
and fall time to denote a net generated charge.
SPICE (Simulation Program with Integrated
Circuit Emphasis) was done on a laptop compu-
ter using the Linear Technology LTSpice v4.14k.
The time dependent outputs of the interface cir- Figure 4. SPICE results of simulated multiple pressure
cuit were downloaded into text files and analyzed. waves on a piezoelectric element.
A single pressure wave results is shown in Figure 3
which illustrates a single voltage step. The piezo-
electric charge was sensed as an output and a dc
level is obtained per generated charge.
Because of the integrator nature of the circuit,
successive pulses will add to the culminated volt-
agesee Figure 4. The steps and plateaus on the
output voltage are dependent on the piezoelectric
charges being transduced as a result of the multi-
ple pressure waves impinging on the sensor.

2.3 Lab testing set-up

For lab testing, which was also useful to calibrate Figure 5. Lab set-up to test pressure peak from a donor
the system, the set-up shown in Figure 5 was used. detonator at fixed distances under water.

600

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 600 10/3/2012 8:47:18 PM

 The donor detonator was an Austin E-star electronic
detonator with aluminum shell containing 750 mg
of PETN base charge. A blasting machine was
utilized to function the detonator when ready. This
detonator was inserted into the central fixture, and
the piezoelectric element was mounted in a fixture
at fixed distances away, ranging from 80, 70, 60, 50
and 40 mm away.
A typical voltage output of the interface circuit
monitored using a Tektronix 2024B scope and a
x1000 PM-6102 probe is shown in Figure 6, having
a plateau at 600V. The output is similar to that
obtained through SPICE simulationsee Figure 3.
The output can reach a few hundred volts but
can be judiciously scaled by using the appropriate
storage capacitor values. The voltage output was
left intentionally high to obtain excellent signal to
noise ratio in the beginning of testing. Figure 7
shows the voltage output where multiple reflections
Figure 6. Typical voltage output from the interface
electronics based on pressure wave from a donor detona-
tor, 60 mm away from the piezoelectric element.
Figure 7. Multiple pressure pulses and resulting piezo-
electric voltages.
601
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 601
of pressure waves were detected inside the water
tank. These multiple waves add steps to the volt-
age outputs, as predicted by SPICE resultssee
Figure 4.
An Excel spreadsheet calculator was prepared
to obtain the peak pressure in MPa from the value
of the voltage peak, storage and d33see Figure 8.
A commercial pressure sensor made by PCB
Piezotronics was also used to calibrate and com-
pare the pressure obtained using the Austin piezo-
electric elements. The 138A25 (Underwater ICP
Blast Pressure sensor) capable of measuring up to
172 MPa of pressure, connected to a PCB 482A22
ICP Signal Conditioner, displayed the peak pres-
sure underwater during detonation. The composite
data of peak pressures using the Austin piezoelec-
tric element and PCB sensor are shown in Figure 9.
As can be seen in that chart, the peak pressures fol-
low an inverse relationship with distance from the
donor detonator; and the values calculated using
the Austin sensor elements are fairly close to those
obtained using the commercial system for pressures
< 138 MPa and at donor detonator distance of
4080 mm. In field application, the piezoelectric
sensors are placed within the explosive columns;
they are not expected to survive (including the leg-
wires) the detonation and will not yield the in-situ
detonation pressure. Thus these piezoelectric sen-
sors can yield only the sympathetic pressures from
other adjacent blasts or form the decks below.
Figure 8. Excel calculator to calculate peak pressure
in MPa.
Figure 9. Peak pressures as a function using PCB
Piezotronics sensor and Austin piezoelectric element.
10/3/2012 8:47:19 PM
 3 FIELD TESTING AND RESULTS

3.1 Field testing at Site A

First field test was conducted in boreholes
containing decked shots containing shock tube
detonators at a limestone quarry in Ohio on
11/2/2011. There were 21 boreholes in 2 rows
(see Fig. 10), borehole diameter of 14.0 cm,
borehole depth of 24.4 m, burden of 3.7 m, spac-
ing of 4.3 m, stem depth of 2.1 m and water depth
of 1.8 m. There were 5 decks per borehole. The
first borehole had delays of 201, 551, 576, 601 and
626 ms while the other contained delays of 67, 417,
442, 467 and 492 ms. The immediate deck below
the piezoelectric sensor contained 140 lb of ANFO
and each borehole had up to 550 lb of explosives.
The 2 piezoelectric sensors were placed on
the bottom of the top boosters in 2 boreholes
(#8 and #10), facing downwards where the shock
tube detonators were attachedsee Figure 11. The
output voltages registered on the sensing electron-
ics are shown in Figure 12.
Peak pressures measured were calculated to be
36 MPa and 42 MPa in these 2 boreholes #8 and
#10 respectively.

3.2 Field testing at Site B

A field test was also done at Site B in Oklahoma at
a limestone quarry site on 1/4/2012 where Austin
E-Star electronic detonators were used. There were
48 boreholes divided into 3 rows with borehole
diameter of 16.5 cm, borehole depth of 14.5 m,
burden of 4.6 m, spacing of 5.5 m and stem depth
of 2.4 m. The 2 piezoelectric sensors were placed
in the back row at the corner locations, where the
blasting pressure was expected to the highest com-
ing from earlier detonations. Delay time of the
detonators at these corner holes were 720 ms and
895 ms ( last one to fire). Hole with the 720 ms
delay was relatively drywater depth of 2.1 m);
however the hole with the 895 ms was quite wet (it
has to be dewatered prior to loading the shot, and Figure 11. Deck position of the piezoelectric sensor.
water could be seen still trickling from the bore-
hole walls). The output voltages monitored during
the blast are shown in Figure 13.
Peak pressure measured and calculated were
found to be 66 MPa and 35 MPa in a wet hole and
dry hole respectively.

Figure 10. Blast diagram of Site A, where the piezo-

electric sensors were placed in boreholes #8 and #10. Figure 12. Piezoelectric output voltage from Site A.

602

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 602 10/3/2012 8:47:20 PM


Figure 13. Piezoelectric output voltage from Site B.
4 CONCLUSIONS
Piezoelectric sensors were modified with some
designed interface circuits to sense pressure
pulses in boreholes during blasting from adjacent
boreholes or underlying decks. These sensors and
electronics were verified and calibrated in a under-
water lab environment inside a water tank and
donor detonators. The results were very close com-
pared to those obtained using a commercial sensor
system. Maximum pressure that can be meas-
ured can reach 138 MPa using such piezoelectric
sensors. Several field testing were performed using
these modified piezoelectric sensors mounted on
the bottom of boosters and placed in boreholes
during blasting where electronic or shock tube
detonators were used. These piezoelectrci sensors
are destroyed during the actual detonation in the
boreholes or deck position. It was found that in
relatively dry holes, the sympathetic pressures were
measured 3441 MPa whereas a wet borehole can
result in blasting pressure measured up to 66 MPa,
whereby the waterlogged hole provided a good
mechanical coupling medium during detonation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The help, support and discussion with Chuck
Palmcook, Jeff Fowler at Austin Powder co. and
Homer Solis at Austin Star Detonator is greatly
appreciated.
603
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 603
REFERENCES
Austing, J.L., Tulis, A.J., Hrdina, D.J. and Baker, D.E.
1991, Carbon resistor gauges for measuring shock and
detonation pressures. I. Principles of functioning and
calibration. Propellants, Explosives, Pyrotechnics 16:
205215.
Austing, J.L., Tulis, A.J., Baker, D.E. and Hrdina, D.J.
1991, Carbon resistor gauges for measuring shock
and detonation pressures. II. Detonation pressure of
carbohydrate-metal composite explosives. Propellants,
Explosives, Pyrotechnics 16: 216220.
Austing, J.L., Tulis, A.J., Joyce, R.P., Foxx, C.E.,
Hrdina, D.J. and Bajzek, T.J. 1995, Carbon resistor
gauges for measuring shock and detonation pressures.
III. Revised calibration data and relationship.
Propellants, Explosives, Pyrotechnics 20: 159169.
Bernstein, D and Keough, D.D. 1964, Piezoresistivity of
manganin. Journal of Applied Physics 35(5):1471.
Gautschi, G. 2002. Piezoelectric Sensorics: Force, Strain,
Pressure, Acceleration and Acoustic Sensors, Materials
and Amplifiers (Springer Verlag).
Grinenko, A., Gurovich, V.T., Krasik, Y.E., Sayapin, A.,
Efirmov, S. and Felsteiner, J. 2004, Analysis of shock
wave measurements in water by a piezoelectric pressure
probe. Review of Scientific Instruments 75(1):240.
Gupta, Y.M. 1983, Analysis of manganin and ytterbium
gauge under shock loading. Journal of Applied Physics
54(11):6094.
Hoffmann, K. 1989. An Introduction to Measuerments
Using Strain Gauges (Hottinger Baldwin Messtechnik,
Darmstadt).
Huni, J.P., Ardila, R. and Ahlborn, B. 1970, Calibration
of piezoelectric pressure probe. JReview of Scientific
Instruments 41(7):1074.
Jaffe, B., William, R.C. and Jaffe, H. 1971. Piezoelectric
Ceramics (Academic Press).
Karki, J. 2000. Signal conditioning Piezoelectric Sensors,
Texas Instruments Application Report #SLOA033A.
Lines, M.E. & Glass, A.M. 1977. Principles and
Applications of Ferroelectrics and related Materials
(Oxford, Clarendon).
Vantine, H.C., Erickson, L.M. and Janzen, J.A. 1980,
Hysteresis corrected calibration of manganin under
shock loading. Journal of Applied Physics 51: 1957.
Wang, L., Qin,L., and Li, L. 2010, Piezoelectric pres-
sure sensor. Proceedings of the 2010 IEEE Interna-
tional e Conference on Information and Automation
(ICIA), 906.
10/3/2012 8:47:21 PM
This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Blasting using permitted P5 category explosive having higher air gap

sensitivity with spacers for higher output

M.O. Sarathy & N. Vidyasagar

IDL Explosives Limited, Hyderabad, India

S.K. Roy & R.R. Singh

Explosive & Explosion Laboratory, CIMFR, Dhanbad, India

ABSTRACT: Conventional blasting coal off-the-solid (B-O-S) or solid blasting in underground coal
mines involves use of permitted P5 category explosive cartridges charged end-to-end and initiated using
permitted category delay detonators. The output of coal in a blast in underground coal mines depends
on a number of factors, mainly seam thickness (or excavation height) and depth of shotholes. While the
maximum charge per shot hole allowed in BOS is 1000 g in Degree-I gassy mines and 565 g in Degree
II and III gassy mines, the explosive charge lengths are approximately 1.05 m and 0.65 m respectively.
The explosive charge length limits the advancement of face or pull achieved in a blast. Central Institute
of Mining and Fuel research (CIMFR) developed a technique of using plastic spacers between explo-
sive cartridges in underground coal mines under a project funded by the Ministry of Coal, Government
of India. Use of spacers in between explosive cartridges warranted an explosive having high Air Gap
Sensitivity (AGS) and the R&D Department of IDL Explosives Ltd (a wholly owned subsidiary of Gulf
Oil Corporation Limited) developed PENTADYNE-HP for the purpose. PENTADYNE-HP explosive
meets all statutory requirements of a P5 explosive and possess 150 mm AGS in open unconfined condi-
tion. With use of PENTADYNE-HP, explosive charge column was extended from 1.05 m to 1.65 m using
spacers and thus shothole depths were increased from 1.5 m to 2.4 m. Coal output of 40 MT and higher
from a single blast was possible in a coal face of 4 m width and 3.5 m height with an advance of 2.2 m
using spaced cartridges of PENTADYNE-HP explosive. Experimental results showed that face dimen-
sions and shothole depths being same, coal output per blast was higher in a de-pillaring face compared
to development face.

1 MINING METHODS AND BLASTING (DGMS) accords approval to the manufacturers

REGULATIONS IN THE INDIAN
SCENARIO
Coal mining in India is governed by the Coal Mines
Regulations 1957, which applies to every coal mine
and extends to the whole of India. Underground
coal mines in India are categorized as Degree I,
II and III gassy seams commensurate to methane
emission during mining of coal. Underground coal
mines are classified as detailed in Table 1:
Due to presence of methane gas and coal dust
in the underground coal mine atmosphere, only
permitted category explosives and detonators are
allowed for use. Tests for permissibility (incendi-
vity) in methane-air and coal dust atmospheres
are carried out at the test facilities of Explosive &
Explosion Laboratory, Central Institute of Min-
ing & Fuel Research (CIMFR) as per Bureau of
Indian Standards IS: 6609 Part II/Section 2 and
Part III. Directorate General of Mines Safety
of such samples which have passed the stringent
permissibility tests for use in underground coal
mines.
In India, three categories of permitted explo-
sives namely P1, P3 and P5 are approved for
use in underground coal mines. P1 category is
the strongest while P5 is the weakest and safest
among permitted explosives. Nitro Glycerine
based explosive was banned in India in January
2004 and only slurry or emulsion products are
manufactured in India.
Underground coal mining in India is carried
out mostly using two methods (a) Longwall and
(b) Bord & Pillar.
In Longwall method, a long coal face is formed
by connecting a pair of previously excavated devel-
opment gallery (heading). The long coal face is
supported using hydraulic props or other forms of
roof support. Most of the Longwall mining opera-
tions are highly mechanized and coal is extracted

605

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 605 10/3/2012 8:47:22 PM

 Table 1. Criteria for classification of underground coal
mines.
Gassy seam Emission of methane gas
Degree I Rate of emission of methane does not
exceed one cubic metre per tonne of coal
produced
Degree II Rate of emission of methane exceeds one
cubic metre but does not exceed 10 cubic
metres per tonne of coal produced
Degree III Rate of emission of methane exceeds 10
cubic metres per tonne of coal produced
using shearers. Blasting is almost obsolete in this
type of mining except for drivage of galleries.
In Bord & Pillar method of mining, development
galleries are excavated in the coal seam perpendicu-
lar to each other at pre-determined distances and
the solid coal present between the galleries form
pillars which support the roof till commencement
of de-pillaring operations. Blasting is the main
form of extracting coal in Bord & Pillar method
both during development (driving of headings)
and while de-pillaring.
The gallery and pillar dimensions are com-
mensurate to depth of working as specified in
Coal Mine Regulations 1957. During develop-
ment, regulations limit the gallery width to 4.8 m
and 3.0 m height. In coal seams of less than
3.0 m thickness, the gallery height is limited to
seam thickness. However, the height restric-
tion is not applicable in de-pillaring operations
where DGMS may allow higher gallery heights
specifying conditions for compliance by the mine
management.
2 BLASTING PRACTICE IN
UNDERGROUND COAL MINES
IN INDIA
In Indian underground coal mines, drilling of
shotholes is carried out manually using handheld
electric drills and drill rods of 1.8 m (6 feet) length.
The coal drill bit attached to the end of the drill
rod creates a shothole whose diameter is approxi-
mately 4345 mm. Electric detonators are avail-
able with various lengths of lead wire (legwire)
commensurate to use. Commonly used cartridge
weights of permitted explosives are 150, 185 and
200 g. Permitted explosive cartridge diameter is
32 mm and common for all categories viz P1, P3
and P5 approved for use in India.
Blasting in coal faces is carried out using:
a. Blasting with a machine cut.
b. Blasting-off-the-Solid (B-O-S or BOTS) pop-
ularly known as Solid Blasting in India.
606
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 606
2.1 Blasting with pre-cut face
Coal Cutting Machine (CCM) mechanically
removes a slot of coal of 200 mm across the full
width or height of the face being blasted. Machines
are rail or skid mounted and designed to effect a
(i) Bottom cut or Under cut (ii) Middle cut (iii) Top
cut (iv) Side cut. The cut acts as a free face during
blasting and risk of blown out shot is reduced. The
placement of cut depends upon presence of stone
or dirt band in the coal face. The length of cut
normally varies from 1.4 to 1.8 m though deeper
cuts are possible. The length of shotholes should
be 150 mm less than depth of cut. Machines which
provided an under-cut were popular in Indian
mines. Before blasting, the cut portion has to be
cleaned of the coal dust (gumming) generated by
the CCM. In machine cut faces, only instantane-
ous electric detonators are allowed to be used and
the blast carried out in two rounds. The row of
shotholes near to the machine cut is blasted first
and then the other row. This method uses lesser
explosive charge quantity and yields a higher per-
centage of lump coal. Figure 1 gives an illustration
of blasting with a cut face.
The disadvantages of using CCMs are:
Highly capital intensiveadditional cost for
transformers, switch gears, high tension power
cables, maintenance and consumables/spares.
Positioning a CCM for cutting the slot is cum-
bersome and time consuming. Limited number
of blasts possible in a shift.
Gummings are of no value and create coal dust.
Not suitable for deeply dipping coal seams.
Possibility of damage to roof higher since more
charge quantity is fired at a time.
Advantages of using CCMs are:
Higher coal yield in a blastnormally in the
range of 1624 MT. Higher powder factor
5 to 7 MT of coal per kilogram of explosive.
Generation of lump coal is high.
2.2 Blasting coal Off-The-Solid (B-O-S or BOTS)
Blasting-Off-The-Solid also known as Solid Blast-
ing is similar to blasting in drifts/tunnels and con-
sists of 1215 shotholes, drilled in a pattern in the
coal face commensurate to the gallery width. As
per Coal Mines Regulations, only permitted P5
category explosives and millisecond delay detona-
tors have to be used for solid blasting. Wedge-cut
is the most popular where a set of shotholes are
drilled in a wedge pattern (V Cut holes) with an
optional stab hole. The initial free face is created
by blasting the wedge shotholes using detonators
of the lowest delay interval available. The cut area
10/3/2012 8:47:22 PM
 Figure 1. Blasting with a machine cut.
Figure 2. Example of solid blasting.
is initiated first using detonator of lower delay
number and then enlarged to the gallery size by
firing more shotholes using detonators of higher
delay numbers in the desired sequence. Fan cut is
another shothole pattern used for B-O-S.
Blasting-off-the-solid is carried out during devel-
opment and for creating split galleries in pillars
607
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 607
during de-pillaring operations. Charging of shot-
holes is carried out with explosive cartridges charged
end-to-end. Indirect initiation (inverse initiation
or toe primed) is practiced. Wedge cut is the most
widely used pattern and yields 1016 MT of coal
in a blast commensurate to gallery dimensions. The
shothole depths normally vary from 1.2 to 1.6 m.
10/3/2012 8:47:22 PM
 Figure 3. HDPE spacer of 15 cm effective air gap length.

Figure 4. Explosive cartridges between spacers in a shothole.

Figure 5. Explosive cartridges charged end-to-end occupying a charge length of 1.05 m.

Figure 6. Five explosive cartridges interposed with four spacers occupying charge length of 1.65 m (Sarathy et al.,
2010a, b) (Sketches 46 NOT to scale).

608

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 608 10/3/2012 8:47:23 PM

 Figure 7. Explosive cartridges between spacers in a shothole (Roy S.K. et al., 2008).
Maximum shothole depth with manual drilling is
1.8 m. Shotholes are longer where higher charge per
shothole is allowed (Sarathy et al., 2010a, b).
The Coal Mines Regulations limits the total dura-
tion of an underground blast to 150 milliseconds in
Degree I & II gassy seams and 100 milliseconds in
Degree III gassy seams. Accordingly, Indian manu-
facturers supply permitted millisecond delay detona-
tors in 7 delay periods viz Delay 0 and Nos.16 with
a nominal delay interval of 25 milliseconds between
successive delay numbers. The Coal Mines Regula-
tion also restricts the delay duration between two
successive shotholes not to exceed 60 milliseconds.
Disadvantages of B-O-S are:
i. Low output of coal in a blastnormally in
the range of 10 to 16 tonnes. Lower powder
factor between 1.8 to 2.5 MT.kg1 of explosive.
The quantity of explosive and detonators con-
sumed per tonne of coal mined is higher.
ii. Training and supervision during blasting are
crucial for good blast results and coal output.
Shothole placement, direction, charge distribu-
tion and delay firing sequence are important.
Advantages of B-O-S:
i. Low capital cost.
ii. Highly flexible operations and simple to adopt
and implement.
iii. 34 blasts in a shift in a face are possible.
iv. Applicable in steeply dipping coal seams and in
areas inaccessible for CCMs.
v. Delayed blasting of shotholes reduces damage
to roof.
Table 2 gives an insight to the nature of operation,
type of blasting, category and quantity of explosive
which can be charged in a shothole and type of
detonator to be used during development and de-
pillaring operations as per DGMS regulations.
3 NEW INNOVATION FOR HIGHER COAL
OUTPUTUSE OF SPACERS WITH
PERMITTED EXPLOSIVES
Underground coal mines deploy Load Haul Dump-
ers (LHD) and Side Discharge Loaders (SDL) for
loading and transporting blasted coal. For opti-
mum utilization of these machines, 3540 MT
609
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 609
of blasted coal must be made available at the coal
face. As conventional solid blasting results in 1016
MT of coal in a blast, an urgent need was felt for
developing blasting innovations and techniques
which provide higher quantity of blasted coal at
the face.
Under a Coal Science & Technology (S&T)
Project, the scientists of Explosives and Explosion
Laboratory of Central Institute of Mining & Fuel
Research (CIMFR), Dhanbad, presented a report
on Optimization of production from underground
coal mines by achieving longer pullPhase 1
to the Department of Coal, Ministry of Coal &
Mines, Government of India. The study envis-
aged a method of extending the explosive charge
in a shothole by using plastic spacers between P5
category permitted explosive cartridges in solid
blasting to achieve increased pull. A patent on this
application technique of air decked cartridges in
underground coal mines was filed in India (Roy
et al., 2008; Roy & Singh, 2011).
The S&T project envisaged extending the explo-
sive column within a shothole by using plastic
spacers of fixed design, dimensions and weight.
Extending the explosive column offers scope to
increase the shothole depth and thus the coal out-
put. When used within a shothole, spacer always
provides an effective air gap of 150 mm between
two permitted P5 explosive cartridges. The explo-
sive is initiated at the back of the shothole (inverse
initiation). The requirement in this method is that
upon detonation of the primer cartridge, the other
cartridges placed between spacers should get deto-
nated through the explosives air gap sensitivity
(AGS) property without the aid of any other ini-
tiator within the shothole such as detonating cord
or multiple detonators.
4 AIR GAP SENSITIVITY
AN IMPORTANT EXPLOSIVE
PARAMETER
AGS of an explosive refers to its ability to propa-
gate detonation across an air gap. Test is normally
conducted in unconfined condition. It is expressed
as the maximum separation distance between a
primed donor cartridge and an unprimed receptor
10/3/2012 8:47:24 PM
 Table 2. Explosive category, charge per shothole and detonator type for various operations.

Degree I mines Degree II mines Degree III mines

DEVELOPMENT
a) Blasting with Cut face
Type of detonator Instantaneous Instantaneous Instantaneous
Category of explosive P1 P3 P3
Maximum charge per shothole 800 g 1000 g 1000 g
b) Blasting Off-The-Solid
Type of detonator Delay detonator Delay detonator Delay detonator
Category of explosive P5 P5 P5
Maximum charge per shothole 1000 g 565 g 565 g
DE-PILLARING
a) Initial Splitting of Pillars
Type of detonator Delay detonator Delay detonator Delay detonator
Category of explosive P5 P5 P5
Maximum charge per shothole 1000 g 565 g 565 g
b) Blasting of Split Pillars
Type of detonator Instantaneous Instantaneous Instantaneous
Category of explosive P1 P3 P3
Maximum charge per shothole 800 g 1000 g 1000 g

cartridge, where reliable detonation transfer will Maximum weight : 21 g

occur. The AGS value is normally higher for Nitro
Glycerine (NG) based explosives while it is lower
for slurry explosives. Minimum statutory require-
ment of AGS value for permitted category slurry is
not less than 20 mm using two full cartridges.
The R&D Explosives Group of IDL Explosives
Limited (formerly Explosives Division, Gulf Oil
Corporation Limited) submitted few compositions
for incendivity and deflagration characteristics, of
which composition coded as PE-SU passed all the
statutory testing norms applicable to P5 explosive.
This product achieved AGS of 160 mm in open and
200 mm in PVC pipe confinement. With multiple
spacers, the composition passed 160 mm in open
unconfined condition and 200 mm in coal bed con-
finement (tested in an opencast coal bench). Con-
sequently, for regular field application, AGS of
150 mm was adopted and approved by statutory
authority. Accordingly, the spacers were designed
to provide an effective air gap of 150 mm inside the
shothole during use (Roy et al., 2008; Roy & Singh,
2011). The explosive composition with code No.
PE-5U was later christened as PENTADYNE-HP.
The details of PENTADYNE-HP, a permit-
ted P-5 category slurry explosive with high AGS
specially developed by the R&D Division of IDL
Explosives Limited is given below in Table 3.
Technical specifications of spacers:
Nature of Material : HDPE
Maximum length : 260 mm
Diameter of spacer : 35 mm
Inner diameter of funnel portion : 33 mm
Thickness : 0.75 mm
DGMS imposed a condition that the effective
air gap between two explosive cartridges placed
in a spacer should not exceed 15 cm and weight
of each spacer should not exceed 21 grams. The
spacer must be of the same quality as approved for
use in Blasting Gallery panel. Spacers were accord-
ingly designed and supplied for use for the blasts
with Pentadyne-HP.
5 BLASTING-OFF-THE-SOLID USING
SPACERS
In the context of using an air gap or air deck,
blasting-off-the-solid (BOS) is carried out using
Pentadyne-HP and Coal Delay Detonator in the
conventional manner, except that the explosive
cartridges are separated by spacers described
above. For the same number of explosive car-
tridges in a shothole, use of spacer results in
increased charge column length which enables
increasing the depth of shotholes drilled in coal
face, resulting in increased pull and higher out-
put of coal. As per design Pentadyne-HP pos-
sess strength equivalent to other conventional
P5 explosive. As the shotholes are deeper and
expected yield of coal is higher, the number

610

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 610 10/3/2012 8:47:24 PM

 Table 3. TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS OF PENTADYNE-HP (a P-5 Type Permitted Slurry Explosive).

1 Name of the explosive PENTADYNE HP (Code: PE 5U)

2 Type and class of explosive Slurry (water-gel) based, Class 2
3 Category Permitted P-5 category explosive
4 Sensitivity Sensitive to No. 6 strength detonator
5 Density (g.cc1) 1.08 0.05 g.cc1
6 Velocity of Detonation (VOD) m.s1 3700 500 (measured unconfined at 28C in 32 mm diameter)
7 Air Gap Sensitivity (AGS) Passes 150 mmcartridges wrapped in manila or kraft paper or in
HDPE spacers
8 Continuity of Detonation (COD) 5 Nos. of cartridges or 1 meter long column of explosive, wrapped
in manila or kraft paper, pass the test (as per IS:6609, Part II,
Section 2)
9 Water resistance Excellent
10 Shelf life More than 6 months. AGS of 150 mm will be maintained
11 Packing Explosive is filled in 32 mm diameter BMT (blow moulded tubes)
fitted with caps, placed in polythene bags and 25 kg net weight
packed in corrugated fiber board boxes
12 Applicability/field usage DGMS approval currently available for using PENTADYNE-HP
in underground coal mines of Degree I & II gassiness, valid upto
27/04/2013 and 26/04/2013 respectively. Approvals are renewed
once in 2 years. Field trials have been completed in Degree III
mines and application to DGMS seeking approval for regular
use in Degree III mines has been made at the time of submitting
this paper.

of shotholes drilled in a coal face while using
spacers is more compared to conventional solid
blasting.
Sketch below gives the configuration of primer
cartridge (inverse initiation), explosive cartridges
placed in spacers and stemming inside a shothole.
Five explosive cartridges of 200 g each (viz
1000 g) when charged end-to-end occupies a
charge length of 1000 mm to 1050 mm (1.0 to
1.05 m) in a shothole. When charged in a shothole
of 2.4 m depth, 1.35 m remains empty.
For achieving 3540 MT of coal per blast
minimum pull (advance) required is 2.2 m for a
face dimension of 3.5 m 3.5 m or 1.9 m pull in
a face dimension of 3.5 m 4.00 m. The depth
of shothole should be around 2.4 m. 1000 g per
shothole charged with 5 cartridges placed between
4 spacers effectively increases the charge column
length to approx 1.65 m, thus bringing down the
uncharged length of shothole to 0.75 m which is
stemmed.
6 DETAILS OF TRIALS AND RESULTS
ACHIEVED WITH PENTADYNE-HP
Field trials have been carried out successfully at
a number of underground coal mines using Pen-
tadyne-HP cartridges with spacers. No misfires
or any occurrence of deflagration were observed
during trials. The placement and pattern of shot-
holes, their depth and direction, charge distribu-
tion and delay initiation sequence are important
for achieving advance of 2.02.2 m in a coal face
blast.
As mentioned earlier, normal shothole depths
with hand held electric drills is 1.21.6 m. With
extra effort, the drillers are able to drill upto
1.8 meters manually. During trials at various mines,
the drillers co-operated and drilled shotholes upto
2.4 m depth using specially procured longer length
drill rods. GDK-5 Incline, Ramagundam Area-I of
Singareni Collieries Co Ltd (SCCL) have acquired
Universal Drilling Machines (UDM) which have
been deployed in de-pillaring faces for drilling
shotholes of 2.42.6 m depth. With this machine,
dependency on manual drilling for deep shotholes
has been eliminated.
Technical Engineers from IDL Explosives Lim-
ited in close association with scientists of Explo-
sives & Explosion Laboratory of CIMFR and also
independently carried out more than 100 blasts at
GDK-5 Incline of SCCL during 200809, in both
Development and Depillaring Districts using vari-
ants of parallel hole patterns. Roy & Singh (2011)
reported coal output of 35 to 41 MT achieved
in gallery dimension of 3.84.0 m (width) 2.5
2.8 m (height) with pull (advance) between 2.0
2.2 m. Table 4 below gives the summary of results
reported of the trials.

611

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 611 10/3/2012 8:47:25 PM

 CIMFRs Blasting Department had also carried
out independent consultancy project with SCCL for
achieving longer pull (advance). Modified Parallel
Hole cut and Modified Angled cut (wide V-cut)
were used in both development and de-pillaring
faces. Average depth of shothole was 2.4 m and
charge per shothole was 1000 gm in cut holes,
800 gm in side holes and 600 gm in top holes.
Details of the blast results reported by Roy and
Sawmliana (2009) are detailed in Table 5.
Ground vibrations were measured in the
roof. Peak Particle velocity (PPV) recorded was
3.62 mm.s1 at a distance of 52 m and 106 mm.s1
at a distance of 15 m. Maximum charge per delay
during experimental blasts varied between 3.2 and
7.8 kg. Typical blasting pattern suggested for use
is shown in Figure 8 (Roy and Sawmliana, 2009,
Roy, 2012).
Blasting Cell of Central Mine Planning &
Design Institute (CMPDIL), the technical subsidi-
ary of Coal India Limited (CIL), Indias largest
coal mining company, carried out evaluation of
Pentadyne-HP in Kedla No.3 and Argada mines
and based on blast results, recommended its inclu-
sion in list of products approved for use in CILs
mines. Details of blasts are included in Table 5.
IDL Explosives Limited has carried out blasts
in Degree I & II Mines with Pentadyne-HP. Field
trials with limited quantity of 100 kg has been
completed in a Degree III mine. Table 6 summa-
rizes the details and results obtained.
It may not be out of context to mention that
the explosive met DGMSs stipulated limits of
not exceeding Carbon Monoxide (50 ppm) and
Nitrogen Oxides (5 ppm) in the after blast fumes,
measured 5 minutes after the blast. Moreover,
no single misfire or deflagration of any car-
tridges of Pentadyne-HP was observed during
the trials.
In view of higher pull obtained with Pentadyne-HP,
the extent of unsupported roof increases after the
blast and mine has to follow conditions stipulated
in the Coal Mines Regulations and ensure providing
adequate support to the increased area of exposed
roof before starting any other operations at the
coal face.

Table 4. Abstract of details of blasts.

Prevailing practice Trials with modified practice

Parameters Wedge cut Parallel shotholes Parallel shotholes

Gallery dimension 3.84.0 2.52.8 3.84.0 2.52.8 4.0 2.8

width height (m)
Explosive used Conventional P-5 PENTADYNE-HP PENTADYNE-HP
Shothole length (m) 1.8 1.8 2.4
Advance/pull (m) 0.901.10 1.501.70 2.002.20
Coal yield (MT) 1420 2432 3741
Carbon Monoxide* 1832 ppm 2236 ppm 2236 ppm
Nitrous Oxides* Less than 5 ppm Less than 5 ppm Less than 5 ppm

*measured after 5 minutes of blast.

Table 5. Experimental blast results with Pentadyne-HP.

Pull
Face width Face height obtained Calculated yield of
Drill pattern (m) (m) (m) coal (MT)

Development faces
Modified Parallel Cut 3.43.8 2.42.8 1.42.1 20.428.6
Modified Angled Cut 3.43.8 2.42.8 1.82.0 26.735
(Wide V- cut)
De-pillaring faces
Modified Parallel Cut 4.04.2 3.84.0 1.72.0 30.645.6
Modified Angled Cut 4.04.2 3.84.0 1.72.2 38.750.1
(Wide V- cut)

612

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 612 10/3/2012 8:47:25 PM

 Figure 8.

Table 6. Results of trials with Pentadyne-HP carried out in various mines.

Gallery Size Pull Coal output

Degree of
Mine gassiness Width (m) Height (m) (m) (MT)
GDK-5 Incline I 3.24.2 2.43.8 1.62.2 24.049.15
Milupara I 4.54.6 2.42.7 1.01.4 15.023.40
Churcha I 4.04.4 3.53.8 1.21.45 25.036.40
Bagdeva I 3.74.6 2.43.0 1.21.4 16.625.60
Jamuna 9 &10 II 4.14.3 3.0 1.01.2 17.221.70
Kedla u/g No.3 I
Conventional P-5 3.23.6 2.52.7 0.91.0 11.612.7
Pentadyne-HP 3.54.0 2.52.7 1.51.7 19.726.5
Argada I
Conventional P-5 2.93.2 1.82.0 0.91.0 7.88.5
Pentadyne-HP 3.03.2 1.82.0 1.41.6 11.912.6

7 CONCLUSIONS PENTADYNE-HP has been approved by

Developing a permitted explosive (PENTA-
DYNE-HP) having high AGS and yet meet-
ing all statutory requirements of P5 explosive
including incendivity in methane-air mixture
and coal dust atmosphere in gallery tests is
indeed a worthy technical achievement. Only
DGMS for carrying out solid blasting using
spacers in India. High AGS enables use of
spacers between explosive cartridges to extend
charge column within a shothole without the
use of additional initiator such as detonat-
ing cord or multiple detonators to set-off the
cartridges separated by spacers.

613

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 613 10/3/2012 8:47:25 PM

 Underground coal mines which deploy Load
Haul Dumpers (LHD) require 3540 MT of coal
at the face for their optimum deployment. With
advance of 2.2 m and coal output of 49 MT from a
single blast has been demonstrated in de-pillaring
gallery. When properly used, technique of solid
blasting using spacers presents excellent opportu-
nities for improving pull (advance) and thus more
coal output in a blast.
Use of shotholes of 2.4 to 2.6 m depth would
require electric delay detonators with 3.54.0 m
long leadwires for easy and proper series connec-
tions. Using full series of millisecond delay deto-
nators viz delay numbers 0 & 16 in a blasting
round is recommended for achieving longer pull.
In addition, placement and pattern of shotholes,
their depth and direction, charge distribution and
delay initiation sequence are important for achiev-
ing advance of 2.02.2 m in a coal face blast.
Since longer pull results in higher extent of roof
exposure, adequate precautions need to be taken in
terms of support immediately after the blast.
While the more pressing need is for higher
availability blasted coal at the faces, extending the
explosive column within a shothole through use of
spacers also envisages tangible increase in Powder
Factor (MT.kg1 of explosive) and Detonator Fac-
tor (MT.detonator1). Experimental results have
shown that face dimensions and shothole depths
being same, coal output per blast was higher in a
de-pillaring face compared to development face.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors thank their respective organizations
for according permission to present this paper.
The views expressed are purely of the authors and
not necessarily of the organization they represent.
The authors also thank all concerned individuals
of various mining organizations for all the help
614
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 614
and co-operation rendered while carrying out tri-
als with Pentadyne-HP reported in this paper.
The first author would like to thank Mr. A.D.
Sao, Vice President, Marketing & Explosives and
Mr. A.M. Kazmi, Associate Vice President, Inter-
national Business & Application Services, IDL
Explosives Ltd for technical inputs and guidance
in preparing this paper.
REFERENCES
Roy, S.K., Singh, R.R., Kumar, R. & Dey, U.K. 2008.
Studies into the possible use of air decking in solid
blasting in underground coal mines, Trans. Inst. Min.
Metall. Sec. A Mining Technology, 117 A, (2), 8392.
Roy, S.K & Singh, R.R. 2011. Use of spacer aided initia-
tion technique in solid blasting in Indian underground
coal mines. Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. Sec. A Mining
Technology, 117 A, (2), 2535.
Pal Roy, P. & Sawmliana. C. 2009. Replacing conven-
tional solid blasting by a modified angled-cut pattern
to achieve around 40 tonne of coal per blast using
Penradyne-HP explosive in degree-I underground
gassy mines. National Workshop on Blasting Explo-
sives Technology and Safety in Mining & Infrastruc-
tural Developments, NIT Bhubaneswar, 96102.
Sarathy, M.O, Sao, A.D & Sarma, P.V.S. 2010a. Penta-
dyne-HP: An Innovative Technology on the Indian
Horizon to Facilitate Acceleration of Coal Production
in Underground Coal Mines. National Seminar on
Underground Coal Mining:Future of Overground Lies
Below Ground: Singareni Collieries Company Limited,
Kothagudem, India, 8592.
Sarathy, M.O, Sarma, P.V.S. & Sao, A.D. 2010b. An inno-
vative technology on the Indian Horizon to facilitate
acceleration of coal production in underground coal
mines. International Symposium on Emerging Trends in
environment, Health and Safety Management in Min-
ing and Mineral Based Industries: National Institute of
Technology Karnataka, Surathkal, India, 347350.
Pal Roy, P. 2012. Personal communication to first
author.
10/3/2012 8:47:25 PM
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Assessment of explosive charge factors in surface blasting using

rebound hardness values of rocks

Chhangte Sawmliana, Pijush Pal Roy & Rakesh Kumar Singh

Blasting Department, Central Institute of Mining & Fuel Research (CIMFR), Dhanbad, India

ABSTRACT: An attempt was made to correlate the charge factor with the rebound hardness value of
rocks for quicker and easier assessment of explosive charge in a blasthole. Rebound hardness values were
measured directly on the rock surfaces either on the bench faces or rock boulders using N-Type Schmidt
hammer. The investigational sites included eight opencast coal mines, four limestone mines, two iron ore
mines, one uranium mine and two thermal power plants in India. For better correlation, only those blasts
which were conducted using blasthole diameter of either 100 mm or 160 mm have been considered. The
total blasting operations were broadly divided into two categories viz. blasting for overburden removal
and blasting in ore bodies. The best-fit correlation equations were obtained for explosive charge factors
and rebound hardness values for both overburden and ore blasting. The analysis of the data showed some
meaningful correlation between rebound hardness values and charge factors. It has been found that the
rebound hardness values obtained from Schmidt hammer can be used as a good tool for quick determina-
tion of explosive charge factor in surface mine blasting.

1 INTRODUCTION operations are often carried out by the blasters

A charge factor may be defined as the amount of
explosive charge (in kg or lb) required for breaking
or fragmenting one cubic metre or one cubic foot
of rock to obtain a desired fragment size. It can be
measured either in kg/m3 or lb/ft3. In rock break-
age by blasting, the main objective is to achieve the
desired fragmentation with an optimum explosive
charge factor whereas minimizing disturbances to
the surrounding environment. The required frag-
ment size mostly depends on bucket size of the
loading equipment, dumper capacity, screen size
of the primary crusher etc. For removal of over-
burden, the required fragment size depends mainly
on the loading bucket size and the dumper capac-
ity. In case of blasting in an ore body, it depends
on the screen size of the primary crusher used in
the mine. Charge factor is one of the most impor-
tant parameters in any blast design to achieve the
targeted fragmentation. Several researchers have
developed blastability models using different rock
and rock mass properties for the determination of
charge factors in surface mine blasting. Some of
the blastability models and the different rock prop-
erties used are given in Table 1.
The blastability models have been developed
mainly for a particular mine and they are site
specific. However, they can also be modified for
the calculation of explosive charge in any other
opencast mines. Although different models and
empirical equations have been developed, blasting
using their own experiences. The so called Powder
monkey still plays the maximum role for deciding
the amount of explosive to be charged in a blast-
hole from his past experiences. The development in
blasting technologies is seldom utilized for design-
ing a blast, particularly by the person concerned in
blasting operations.
During the different blasting project works in
India, the authors collected rebound hardness
values of rocks from the various blasting sites
using Schmidt hammer. It has been found that the
hardness values of rocks could be correlated with
explosive charge factors to provide a meaningful
relationship for the surface blast design. This could
be used for quick and easy assessment of charge
factors for bench blasting in an open excavation.
This paper describes the assessment of explosive
charge factors from rebound hardness values of
rock based on the extensive field data collected at
different mines and civil engineering project sites.
2 SCHMIDT HAMMER AND ROCK
STRENGTH PROPERTIES
Schmidt hammer was invented by Ernst Schmidt
in 1948 for non-destructive testing of compressive
strength of the concrete.
The instrument works on the principle that the
rebound of an elastic mass impacting on the tested
surface is a function of the hardness of the surface

615

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 615 10/3/2012 8:47:26 PM

 Table 1. Different rock and rock mass properties used by different researchers in blastability models for determina-
tion of charge factors.

Name of the researchers Parameters used for determination of charge factor or blastability index

Hino (1958) Defined blastability index as ratio of compressive strength to tensile strength.
Higher the value, easier will be fragmentation.
Broadbent (1974) Heinen & Used in-situ seismic wave velocities for determination of specific charge in open pit
Dimock (1976) copper mines.
Ashby (Hoek & Bray, 1977) Developed for the Bougainville Copper Mine based on fracture frequency and
Joint shear strength.
Langefors & Kihlstrom (1978) Used rock constant c to determine specific charge.
Kutuzov (1979) Used joint spacing, rock density and uniaxial compressive strength for determina-
tion of charge factor for general bench blasting.
Borquez (1981) Used RQD, joint alteration factor and joint strength to determine blastability fac-
tor (Kv) = 1.960.27 ln (ERQD) ERQD = RQD Alteration factor.
Rustan et al., 1983 Rustan & Determined fragmentation gradient (n), K50 and critical burden based on imped-
Nie, 1987 ance (Density, P-wave velocity) and rock structures and friction properties of the
discontinuity.
Lilly (1986) Defined blastability from rock mass description (RMD), joint plane spacing (JPS),
joint plane orientation (JPO), specific gravity influence (SGI) and Hardness.
BI = 0.5 (RMD + JPS + JPO + SGI + H)
Ghose (1988) Developed blastability model for selection of specific charge for coal measure
rocks in open pit blasting based on density, spacing of discontinuity, point load
strength index, joint plane orientation.
Berta (1990) Used impedance factor to explain the transfer of explosive energy to rock fragmen-
tation for the selection of specific charge.
Mutluoglu et al. (1991) Used seismic wave velocity for optimization of specific charge in coal and lignite
mines.
Adhikari (1994) Used density (), rock types and degree of jointing to determine specific charge for
bench blasting: q = a + b, a & b are rock coefficients.
Scott (1996) Used dynamic compressive strength, density, Youngs Modulus, block size, structures,
target fragment size, heave, confine scale, water for blastability model to select
charge factor for dragline bench, cast blasting in dragline bench and shovel
operation in coal measure strata.

itself. The harder the tested surface, higher will be
the compressive strength of the material. The ham-
mer hits the concrete with a spring-driven pin at
a defined energy, and then measures the rebound
(in rebound units). By reference to the conversion
tables, the rebound value can be used to determine
the compressive strength of the concrete.
There are different types of Schmidt hammer
designed for different levels of impact energy. How-
ever, L-type and N-type are mostly used for test-
ing of rock and concrete. The L-type has impact
energy of 0.735 Nm whereas N-type has impact
energy of 2.207 Nm. The International Society
for Rock Mechanics (ISRM, 1978) endorsed the
use of L-type hammer for testing of rock. How-
ever, a study conducted by Buyuksagis & Goktan
(2006) regarding the effect of hammer types on the
uniaxial compressive strength of rock observed
that both were valid for the types of rock they had
tested. They had concluded that compared to the
L-type hammer, N-type hammer appeared to be a
more effective tool in the strength estimation of
rocks for the uniaxial compressive strength vary-
ing between 20 and 290 MPa. Aydin & Basu (2005)
had also stated that the N-type hammer produced
less scatter in the data and proved to be more effi-
cient than the L-type hammer in predicting uniax-
ial compressive strength and Youngs modulus.
Schmidt hammer has been widely used for
determination of rock strength properties due
to its cost-effectiveness and easy handling. The
instrument can be used for both laboratory and
field testing. It is mainly used for determination of
uniaxial compressive strength and Youngs modu-
lus of intact rocks. However, some of the research-
ers have also used it for determination of in-situ
rock properties as well as for a variety of specific
applications viz. state of weathering and assess-
ment of discontinuities in rock (Day & Goudie,
1977; Mathews & Shakesby, 1984; Young & Fowell,
1978), mine roof control (Kidybinski, 1968),
assessment for the performance of roadheader

616

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 616 10/3/2012 8:47:26 PM

 and tunnel boring machine (Poole & Farmer, 1978;
Farmer et al., 1979; Howarth et al, 1986), rock cut-
ting machine performance (Gotan & Gunes, 2004),
drilling machine penetration rate (Kahraman et. al,
2003) and estimation of large scale in-situ coal
strength (Sheorey et al., 1984).

3 COLLECTION OF FIELD DATA

The authors collected rebound hardness values

from different opencast mines and civil engineer-
ing construction sites during the various blast-
ing project works carried out by them in India.
N-type Schmidt hammer was used for all the data
collections. Although the blasthole diameters
used in the different mines and project sites varied Figure 1. Division of rock surface into grids for testing
from 100 mm to 250 mm, only those blasts con- of rebound hardness.
ducted with 100 mm or 160 mm diameter have
been selected in the present study. The investiga-
tional sites included eight opencast coal mines,
four limestone mines, two iron ore mines, one
uranium mine and two thermal power plants in
India. Rebound hardness values were determined
either on the rock boulders obtained on the work-
ing benches or directly taken from bench faces. It
was difficult to have smooth rock surfaces in the
field for testing of rebound hardness. However,
only clean and fresh rock surfaces were selected
for hardness testing. Whenever larger rock surface
was found, the surface area was divided into 4 cm
to 6 cm grids as shown in Figure 1. Single impact
value was determined for each grid and any test
that caused cracking of the rock surface or other
visible failure on the rock mass was rejected. The Figure 2. Testing of rebound hardness directly on the
bench face.
average of the 10 highest readings from each grid
was taken. When the rebound hardness test was
done on the bench faces, the hammer was held The bench heights used in the different mines
horizontally, perpendicular to the rock surface as varied between 6 and 8 m. However, at the civil engi-
shown in Figure 2. neering construction sites viz. Durgapur Project
The rebound hardness values for sandstones Limited and Raghunathpur Thermal Power Plant,
varied from 17.6 to 46.8. Weathered and coarse smaller blasthole depths were used varying from
grained sandstones were having lower rebound val- 2.5 to 5.5 m. Ammonium nitrate and fuel oil mix-
ues than the medium to fine grained sandstones. ture (ANFO) was used in all the limestone mines.
Limestone in the different mines showed a similar Site mixed emulsion (SME) explosive was used
trend of hardness values ranging from 36 to 45. in Guali Iron Ore Mine, Banduhurang Uranuim
However, low hardness values less than 25 were Mine, Khairagura Opencast Mine, RG-II Opencast
also obtained in weathered limestone formation. Project, Koyagudem OCP-II and Chandan Open-
Higher values of rebound hardness were obtained cast Project. Large diameter cartridge explosives
in iron and uranium ores. The hardness values var- were used in Tirap Opencast mine, Gopalichak
ied between 45 and 60. OCP, Kankani Opencast mine, Kiriburu Iron Ore
The blast design parameters differed from mine and both the thermal power project sites.
mine to mine depending upon the nature of rock The capacities of the loading equipment and
strata and the targeted fragment size. The ranges dumpers used in the different project sites also var-
of charge factors, the average charge factors and ied widely. Bucket size of 4 to 6 m3 were generally
nature of the rock strata for blasting in overburden used in opencast coal mines. Dumper capacity var-
and ore bodies at the different investigational sites ied from 35 to 80 ton. In limestone, iron ore and
are given in Tables 2 and 3 separately. uranium mines, feed size of the primary crushers

617

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 617 10/3/2012 8:47:26 PM

 Table 2. Type of rock and charge factors used at different investigational sites for removal of overburden.

Charge factor used (kg/m3)

Name of the Mines/Project sites Types of rock Range Average
Tirap Opencast Mine, NEC, Assam Sandstone (weathered and jointed) 0.180.24 0.20
Foundation for Switch Yard Durgapur Coarse grained Sandstone (massive 0.280.32 0.30
Project Limited, Durgapur, West Bengal formation)
Adhunik Cement Limestone Mine Jaintia Fine grained Lakadong sandstone (blocky 0.550.65 0.60
Hill, Meghalaya formation)
Raghunathpur Thermal Power Project, Coarse grained sandstone (weathered 0.280.32 0.30
West Bengal formation)
Khairagura Opencast Mine, Bellampali Medium grained sandstone (Massive 0.240.44 0.34
Area, SCCL, AP formation)
RG Opencast Project No. 2, Ramagun- Coarse grained sandstone (massive 0.340.50 0.42
dam Area-III, SCCL, AP formation)
Gopalichak Opencast Project Bastakolla Medium grained sandstone (massive 0.450.60 0.53
Area, BCCL formation)
Kankani Opencast Mine, BCCL, Fine grained sandstone (blocky formation) 0.450.56 0.51
Dhanbad
Chandan Opencast Project, Patherdih, Fine grained sandstone (massive formation) 0.470.63 0.55
BCCL, Dhanbad
Koyagudem OCP-II, SCCL, AP Medium grained sandstone (massive 0.270.33 0.30
formation)

Table 3. Type of minerals and charge factors used at different investigational sites for extraction of ores.

Charge factor (kg/m3)

Name of the Mines/Site Types of rock Range Average
Manal Limestone Mine, Rajban, Limestone 0.310.35 (jointed) 0.33
Himachal Pradesh (heavily jointed and blocky) 0.440.51 (blocky) 0.47
Adhunik Limestone Mine Jaintia Weathered Limestone 0.170.19 (jointed) 0.18
Hill, Meghalaya (Heavily jointed) 0.360.46 (blocky) 0.40
Mawmluh Cherra Limestone Mine, Limestone (blocky formation) 0.380.69 0.52
Meghalaya
Jai Surjana Limestone mine, Rajasthan Limestone (blocky formation) 0.500.55 0.53
Kiriburu Iron Ore Mine, Iron ore (jointed formation) 0.750.95 0.85
Steel Authority of India Ltd., Orissa
Guali Iron Ore Mine, Orissa Iron ore (blocky formation) 0.750.87 0.81
Baduhurang Uranium Mine, UCIL Uranium (blocky formation) 0.721.12 0.95

varied from 85 to 100 cm. In civil engineering con-
struction sites, smaller excavators i.e. PC/EX 200
with bucket capacity of 1.5 m3 were usually used.
The charge factors used in the overburden blasts
were generally less than in those blasts conducted in
the ore bodies. However, higher charge factor was
also used in case of hard and fine grained sand-
stone (Lakadong formation) at Adhunik Lime-
stone Mine, Meghalaya State. In heavily jointed
limestone formation, lesser charge factors of about
0.17 to 0.19 kg/m3 were also used.
4 REBOUND HARDNESS V/S CHARGE
FACTORS
Although the charge factor in a blast depends on
many parameters, an attempt was made to corre-
late the charge factor with rebound hardness value
of the rock. The total blasting operations from all
the investigational sites were divided broadly into
two categories viz. blasting for overburden removal
and blasting in ore bodies. This classification has
been made due to the fact that overburden removal

618

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 618 10/3/2012 8:47:27 PM

 generally does not require finer fragment sizes as
compared to the extraction of ores.
The best-fit correlation equations were obtained
between the explosive charge factors and rebound
hardness values. The relationship obtained between
the charge factors and rebound hardness values for
overburden removal is shown in Figure 3. Simi-
larly, the relationship between the charge factors
and rebound hardness values for blasting in ore
bodies is shown in Figure 4. The combined data
from overburden removal and ore blasting were
also plotted to obtain the overall relationship as
shown in Figure 5.
Based on the analyses of rebound hardness data
collected at different sites and their correlation
with charge factors, the empirical equations form-
ing a relationship between the charge factor (CF)
and rebound hardness value (Hr) of rock may be
given as:
For overburden blasting (removal of
overburden):
CF = 8.0 105 Hr2 + 0.007 Hr + 0.104 (1)
Coefficient of determination = 0.781
Figure 3. Relationship between rebound hardness value
and charge factor for overburden blasts.
Figure 4. Relationship between rebound hardness value
and charge factor for blasting in ore bodies.
619
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 619
Figure 5. The combination of rebound hardness data and
charge factors from overburden blasting and ore bodies.
For blasting in ore bodies (extraction of ores):
CF = 0.066 e0.045Hr (2)
Coefficient of determination = 0.824
For blasting in both overburden and ore bodies
(generalized equation):
CF = 3.36 104 Hr2 + 0.008 Hr + 0.316 (3)
Coefficient of determination = 0.702
The value of the coefficient of determination
(R2) was found to be highest in the case of blast-
ing in ore bodies i.e. 0.824. The rebound hardness
values tested on ore bodies varied widely depend-
ing upon the nature of the ore deposits. In heav-
ily jointed ore formations, particularly in case of
limestone mines, lower values of rebound hard-
ness were obtained. As the fragment size in rock
blasting is predetermined by the natural block size,
lesser charge factors could also produce the desired
fragment size in heavily jointed rock formations.
Therefore, better correlation was obtained.
The values of R2 obtained in the overburden
removal and combination of all the data are 0.781
and 0.702 respectively. Almost all the blasts for the
overburden removal were conducted in sandstone
deposits. The rebound hardness obtained in sand-
stone was almost similar in all the mines, except
in the case of weathered and coarse grained sand-
stones. Due to the different blasting patterns used
from mine to mine and differences in the targeted
fragment size, lower value of R2 were obtained.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The analysis of the data collected from the seven-
teen different project sites showed some meaningful
correlation between rebound hardness values and
charge factors in surface rock blasting. Although
blast fragmentation depends on several factors, it
10/3/2012 8:47:27 PM
 has been found that the rebound hardness values
obtained from Schmidt hammer can be used as
a good tool for quick determination of explosive
charge factor in surface mine blasting. The present
study was limited to the blasts conducted with
100 mm and 160 mm blasthole diameters only.
There is more scope for further study to obtain
better correlation between rebound hardness and
charge factors by incorporating other important
parameters for the determination of charge factor.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are thankful to the Director, Central
Institute of Mining and Fuel Research, Dhanbad
for his kind permission to publish the paper. The
co-operation and help provided by the various
mine managements during the execution of field
work are also thankfully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
Adhikary, G.R. 1994. Opencast blasting trends and
techniques in the Indian mining industry. Journal of
Mines, Metals and Fuels, 4(11 & 12):333339.
Aydin, A. and Basu, A. 2005. The Schmidt hammer in
rock material characterization. Engineering Geology,
81:114.
Berta, G. 1990. Explosives: An Engineering Tools.
Milano. Italesplosivi.
Borquez, G.V. 1981. Estimating drilling and blasting
costsAn analysis and prediction model. Engineering
and Mining Journal, 8389.
Broadbent, C.D. 1974. Predictable blasting with in-situ
seismic surveys. Mining Engineering, 26: 3741.
Buyuksagis, I.S. and Goktan, R.M. 2006. The effect
of Schmidt hammer type on uniaxial compressive
strength prediction of rock. International Journal of
Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences, 44:299307.
Day, M.J. and Goudie, A.S. 1977. Field assessment of
rock hardness using the Schmidt test hammer. Br.
Geomorphol Res Group Tech. Bulletin, 18: 1929.
Ghose, A.K. 1988. Design of drilling and blasting
systemA rock mass classification approach. Mine
Planning and Equipment Selection, Balkema, 1988.
Heinin, R.H. and Dimock, R.R. 1976. The use of seismic
measurement to determine the blastability of rock.
Proceeding of the 2nd Annual Conference on Explosive
and blasting technique, Louisville, Kentucky, 234248.
Hino, K. 1959. Theory and Practice of Blasting. Nippon
Kayaku Co. Ltd., Asa Yamaguchiken, Japan, 3355.
Hoek, E. and Bray, E.T. 1977. Rock Slope Engineering,
3rd Edition., The Institute of Mining and Metallurgy,
London.
620
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 620
Howarth, D.F. Adamson, W.R. and Berndt, J.R. 1986.
Correlation of model tunnel boring and drilling per-
formances with rock properties. International Journal
of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences Geomechanics
Abstract, 23:171175.
ISRM, 1981. Rock characterization testing and monitor-
ing ISRM suggested methods for determining hard-
ness and abrasive of rocks, Part-3:101103.
Kahraman, S. Bilgin, N. and Feridnoglu, C. 2003. Domi-
nant rock properties affecting the penetration rate
of percussive drills. International Journal of Rock
Mechanics & Mining Sciences, 40:711723.
Kidybinski, A. 1968. Rebound number and the quality
of mine roof strata.. International Journal of Rock
Mechanics & Mining Sciences, 5:283292.
Kutuzov, B.N. 1979. Classification des roches dapres
leur explosibilite por les decourvertes, Gornyl, Zurnal,
Moscow.
Langefors, U. and Kihlstrom, B. 1976. The Modern Tech-
nique of Rock Blasting. John Wiley and Sons Inc.,
New York, 438.
Lilly, P.A. 1986. An empirical method of assessing rock
mass blastability. Large openpit Mining Conference,
Newman, The AusIMM, 8993.
Mathews, J.A. and Shakesby, R.A. 1984. The status of
the Little Ice Age in southern Norway: relative-age
dating of Neoglacial moraines with Schmidt hammer
and lichenometry. Boreas, 13:333346.
Muftuoglu, Y.V. Pasamehtoglu, A.G. and Karpuz, C.
1991. Correlation of powder factor with physical and
rock properties and rotary drill performance in Turkish
surface coalmines. Proceeding of the 7th International
Society of Rock Mechanics Symposium, 1:10491051.
Poole, R.W. and Farmer, I.W. 1978. Geotechnical fac-
tors affecting tunnelling machine performance in coal
measures rock. Tunnels Tunnelling, Dec. 2730.
Rustan, A. and Nie, L.S. 1987. New method to test the
rock breaking property of explosives in full scale.
Proceeding of the Ist. International Symposium on
Rock Fragmentation by Blasting, Keystone, Kolorado,
3647.
Rustan, A., Vutukuri, V.S. and Naarttijarvi, T. 1983. The
influence from specific charge, geometric scale and
physical properties of homogeneous rock on fragmen-
tation. Proceeding of the 1st International Symposium
on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting, Lulea, Sweden,
115142.
Scott, A. 1996. Blastability and blast design. Rock Frag-
mentation by BlastingFragblast 5. Ed. Mahanty,
Motreal, Canada, pp. 2736.
Sheorey, P.R. Bharat, B.D. Das, M.N. Mukharjee, K.P.
and Singh, B. 1984. Schmidt hammer rebound data
for estimation of large scale in-situ coal strength. drill-
ing performances with rock properties. International
Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences Geome-
chanics Abstract, 21:3942.
Young, R.P. and Fowell, R.J. Assessing rock discontinui-
ties. Tunnel & Tunnelling, June:4548.
10/3/2012 8:47:28 PM
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Application of innovative techniques in blast design at RAM meeting

its production targets

R. Shrimali, P.K. Rajmeny, L.S. Shekhawat & A. Joshi

Rampura Agucha Mines, Hindustan Zinc Limited, Rajasthan, India

ABSTRACT: Rampura Agucha Mines journey of capacity expansion from 1.8 MT Ore treatment (total
excavation of 11 MT) per annum in 2003 to 5.95 MT Ore (total excavation 73 MT) per annum in 2012
warranted innovative techniques in drilling and blasting practice to meet business target with optimiza-
tion of bench turnover. This practice includes minimizing impact of multilevel bench working in different
cutbacks; maximizing ore recovery, optimization of resources based on litho-units and control blasting
for pit stability. These practices have been established after many field trials with technological up grada-
tion and technical inputs from worlds best consultant like Orica- Australia, CMIFR-India etc. All these
initiatives led to achieve journey of expansion of RAM at sustainable level.

1 INTRODUCTION southwestern limit is 6570 due NE. The Ram-

Rampura Agucha Mine (RAM), Hindustan Zinc
Ltd., (Vedanta Resources Plc.), produces 5.95 mtpa
of Lead Zinc ore. It is situated in western part of
India, about 225 km south of Jaipur, state capi-
tal. The mine is carrying out staged development
to meet business calls of excavating 100 mt rocks
during the current financial year. RAM deploys
worlds latest technological gadgets like Truck
Dispatch System (TDS), automatic Slope stability
radar system (SSR), use of Electronic initiation
system and carries out pre-splitting (at every cut-
back limit) extensively. RAM continuously uses
expertise of world renowned experts like Orica,
SRK, AMC, CIMFR, etc for consummating its
Blast designing process.
pura-Agucha mixed sulphide deposit is a massive
lens shaped ore body with a NE-SW strike length
of 1500 mt and a width varying from a few meters
in the NE direction widening to as much as 120-m
in the central to SW section with average of 58 m.
The ore minerals are mainly sphalerite and galena.
The ore body dips from 50 to 70 towards SE.
The host rock for mineralization is Graphite-
micasillimanite Gneiss/Schist (GMS) and consists
of mica (white, green and brown varieties), feldspar,
quartz and an appreciable amount of graphite.
Walls are composed of Garnet Biotite Silleman-
ite Gneiss (GBSG) and intrusions of Pegmatite
and Amphibolite and Mylonite (on footwall only)
while GBSG forms the major chunk amounting
around 7080% of the mass.

2 GEOLOGY 3 NORMAL BLAST PRACTICES

Rampura Agucha is a stratiform, sediment-hosted Excavation is carried out at RAM by blasting 10 m

Lead Zinc deposit, occurs in Pre-Cambrian Banded
Gneissic Complex and forms a part of Mangalwar
complex of Bhilwara geological cycle (3.22.5 bil-
lion years) of Archean age and comprising of
magmatites, gneisses, graphite mica schist, pegma-
tite, amphibolites, and impure marble. The rocks
have been subjected to polyphase deformations
and high-grade metamorphism.
The deposit is a plunging isoclinal synform with
rock units showing NESW strike with steep
dips (7580) in hanging wall & moderate dips
(6065) in footwall towards SE. The host rock
occupies the core of the synform and plunge in
high benches with 165 mm dia vertical holes. Vari-
ous blast design parameters are used depending
upon characteristics of the rocks.
Normal production blast consists of firing 68
numbers of rows involving 140190 holes. The
charge in each hole consists of charging 160180 kg
of explosive with 3.04.0 mts stemming column.
Pyrotechnic and Nonel initiations are used
for firing blasts. For improved blast perform-
ance, reduced ground vibration and noise level,
Non Electric Millisecond down the line delay
detonators (250 ms) and Non Electric Trunk
line detonators (Shock tube initiation) are used.

621

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 621 10/3/2012 8:47:28 PM

 The no. of blasts required in ore and waste clubbed While taking simultaneously ore and waste blast
together are approx. 1216 per week, however by in narrow patch at ore and waste contact, lot of
increasing the size of the blast; number of blasts mixing of ore and waste occurs causing sizable
required per week will be reduced. dilution.
The parameters are as follows Adoption of same blast design in different litho
Depending upon the strata condition, bench units of the pit results in poor fragmentation,
height and rock type, spacing and burden is being toe problem and under utilization of loading
varied. A typical Drill & Blast design parameters equipment.
are as under. Cut backs at the top benches causes problems of
Spacing and Burden fly rocks and ground vibration.
Waste : 5.m 4 m to 6 m 4 m
Ore : 3 m 3 m to 4 m 3 m To mitigate the various challenges as stated
Depth of Hole : 11.0 to 12.0 mtrs above, following innovative techniques which have
Sub Grade : 1.0 mtrs to 1.25 mtrs been evolved after many field trials are being prac-
Primary Charge : 400 gm cast booster (Waste) ticed at RAM.
500 gms emulsion booster (Ore)
Or 1015% LD cartridge (toe 4.1 Firing at interface of two cut-backs or stages
blast)
Column Charge : Site Mixed Emulsion (Bulk) At RAM, excavation is being carried out in HW at
Charge Length : 6670% of hole depth four stages (Figure 2) simultaneously. While tak-
Charge per hole : 170 to 190 Kg ing blast in upper stages, specially close to the crest
Drill Pattern : Mostly staggered of the pit, blasted muck pile fall down hampering
Blast Pattern : Reverse Echelon deployment of machines at lower stages alongwith
Maximum Charge per Delay : 500 Kg major threat of rolling down of boulders from
Powder Factor : Approx 3.7 t/kg (Waste) the inter stage high wall. Previously blasting was
Approx 1.7 t/kg (Ore) carried out by firing row parallel to pit strike. It
Holes per round : 60200 holes caused 3040% blasted muck to roll down.

Every bench of F/W and of all stages of H/W

are presplitted to minimize damage to the rock
mass or improving stability of pit walls The pre-
split at RAM involved drilling of 115 mm dia holes
at a spacing of 1.2 m and inclined at 60 on F/W
and 70 on H/W (Singh et al, 2009)

4 INNOVATIVE TECHNIQUES

The mine is, currently working at 250 m depth and

is designed to reach to a depth of 372 m depth. The
mining is carried out by conventional 10 m high
benches and works with shovel dumper combina-
tion. It deploys 34cum shovels in combination of
220 t dumpers along with 165 mm dia production Figure 1. RAM pit panoramic view.
drills and 115 mm dia pre-split drillings.
Currently, mining is going on in hangwall (HW)
in four stages or cut-backs (Figure 1&2). To meet
steep business targets, the mine has to optimize
bench turnout rate within confines of pit stability,
controlled ground vibrations, fly rock, etc. It calls
for multi-bench working in each cut-back and
taking up major innovative initiatives on blasting
front. Various challenges as encountered while
working are enumerated as below.
During simultaneous multi-staged workings, roll
down of blasted muck from upper stage leads
to hindrance and restrictions on deployment of
Figure 2. Various cut back during Life of Mine.
machines at lower levels.

622

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 622 10/3/2012 8:47:28 PM

 To avoid falling of blasted muck to down
benches and hampering their work, it is planned to
design the firing of upper stage in such a manner
that minimum throw of muck takes place.
To accomplish it, firing of upper benches are
centrally uplifted i.e. instead of firing in rows par-
allel to the crest of the bench, rows are fired across
the strike in V shape (Figure 3). Secondly, the
holes present near crest of the bench are given
more relief (delayed fire) from delay interval of
32 ms to 54 ms as shown in the Figure 3.
The central lift consists of initiation at middle of
the face and adjoining rows holes are fired against
the central row (Figure 3). The firing front of the
central row is kept ahead of the adjoining rows by
at least 45 holes. This results in uplifting of the
blasted muck instead of falling on the lower stage
close to the crest.
This practice has resulted in significant reduc-
tion in throw of material to lower cut back benches
from 2530% to 510% only.
A typical design of segregating blast is shown in
Figure 5 where ore and waste piled up separately at
face with minimum throw.
This modified design has resulted in significant
reduction in dilution to 68% from earlier 20%.
4.3 Rational variation of blast design based on
litho units
Rocks at RAM consist of four major (litho) units
namely GBSG, Pegmatite, Amphibolites and host
GMS and their spatial distribution is formulated
as a Litho-model as shown in Figure 6.
Previously followed blast designs in these het-
erogeneous strata caused poor fragmentation and
lower dig rate of loading equipment. To circum-
vent these adversities now blast designs are modi-
fied based on characterization of rocks.
Normally, in blast zones where lithological
changes take place, one of the two following meth-
ods can be used.

4.2 Segregated blast in ore and waste

As described earlier the ore body at RAM occurs
in lens shape. While carrying out excavation at ore
and waste contact with smaller than 25 m width,
holes at contact of ore and waste are simultane-
ously fired. Previously with the use of pyrotech-
nic initiation there used to be substantial dilution.
But now different firing patterns have been used to
avoid their mixing and resultant dilution.
To segregate ore and waste in the same blast,
the Ore patch is fired first with throw towards the
pit whereas waste patch is fired at around 200 ms
later with centrally uplifted design (Figure 4).
This results in throw of ore towards the pit and
waste is centrally piled up with separate heap from
ore contact area. Figure 4. Segregated ore and waste blast.

Figure 5. Firing pattern inducing segregation of ore

Figure 3. Centrally lift firing pattern. and waste.

623

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 623 10/3/2012 8:47:29 PM

 a. Equal patterns for both types of rocks and a
variation of explosive charges
b. Different patterns with equal charges per hole
In our case at RAM, we adopt practicing
method (b) with maintaining equal burden.
For optimization of fragmentation, different
blast designs which are being used at RAM for
different rock types based on Rock mass rating
(RMR) as shown in table 1
Rationale drilling and blast design vis a vis rock/
litho type has resulted in improved fragmentation,
elimination of toe problem, back break etc along
with optimization of resources. A study was con-
ducted and it has been observed that with improved
fragmentation digging rate of loading equipment
has enhanced from 5000 to 6800 tonnes per hour
(TPH) as shown in Figure 7.
4.4 Controlled blasting at top benches
While blasting benches close to surface, there were
serious concern about fly rock, Air over pres-
sure (AOP), ground vibration etc. To avoid these
adverse effects of blasting within 5060 m from
surface, following additional measures are taken:
a. All shots are fired with electronic initiation sys-
tem against pyrotechnic system. As is known,
electronic system allows to tailor inter hole and
inter row delays rather than factory assembled
delays. This flexibility in delay allocation is uti-
lized in designing the firing sequence. Secondly,
Figure 6. Litho-model of Rampura Agucha mines
showing GBSG as golden, Amphibolite as green &
Pegmatite as yellow bands.
624
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 624
electronic detonators (EDD) due to have high
timing accuracy of 0.01%, and no scatter in
firing time, no out of sequence firing does take
place. This results in complete elimination of
possibility of overlap of shots, reversal of firing
sequence and consequent fly rock generation
and enhancement of ground vibrations. Vibra-
tion data measurement for Nonel and EDD has
been shown in Figure 8.
b. It is well known that premature breaching of
stemming column by gaseous energy is prime
source of fly rock. Accordingly, all holes are
stemmed with 1012 mm big aggregate rather
than drill cuttings.
c. To maximize utilization of the explosive energy,
the lower face of stemming column is artificially
made convex upward so as to give the expanding
gaseous energy a convex front which is accom-
plished by plastic funnels to increase the effec-
tiveness of stemming column. These funnels
(Figure 9) are used at interface of explosive and
stemming column. Plastic funnels are basically
cone shaped devices which are made of high
impact polysterene with 15000 psi compressive
strength. Being placed at interface of explosive
and stemming column, funnels actively seal the
bore hole collar up on detonation to confine
typical path of least resistance for the explosive
energy (Bhandari, 2002).
d. Charge column length is reduced to 55.5 m
instead of 7 m as normal charge and stem-
ming column is increased to 55.5 m instead of
3.54 m.
5 CONCLUSIONS
1. Firing at interface of two cutbacks or stages:
This practice has resulted in considerable reduc-
tion of throw of material to lowaer cut back
benches from earlier 2530% to 510%.
2. Segregate blast: Adoption of this technique in
blasting at ore and waste contact has reduced
dilution significantly from 20% earlier to around
68%.
Figure 7. Dig rate of loading equipment.
10/3/2012 8:47:29 PM
 Table 1. Rational blast design vis a vis litho-units.

Powder
Burden Spacing Sub-grade Charge length Stemming Column factor

Rock type (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (t/kg)

GBSG 4 5.5 1 6.6 4.4 3.975

Amphibole 4 4 1 6.6 4.4 3.77
Pegmatite 4 5.5 1 6.6 4.4 3.51
GMS/ore 3 3 1 7.7 3.3 1.68

Figure 9. Use of plastic funnel and stemming gravel.

Figure 8. PPV vs. Scaled distance for Nonel and EDD.
3. Blast design based on litho logical data: Modi-
fied design parameters have reduced back break
and toe problem considerably with improved
fragmentation in rock strata with different
properties. Results are evident from increased
digging rate of loading equipment from 5000
TPH to 6800 TPH.
4. Controlled blasting at top benches: With the
use of electronic initiation system chances of
reversal firing sequences has been completely
eliminated. This has helped to reduce ground
vibration well below DGMS prescribed limit
and achieved almost nil fly rock generation. It
is observed that with use of electronic initiat-
ing system ground vibration has been reduced
as shown in Figure 8.
Use of plastic funnel in the stemming column
has resulted in control of fly and improvement in
fragmentation.
On the basis of the above results, it is concluded
that with the adoption of various specific latest
blasting techniques, the mine has met steep busi-
ness target. Novel concepts like segregation blast,
using electronic initiation system are there for
regular practices at RAM. As we have embraced
above stated blasting techniques and tools, after
many field trials, this has led us to achieve better
fragmentation, elimination of toe and improved
stability and eventually safety of the pit.
The results are substantiated from present pit
Geometry and sustainable production level that var-
ious innovative blasting practices have provided.
ACKNOWLDGEMENT
Authors wish to express their sincere gratitude to
Management for giving permission to present and
publish the paper.
I am thankful to Mr. Himanshu Shekhar (HZL)
and Mr. Debashis Mandal (IOCL, IBP) for their
fruitful discussions and contributing technical
inputs.
REFERENCES
Bhandari S and Panwar V., (2002), Development in
surface mining blasting technology, XIV National
conference of Mining Engineers at Udaipur
(Rajasthan).
Singh, P.K., Roy, M.P., Joshi, A., Joshi, V.P., 2009. Control-
led blasting (presplitting) at an open pit mine in India,
Proc. 9th Fragblast on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting,
Granada, Spain, 1317th Sept 2009, pp 481489.

625

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 625 10/3/2012 8:47:30 PM

This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Intelligent mine blasting and its components

C.P. Wu, B. Yu & X.C. Yang

Beijing General Research Institute of Mining & Metallurgy, Beijing, China

ABSTRACT: Mine blasting is the most important and representative mining process. It is also the core
technology of mining. Mining blasting impacts on the efficiency of production, economic and safety of
mines deeply. All the mining processes, including designing, drilling, charging and initiating are separated
within traditional mining blasting. The information produced in the processes mentioned above cannot be
shared with each other. Thus, mine blasting can become uncontrollable and unpredictable. A new concept,
Intelligent Mine Blasting (IMB) was developed to improve the controllability and predictability of mining
blasting. Based on the theory of intelligence, IMB classifies all the blasting-related equipments, software
and processes into 3 categories of tools, namely, tools of detection, tools of decision and tools of execution,
which are contained in intelligence. The IMB takes all blast designing, drilling, charging and initiating an
integrated system. The components and its classification of IMB are introduced in this paper.

1 INTRODUCTION networks, locating systems and navigating systems

Mine blasting is the most important and
representative process of mining. It is also the
core technology of mining. Mine blasting deeply
affects production efficiency, economic benefits
and safety of mines. Designing, drilling, charging,
and initiating are separate processes within tradi-
tional mine blasting. If the information produced
in one of these processes cannot be shared with the
others, mine blasting can become uncontrollable
and unpredictable.
Meanwhile, techniques of increasing intelligence
are being developed and adapted in many indus-
tries, owing to the rapid progress of information
technology. However, this is not the case in the min-
ing industry, especially in the field of mine blasting.
Various processes, including drilling holes, loading
charge, initiating blasts, are not accurate, making it
necessary to develop a new model for mine blasting
with enhanced automaticity.
Fortunately, some intelligent mining programs
were held in Finland, Canada, Australia and
Sweden (D.J. Peterson, 2001). Intelligent mining is
also being paid more attention in China (X.T. Feng,
1995, 1999, 2002). A program named Intelligent
Mining Technology for Underground Metal Mines
is supported by the National High-tech Research
and Development Program (863 Program) of China.
The aim of the program is to improve the intelligence
level of equipment and software for underground
metal mining processes. The equipment includes
carry-scrapers, loading trucks, drills, and mine
trucks. The software refers to blast design programs,
scheduling systems, and so on. The communication
are also contained in the program. The program will
be conducted for 5 years, from 2011 to 2015. It is
divided into 8 issues. One of the issues is about the
Intelligent Mine Blasting (IMB).
2 CONCEPT OF INTELLIGENT MINING
BLASTING
Human intelligence is the intelligence of members
of the human species, a property of the mind that
encompasses the capacities to reason, plan, solve
problems, think, comprehend ideas, use languages,
and learn.
Artificial intelligence is both the intelligence
of machines and the branch of computer science
which aims to create it, through the study and
design of intelligent agents (Goebel, Randy, 1997)
or rational agents, where an intelligent agent is a
system that perceives its environment and takes
actions which maximize its chances of success
(Canny, John, 2003). Achievements in artificial
intelligence include constrained and well-defined
problems such as games, crossword-solving and
optical character recognition. General intelligence
or strong AI has not yet been fully achieved, and is
a long-term goal of AI research.
The traits that researchers hope machines will
exhibit include reasoning, knowledge, planning,
learning, communication, perception, and the
ability to move and manipulate objects (Goebel,
Randy, 1997, Canny, John, 2003). There is no
consensus on how closely the brain should be
simulated in the field of artificial intelligence.

627

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 627 10/3/2012 8:47:30 PM

 In considering the definition of intelligence,
human intelligence and artificial intelligence, IMB
can be defined as a whole system running through
all the processes of mine blasting. In this system,
the main components around mine blasting can
be classified into 3 categories of tools, namely,
tools of detection, tools of decision and tools of
execution. These 3 categories should be coordi-
nated with each other in a whole system, in order
to make the process of mine blasting intelligent.
The aim of IMB is to improve the controllability
and predictability of mine blasting by enhancing
the intelligence of blasting equipment and software,
such as loading trucks or blast design software.
The whole IMB system is being built now, and will
employed in one or more underground metal mines
when it is completed after 2015.
3 COMPONENTS AND SYSTEM
OF INTELLIGENT MINE BLASTING
The components of IMB will now be introduced,
as well as their classification.
3.1 Components of intelligent mine blasting
The main components of IMB include Mining Infor-
mation, Blasting Designing Software, Communication
Network, a PDA or Tablet PC, Positioning Device
for Blastholes, and so on (Fig. 1).
Mining Information refers to all the information
of a certain mine, including the properties of rock
and ore, length and height of the tunnel, geological
conditions of the mine, and so on.
Blast Design Software is software which can
design a mine blasting pattern, such as the con-
struction of blastholes, construction of charging,
selecting explosives, allocating the amount of explo-
sives per blasthole, and determining the length of
blastholes. The software will give 3D layouts for
the blasting operation if the mining information
is sufficient. Furthermore, it can design emulsion
explosives loaded into blastholes by loading trucks.
According to our plan, the software will be used
Figure 1. Components of intelligent mining blasting.
628
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 628
for emulsion explosives, since the related loading
truck is mainly designed for emulsion explosives.
But the software will be able to consider proper-
ties of explosives, such as strength, critical circle,
velocity of detonation, and so on.
Communication Network is a wireless communi-
cation network can be used in mines. The blasting
pattern and command of manager can be delivered
through the network to the workers via PDA or
Tablet PC.
PDA or Tablet PC are devices which can be held
by workers or technical staff.
Positioning Device for Blastholes refers to a
device by which the position of blastholes can
be given to the working surface to direct drilling
blastholes by drills.
Drilling Machines are the machines which drill
blastholes and return properties of ore or rock
through the Measurement While Drilling (MWD)
system. The MWD is system of which collects
information about penetration rate, water flow,
water pressure, damper pressure, rotation speed,
rotation pressure, and so on. The data obtained
by MWD can reflect ore properties. In order to
give the emulsion explosive a suitable density, the
blasting designing software will analyze the wave
impedance of rock from the data.
Ore Properties, MWD refers to ore properties
which returned through the MWD of the drilling
machines.
Measuring Device for Blasthole Parameter is a
device that measures blasthole parameters, such as
the depth, dip angle and azimuthal angle.
Measuring Device for the Amount of Ore refers to
a device that can measure the amount of ore after
blasting. The measuring device can also measure
size distribution of blasted ore. Blast design soft-
ware can then adapt the blasting pattern according
to the amount and size distribution of ore obtained
by the measuring device.
Loading Truck of Explosives can mix explosives
of changeable density in terms of ore properties
of blastholes on site. It can also load charge auto-
matically into blastholes.
Blasting Operation refers to loading charges,
stemming blastholes, connecting initiating networks
and firing detonators.
Operating Information refers to all the informa-
tion about blasting, including the designing the
blasting pattern, positing blastholes, drilling blast-
holes, measuring blasthole parameters, loading
charges, connecting initiating networks, and firing
detonators. The firing detonators include the nec-
essary information to assign delay intervals.
Management Platform is software which can
support a platform to observe all the operat-
ing information and send commands to work-
ers or technical staff underground through
10/3/2012 8:47:30 PM
 communication network via PDAs or Tablet PCs.
The management platform is only an observing
tool for blasting operation.
The core of the components of IMB is the blast
design software and management platform.
3.2 Classification of the components
It was mentioned that all the components of IMB
can be classified into 3 categories into one of tools
of detection, decision or execution.
Seeing from figure 1, the main components of
IMB include Blast Design Software, Positioning
Device for Blastholes, Drilling Machines, MWD,
and Measuring Device for Blasthole Parameter,
Measuring Device for the Amount of Ore, Loading
Truck of Explosives, Blasting Operation and
Management Platform.
Then, the tools of detection include MWD,
Measuring Device for Blasthole Parameter and
Measuring Device for the Amount of Ore.
The tools of decision include Blast Design
Software, Management Platform.
The tools of execution include Positioning
Device for Blastholes, Drilling Machines, Blasting
Operation and Loading Truck of Explosives.
Other components of IMB, such as Mining
Information, Communication Network, PDA or
Tablet PC and Operating Information, serve the
3 categories and join them into a whole, continuous
system.
3.3 System of intelligent mining blasting
All the tools of detection, decision and execution
of IMB form a system.
First of all, tools of detection, such as Measur-
ing Device for Blasthole Parameter and Measuring
Device for the Amount of Ore will collect mining
data for the tools of decision.
Then, the tools of decision including Blast
Design Software and Management Platform will
design blasting patterns and manage the blasting
operation.
Finally, the tools of execution, Positioning
Device for Blastholes, Drilling Machines, Blasting
Operation and Loading Truck of Explosives will
conduct the blasting pattern.
All the information and data should be trans-
ferred by the PDA or Tablet PC with the Commu-
nication Network of the mine.
629
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 629
4 CONCLUSION
In order to bring advanced techniques into the
Chinese mining industry, Intelligent Mine Blasting
is being developed and conducted for 5 years, from
2011 to 2015. The components and system of IMB
are currently new concepts, and there is much work
between today and 2015.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to express their sincere thanks
for the financial support provided by the National
High-tech Research and Development Program
(863 Program) of China.
REFERENCES
Canny, John, Russell, Stuart, J. & Norvig, Peter. 2003.
Artificial intelligence: A modern approach. Englewood
Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Feng X.T. & Y.J. Wang. 1995. Intelligent Mining
ScienceA New Direction in Mining Science
Development. Science & technology review. pp. 2022.
Feng X.T. & X.H. Diao. 1999. Intelligent rock mechanics
(1)introduction. Chinese Journal of Rock Mechanics
and Engineering. pp. 222226.
Feng X.T. & C.X. Yang. 1999. Intelligent rock mechanics
(2)Intelligent recognition of input parameters and
constitutive models. Chinese Journal of Rock Mechan-
ics and Engineering. pp. 350353.
Feng X.T. 1999. Intelligent rock mechanics (3)
Intelligent ock engineering. Chinese Journal of Rock
Mechanics and Engineering. pp. 475478.
Feng X.T. 2002. Development of Intelligent Rock
Mechanics. Bulletin of the Chinese Academy of
Sciences. pp. 256259.
Goebel, Randy, Poole, David L. & Mackworth, Alan K.
1997. Computational intelligence: A logical approach.
Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 1.
Peterson D.J., et al. 2001. Rand Report. E & MJ.
10/3/2012 8:47:31 PM
This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Analysis and calculation of the reliability of complex logical initiating

network system

Shifu Qi, Xiang Fang, Tao Guo, Tao Liu & Dong Li
PLA University of Science and Technology, Nanjing, China

ABSTRACT: The mathematical expression of the reliability of the large-scaled and complex logical
network system cannot be written out directly by setting up mathematical models according to the logi-
cal function of the network. This paper presents the analysis and calculation method of the reliability of
these kinds of initiating net systems according to relevant theories. It includes configuration analysis of
the initiating network system, the difference between the network form and the logical function of the
network and their interrelation, relevant theories and theorems of reliability analysis of the network and
criteria of evaluating the relative reliability of the network system.

1 INTRODUCTION
It is generally acknowledged that initiating tech-
nology plays an important role in the field of
demolition, and is regarded as one of the disci-
plines major research areas. Initiating technology
not only determines the success of demolition,
but also guarantees the minimization of the blast
hazards in order to achieve the expected results.
Projects become more challenging as modern
demands increase the scale of blasting. One blast
may require thousands of detonators, which are
initiated by millisecond detonation with pre-
cise blasting order and time delay in dozens, or
sometimes hundreds, of sections. Such blasting
can only be carried out with advanced initiating
technology. Earlier, evaluation of the reliability
of the initiating network depended on personal
experience and judgment, methods that have been
criticized for lacking accuracy. This article aims
to illustrate how reliability can be assessed using
scientific and quantitative analysis, thus replacing
the use of personal experience with a mathemati-
cal approach.
2 CONFIGURATION FEATURE ANALYSIS
OF THE INITIATING NETWORK
SYSTEM
The components of the initiating network can
only be in one of two states: normal (initiated
normally) or abnormal (misfired). In the same
way, the system made up of these components
is also in one of two states. Express the state of
Component i with a two-valued variable:
1,
Xi =
0,
when Component i is normal
when Component i fails (in which, i = 1, 2, , n;
n is the number of components in the system)
Express the state of the system with the two-
valued function:
1 when the system is normal
when the system fails
0
The state of the initiating network is completely
dependent on the states of its components, so
= (X) = (X1, X2, , Xn ) (1)
in which, X = (X1, X2, , Xn) is an n-dimen-
sional state vector, and can also be written as
X {X i i n}, with n denoting the number
of the components in the system. (X) is the con-
structed function of the system and n as the system
order.
Because the state of the initiating system relies
on the state of its components, and the positive
relation between performance of the compo-
nents and performance of the system, the system
is a dependent system and (X) is an increasing
function. Functional characteristics of the initiat-
ing components of the network are collected inde-
pendently and their states are random. Therefore,
consider the following expression,
P(Xi = 1) = pi (pi = EXi ), i = 1, 2, , n (2)

631

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 631 10/3/2012 8:47:31 PM

 in which, EXi is the mathematical expectation of
the random variable Xi and pi is the probability
that component i will realize its function, i.e., reli-
ability. In the same way, the reliability of the sys-
tem is given by the expression
P[(X) = 1] = R (R = E(X))
Since the components statistics are collected
independently, the reliability of the system R is the
function of its components reliability p = (p1, p2, ...,
pn). Therefore, R R( p ), p ( p1, p2, pn ). For
. 1. Simple and complex logic networks: If it is pos-
example, since the constructed function of a series
n sible to draw out the logic diagram of reliability
system is ( ) X i , its reliability function is
n i =1 n n simple logic network (though its form may not
R(p)=p( X i )= P(X i )= p i; since the con-
i=1 i=1 i=1
structed function of parallel system is ( )
n i =1
its reliability function is R( p ) = 1 ( pi ) .
i =1
For a system with n components, if the number
of components chosen is k, and supposing
n to the blasting cap or initiating body in the blast
p1 p2 = ... = pn , then if and only if Xi
i =1
its reliability function
k n
R( p ) = P i ( P )n i .
i =0 i
In summary, the non-electric initiating network
is constituted of components that arestatistically
independent.
3 THE FORM OF NETWORK, ITS
LOGICAL FUNCTION AND THEIR
INTERRELATIONSHIP
Though an analysis of the constitutional features
of the network is necessary to understand the
quantitative method for analyzing the reliability
of the initiating network, it is also necessary to
analyze the network form, its logical function, and
their relationship.
3.1 Difference between network form and
networks logical function
Network form refers to the superficial appearance
of the initiating network. It shows the physical rela-
tionship between the network system and its units
(components); the logical function of the network
is the essence of the network, the logical relation-
ship between the system and its units (components),
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 632
which is usually illustrated with logic diagram of
reliability. The logic diagram of reliability is a block
diagram which manifests the function of each unit
and its influence on the network system, and is this
completely different from the diagram of the net-
work form. A clear distinction should always be
(3) made between the two types of diagrams.
3.2 Division of the initiating network according to
its logical functions
and set up the relevant mathematical model, it is
be simple). If it is hard to determine the logical
n
relationship between the network and modules
X i, (subsystems), and set up a relevant mathemati-
cal model, it is complex logic network (though
its form may turn out to be relatively simple).
The purpose of this division is to find different
methods of reliability analysis.
2. Initiating unit, detonation transfer system and
overall network system: the initiating unit refers
k is hole, which can be composed of one or several
caps. The detonation transfer system refers to
the entire network except the initiating units,
while the overall network is the combined sys-
tem of the two aforementioned systems. Relia-
bility calculations of the respective systems will
reveal the unreliable elements in the network.
Technical measures should then be taken to
improve the reliability of network.
3. Logical function of series networks of electric
detonators.
In series initiating networks of electric detona-
tors or when initiating the non-electric sub-system
with electric series network, the physical relations
of the electric detonators are in series. Each cap
should be checked before it is connected to the net-
work and all caps should be turned on with meters
both after their connection to the network and
before the demolition,, Demolition is not allowed
when there is a break or a disagreement between
the resistance value and its calculated value. It is
only after these problems have been resolved that
the demolition can take place. Thus, in a series
electric detonator network with the same property
and belonging to the same batch, the misfire of a
certain cap in the network will not affect the demo-
lition of the whole network as long as the power
allows for the transfer and the demolition. This
functional relationship is equal to that of the par-
allel network, and in this way, its logical diagram is
also equal to that of the parallel.
632
10/3/2012 8:47:33 PM
 3.3 The logical function of 4-way connection
demolition transfer network and other closed
networks
For the 4-way connection demolition transfer
network and other closed non-electric initiation
networks, a break in one direction will not affect
the transference as any path can transfer from
two directions. e. Thus the path (not includ-
ing the path to the initiating point) can only
be cut when breaks occur in both directions.
Therefore, each path is equivalent to the parallel
reliability.
4 CONCEPTS AND THEOREMS OF
SYSTEM RELIABILITY ANALYSIS
In modern demolition projects, the initiating
network is usually very complicated, and so is
the calculation of reliability of the network. In
practice, dividing the system into several modules
(subsystems) according to their relevance, and
further breaking down these modules into even
smaller components [1] is an effective approach.
To analyze the reliability of large and complex
systems, the concept and theorem of modules,
minimal path sets and minimal cut sets should be
introduced.
4.1 Modules of the system
Let the set of all the components of the system be
S, and the state of components be X. Since (x) is
the constructed function of the system, the system
can be expressed as (S ).
Suppose A is the set of a certain component of
the system, then AS. The complementary set of
A is c, and the component state set is XA. In other
words, XA is the set of the state vector{X = {Xi}: i
A }. If we express the component state set AC with
AC
{X = {xi } }
C
X , XA A i S ,and if (X) is
i A
expressed as the function of two variables X(XA)
C The Vector X is called the cut vector when
and X(X A ) which only depend on the state of XA
and X A respectively: ( ) X ( A )), (X A )
C c
, then the subsystem (A, X), which is made up of
the component set A and its state set X, is one
module of the system(S ). In system (S ),
module (A X) can be taken as one element of (S
). The subsystem made up of each element and
its state is a module. To decompose System (S ),
a set of disjoint modules and its structure can
be got.
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 633
r
S = i , i j, A i A j = E ((null set)
t
i =1
( X ) [ X1 ( A1 )), 2 ( X A 2 ),, (4)
Ar
X r ( )]
To assess system reliability, the system should
be divided into modules and modules further into
smaller modules. In other words, the system should
be divided into subsystems and then components. In
this way, the calculation of the system reliability can
be based on the reliability data of its components.
4.2 Minimal path set and minimal cut set
Suppose S is an element set and the element
number is taken as i, then S = {1, 2, ..., n}. As X
is the state of S, and (S, ) is a system, the set can
be expressed as
C0 (X ) = {i S | X i 0} C1(X ) {i S | X i 1}
1. Minimal Path Set
The vector X is the path vector when (X) = 1,
and its corresponding set C1 (X) is the path set.
When YX (that is Y = (y1,y2,...,yn)
X = (x1, x2, ..., xn) and yj xj ( j = 1,2,...,n)) , and
(Y) = 0, the path vector X is called the minimal
path and its corresponding set C1 (x) is the minimal
path set.
In reliability analysis, in a physical sense, the
minimal path set means that when all the elements
in the set are normal, the system works out its
functions normally.
The minimal path set of the system (S, ) is not
unique. Supposing Qj is the minimal path set of j in
the system(S, ), Q (X) = X i . This denotes the
j
i Qj
function is constructed by elements in series in Qj.
Supposing there are m minimal path sets
m m
Qj(j = 1, 2, ... m) in , (X) = Q ( ) = X .
j i
2. Minimal Cut Set j =1 j=1 i Q j
(X) = 0, and the corresponding set C0(X) is called
the cut set. When Y > X, the cut vector of (Y) = 1
is the minimal cut vector and its corresponding cut
set C0(X) is the minimal cut set. In reliability analy-
sis, the physical sense of the minimal cut set is that
when all the elements in the minimal cut set fail,
the system will fail.
Supposing in (S, ) there are k minimal cut
sets, Kj(j = 1, 2, ...k) then Kj (X) = X i , which
i Kj
633
10/3/2012 8:47:37 PM
 denotes the elements of Kj form the function 4. Set up the mathematical model with G Boole
k k
(X) = K ( X ) = X in parallel. algebra theories based on the reliability diagram,
j
j=1
i
j 1 i K j
if the logical relation of the network is relatively
simple (its network form may be complicated).
4.3 Theorems of reliability analysis of the system 5. For systems with difficult logical functions in
structure which the logical relationship the between mod-
[Theorem 1] Suppose is the system composed of ules of the adapted structure cannot be deter-
independent elements of which the reliabilities are mined directly, the following steps should be
P1, P2, , Pn, then taken:
k m I. According to the reverse order of decompos-
Pi P X Pi (5) ing and based on the definition of the mini-
j =1 i K j j 1i Qj mal path and the minimal cut, calculate the
k set of components, the set of subsystems, the
in which, L( P ) = Pi is the lower limit of minimal path sets and the minimal cut sets of
the subsystems. Replace the sets with dupli-
j =1 i K j
m
cated elements in the minimal path sets and
the system reliability while u( P ) = Pi is the
the minimal cut sets with the sets of compo-
upper limit. j =1 i Q j
nents, and calculate the lower limit and the
In calculating L(p) and u(p), the sets of the upper limit of reliability according to Theo-
components can be used to replace the sets with rem 1.
duplicate components in the minimal path set or There are many ways to determine the minimal
the minimal cut set. path set and the minimal cut set. For extremely
[Theorem 2] Supposing (S, ) is a structure the complicated systems, the Ascending Method or
components of which are independent, it can be Descending Method can be adopted. There are
decomposed into modules {(Ai, Xi)}i = 1, 2, , r, also many helpful softwares such as AIICUTS,
and is the adapted structure, then the reliability manufactured in the U.S. or MFFTAP[2] by Chi-
of Structure whose element reliabilities are P1, nas Qinghua University. The minimal path set and
P2, ..., Pn is the minimal cut set of the initiating network can be
simply determined through its definition.
( P ) = R[ Rx ( P ) , Rxr ( P )] . Based on the lower and upper limits of reli-
L [ RX ( P ) , Rxr ( P )] ability RL and Ru respectively, the predicted
(6)
R [ Lx1( P ),, Lxr ( P )] system reliability can be determined with the
L [ L ( P ) Lxxrr ( P )] L ( P ) formula below:
x
RS = 1 [(1 Ru ).(1 RL)]1/2 (7)

5 METHODS AND STEPS OF RELIABILITY
ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX LOGICAL
INITIATING NETWORK SYSTEM
Due to the complexity of the initiating network,
its reliability analysis can be carried out in the fol-
lowing steps:
1. Analyze the network structure accurately and
make the relation between the network form
and its logical function clear.
2. Decompose the system into several modules
according to their relevance, and decompose
those modules further into smaller modules (or
elements). Each subsystem can be taken as one
module or element.
3. Draw out the reliability diagram according to
the logical function of the system (the propa-
gation system and the overall system including
blast holes), subsystems, and basic initiation
units (usually called blast holes).
The lower limit and the upper limit can also be cal-
culated through the approximation method instead
of the minimal path and the minimal cut method.
a. The calculation of the upper limit: the first-
order approximation methodtake the prod-
uct of the reliability of all the components in
series as the upper limit of the system reliabil-
ity (i.e., to approximately take the reliability of
the parallel system as 1).
The second-order approximation method
When the series system is normal, the system fails
only when all the components in the parallel sys-
tem are ineffective. Subtract the lower limit of the
parallel system reliability from 1, and the result is
the upper limit of the system
b. The calculation of the lower limit: the first-
order approximation methodregard all the
components as being in series, which is the
lower limit of the system; the second-order
approximation methodtake the sum of the
probability of the normal system as the lower

634

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 634 10/3/2012 8:47:43 PM

 limit of the system reliability when some of
the components of the parallel system are
ineffective but does not constitute the mini-
mal cut set. This method of approximation
has been used once by the American scholar
B. L. Amastakter in calculating the complex
system of Apollo spaceship. The method was
shown to be highly precise by using a simulat-
ing program [3].
6. Determine the reliability of every element (com-
ponent or subsystem) X1, , Xn through experi-
ments or based on the acquired data. Substitute
the element reliability into the mathematical model
of the subsystem or system so as to determine the
reliability of System (X1,, Xn ).[4]
Reliability tests can be performed on the over-
all system when it is necessary. In this way, we can
conduct the evaluation of the reliability of the
complex system with minimum tests on the system
with a high degree of confidence.
6 RELATIVE RELIABILITY EVALUATION
CRITERIA OF INITIATING NETWORK
In the past the evaluation on the reliability of the sys-
tem depended mainly on personal experience or some
quantitative analysis of the form of the network,
approaches that were criticized for being inaccurate.
In recent years, some researchers have proposed in
their studies of the initiating network of deep-hole
blasting in mining and irrigation projects that the
reliability evaluation can be based on the minimum
value of the minimal branch [5],that is to say, to
take the minimum value of the reliability of the min-
imal branch (or blast hole) in the subsystems of the
network as the relative liability of the network. The
635
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 635
authors think that this evaluation method is disputa-
ble because the degree of reliability of the minimum
branch not only lies in its own reliability but is also
influenced by the reliability of the subsystem as well
as the whole system. The reliability of the system is
decided not just by its individual units but also by
the logical relationship between them. It is like the
human body, in which one normal organ does not
mean all the organs work well. The fact is that apart
from some special cases, the reliability of the basic
units cannot guarantee the reliability of the whole
system, and this method of evaluation is not reason-
able. The authors believe that the reliability evalua-
tion of the initiating network should be based on the
reliability of basic units, the initiating network and
the whole system, in short, on the comprehensive
evaluation of the system.
REFERENCES
[1] Marvin Rausand. System Reliability Theory: Models,
Statistical Methods, and Applications (2nd Edition).
Guo Qiang etc. tuan. 2010.Beijing: National Defense
Industry Press (in Chinese).
[2] Mei Qizhi etc. 1992. Basic Knowledge of System Reli-
ability. Beijing: Science Press (in Chinese).
[3] Bertram L. Amstadter. Reliability Mathematics
(McGraw-Hill Book Company. New York), Peng
Xingwen tuan. 1978. Beijing: Science Press (in
Chinese).
[4] Qi Shifu. 1996. Reliability Studying of Igniting Net-
work System in Controlled Demolition and Chamber
Blasting. Ms D Thesis. Nanjing: PLA University of
Science and Technology, 54 (in Chinese).
[5] Zhang Liqun etc. 1993. Reliability Analysis of Deto-
nating Tube Igniting System in Strip Mine. In:Feng
Shuyu etc. Engineering Blasting Corpus: Vol.5. Beijing:
Chinese Geologic University Press, 332 (in Chinese).
10/3/2012 8:47:46 PM
This page intentionally left blank
 Section 9 - Demolition Blasting

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 637 10/3/2012 8:47:46 PM

This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Protection control technology adopted by demolition blasting

Wang Hao
Shanghai Tongji Blasting Engineering Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China

ABSTRACT: The 17-storey Lijiang Black-and-White Water Grand Hotel is located in the citys historic
Lijiang district, and has a frame-shear structure. The city government requires the use of protective blast-
ing demolition due to lack of harmoniousness with the 5A grade scenic tourist area. A series of effective
measures are taken to protect the temples, buildings and other facilities. After the blasting, both the power
dispatching building (3.7 meters to the south of the hotel) and the military fiber optic cable (4.5 meters
north) were undamaed. The ancient city park (at 20 m nearby) and the White Longtan Pool and Temple
were completely intact. The demolition blasting design and construction of this building have been intro-
duced in the included file[5], and we aim to use the successful blasting demolition of this building as an
example in order to introduce some measures to control the harmful effects of blasting.

1 INTRODUCTION demolished by directional blasting to the west.

Lijiang Black & White Water Grand Hotel, located
in the ancient city of Lijiang, with a length of
28 meters from east to west, a width of 24.4 meters
from south to north, a height of 57.7 meters and
the building area of 11037 square meters. It is a
17-storey building, with a modern frame-shear
structure that is inconsistent with the style and
features of this old town. This building has been
treated with seismic hardening to resist 8-magni-
tude earthquakes. Is a particularly solid structure,
with double-deck core tube is applied inside the
building, and a large number of 30 cm double-deck
rebar shear walls applied to the outer wall.
The ancient city is a protected zone. The Ancient
Park, the White Longtan Pool, and the White
Longtan architectural complex are some key fea-
tures of Lijiang citys protected heritage. The
Ancient Park is just 20 meters away from the hotel,
ant the White Longtan Pool and the ancient archi-
tectural complex of the White Longtan Temple
are within 200 meters. According to the national
standard Blasting Safety Regulations, the permis-
sible safe vibration velocity of the historic building
is 0.10.3 cm/s. Thus, restricting the blasting and
touchdown vibrations of the demolition of this
building to the prescribed limit is the key to the
success of this blasting project.
2 BUILDING GROUND VIBRATION
CONTROL
4.5 meters to the north of the hotel is a main road,,
while 3.7 meters to the south is a dispatch building.
Given these constraints, the hotel can only be
Using the single-gap directional blasting scheme,
the ground vibration[1]:
1.67
I1 / 3
V1 = 0.08 (1)
R
Among which, I = M(2gH)1/2, (415th floor)
height of the mass center and the gravity center
H = 27.4 m, drop-height of gravity center as
8.54 m.
In this formula:
Vtground vibration velocity caused by collaps-
ing (cm/s);
Itouchdown impulse of the collapsed article;
Mmass of the dropping construction element; at
the moment when the bottom gap touches the
earth, we shall take the mass when all build-
ing body above the third floor when blasting.
M = 9853 103 kg;
gacceleration of gravity (9.8 m/s2);
Hdrop-height of the construction elements
gravity center (m); H = 8.54 m;
Rdistance between the observation point and
the center of the earth impact (m).
In order to confirm the vibration result, we
chose the ground of the eastern outer corridor of
Bank of China as the observation point (we had
conducted vibration monitoring at this point when
blasting), distance R = 44 m.
The touchdown vibration velocity was calcu-
lated to be V1 = 4.5 cm/s, after substituting the
above data into the formula.
The vibration velocity reached 4.5 cm/s at the
height of 44 m. Thus, the vibration in the nearby

639

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 639 10/3/2012 8:47:47 PM

 buildings significantly exceeded the maximum
permissible by the Blasting Safety Regulations.
Through calculations, the single-incision direc-
tional collapse could not move out of the side
boundary of this building, indicating a deficiency
in the upsetting moment. Although it could top-
ple and fall, this movement was not complete; We
also took the solidity of these anti-seismic struc-
tures into full consideration. If it fell to the ground
but did not disintegrate, it would not only cause a
very large vibration but also the high levels of slag
muck, which harms re-crushing processes. There-
fore, the best method was to apply a multi-incision
direction collapse[2], which could not only make
the gravity center of the building move outside
gradually and increase the upsetting moment, but
also allow the whole building to disintegrate while
standing, impacting the ground layer by layer and
section by section, buffering the touchdown vibra-
tion of the uppermost parts by taking advantage
of the slag muck which has already accumulated,
thereby reducing vibration.
From the design of this project, we can see the
distribution of three incisions have maintained at Picture 2. Sketch map of the gravity center of each
a broad level; As for just the collapsing height, its blasting gap in this building.
vibration to impact the earth shall be V3V2V1,
seen in Picture 2.
However, due to control of the firing order,
the lower major incision would be fired first,
so the cushioning effect of the lower slag muck
and the reduction of collapsing height caused by
the transformation would greatly decrease the
touchdown vibration of each incision when clos-
ing (Picture 3). The cushioning effect of three inci-
sions was sizeable. When the three cuts were closed,
the largest impact force was caused by the impact
of the main (low) cut on the ground. A total col-
lapse was formed by the combination of the upper
cuts and the lower slag muck. When those upper
cuts were closed, the impact force greatly declined.
When a calculation was done using the main cut as
a example V44 m = 2.0 cm/s, the vibration velocity
near the dispatchers building of the buildings

Picture 3. The schematic diagram before closing and

touchdown of three blasting notches.

frame construction was still 5 cm/s higher than the

Picture 1. Sketch map of the blasting gap at the building
bottom to touch the earth firstly.
specifications. Using the distance between the dis-
patchers building and the epifocus, we could get
a result of V25 m = 5.48 cm/s by substituting the
distance value to the formula.
For the sake of safety, we adopted the following
three measures in the implementation of the actual
projects.

640

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 640 10/3/2012 8:47:47 PM


Picture 4. The schematic diagram of the lengthways
shearing at the moment of the blasting of the building.
1. In addition to the three crosswise cuts in the
building, two shear zones were formed length-
wise using subsection delay. (Picture 4), from
the blasting of the dismantled building, the
impact energy of main part of V1 was absorbed
by the box-shaped base in second basement
of the building, because of the formation of
lengthwise shear zones, which played an impor-
tant part in the damping effect.
2. Careful treatment was conducted before blasting.
All the shear walls in the 1st, 2nd and 3rd incisions
were cut out artificially, and only the side corner
post was left for blasting. Thus, there was no
transmission of the pressure impact energy, except
the blasting vibration in every cut when blasting,
which made it easy for the cut to be closed and
accelerated the dismantling of the building struc-
ture. The touchdown impact was also reduced.
3. The ballast back-moving in front of the build-
ing was over 2 m, which provided a significant
buffer for impact on the subsequent cuts G2 and
G3. Building positions such as a restaurant with
a round roof, the elevator shaft and water tank,
had been essentially dismantled by the destruc-
tion after the shearing with a relatively big
impact force, which directly landed on the cush-
ion, which reduced the touchdown vibration sig-
nificantly, and prevented rolling and preshoot.
The cushion thus not only played a strong role
in damping and protection, but also prevented
the second splashing of the touchdown of the
building. This significantly reduced the effect
that flying pieces of stone have on the nearby
transformer, glass windows, banks and hotels.
3 THE CONTROL ON THE BACK-MOVING
OF THE EAST SIDE OF THE BUILDING
There are a row of 4-storey dormitories and office
buildings 7.8 meters east of the building, which are
641
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 641
the relatively old and in relatively poor condition. It
is very important to control for back-moving of the
57 m tall building. Back-movement may damage or
otherwise compromise the safety of the old 4-storey
buildings, because every the height of every storey
in the hotel is over 5 m. The building can only col-
lapse in the west direction, which is the direction
of its long axis, and in fact, it is harmful for the
movement of the center of gravity. Although the
opening of the three cuts can ensure the move-
ment of the center of gravity out of the side line
and ensure the directional collapse of the building,
the blasting time between the rows of uprights and
the two shear walls should be sufficiently long, or
it will lead to the blasting of the back-moving row
after the touchdown of the front row, which will
produce a large bending movement and cause sig-
nificant big back-moving. Thus, the eight rows of
uprights (including two shear walls) in the project
were applied with the method of three-subsection
delay: HS2 (three rows), HS3 (two rows) and HS4
(two rows), and the back-moving row was not
blasted. In consideration of the size of the building,
two rows of uprights were left as structs to prevent
turning over outside after the drop of the top of the
upright onto the first floor in the back-moving row
the caused by the shortage of the strut force, which
would have led to serious back-moving.
If the influence of the bending movement is
ignored, the load condition of the back upright
should still be considered, a value that can be esti-
mated simply by using the bearing capacity of the
uprights. The two back rows of uprights were left
in this project (10 750 m 750 mm) sectional
area = 5.625 m2, the weight of the part on the main
notch of the building was p = 9853 103 kg.
The stress on the strut surface of the 10 uprights
reserved by the load of the self weight of the build-
ing was:
1 = p/s = 9853000/56250 = 175.2 kg/cm2 =
17.52 Mpa < C30 = 30 Mpa,
If it only retained one row of columns (5
750 750) S = 2.81 m2,
p = 9853 103 kg,
2 = p/s = 9853000/28100 = 350.6 kg/cm2 =
35.06 Mpa > C30 = 30 Mpa.
C30 pressure intensity of concrete is c = 30 Mpa.
Thus, it is necessary to reserve the two back rows
of uprights. The building will not collapse instantly
because of the effect of self weight load, which will
lead to agitation or shaking of the two back rows
of uprights of the residual struts.
Because of the combined action of the second
last row of uprights, which acted as a struct at the
moment of the closing of the cut, the load state
of the back rows of uprights and the shear walls
were changed, causing the whole upright to break
10/3/2012 8:47:48 PM
 Picture 5. Some back-moving photos of the blasting of
the building.

off onto the first floor and produce very signifi- Picture 6. The schematic diagram of the collapsing
cant back-moving. This is hazardous because the scope of the blasting muckpile of the building (the part
building would gradually be crushed and broken in shadow in the collapsing scope).
off during its collapse and cause back-moving (see
the photos in Picture 5) to be controlled in a scope
of around 2 m.
Picture 5. Some back-moving photos of the
blasting of the building.

4 THE COLLAPSE RANGE CONTROL

The surrounding environment is complex. 4.5 m to

the north is an optical cable for military use. 3.7 m
to the south is the dispatchers building, 7.8 m east
is the row of dormitory buildings. Thus, only the
westward direction was suitable, with the China Picture 7. The photos of the collapsing scope of the
Bank about 43 m away. According to requirements blasting muckpile of the building.
of the law for the blasting sites, 2/3 H, H = 57 m,
2/3 H 40 m, it is clearly very dangerous, as
40 m away from it was the transformer. However,
with the multi-cut oriented collapse, the require-
ments for blasting sites can be greatly reduced
(see Pictures 6 and 7). The main cut is closed on
itself (see Picture 3), and the scope of slag muck
will not exceed 20 m after the upper two cuts are
closed, because the distance calculated is less than
1/2 H = 28.5 M. The actual and estimated values
are nearly the same. If the building had collapsed
forward, it would have fallen approximately on the
damping cushion prepared in advance, which would
have greatly reduced the vibration of collapsing, as
long as the residual slag muck had remained within Picture 8. Changing vibration velocity of ground
18 m. This is not the case for the elevator shaft and caused by blasting along with distance.
the water tanker, which would have been thrown
out to 20 m during the demolition. At the same
time, as the adjustment of the back strut force is of 2 m, and ensure the safety of the back of the
considered in the design, the collapsing and turn- dormitory building. The pre-treatment of the pad-
ing back of the back rows of uprights do not occur ding wall and glass curtain not only allowed the
in the process of collapsing, which makes it pos- building to be well dismantled, but also prevented
sible to control the back-moving within the scope spreading of materials towards the cable and the

642

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 642 10/3/2012 8:47:48 PM

 dispatchers building. This resulted from combined
action of the cast-in-place structure, the outside
shear wall of the frame, and shear wall structure of
the building. Furthermore, the orientation of the
reinforced frame and shear wall structure of this
kind of upright is very accurate, and there will not
be differences in other projects if the construction
is conducted meticulously and the balance and
symmetry of the design are guaranteed.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The dismantling of the Lijiang Black and White
Water Grand Hotel has been a complete success.
This blasting project that was particularly difficult
to implement, owing to the minority nationalities
in the area, the locations reputation for its beauty,
and its heritage status. Nevertheless the goal was
attained entirely through the analysis of blast
results. According to vibration survey data (see
Picture 8) from the Yunnan Seismological Bureau
and the Engineering College, the vibration experi-
enced at the China Bank 44 m away was 0.8 cm/s,
which is far lower than the 4.5 cm/s predicted by
theory. Furthermore, 0.28 cm/s of vibration in
200 m is lower than the maximum permissible
vibration of 0.3 cm/s prescribed by the state for
the protection of heritage areas and cultural relics.
The scope of slag muck was completely in accord-
ance with the original design, in which the south
side was controlled within 2 m, ensuring the safety
of the dispatchers building 3.7 m away. 4 m north
(no movement because of the disk on the top
storey), did not influence the optical cable 4.5 m
away. The height of the slag muck was around
16 m, which was fully dismantled, and the cleaning
work was finished in one month.
In consideration of the blasting, the following
are concluded:
1. The existing method of calculating vibration
is partially safe. The vibration caused by the
multi-cut pour-out orientation method is far less
than the current values. The extent vibration is
643
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 643
related to changes in dismantling and the form
of touchdown. The current system is a method
of calculation that corresponds to the actual
condition to direct the construction correctly.
2. The load bearing capacity of the back rows of
uprights is the key to controlling back-moving,
necessitating the relevant computations.
Adopting two rows of uprights as the strut
point in this project has shown to have a good
effect. Additionally, back-moving is also be
related to the number of delay subsections
and the time difference of the subsections.
Inappropriate selection can lead to disastrous
outcomes.
3. Adopting the multi-cut orientation blasting,
has further reduced the pour-out distance. The
previous standard value of 2/3 of the building
height can be adjusted to a 1/2 or 3/5 of the
building height. This can enhance blasting and
dismantling projects in complicated environ-
ments, such as modern cities. However, this is
only possible if the construction is meticulously
designed. If this is achieved, the collapsing dis-
tance can be completely controlled.
The aforementioned compose the experience
and overall views from the successful blasting of
the dismantling of the Lijiang Black and White
Water Hotel. Irrespective of whether I am correct
or not, I wish to have a discussion with the experts
in this industry.
REFERENCES
1. Wang Xuguang. 2010. Blasting Manual. Beijing, Met-
allurgical Industry Press.
2. Wang Hao, Zheng Bingxu. 2003. Comprehensive Tech-
nology of Demolition Blasting. Engineering Blasting 01.
3. Wang Hao, Xu Jianyong. 1999. Demolition Blasting
of a Sixteen-storey Ward building in the Changzheng
Hospital in Shanghai. Engineering Blasting.
4. Wei Lin, Zhu Jinlong, Wang Hao. 2006. Analyses
of Environmental Vibration Monitoring during the
Demolition Blasting of Shanghai Siping Building.
Blasting 04.
10/3/2012 8:47:50 PM
This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Time constrained demolition of brick and mortar constructed

rail-bridge

S.K. Mandal, C. Sawmliana, R.K. Singh & P. Pal Roy

Central Institute of Mining and Fuel Research, CSIR, Dhanbad, India

ABSTRACT: Renovation program for electrification and construction of double tracks between
Pandaveswar and Sainthia Railway Station required demolition of an overhead arch-shaped brick and
mortar constructed railway-bridge, Bridge No. 66. To maintain the connectivity between Eastern and
Western parts of township, a RCC bridge with increased pillar height was constructed very close to
the existing bridge before demolition of brick and mortar constructed rail-bridge. Busy train and road
traffic restricted demolition and rehabilitation schedule. Considering the time constrained demolition
and rehabilitation program of eight hours, planning was made for demolition by blasting. Location
of the bridge with respect to locality viz., dwellings, local market, newly constructed RCC bridge,
rail-signaling arrangements and signaling cabin, controlled blasting was planned for demolition. The
paper, here, discuses about drilling and blasting plan and necessary precautionary measures adopted for
demolition of bridge and rehabilitation of tracks well within eight hours without causing any damage to
the surroundings.

1 INTRODUCTION

Renovation plan between Pandabeswar and

Sainthia rail stations in Birbhum district of West
Bengal proposed to replace diesel engines by elec-
trical locomotives and upgrade the tracks from
single to double to cater the busy schedule of
trains. One arch-shaped brick and mortar con-
structed overhead railway-bridge, Bride No. 66,
located near Dubrajpur rail station, hindering the
development work. Lower topographical posi-
tion of tracks also helped to use this bridge as
an important link between Eastern and Western
parts of Dubrajpur township. Location of bridge Figure 1. Satellite view of the bridge with respect to rail
with respect to Dubrajpur rail station and locality station and locality.
is shown in Figure 1. To maintain the road-link
and renovate rail-section of this area, demolition
of the bridge was planned after construction of
a new RCC-bridge very close to existing bridge
(Fig. 2). To accommodate overhead electrical line
for electric locomotives, height of piers of newly
constructed RCC-bridge was also increased.
Looking into the importance of rail and road
services in this area, time schedule for demolition
Figure 2. Distance between RCC and brick and mortar
and rehabilitation was restricted to eight hours.
constructed bridge.
So, considering the time constrain and the com-
plex situation of the locality viz., busy locality
comprising of local market, hutments, school pre-blasting precautionary measures and the
and residential buildings, planning was made to blast pattern adopted for demolition of bridge
dismantle the structure by controlled blasting and rehabilitation of the track without damaging
(Fig. 3). The paper, here, discusses about the the surrounding structures.

645

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 645 10/3/2012 8:47:50 PM


Figure 3. View of surroundings around the bridge
under demolition.
2 ABOUT THE SITE
The overhead bridge, bridge no. 66, near Dubrajpur
rail station is 221.39 km from Howrah and lies
between Pandabeswar and Sainthia rail stations
in Asansol Division of Eastern railways. The arch
shaped bridge, about 8 m height above track level,
had three arches, each of 6 m span. The abutments
for central arch were on two pillars running close
to the tracks. Base of the remaining two side
arches were abutted on pillar and on rock foun-
dation (Fig. 4). Top surface of the bridge, total
length 20 m, was filled with rubble and bituminous
for movement of vehicles. For safety of road traf-
fic and trains, bridge was provided with sidewalls,
1.2 m height, along the lengths of the bridge.
3 PLAN FOR DRILLING AND BLASTING
Brick and mortar constructed rail-bridge was
critically analyzed to evaluate key locations that
would require external energy for destabilization.
Location of the bridge with respect to vulnerable
structures viz., newly constructed RCC-bridge,
signaling cabin and rail-signaling structure, in
addition to dwellings in close proximity was also
reviewed to assess the protective measures to be
adopted during demolition. For easy evacuation of
blasted debris and quick rehabilitation of tracks,
646
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 646
Figure 4. View of abutments of the arches.
Figure 5. Photographs showing dismantled sidewalls
near the junctions and at ends.
plan was made to have directional demolition i.e.,
vertical demolition for central arch and side fall
(away from the tracks) for rest of the structure.
Considering the bridge structure, abutments
of arches were observed to be vulnerable loca-
tions for destabilization. Similarly, for the pillars,
base of the pillars were analyzed to be the loca-
tions for destabilization. Characteristics of bridge
(overhead bridge) facilitated to use top surface of
the bridge for drilling in arch portions. Road con-
structing materials viz., rubble and bituminous,
were removed from top surface to expose brick
work along the length of the bridge and near abut-
ments. For independent behavior of each arch and
execute proper drilling operation along width of
the bridge, especially near the arch abutments, side
walls near the junction of arches and at ends, each
1.5 m length, were manually dismantled (Fig. 5).
This was carried out during no-train movement.
The remaining side walls were left intact to add
weight and momentum for easy demolition with
blasting. To reduce the impact of central arch on
the tracks, two horizontal rows were planned to be
drilled and blasted during vertical fall. For destabi-
lization of pillars, planning was made to drill from
track level during no-train movement for a mini-
mum period of three hours. Apprehending jam-
ming of drill rods due to moist nature of bricks,
four jack hammers and one BOSCH electrical drill
machine (32/38 mm drill diameter) were executed
twenty four hours before the actual block period.
Actual block period was planned for only charg-
ing of blast holes, taking protective measures to
contain blast-induced hazards viz., flyrock and air
10/3/2012 8:47:51 PM
 overpressure/noise well within limit and removal
of blasted debris for restoration of tracks.
3.1 Drilling plan
The drilling plan in pillars and arch and the ini-
tiation sequence is shown in Figure 6. Wedge-cut
pattern with burden and spacing of 0.5 and 0.25 m
respectively was drilled at the arch abutments. For
the central arch, drilling was implemented at both
the abutments, whereas, for the side arches, drill-
ing was carried out at the abutments towards the
road ends. Depending upon inclination of holes,
depth of each hole varied between 0.7 and 0.9 m.
To reduce the impact of collapse of massive central
arch on to the tracks, two additional rows of holes
were drilled in the central arch for further frag-
mentation during fall. These rows, spaced at 1 m
distance from the arch axis were drilled horizon-
tally towards the axis of arch. With depth varying
Figure 6. Drilling and firing pattern for bridge
demolition.
647
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 647
Figure 7. Charged blastholes in pillar and arch.
between 0.8 and 0.9 m, holes were spaced at 0.5 m
in a row. Similarly, in each pillar, nine rows were
drilled in square pattern with a burden and spac-
ing of 0.5 m. All the holes, depth varying between
1.2 and 1.3 m, were drilled horizontally from track
end i.e., perpendicular to track line or parallel to
thickness of pillar. Number of holes in abutment
of arches and in pillars was about 180 and 40
respectively. The holes were charged with Powergel-
901 emulsion explosive. Maximum charge per hole
for arch abutments varied between 0.125 kg and
0.250 kg and for pillars between 0.4375 and 0.5 kg
(Fig. 7). Charging of holes was carried out with
detonating cord, except for one hole per row hav-
ing different delay timing. These hole were charged
with both detonator and detonating cord and all
the holes having same delay timing were connected
to each other.
4 PRECAUTIONS ADOPTED
FOR DEMOLITION
The hazards apprehended during demolition activ-
ity were flyrock, air overpressure, vibration and
gathering of local people to observe demolition
activity. Electric cables and water pipe lines crossing
the bridge for transmission from Eastern to West-
ern parts of the township were temporarily discon-
nected and shifted towards the new RCC-bridge.
The structures, located within 15 m from the blast-
ing site, requiring protection during demolition
were electric post with transformer, rail-signaling
post, signaling cable and cabin. The other struc-
tures viz., hutments, residential buildings, school
and local market, located within 70 m from the
demolition site, were also of concern for protection
during blasting. Signaling structure was protected
from damage by covering it with tin sheets at lower
portion and hanging brattice cloth at top portion.
Glass windows of the signaling-cabin were pro-
tected by hanging brattice cloth. This was carried
out to protect the structures from both flying of
blasted fragments, if any, and air overpressure.
To avoid mixing of blasted fragments with rub-
10/3/2012 8:47:51 PM
 except for the central arch, resulted into improper
detonation of all the holes. The fume character-
istics observed in the snap-shot extracted from
video-recording of blast event revealed the same
(Fig. 9). Few holes in side arches and pillars got
detonated in the blast. However, detonation of all
the holes in central arch resulted into desired verti-
cal fall. Collapse of central arch resulted into cut-
offs of the connections made in pillars. So, misfire
was firstly dealt by partially clearing the blasted
muck of central arch. It was observed that except
the first row all the holes were left intact. So, to
avoid further misfire and accomplish the work well
within stipulated time, all the holes within the pil-
lars and arches were detonated instantaneously.
Instantaneous detonation resulted into collapse
of structure without any development of momen-
tum. Vertical fall was observed of both the side
arches and the un-blasted portion of pillar (top
portion) standing over the blasted area of pillar.
The characteristics of hole marking near the abut-
ments of side arches indicated effective splitting
from the main structure (Fig. 10). Dismantling of
the un-blasted pillar portions was carried out with
the help of two JCBs and thereafter, removal of
Figure 8. Protections adopted during demolition of
blasted debris was carried out with JCBs and two
bridge.
tractor-hauled small trolleys.
Impact of blasting on the surrounding structures
was also carried out. Vibration and air overpres-
ble stone pieces laid over the tracks, a thick plastic
sheet was placed over the tracks extending to about
10 m on either sides of bridge. The tracks and the
concrete connectors (sleepers) were protected by
laying sand bags over the tracks (Fig. 8a). Simi-
larly, flying of blasted fragments from pillars was
protected by making a shield cover near the pillar
ends (Fig. 8b). Flying of blasted fragments from
top of the arch was assured by placing flexible
wide net (mesh size 2 mm 2 mm) over the entire
length of bridge (Fig. 8c). For further reduction
of air overpressure and flyrock, if any, and avoid
inadvertent entry of local inhabitants or animals
to the blasting site, the entire area along the RCC-
bridge and the trench were guarded with tin sheets
erected over bamboo structure (Fig. 8d).
Figure 9. Snap-shot extracted from video-recording
during demolition of central arch.
5 BLASTING OPERATION

The initiation pattern for demolition of bridge was

designed to have vertical fall for central arch and
side fall (away from tracks) for pillars and rest of
the arches. To minimize resistance of the circuit,
only one detonator along with detonating cord was
loaded in a hole per row having same delay number
and rest of the holes having same initiation timing
were loaded and connected with detonating cord.
But, incomplete detonation of all the detonators, Figure 10. Condition of bridge after blasting.

648

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 648 10/3/2012 8:47:53 PM

 6 CONCLUSION

Evaluation of key structural elements of the arch

shaped bridge viz., abutments of arches, resulted
into demolition of the structure. Implementation
of proper muffling arrangement and barricading
the area helped in proper control of work and
unwanted damage to surrounding structures from
flying of blasted fragments and air overpressure.
Electric detonators having probability of misfire
should be avoided for demolition work. Efficacy
of drilling performance should be determined to
schedule work plan for time constrained demoli-
tion activity.

REFERENCE

Figure 11. Tracks rehabilitated after demolition CIMFR, 2010. Controlled Demolition of Old Arch
blasting. Shaped Railway Bridge, Bridge No. 66, Near
Dubrajpur Railway Station, Report of Investigation,
CNP/2654/2010-11. Sponsored by Ministry of Railways,
Government of India.
sure was monitored at two locations. The vibra-
tion magnitudes measured at 10 and 50 m distance
from the blasting site were 1.71 and 0.741 mm/s
respectively. Frequency of vibration for these
two blasts was 17 and 20 Hz respectively. Simi-
larly, magnitudes of air overpressure measured at
same distances were 73.0 and 60 pa(L), indicating
safe controlled demolition blasting. No flying of
blasted fragments or any injury was reported dur-
ing demolition. Removal of blasted debris and
rehabilitation of tracks was established well before
the scheduled block period i.e., one hour before the
end of block period, Figure 11.

649

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 649 10/3/2012 8:47:54 PM

This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Numerical simulation of explosive demolition of a shear wall structure

apartment

Hyon-Soo Kim & Sang-Ho Cho

Chonbuk National University, Jeonju, Republic of Korea

Hoon Park & Chul-Gi Suk

Korea Kacoh Co., Ltd., Seoul, Republic of Korea

ABSTRACT: In the late 1980s, wall-slab structures were applied to most construction projects for
high-rise apartment buildings in Korea. Mechanical demolition of shear wall-slab structured apartments
causes structural instability and generates environmental problems in the neighborhood, such as dust,
noise and ground vibration during the preparatory work and the demolition process. Recently, a shear
wall structured apartment has been demolished by means of an advanced explosive demolition technique
that combines various collapse behaviors to minimize environmental impacts on the vicinity of the target
structure. In this study, we simulated the collapse behavior of the shear wall apartment according to the
blast scenario of the explosive demolition using ELS (Extreme Loading for Structures) software. The col-
lapse behavior and diffusion area of debris obtained from the simulation results were compared with that
from the actual explosive demolition experiment results.

1 INTRODUCTION progressive collapse were carried out with ESL,

Different from reinforced concrete Rahmen struc-
tures composed of beams and columns, wall-slab
structured buildings have relatively thin and long
vertical walls supporting the main load of the
building. Wall-Rahmen structured apartments first
appeared in the early 1980s, while wall-slab struc-
tured apartments appeared in the mid-1980s. The
market for demolition of structures grew rapidly
because of the increase the in redevelopment and
rebuilding projects of late 1990s. It is expected that
because a large number of residential apartments
and high-rise buildings are close to the building
life span, the demand for the demolition of wall-
slab structured high-rise apartments will steadily
increase in the future (Park et al. 2011). In this
paper, the authors introduce a practical demoli-
tion method for wall the structure of high-rise
apartments, and discuss the difficulties of blasting
demolition projects related to high-rise, shear wall
structures.
To predict the buildings collapse behavior
in the demolition of the structure, LS-DYNA,
AUTODYN, ABQUS programs and ELS software
were used. ELS software is especially easy for the
modeling of the removal of partial members in
structures. Demolition of the reinforced concrete
structure model was compared to the experimental
results (Park et al. 2008) using the ELS program.
Experimental and analytical investigations of the
using demolition scenarios and computer mod-
eling (Griffin. 2008).
In this study, the demolition of a shear wall
structure apartment was simulated using ELS
software. The simulation demonstrated a demoli-
tion that combined progressive collapse and felling
methods, using an advanced explosive technique to
minimize environmental effects on the vicinity of
the target structure. The collapse behavior and dif-
fusion area of debris obtained from the simulation
results were compared to the experimental results.
2 REVIEW OF EXPLOSIVE DEMOLITION
OF A WALL STRUCTURED APARTMENT
2.1 Overview
Figure 1 shows the T-shaped 15 story wall-slab
structure apartment which was demolished using
an advanced explosive demolition technique that
combined the progressive collapse and felling
methods (Park et al. 2011).
The dimensions of the target structure were
48.3 m 50.3 m 11.5 m. The wall and slab were
200 mm and 150 mm thick, respectively. The blast
scenario and pre-weakening schedule were deter-
mined taking the presence of soundproof walls and
highways into consideration. The distance between
the wall and the apartment was about 12 m.

651

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 651 10/3/2012 8:47:54 PM


Figure 1. Target wall-slab structured apartment for
explosive demolition.
Figure 2. Pre-weakening of the target structure.
Figure 3. Collapse behavior of the target structure.
2.2 Pre-weakening operation and collapse
behavior of the structure
Pre-weakening work for removing partial supports
on the 1st, 2nd, 4th, 6th, 7th, 10th, 11th and 13th
floors was carried out before blasting. Figure 2
shows the exterior of the target structure after pre-
weakening. Figure 3 shows the collapse behavior
of the building as time elapses after the ignition
of the blast. Figure 3 (a) shows the target before
blast ignition. Figure 3(b)(d) show the fall of the
structure, with a marked the tilt toward the front
and left. The structure completely collapsed after
7.91 seconds (Park et al. 2011).
652
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 652
3 SIMULATION OF BLAST DEMOLITION
OF THE TARGET BUILDING
3.1 Analysis model
Figure 4 compares the 3D models of the target
structure before and after pre-weakening. The total
number of elements and springs in the target struc-
ture was 24,717 and 2,425,724 respectively. The total
mass of the structure was about 118,800 tons.
3.2 Analysis conditions
The mechanical properties of standard concrete
and reinforcement were used in the target struc-
ture, as shown in Table 1.
First, static analysis that considered gravita-
tional influences was conducted. Following this,
dynamic analysis with a 0.01 time step was con-
ducted for 8 seconds.
3.3 Analysis results
Figure 5 shows the collapse behavior of the target
structure after blast ignition. 36 hours were required
to complete the one-case simulation of the collapse
with a 64bit workstation (IntelXeonProcessor
2.66 GHz). The target structure model collapsed
progressively and fell in the front-left direction. The
target structure model collapsed completely around
6 seconds after the blast ignition. Compared to the
collapse of the real structure as shown in Figure 3, the
Figure 4. 3D models of the target structure.
10/3/2012 8:47:54 PM
 Table 1. Physical properties of the target structure.

Property Concrete Reinforcement

Youngs modulus (MPa) 2.94 10 4

3.92 105
Shear modulus (MPa) 1.17 104 8.04 104
Tensile strength (MPa) 4 637.43
Compressive strength (MPa) 40 637.43
Separation strain 2,500 7,840
Normal contact stiffness 0.1 0.2
factor
Shear contact stiffness 0.0001 0.0001 Figure 6. Flying distance of debris from collapse of the
factor target structure.
Contact spring unloading 0.00001 0.00001
stiffness factor
Ultimate strain 10 10 ment is about 10 m. The extent of the scatter of the
Ultimate strength/tensile - 0.1 debris during the collapse of the structure was 7 m
yield stress and 25 m, for the rear and front side, respectively.
Friction coefficient - 1.1
Post yield stiffness ratio - 0.8
4 CONCLUSIONS

The collapse behavior of a wall-slab structured

Figure 5. Collapse behavior of the target structure with
elapsed time after blast ignition.
simulated results show more rapid collapse behavior.
This was because the actual delayed firing time was
used for the target structure model. As ELS removes
elements meticulously and systematically, remain-
ing elements accelerate faster than in reality. During
the collapse, small fragments of the structure flew
in all direction. Large amounts of debris are visible
in the front. The structure behind the highway bar-
rier, shown in Figure 1, was located directly behind
the target structure. Figure 6 shows the scattering
of debris during the collapse of the structure. The
distance between the noise-roof fence and the apart-
apartment was simulated using ELS software. The
diffusion area of the debris obtained from the sim-
ulation was compared to the results of the actual
explosive demolition. The findings are as follows:
The model of the structure collapses progres-
sively and falls toward in front-left direction.
The model structure collapsed completely
around 6 seconds after blast ignition. The simu-
lated results show faster collapse behavior. This
difference was caused by elements in the analyti-
cal model that accelerated faster in the program
than in the explosive demolition itself.
During the collapse of the wall-slab apartment,
small fragments of the structure flew in all direc-
tions. Large amounts of debris were visible in the
front. The distance between the noise-roof fence
and the apartment is about 10 m. The extent of
the scatter of the debris during the collapse of
the structure was 7 m and 25 m, for the rear and
front side, respectively.
REFERENCES
Griffin J.W. 2008. Experimental and Analytical Investi-
gation of Progressive Collapse through Demolition
Scenarios and Computer Modeling, Masters Thesis,
Graduate of North Carolina State University.
Park H., C.G Suk, S.K. Kim. 2008. Collapse Modeling of
model RC Structure Using Applied Element Method,
TUNNEL & UNDERGROUND SPACE, Vol. 19,
No.1, pp. 4351.
Park H., S.W. Nam, R.H. Kim, C.G. Suk, Y.S. Song,
E.H. Heo, M.S. Jung, H.J. Kim, K.S. & Park. 2011.
A case study on explosive demolition of wall-slab
structured high rise apartment, ICEB 2011 The 6th
International Conference on Explosives and Blasting.

653

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 653 10/3/2012 8:47:55 PM

This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Controlled blasting demolition of 7 joint buildings at the same time

in urban area

Y.S. Jia, C.W. Han, H.G. Wang & C.B. Liu

Wuhan Blasting Engineering Co., Ltd., Wuhan, China

ABSTRACT: The Shiyan City Peoples Emporium was located in a downtown area, and its general
demolition scheme is introduced. The paper discusses the principle points of blasting. The application of
an interaction sequential detonation network and strict protection measures for controlling flying chips
are introduced. The effect of blasting is analyzed in order to ascertain the result. The technical plan and
safety measures may be helpful and widely used for future reference in city demolition blasting.

1 GENERAL SITUATION Peoples Emporium. The surrounding environment

OF THE PROJECT of the blasting area is shown in Figure 1.

This project was located on the Renmin North

1.2 Project structure
Road, Shiyan city, near Liuyan Wreath Island.
Wushang Group Company decided to demol- Shiyan Peoples Emporium was built in 1982. At
ish and rebuild the Shiyan Peoples Department that time, it was called Liuyan Emporium of Shiyan
Store. Commercial Bureau. It was composed of four
parts, labeled 1, 2, 3, and 4, as shown in Figure 2.
Part 1 was the main business hall, part 2 was the
1.1 Project surroundings
connection body, part 3 was a small business hall
4.5 m North of the Shiyan Peoples Emporium (6-storeys), and part 4 was the warehouse. Parts 1
were underground pipes, and 15 m away was a and 2 were only 3-storeys tall. The main business
pedestrian overpass on Park Road. North of Park hall was a frame structure, while the connection
Road, 51 m away from People Emporium, were body and small business hall were also frame struc-
residential areas. 7 m to the East was Renmin tures, except for the stairs, which were brick struc-
North Road. Under its sidewalk were underground tures. The 3-storey warehouse had only one row of
water pipes and some pipes for other purposes. pillars. Its front and back were load-bearing brick
The closest such pipe to the Peoples Emporium
was 4 m away, and buried 1.2 m deep. To the East
of Renmin North Road were mostly commercial
building, and the closest one was Shiyan Commer-
cial Trade Building, about 52 m away. 5.5 m to the
South was the Shiyan Broadcasting and Television
building. 4.5 m underground was the cable, buried
1.2 m deep. The Shiyan Broadcasting building was
10 m southwest of the structure, and the building
was covered by a glass curtain wall. The 1st to 4th
storeys were rented by the Wushang Group as the
Emporium, and needed to be open for business
during construction time. Shiyan Experimental
Primary School was located to the South of the
Broadcasting and Television building, 92 m away
from the Peoples Emporium. On the West, it was
adjacent to Hebei road, and 8 m along the river
there were trees, cables and sports leisure facilities.
13 m away was the Baier River Corridor, along the
river. The other side of the river had residential
and business units, which were 83 m away from the Figure 1. Scheme of blasting surroundings.

655

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 655 10/3/2012 8:47:56 PM

 Framework

500 500

E*****
23/26.6

1222;
Part 8

69.6
9

3
Framework

500 500
1218;
Part 7

10.4
24.1
23

N
5

4
Framework

1222
Part 6

500
32.2
18.5
22

N
4

4
500: 825
Figure 2. Scheme of the structure.

Framework

400 400

*N: Northward one by one; **I: Introvert autochthonous; ***D: Demolished by machine; ****E: Eastward one by one.
1018;
Part 5

21.9
51

22
walls. The gross area of the 4 parts were 9500 m2.

N
4

4
Parts 5, 6 and 7, shown in Figure 2, were built dur-
ing 199495. Part 5 was a 3 m extension, a 4-storey

Brick-concrete
frame structure. Part 6 was a triangular extension,
a 4-storey frame structure. Part 7 was the air condi-
tioning room, a 5-storey frame structure. The main
Part 4

D***
33.3

16.9
business hall and connection body were increased
12

3
by one storey when extended. The extended parts
connected with the original building repeatedly.
The total floorage was 6600 m2. Part 8, shown in

4 on two flanks
6 on middle and
Figure 2, was built in 1992, and it was a 7-storey
Brick-concrete

framework, comprehensive building. Its gross area

26.4/31.82

400 700

was 4450 m2. These eight parts were associated

1425

with each other, as there were many construction

Part 3

39.6
18.5

I**
crevices between them. The schematic diagram of
6

the diagram is shown in Figure 2.

102 + 212; 24 and

2 CHOICE AND CONFIRMATION

37 brick wall
Brick-concrete

OF THE DEMOLITION SCHEME

300 500

2.1 General schemes

Part 2

38.1

The surroundings of Shiyan Peoples Emporium

9.9
22

N
4

were very complicated. The building had been

reconstructed, extended, reinforced and maintained
The structure of the building.

500: 1222

many times in previous years. The Emporium,

Framework

300 500

combining 8 parts, was complex. The surrounding

1222;

environment including the warehouse, the 1st stair

Part 1

26.4

in the main business hall, the axis parts of E and

N*
51

22
4

the 3 m Faxisin extension, and the 3rd stair in the

small business hall would be mechanically demol-
bearing parts and

ished, while the remaining parts would be brought

reinforcing bars
Detonate scheme

down by blasting demolition.

Detonate storey
Section size of

The warehouse was suitable for mechanical

demolition because it was low, and it provided
Length/m

Height/m
Structure

Width/m
Table 1.

space for eastward directional collapse of the com-

Storey

prehensive building. The rubble of the 1st stair and

3 m extension from mechanical demolition would

656

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 656 10/3/2012 8:47:57 PM

 not cause damage to the broadcasting television
building and the underground pipeline. The 3rd
stair of the small business hall was a brick-concrete
structure, 4 storeys tall. Cleaning the rubble of this
part was helpful for the collapse of the border on
the structure (Feng 1987).
2.2 The principle and key points of 7 joint
buildings blasting design scheme
The Emporium formed by the 8 parts had a
shape. After the warehouse had been demolished,
the remaining 7 building resembled an asymmetric
U. According to the different structures and the
environment of the joint buildings, the blasting dem-
olition process had to address the following issues:
2.2.1 Controlling the muck pile
There were underground pipelines to the North of
the small business hall, and there were trees to the
West. The 5 ft stair was a 6-storey, brick-concrete
structure. These structures determined that the
small business hall had to be demolished by verti-
cal collapse blasting or introvert collapse blasting.
Regardless of which blasting scheme was adopted,
the accumulation effects of the muck pile was
nearly the same, because of the small height-width
ratio of the 3 m extension, the main business hall,
the triangular extension, the connection body, and
the air conditioning room.
2.2.2 High reliability requirements of blasting
circuit
This joint building stretched over a long span.
Thus, storey blasting was high, and the size of the
blasting hole was very large. In order to reduce
the relay detonator series, column rows, which
were blasted by per delay interval blasting, were
increased. The circuit connection work had to be
be done very carefully. If the relay detonator had
any problems, it would lead to serious accidents.
Good protection of the circuit was necessary for
the success of this blasting.
2.2.3 Control of collapse and blasting vibration
Though the joint building was not high, the blast-
ing area was large. After the mechanical demoli-
tion, the gross area of the building remaining was
19000 m2, and its mass was about 36000 t. The sur-
rounding buildings were dense. The distance to the
Broadcasting and Television building, which had
precision instruments, was only 5.5 m. The blast-
ing and collapse vibration, if excessively large,
could cause great losses, or potential danger.
2.2.4 Control of the blasting flying rock
The column in this joint building was of a differ-
ent type, and the reinforcement of the column was
657
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 657
dense. Thus, repeated trial blasting was not possi-
ble. To achieve an effect similar to vertical collapse
blasting, the layer destroyed by blasting should be
greater. In addition, the Shiyan Broadcasting and
Television building was covered by a glass curtain
wall. Thus, protection from flying rock was given
priority status.
2.3 The overall blasting plan of the joint building
On July 6, 2010, Wangxu-guang and other nation-
ally known experts sufficiently demonstrated the
blasting plan of the building complex. They all
agreed that the small business hall should be col-
lapsed span by span from the centre to both sides.
The complex building should be collapsed span by
span from East to West. The 3 m extension, the
main business hall, the triangular extension, the
connection body, and the air conditioning room
should be collapsed span by span from South to
north.
3 THE DESIGN OF BLASTING
PARAMETERSETERS
3.1 The damage height of the column
The formula H = k (B + Hmin) (1)
determines the damage height of the column,
where: H = the damage height of the column, m;
k = the parameters related to the collapsed build-
ing; B = the long edge of pillar section, m; Hmin =
the minimum blasting height of the column, Hmin =
/2 [(E J N)/p]0.5, where P = the loads transferred
from the superstructure, E = Elastic Modulus of
steel bars, n = the number of steel bars in the blast-
ing cut, J = section inertia of the steel bars.
To make sure the building collapsed fully, the
result of formula (1) should be adjusted appropri-
ately. The damage height of the column: on the 1st
floor of the building complex, the damage height
of the inside column was 2.4 m (8 blast holes), the
damage height of the outside was 0.6 m (2 blast
holes). On the 2nd floor of the building, the dam-
age height of the inside was 1.5 m (5 blast holes).
On the 3rd floor of the building, the damage height
of the inside was 0.9 m (3 blast holes). The damage
height of 3-\m extension, the main business hall,
the triangular extension, the connection body, and
the air conditioning room were the same. On the
1st and 2nd floor of the joint building, the dam-
age height was 2.7 m (5 boreholes above 0.5 m, the
other 4 boreholes above 2.5 m). On the 3rd and 4th
floors of the joint building, the damage height was
1.5 m (5 boreholes above 0.5 m); the boreholes of
the operating room were arranged on the 1st, 2nd,
10/3/2012 8:47:57 PM
 3rd and 5th floors. On the 4th and 6th floors, the
centre three spans required the addition of bore-
holes, two sides did not, and the damage height of
the column of the 1st floor was 3.3 m (11 bore-
holes), 3.0 m (10 boreholes) for the 2nd floor, 2.1 m
(7 boreholes) for the 3rd floor, 1.5 m (5 boreholes)
for the 4th floor, 1.5 m (5 boreholes) for the 5th
floor, and 1.5 m (5 boreholes) for the 6th floor(Jia
et al 2005).
3.2 The design of the charge
3.2.1 The charge of a single-hole
The charge of a single hole was calculated by the
formula:
w = kV (2)
where: q = the charge of the single hole, g;
k = explosive consumption, g/m3; V = the volume
damaged by the single hole, m3.
The charge used was the Rock Emulsion Explo-
sive. In order to reduce the clipping action of the
lowest hole, the charge was increased by 10%. The
explosive consumption was decreased by 10% per
storey, because of the bending effect above the 2nd
storey. The various charges are shown in Table 2.
3.2.2 Trial blast
A trial blast session was done before the charge was
used. The explosive consumption was 1500 g/m3.
In the trial session, the concrete separated from the
steel, meaning that the explosive consumption was
a little too large, and needed to be reduced appro-
priately in practice.
3.3 Design of initiation network
The delay in the holes and the relay delay outside
the holes were used at the same time. The detona-
tor HS7 (3 s) was installed in the holes. Every two
rows detonated at the same time. The detonator
MS11 (460 ms) was used in the relay delay between
the rows. The Storeys 13 of the small business
hall were detonated at the same time, and the
storeys 46 were delayed by 460 ms. The 1st3rd
storeys of the complex building were detonated
at the same time, the inside columns detonated
460 ms earlier than the outer columns. Storeys 14
of the connector, state in the delta expansion, the
air-conditioner room, the main business hall, and
the 3 m extension were detonated at the same time.
This was divided into two parts between Hand
Iaxis, and the inside detonated 460 ms earlier. The
connection started from the O-axis of the operat-
ing room, went to the two main lines on the inside
and outside, the left inside line turned around in
the R-axis to connect the inside columns of the
joint building, and the left outside line turned
around in the S-axis to connect the outside col-
umns, the right inside line turned around in the 1
and 17 axes to connect all columns of the connec-

Table 2. The blasting parameters.

Unit
Component Size: Minimum Pitch: Hole consumption: Dosage of Actual
name mm line: w/cm a/cm depth: l/cm kg/m3 single-hole: q/g dosage: q/g

Column 400 700 20 30 53 1500 63 + 63 66 + 66

(1,2th F)
50 + 50
(above 3th)
300 500 15 30 35 1500 67.5 66 (1,2th 3 hole
below)
50 (other)
40 (4th F)
400 400 20 30 23 1500 72 66 (1th)
50 (2,3th)
40 (4th)
500 500 25 30 27 1500 112.5 100 (1th)
80 (2th )
66 (3,4th)
500 25 30 28 1500 88 100 (1th)
80 (2th )
66 (3,4th)
400 20 30 23 1500 71 66 (1,2th 3 hole
below)
50 (other)
40 (4th)

658

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 658 10/3/2012 8:47:57 PM


Figure 3. The time division diagram.
tor and the air-conditioner room, the right outside
line turned around in the H-G axes to connect the
all columns of the state in the delta expansion and
the main business hall (Zheng et al 2005, Zhao
et al 2003). Shown in Figure 3.
4 THE DESIGN OF SAFETY
4.1 The protection of the blasting network
The detonator outside should be covered.
4.2 The vibration effect
4.2.1 The blasting vibration effect
The maximum tolerable explosive quantity of a
single shot, Qmax had to be strictly limited to con-
trol the blasting vibration effect.
Qmax = R3 (v/k k)3/a (3)
where: Qmax = the maximum tolerable explosive
quantity of a single shot, kg; R = the distance
between the protection and the point of detona-
tion, m; v = the allowable vibration velocity, cm/s;
k, a = the factors related to the nature of the dis-
trict media that seismic wave has passed through
and the distance. In this project, the geological
engineering condition was medium hard rock,
so, k = 150, a = 1.5; k = the correction factor,
k = 0.251.0.When buildings have many free faces,
we chose a small value, and otherwise, we chose
larger values. In this project, k = 0.5.
We chose the embankment of the Baier River as
the protection target, with [R] = 40 m, [v] = 3 cm/s,
and Qmax = 102.4 kg.
The maximum tolerable explosive quantity of a
single shot in this project was 45.6 kg. The blast-
ing vibration did not have any impact on the sur-
rounding buildings.
659
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 659
4.2.2 The collapsing vibration effect
The collapse vibration was caused by the building
impacting the ground during the process of the
collapse. Compared to the intensity and frequency
of the blasting vibration, the collapsing vibrations
intensity was larger, while the frequency was lower.
Thus, it required more attention. In order to reduce
the hazard of the collapsing vibration effect, we
adopted sectional zoning to let the components touch
the ground in turn to control the blasting vibration,
while taking a variety of effective measures.
The collapsing vibration is measured by the fol-
lowing formula:
v = Kt [(m g H/)1/3/R] (4)
Where: v = the surface velocity caused by col-
lapse, cm/s; m = the approximate quality of the
component, t; g = the acceleration due to gravity,
m/s2; H = the height of the central component, m;
= the damage intensity of the ground medium,
Mpa, (in general, 10 Mpa); R = the distance between
the observation site and the central ground, m; Kt,
= attenuation parameters, (through regression
analysis of the collapse vibration data caused by
chimney blasting, Kt = 3.374.09, = 1.661.80).
Shearing failure and gradual touchdown occurred
during the blasting demolition. Thus, the attenua-
tion parameters of the buildings blasting demoli-
tion were smaller than that of the chimneys blasting
demolition, and we chose Kt = 3.37, = 1.66.
The quality of the joint building was about
36000 t. The building was divided into ten parts for
blasting. The joint building collapsed almost span
by span. We estimated the result according to 10%
of the total quality, and chose H = 11 m, R = 45 m.
The collapse vibration of the joint building was
2.48 cm/s according to formula (4), and the result
was within the allowable range.
4.3 The protective measures of the flying rock
According to the actual situation and previous
successful experiences of blasting buildings in the
downtown area, covering protection combined
with nearby protection and protective protection
were used in this project.
a. Nearby protection was used for the 1st storey.
Bent bamboo, hung in two layers of bamboo
fences, was set 1.0 m far from the building.
b. Erect bent bamboo was used inside as well,
above the 2nd storey.
c. The 3rd and 4th rows of columns in the east
and south were wrapped with bamboo spring-
board and straw bags, of thickness not less than
15 cm. These were then wrapped with sacks,
which were surrounded by steel mesh.
10/3/2012 8:47:57 PM
 d. A layer of close safety nets was hung all around
the building.
4.4 The measures to prevent the 3 m extension
to out and took
Three points in the east and south of building 3,
4, and the 3 m extension were bound together with
the columns of the main business hall using steel
wire, in order to prevent the main business hall
from pushing out the 3-m extension and break the
underground pipeline during the blasting.
5 THE BLASTING RESULT
The joint building was blasted at 15:30 pm, July 28,
2010. After initiation, its collapse was consistent
with the design. The 3 m extension, the main busi-
ness hall, the triangular extension, the connection
body, and the air conditioning room collapsed as
in vertical collapsing. The height of residues was
no more than 5 m, and this was consist across
buildings. The effects of directional collapse of the
complex building, from West to East, were very
good. There was some residue near the trees, but
sandbags were used to protect the trees before the
blasting, so the trees were not affected. Some rock
escaped from the South part and broke 10 pieces
of glass. The whole process is shown in following
Figure 4.
Figure 4. The process of collapse.
660
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 660
6 MONITORING OF VIBRATION EFFECT
In order to monitor the vibration effects, moni-
toring points were set at all the important targets
when blasting. The data were as follows:
6.1 Monitoring point arrangement
There were four measuring points arranged in the
monitoring system, and each point was installed
with vertical and horizontal sensors. The plane
arrangement diagram of the monitoring point is
shown in Figure 1. The 1st monitoring point was
arranged on the opposite bank of the river. The
2nd monitoring point was arranged on the pedes-
trian overpass. The 3rd monitoring point was
arranged 40 m away from north blasting point.
The 4th monitoring point was arranged the near
the Broadcast and Television building.
6.2 Monitoring vibration dates
The monitoring vibration dates are shown in
Table 3.
According to Table 3, the sensor at the 1st
monitoring point did not trigger, so the blasting
vertical vibration at this point must have been less
than 0.04 cm/s, according to the triggering level
setting. The vertical values of other monitoring
points were all less than 2.0 cm/s. Thus, according
to these standards, the blasting could damage the
surrounding construction, and the vibration fre-
quency was safe.
7 SOME EXPERIENCES
1. When the blasting scheme of the joint build-
ing was designed, we considered that the 3 m
extension, the main business hall, the triangular
extension, the connection body, and the air con-
ditioning room were all frame structures, hav-
ing only girders, columns, floors and no walls,
and were light in weight. Therefore, the present
scheme was adopted, in which we chose to blast
the floors, and the heights were large. Through
observation and analysis of the blasting effects,
we conclude that the number of floors or the
floor blasting height could be appropriately
reduced.
2. In order to prevent turning over and backward
movement of the adjacent structure, adjacent
columns were tied up using steel wire ropes to
successfully strengthen the relationship.
3. Protection from flying rocks was very impor-
tant to the project, as the building was located
in a complex city environment. Parceling of the
columns, strengthening the protection, using
10/3/2012 8:47:58 PM
 Table 3. The velocity and dominate frequency of blasting vibration.

Vertical Horizontal
The number and
The blasting position of Velocity Frequency Velocity Frequency
time monitoring points Distance (m) (cm/s) (Hz) (cm/s) (Hz)

15:00 1# 80 <0.04 <0.04

2010.7.28. 2# 50 0.7741 9.58 0.3745 4.36
3# 40 0.0513 460.23 0.1572 329.89
4# 10 0.786 411.56 0.767 312.34

multilayer and solid protection, and precisely REFERENCES

controlling the explosive charge were effective
measures to reduce flying rock. Using the half-
second delay detonator, the flying rock formed
by the blasting of the first explosive pack-
age destroyed the flying rock protection. This
affected the protection measures for flying rock
caused by the blasting of the final explosive
package, but the extent of the effect could not
be estimated.
4. Simultaneous blasting demolition of 7 joint
buildings in a downtown area is rarely seen in
the nation. An optimal design was proposed
after carefully investigating the structure and
environment. Reasonable blasting parameters,
reliable blasting networks, accurate delay time
and elaborate pre-demolition treatments were
the key factors for successful blasting.
Feng Shu-yu. 1987. City Controlled Blasting. Beijing,
China. Railway Publishing House.
Jia Yong-sheng, Xie Xian-qi & Luo Qi-jun. 2005. General
Blasting Design for Demolition of Eight Buildings in
Waitan Garden. Engineering Blasting.11(4): 3235.
Tan Ling, Wang Zi-li & Tan Xue-gang. 2005. Demolition
of Shiliupu Passagers Building And Shenke Hotel By
Controlled Blasting. Blasting. 22(3): 7679.
Zheng De-ming, Yu De-yun & Cao, Yue. 2006. Demoli-
tion of A 17-Storeyed Building By In-Site Blasting.
Blasting. 23(1): 4851.
Zhao Gen & Jia Yong-sheng. 2003. Application of Inter-
action Sequential Detonation Network In Demolition
Blasting In City. Blasting. Supplement, 79~81.

661

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 661 10/3/2012 8:47:58 PM

This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Fine demolition blasting for a concrete cofferdam on a concrete

dam spill surface

Xu Cheng-guang
Sinohydro Bureau 7 Co., Ltd., Chengdu, China

ABSTRACT: The successful demolition of a temporary concrete cofferdam on the concrete dam spill
surface of Longtan Hydropower Station in China by fine blasting is reviewed. In order to construct the
spill surfaces of the 15th to 19th sections in case water flows though the 12th bottom outlet, a trapezoi-
dal cross-section of the concrete cofferdam was set on the 14th section after completion of 15th19th
spill surface, The 14th temporary cofferdam had to be demolished as fast as possible in order to meet
requirements. The spill surfaces, older structures, and large construction equipment near the cofferdam
upstream could not be damaged by blasting effects, such as fly rock. Newly laid and differently aged
concrete could also not be harmed by blasting vibrations. The particle size distribution needed to be
moderate. The time for the project was very limited. As a result of the features mentioned above, fine
demolition blasting was achieved.

1 INTRODUCTION of Longtan Hydropower Station by controlled

Concrete dam spillway surfaces are concave (as it
appears in the Fig. 1) and required a smooth sur-
face to help control the discharge smoothly. Thus,
high construction quality is necessary. After the
completion of the spillway surface, it must not
be damaged. However, when a high-speed flow is
discharged onto the spillway surface, the surface
experiences stress concentration, resulting in dam-
age and this seriously affects the discharge. The
demolition blasting for a concrete cofferdam on
a concrete dam such as the Longtan Hydropower
Station is very rare, both in in China and abroad,
and is very difficult and risky. Sinohydro Bureau
7 Co., Ltd, has successfully demolished the con-
crete cofferdam on the concrete dam spill surface
Figure 1. Renderings of Longtan Hydropower Station.
blasting.
2 THE ENGINEERING PROPERTIES
OF BLASTING DEMOLITION OF
CONCRETE COFFERDAMS
Longtan Hydropower Station is the key project of
the Hongshui river cascade development, located
in Tiane County, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous
Region. The dam would be mainly for power gen-
eration with consideration to flood control, navi-
gation and other benefits. The engineering hub
consists of Reinforce Concrete Cement (RCC)
gravity dam, underground water power generation
systems and navigation control buildings. The dam
axis length is 849.44 m, the dam height is 216.50 m,
which is divided into 35 segments.
An image of the Longtan Hydropower Station
is shown in Figure 1.
To fulfill the flow of the bottom segment 12,
construction continued on dam segments 15 to 19.
Dam segment 14 was set up as a temporary, trap-
ezoidal concrete cofferdam. The top width of the
cofferdam is 1.0 meter, the slope gradient of the
right bank is 1:0.7, and the slope is vertical on
the left bank. The specific cofferdam dimensions
are: length width height = 23.58 m (14.59)
m (15.13) m. The cofferdam bottom in con-
tact with the spill surface is masonry of thickness
0.2 meters (with a volume of 25.08 m3). Others are
C20 concrete (with a volume of 320.52 m3).

663

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 663 10/3/2012 8:47:59 PM

 The concave portion of the spillway surface in
dam segments 15 to 19 has already been completed.
Elevation and boundary conditions of demoli-
tion of the concrete cofferdam on the dam spill
surface of Longtan Hydropower Station are shown
in Figure 2.
The concrete cofferdam demolition had the fol-
lowing significant constraints:
There were four free faces of the concrete cof-
ferdam. It is easy to produce fly rock and signifi-
cant fragmentation through blasting, which was
to be avoided, as was damage to the concrete
spill surface,
The spill surfaces and lasting structures near the
cofferdam upstream could be damaged when the
concrete cofferdam is blasted.
When the concrete cofferdam was blasted, large
working equipment for another project nearby
(the concrete of a dam, under construction,
shown in Fig. 3), such as tire belt machines,
Figure 2. Elevation and boundary conditions of demo-
lition of concrete cofferdam on the dam spill surface of
Longtan Hydropower Station.
Figure 3. Concrete of concrete dam near concrete cof-
ferdam was being constructed when demolition blast-
ing for a concrete cofferdam on the dam spill surface of
Longtan Hydropower Station.
664
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 664
tower belt cranes and so on, could not damaged
by blasting fly rock or vibrations.
When the cofferdam was blasted, the blast-
ing vibration had to be reduced, could not be
allowed to damage the newly poured and vari-
ously aged concrete nearby.
The blasting block was to be moderate when the
cofferdam was blasted, in order to make the high-
speed flow push all the blasting blocks aside.
Longtan Hydropower Station is the 4th of 10
levels of the development scheme planned for
Hongshui River. When the concrete cofferdam
was demolished, the dam would stop water,
which would lead to a sharp reduction in the gen-
erating capacity of the six cascade hydropower
stations downstream. In order to minimize eco-
nomic loss of downstream cascade hydropower
stations and meet the safety requirements of the
flood season, the demolition period of the con-
crete cofferdam had to be as short as possible.
The six constraints of the concrete cofferdam
demolition blasting project put forward a stringent
set of requirements for the blasting design and
construction.
3 KEY CONTENTS OF FINE BLASTING OF
CONCRETE COFERDAM DEMOLITION
Demolition blasting of the temporary concrete
cofferdam on the dam spill surface of Longtan
Hydropower Station embodies the essence of con-
trolled blasting involving careful blast design and
construction.
3.1 Demolition scheme selection
Such a demolition had two types of blasting dem-
olition design to choose from: the blasting agent
method and the blasting demolition method.
A comparison of the two methods is shown in
Table 1. Because the driving constraint of the
demolition was minimizing the time required to
execute the project, and owing to considerations of
the materials and technology needed, the most effi-
cient allocation of technical resources, and other
engineering factors, a one-off, blasting demolition
method was selected.
3.2 Blasting program and blasting design
parameters
3.2.1 Blasting program
A combination of horizontal holes, bench loos-
ening and smooth blasting was used. The non-
electric plastic detonator and the detonating
cord mixed multi-stage delay detonator network
10/3/2012 8:47:59 PM
 Table 1. Comparison of two methods of concrete cofferdam demolition on the concrete dam spill surface of Longtan Hydropower Station.
Scheme Scheme content abstract
Blasting agent Make blasting agent into flow able slurry
method with the appropriate amount of water,
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 665
pour it into the vertical drilling holes
directly, and form a huge expansion of
pressure by the subsequent hydration
reaction. After a period of time,
pressure and resistance reaches the
maximum value, and the concrete
begins to crack and break.
Blasting According to the regulation structure,
demolition explosive is directly loaded into
method horizontal drilling, block, detonated
and instantly crushes or disintegrates
the concrete.
665
tan Hydropower Station.
the concrete cofferdam on the dam spill surface of Long-
Figure 4. Cross-section holes arrangement blasting for
10/3/2012 8:48:00 PM
Advantages
Blasting agent is not a dangerous material and
is easy to use.
Construction process safety. Blasting agent
method does not generate fly rock, vibration,
air shock waves, noise, toxic gas and dust.
The construction is simple. Water is mixed with
blasting agent and poured into blasting holes.
This method does not need professional work.
Blasting agent method can split and cut concrete
in a planned way.
Construction speed is faster than blasting agent
method.
Construction cost is lower than blasting agent
method.
parameters.
tion are shown in Table 2.
3.2.2 Blasting design parameters
tan Hydropower Station is shown in Figure 4.
tics, procedures, method and blasting programs of
the dam spill surface of Longtan Hydropower Sta-
The concrete cofferdam blasting parameters on
crete cofferdam on the dam spill surface of Long-
A cross-section of the holes for blasting the con-
were translated into the proposed blasting design
the concrete cofferdam, the blast design and plan
According to the demolition blasting characteris-
Disadvantages
Compared with explosives, the energy of blasting agent
is smaller than blasting. Blasting agent method needs
more drilling. Crushing is affected largely by temper-
ature and construction workers experience, construc-
tion time is long and construction cost is high.
Compared with the blasting agent, the blasting demoli-
tion will produce fly rock, vibration, shock wave,
noise, poisonous gas and dust, and the difficulty and
risk of construction are high, with the prominent
safety problems of construction; needs professional
work, and the construction process is relatively large;
the workload of the overflow surface safety and secu-
rity of the surrounding work is high as well.
network.
as far as possible.
structure was also set up.
lapse, and minimize the distance of the fly rock
the blasting fragmentation, achieve vertical col-
explosives were considered in order to reduce
a non-coupling air gap, and even trace charge
holes were used for the charging structure with
dense, and both the smooth and main blasting
The arrangement of the blasting holes was quite
the bottom of the concrete and the permanent
of horizontal smooth blasting holes between
cofferdam and spill surface were set up. A row
masonry between the bottom of the concrete
bursting holes at the surface of the 20 cm thick
A row of horizontal damping holes and smooth
were then used to detonate the delay initiation
were then set up. Detonating electric detonators
 Firstly, a heat preservation quilt on the surface

maximum segment
Charge amount of
of the concrete cofferdam was used for protection,
followed by the use of an iron wire net to cover
the heat preservation quilt for reinforcement. This
method reduces the possibility of fly rock.

(kg)

12
12
3.3 Blasting security
A layer heat preservation quilt and two layer bam-

0.50.6
Filling
length

boo plates were laid on the overflow surface of the

(m)

0.5 concrete cofferdam on both sides, at a range of

18 m, in order to ensure the blasting fragmentation
did not damage the concrete on the spill surface.
0.1250.375
0.150.525
per hole
Charge

3.4 Construction methods and management

(kg)

3.4.1 Construction methods

Using the double construction scaffolding, an
resistance line

air leg drill was used to build the horizontal

blasting holes with the 20 m3 diesel portable air
The least

compressors.
0.50.6

The high-speed flow was used to push the blast-

(m)

0.5

ing fragmentation into the plunge pool down-

stream. The plunge pool was cleared later.
Concrete cofferdam blasting parameters of Longtan Hydropower Station dam spill surface.

spacing
Row

3.4.2 Construction management

(m)

0.6

In the construction process, arranging, drilling,

inspecting, charging and screening blast holes were
Distance between

essential for the success of the project. A live Inter-

net connection, security and protection and other
construction aspects were part of the construction
two rows

management process, in order to ensure that the

0.50.6

program was fully implemented.

(m)

0.3
0.3

4 THE EFFECT OF BLASTING

Cartridge
diameter
(mm)

The blasting effect of the concrete cofferdam on

32
32

the dam spill surface of Longtan Hydropower

Station is shown in Figure 5.
Hole depth

0.863.73
0.853.13
1.13.94
(m)
Aperture
(mm)

42
42
42
Smooth blasting holes
Main blasting holes
Damping holes
Types of holes
Table 2.

Figure 5. The blasting effect of concrete cofferdam on

the concrete dam spill surface of Longtan Hydropower
Station.

666

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 666 10/3/2012 8:48:00 PM


Figure 6. Blasting blocks of concrete cofferdam on
dam spill surface of Longtan Hydropower Station were
flown into the water cushion pond by the discharge.
After blasting the concrete cofferdam, the con-
crete particles almost collapsed in the original
position, and the individual fly rock were con-
trolled within the protection range of 12 m.
Vibration velocity experienced at the nearby
concrete project was only 0.04 cm/s, well within
the permissible range.
The blasting block is relatively fragmented,
and the particle sizes of blasting block are
moderate.
The blasting blocks of the concrete cof-
ferdam on the dam spill surface of Longtan
Hydropower Station were swept into the water
cushion pond by the discharge, which is shown
in Figure 6.
The construction schedule was more than 2 times
faster than would have been possible through
the blasting agent scheme.
667
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 667
The concrete spill surface of the dam, the old
concrete structure in contact with the top of the
cofferdam, the newly poured concrete nearby, and
important working equipment nearby were com-
pletely unharmed, and the blasting effect met the
design requirements fully.
5 CONCLUSIONS
Through the blasting effect analysis of the concrete
cofferdam demolition on the concrete spill surface
of the dam, the following conclusions are drawn:
The technique was very successful in control-
ling blasting effects, such as fly rock, vibrations,
blasting fragmentation, the shape of the blasting
pile. This indicates that the demolition proce-
dures, methods, blasting programs and the spe-
cific blasting design parameters for the concrete
cofferdam were correct.
The safety protection design of the demolition
blasting of concrete cofferdam was reasonable.
The fine blasting increases the likelihood of suc-
cessful blasting, and the method should be used
more extensively.
REFERENCES
JIN Yu. 2001. cofferdam demolition blasting of 1# and
2# dock of Zhoushan changbai Island [J], Engineering
blasting, 2001,17(3):5861.
WANG Xu-guang. 2010. Blasting Handbook [M].
BeiJing of China: Metallurgical Industry Press,
5762.
ZHANG Zheng-yu, et al. 2006. Hydropower engineering
blasting safety monitoring procedures [S]. BeiJing of
China: China Electric Power Press, 2006,1415.
10/3/2012 8:48:00 PM
This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Blasting demolition of single tower cable-stayed unsafe bridge totaling

163 m in length

Xia Jun, Qiu Jinfen, Zhou Mingan & Chen Bin

College of Military Basic Education, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha, China

ABSTRACT: The vertical blast holes were drilled in the II and IV section of the main girder and the pile
cap. The horizontal blast holes were drilled in the III section of the main girder and the tower columns.
The crushing blasting was implemented to the main girder and the tower columns and the loose blasting
was implemented to the pile cap. The technology of segmentation charge and explosion transmission of
detonation cord and millisecond blasting were applied. The bridge collapsed smoothly. The sewage pipe
was intact and the surrounding environment of the bridge was safe.

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Bridges survey

The Tuo Jinang bridge stretches across the Tuo
Jinang River and trends chiefly east-west. Below
the west end of the bridge there is an important
sewage pipe, and residential houses are within 20 m
of both ends of the bridge. Horizontal and oblique
cracks can be found in many structural compo-
nents, such as main girders, cable-stayed panels,
tower columns, and pile caps. Some of the trans-
verse beams, slant supports and bridge decks have
fractured. Many stay cables become corrosive and
fractured after cracking the concrete of the cable-
stayed panels. The stability and mechanical prop-
erties of the bridge are indefinable.
1.2 Bridge structure
The bridge is composed of two spans in a single
tower cable-stayed bridge totaling 163 m in length.
The main span is 93.75 m while the side span is
69.25 m. The bridge deck is 11 m wide. The main
girder is 2.8 m high and 0.2 m wide having an
I-shaped cross-section, the top flange is 0.129 m high
and 0.35 m wide and the bottom flange is 0.3 m high
and 0.6 m wide. The tower column is 25.4 m high,
the sectional dimensions of the tower column above
the bridge deck are 1.5 m 1.0 m while the following
are 1.5 m 1.5 m. The dimensions of the pile cap are
13.5 m 9.5 m 4.0 m. All the construction compo-
nents are reinforced concrete structures. Figure 1 is
the plane schematic diagram of the bridge structure.
Figure 1. The plane schematic diagram of the bridge
structure.
collapsing from the bridge body. Layers of iso-
lation protection structure were set up over the
sewage pipe using a large number of steel tubes,
bamboo plywood, and flexible material to form
effective impact resistance layers.
1.4 Mechanical operation
Mechanical equipment such as crushers, pneumatic
drills and oxygen welding machines were used to
break and clean the bridge deck structure of the
main span. Large hydraulic shears were used to
shear and break the 15 m long main girders over
the sewage pipe. This served three functions. First,
the cable forces of the causative bridge decreased
considerably for the decrease in the bridge deck
load. Second, the waves would decrease for the
decrease of the possible collapsing objects. Third,
the mechanics of the approximate balance between
the main span and the side span would be achieved
when the main girders over the sewage pipe had
been broken.
2 BLAST HOLE LAYOUT

1.3 Sewage pipe protection 2.1 Main girder

The sewage pipe is about 10 m under the bridge, The vertical blast holes were drilled in the II and
and could thus be hit seriously by possible objects IV section of the main girder. The detonation

669

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 669 10/3/2012 8:59:56 PM

 cord was set in the blast holes and the emulsion
explosive was set in the top and bottom flange,
as shown in Figure 2. The horizontal blast holes
were drilled in the III section of the main girder
where the vertical blast holes could not be drilled
successfully because of the dense arrangement of
reinforcing steel. The tilt blast holes were drilled
in the bottom flange. Figure 3 is the schematic
diagram.
2.2 Tower column
The horizontal blast holes were drilled in the
entire section of the tower columns following the
bridge deck, the blasting cut was 4.6 m high. The
same was treatment was given to the upper and
lower sections. The blasting cut was 4 m high.
The detonation cord was set in all the blast holes
and the charge was divided into three sections.
Because the tower columns follow the bridge
deck, the charge structure of the I hole was same
as the IV hole and the II hole was same as the III
hole. Because of the above, the charge structure
of all the holes was alike. Figure 4 is the schematic
diagram.
2.3 Pile cap
Four and two vertical blast holes were drilled
along the centerline in the length direction and
in the width direction, respectively, of the pile
cap. The bunched detonation cord was set in the
blast holes and the charge was divided into two
sections.

3 BLASTING PARAMETERS

With reference to the similar blasting design of

the components (Mao, 2007. & Xia, 2011), the
optimization of the blast hole parameters is shown
in Table 1.
Figure 2. The schematic diagram of the vertical blast
hole (unit:m).

Table 1. The blast hole parameters of main girder and

tower column.

Main girder Tower column

Component
name Vertical Horizontal Above Follow

Min burden/cm 10 10 30 30
Hole deep/cm 270 12 70 120
Pitch/cm 20 25 30 30
Array pitch/cm 25 30 30
Aperture/mm 40 40 40 40
Explosive unit 2744 2600 2222 2222
consumption/
Figure 3. The schematic diagram of the level blast hole g/cm3
(unit:m). Single blast * 33 200 250/350
hole explosive
quantity/g
Hole number 100 2800 160 176
Explosive 35.7 92.4 32 52.8
gross/kg

* The explosive quantity of the bottom and top flange

Figure 4. The schematic diagram of the blast hole of
the pylon (unit:m).
is 40 g. The total length of the four detonation cord
was about 11 m and the explosive quantity of Hexogen
is about 184.8 g (According to the heat of explosion
(Zhou, 2008), the equivalent of emulsion explosive is
about 277.2 g).

670

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 670 10/3/2012 8:59:57 PM

 Table 2. The blast hole parameters of damping of the air shock wave as the distance from
pile cap. the blasting hole increased. All the staff had were
200 m away from the explosion source in order to
Component name Pile cap ensure their safety.
Min burden/cm 270
Hole deep/cm 350 5.3 Safety distance of the flying rock
Pitch/cm 270
Array pitch/cm Double sacks and multilayer careless shades were
Aperture/mm 900 used as peripheral partitions in all parts filled with
Explosive unit 160 charge. The tower columns had been protected
consumption/g/cm3 with multilayer bamboo plywood, especially for
Single blast hole explosive 13600 the relatively intensive charge of the sector. The
quantity/g maximum distributing distance of the flying rocks
Hole number 6 had been restricted within 25 m.
Explosive gross/kg 81.6
5.4 Collapsing vibration velocity
After the initiation, the main span collapsed into
the river. The side span generated total revolv-
ing with the fulcrum of the eastern abutment,
the end of the eastern main girder had not been
separated from the abutment and the other end
Figure 5. The schematic diagram of the blasting zone. collapsed to the pile cap. The pile cap was sur-
rounded by river water. The collapsing bridge
body did not impact the ground directly bellow
4 DETONATING NETWORK
the side span and the collapsing vibration veloc-
ity was weak, causing no damage to the sur-
The duplication crossover initiation network of
rounding buildings.
nonel was used, and the blasting area was divided
into seven sections using the nonel of different delay
time to reduce the single detonation dosage and
6 EPILOGUE
blasting vibration. The main span was divided into
four sections according to the length, and the pile
This blasting demolition was implemented at
cap was divided into three sections. The nonel det-
11 o clock December 27, 2011. The bridge col-
onator MS7 was used as the connection detonator
lapsed smoothly. The body of the main span
between the tower columns following the bridge deck
broke fully. The tower columns collapsed in-situ.
and the pile cap. Figure 5 is the schematic diagram.
The loose blasting of the pile cap had a good
effect. The sewage pipe was intact. The environ-
5 SAFETY AND PROTECTION ment surrounding the bridge was safe. The vibra-
tion velocities of many vibration measurement
5.1 Blasting vibration velocity points around the surrounding dweller buildings
had been acquired. The nearest distance between
The maximum single detonation dosage was
the vibration measurement points and the explo-
52.8 kg, used in the tower columns following the
sion source was 63 m, and the vibration velocity
bridge deck in the blasting demolition. The distance
was 1.25 cm/s. Figure 6 shows the typical blast-
between the explosion source and the surrounding
ing effect. The demolition was reported on several
buildings needing protection was 60 m. According
news channels.
to international and domestic general formulae
(GB, 2004. & Wang, 2008), V = 0.619 cm/s ( = 2,
k = 250). The corresponding vibration produced
in the other sections was lower than this value. All
of the vibration velocity values were less than the
national safety standard of 2.0 cm/s, and would not
have caused harm to the surrounding buildings.

5.2 Safety distance of the air shock wave

The reasonable consumption of the explosive unit
and sufficient blast hole filling ensured the rapid Figure 6. The diagram of the blasting effect.

671

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 671 10/3/2012 8:59:58 PM

 REFERENCES
GB6722-2003. 2004. Safety Regulations for Blasting.
Bei Jing: Standards Press of China.
Mao, Y.S. & Xia, J. 2007. Controlled Blasting Demoli-
tion of Vertical Sleeve Storage with Complicated
Framework. Blasting 103(1): 6972.
Wang, X.G. & Yu, Y.L. 2008. Demolition Blasting Theory
and Engineering Examples. Bei Jing: China Commu-
nications Press.
Xia, J. & Zhou, M.A. 2011. Blasting Demolition of
Unsafe Bridge in complicated Environment. Blasting
122(4): 8183.
Zhou, M.A. & Li, B.H. 2008. Blasting Gear and
Detonating Technique. Chang Sha: National University
of Defence Technology Press.

672

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 672 10/3/2012 8:59:58 PM

 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Blasting of a reinforced concrete chimney in a high position

and in a complex environment

Liu Guojun
Gansu Lanjin Civil Blasting High-tech Company, Gansu, China

Liang Rui
Gansu Chemistry Research Institute, Lanzhou, Gansu, China

ABSTRACT: The successful process of blasting a reinforced concrete 60 m chimney in a complex

factory environment is introduced. The reinforced concrete chimney was built in the 1960s, and was of
poor quality. The wall thickness was different along the same elevation, introducing difficulties in the work
process. There was not sufficient space for its collapse, because the chimney stood between a workshop
and some important facilities. In order to ensure the safety of construction and operation equipment,
we decided to adopt high-position (cutting position + 12.2 m) blasting. This article focuses on the design
of high position blasting. Details about pre-cutting, shape and size of blasting cut, blasting parameters,
initiation network, security technology and so on are given. The project was a success, and desired effects
were attained. This study provides technical reference for similar projects.

Keywords: controlled blasting, high position, directional blasting, initiating network, blasting parameters

1 PROJECT OVERVIEW

1.1 Project description

Calls for energy-saving emissions and the negative
effects of greater pressure on smaller resources are
very common, nowadays. In order to respond posi-
tively to such calls to action, the State Electricity
Power Company, Ltd, decided to remove an older
component of the building, a 60 m high concrete
chimney, for a more recent technological innova-
tion. Because of the long duration and difficulty
of the removal process, directional blasting was
selected for the demolition.

1.2 The surrounding environment

The chimney was located in the southeast of the
first main plant of Power Generation Co., Ltd.
25 m to east of the chimney center was the second
disabled chimney, 13 m to the south-east was
the pump house, and 20 m to the north was the
main plant. Between the main plant and the chim-
ney were facilities to remove scrapped electric dust.
16 m to the west was an abandoned coal trestle and
pipeline. 24 m south-west was the power distribu-
tion room, and 34 m away was a four-story brick
office building. 54 m to the south of the chimney
was a railway line. Thus, the blasting environment
was a complex one (See Fig. 1), requiring careful
demolition processes.
Figure 1. Blasting environment.
1.3 Structure of the building
The chimney, 60 m high, was a reinforced concrete
structure. It had a total weight of about 630 t, of
which the cylindrical concrete wall weighed 420 t,
the red brick lining weighed 196t, and the insulation
packing weighed 13 t. A steel structure bracket
of 0.0 m was also present. The outer diameter of
the tube wall was 6.02 m, +60.0 m high tube wall

673

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 673 10/3/2012 8:59:58 PM

 had outside diameter of 2.10 m and +12.5 m high
tube wall had outer diameter of 5.52 m. The ver-
tical reinforcement was 2614, and the ring bars
were 1514. The lining was 240 mm thick, the insu-
lation was 80 mm thick, and wall was 260 mm thick.
The north and south of the 5.00 m --- +10.4 m is
2.8 m wide 2 smoke crossings. Chimney at the
+10.0 m ---- 0.0 m north and south of subsidiary
structures is brick and concrete structure buildings.
Distribution room, and four-story office building
and the safety of the collapse within the trench.
1.4 Difficulties and demands of the project
The main control difficulties of the blasting were
the effect of the vibrations produced by the col-
lapsing chimney on the pump house, the power
distribution room, the four-story office building.
Therefore, the following were necessary:
To ensure the safety of the 19 m deep pumping
station, 13 m to the south-east. Blast induced
damage to the machinery and equipment in the
pump house would have resulted in the need to
shut down the entire power plant.
To ensure the safety of the trestle conveyor and
pipeline in the south direction.
To ensure that the security of the surrounding
buildings was not compromised.
To monitor the area around the chimney, since
adequate facilities for the collapsing chimney were
not present.
2 CHIMNEYS BLASTING DESIGN
2.1 Blasting project options
Keeping blasting safety in mind, the one-way
directional collapse technique was the most
appropriate for this project, owing to its sim-
ple design, rapid construction and safety. In
consideration of environmental constraints, one-
way or two-way folding could be added to the orig-
inal blasting demolition method.
The range of the chimney dumping was chosen
between the pump house and the distribution room,
a narrow strip of width 15 m, the centerline of the
pump house, at an angle of 8. This decision was
made through on-site investigation of the environ-
mental conditions around the chimney, its struc-
tural characteristics and size, as well as the need to
protect the surrounding buildings and facilities.
accurate collapse, and control the amount of blast-
ing vibrations. According to the structural charac-
teristics of the chimney and blasting environment,
the collapse direction was due south, to ensure no
damage was done to the pump house. In order
to ensure orientation accuracy, the impact of the
flue on the directional blasting cut design from
+12.2 m to +13.7 m was taken into account.
Placement of the blasting incision was quite
high, which increased difficulty of the process.
The surrounding environment was also very com-
plex, so the level, positioning and accuracy of the
blasting gap would directly affect the orientation
of the collapse. In order to ensure the accuracy of
the blasting incision, the incision of the centerline
and the directional window needed to be accurately
positioned, in consideration of the total station.
3 BLASTING TECHNOLOGY DESIGN
3.1 Blasting incision[1,2]
The open position
The chimney smoke crossing structure
(0.00 m + 10.4 m) was incomplete. To ensure
directional accuracy of the collapse, the opening
was +12.213.7 m above the ground. The blasting
incision is shown in Figure 2.
Opening width
The total circumference of the chimney opening
was 17.3 m. To retain 40% of the circumference of
the total, stability analysis and calculations used
a width of 10.4 m to determine the centerline of
symmetry, to start the rest of 6.9 m. Pre-opened
on both sides of the directional window, the

2.2 Blasting program elements

Directional collapse through blasting demolition
of buildings must take into account the construc-
tion and safety of surrounding buildings, ensure Figure 2. Blasting notch location map.

674

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 674 10/3/2012 8:59:59 PM


Figure 3. Schematic diagram of blasting cut.
width of the directional window was determined
as 1.1 m.
Opening height
According to the features of the structure and its
reinforcement, computing, engineering analogy
and engineering experience, to a blasting cut
height of 1.5 m was chosen.
Blasting cut diagram
A graphical depiction of the orientation of the
window opening. To learn more about the wall
thickness and reinforcement, checking and cor-
rection of incision design to ensure construction
safety and blasting safety, please see blasting
Figure 3.
Chimney liner processing
The directional window was lined with the pre-
clear lining of the supporting parts of the han-
dle, more than the 30 cm incision opening edge.
Within the lining on both sides of the center of
the directional window were two separate sup-
ports, of dimensions 30 cm 24 cm. The struc-
ture was earmarked to support the drilling of
three holes, blasting and incision.
Directional window pretreatment
In the chimney, the processing quality of the
directional window would seriously affect the
direction of the collapse. In order to ensure
accuracy of the pretreatment of the directional
window, the first left and right directional win-
dows had to be completely symmetric. Manual
and mechanical matching methods for process-
ing were then employed, to guarantee the quality
of the construction of directional windows. The
directional window pretreatment process was
used to avoid damage to the surrounding con-
crete, affecting the chimney collapse process.
3.2 Blast hole parameters and layout3
Cylinder wall thickness: = 26 cm;
Minimum line: W = 1/2 = 13 cm;
Hole depth: L = 17 cm;
The chimney was constructed in the 1960s
and 1970s, and the wall thickness at the same
elevation showed variation. In order to ensure
the accuracy of the blast holes in formal drill-
ing of the immediate drilling area in the incision,
675
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 675
Figure 4. Blasting network diagram.
intervals ranging from a distance to drill through
the eye were used to measure the blast hole
location of the chimney walls thickness.
pitch: a = (1.53.0) W = 30 cm;
pitch: b = a = 30 cm.
blasting gap total layout 6 rows blasting hole,
There were 24 holes each row, and the total
number of holes was 132.
3.3 Dose calculation
The following rule was used to calculate the dose
of explosive for a single hole:
Q=qV (1)
where
qthe unit consumption of explosives, taken as
2200 g/m3;
V the single-hole blasting burden, the body
volume, m3;
After the calculation, Q = 50 g/hole.
3.4 Blasting network design
Non-electric millisecond plastic detonators and
electric detonators mixed initiator systems were
used in the extension of the hole. Cluster associ-
ated duplex network connections were used as well.
In tests for network experiments and electric deto-
nators, blasting safety procedures used rigorous
resistance test, and the resistance value of the error
was within 0.2. Details are provided in Figure 4.
4. BLASTING SAFETY DESIGN
AND PROTECTION
4.1 Vibration safety design
1. Blasting vibration damage on surrounding
buildings was calculated using blasting vibration
security checking,[4,5] stipulated by the Peoples
Republic of China Blasting Safety Procedures
GB6722-2003:
( )
V kk 0 3 Q/R (2)
where
v protection particle vibration velocity cm/s;
10/3/2012 8:59:59 PM
 kmedia nature of the blasting-related factor,
selected with reference to Table 1;
K0correction factor, 0.251.0;
Qmillisecond blasting a maximum period of
dosage (kg), determined by the design;
Rblasting vibration security to allow the dis-
tance, m;
attenuation coefficient.
The major constraints on the project construc-
tion were environmental conditions and the safety
of the nearby facilities. The minimum distance was
determined by the need to protect the facilities.
The minimum distance for the pump house, to the
south-west, was calculated as 35 m, along a straight
line. For the pump house of the office buildings to
the south-east, a minimum distance of 13 m was
calculated. Given these minimum distances, blast-
ing would not affect surrounding structures.
4.2 Touchdown vibration safety check
Touchdown vibration produced by a falling building
hitting the ground is related to the buildings mass,
the center of gravity, the height of the building, and
stiffness of the soil. According to the formula pro-
posed by the Institute of Mechanics, Chinese Acad-
emy of Sciences, Zhou Jiahan, the vibration caused
by collapsing chimney class structures that role in
the ground is given by the following relationship:
R
1
Vt Kt (3)
MgH 3 blasting with bamboo and colorful cloth. The ash
about 1 m to prevent flying stone.
where
Vslump caused by ground vibration velocity
(cm/s);
Mthe approximate mass of the components (t),
taken as 560t;
gacceleration due to gravity (m/s2);
HThe height of the center of the H-component,
22 (m);
breaking strength of the ground media, gener-
ally taken to be 100 kg;
Robservation points of the impact of the ground
center distance (m);
Ktbeta-site coefficient Kt = 3.39, = 1.8.
Drilling the eye of a small amount of charge,
the amount of the dispersion, produced a relatively
small impact of blasting vibration on the surround-
ing buildings. The chimney collapsed instantly, and
would have generated a relatively large touchdown
vibration velocity, seriously impacting the surround-
ing structures. In order to guarantee that the chimney
would touch the ground and produce vibrations that
676
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 676
would not compromise the safety of surrounding
buildings, attention was paid to protecting the pump
house. The first direction interval was 5 meters, and
a buffer wall was laid along the chimney. The buffer
wall dimensions were 10 1.5 1.5 m. These were
chosen based on previous experience, and demon-
strated an effective damping of 40%. 30 cm from
the side wall of the pump house, plain soil bags were
built up to 1.5 m high, with width 1.0 m, forming
an earth bag wall. Thus damage to pumps and other
equipment was prevented.
4.3 By blasting a safe distance
The blast radius is the area around the blast source
that will be affected when an explosion occurs. One
calculation of this is determined by the following
formula (China Institute of Mechanics):
V2
R=
2g
where
generally 10 to 30 m/s;
gacceleration due to gravity 9.8 m/s2;
R = 45 (m).
The major factors that influence the formation
of flying stone are difficult to determine. In order
to ensure the safety of blasting and minimize fly-
ing chimney parts, a double layer structure con-
sisting of bamboo fence and steel mesh was used.
The blasting site was packed with a protective net,
covering all windows that might be influenced by
thickness around the collapsed chimney should be
5 BLAST EFFECT AND EXPERIENCE
After blasting, the chimney collapsed in the prede-
termined direction, and the anticipated effect was
achieved. The operation had no effect on the sur-
rounding buildings, operation equipment, or the
pump house.
REFERENCES
[1] Liu, Dianzhong. 1999. engineering blasting Practical
Manual. Beijing: Metallurgical Industry Press.
[2] Feng Shu Yu, Lv Yi, Yang Jiechang. 1987. City control-
led blasting. Beijing: China Railway Publishing House.
[3] Fang Zefa. 2003. Controlled blasting. Wuhan: Wuhan
University Press.
[4] Yang Yi, Zhang Zhiyu, 2002. 80 m high reinforced con-
crete chimney blasting demolition. Blasting. 19:4951.
[5] Xue Fengsong, Yao Xin, 2009. 180 m reinforced
concrete chimney control blasting safety analysis.
Blasting. 26:4749.
10/3/2012 9:00:00 PM
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Suggested tamping materials for short length blast holes in explosive

demolition operations

Hyeong-min Kang, Min-Young Shin, Seung-Kon Kim & Sang-ho Cho

Chonbuk National University, Jeonju, Republic of Korea

Hoon Park & Chul-gi Suk

Korea Kacoh Co., Seoul, Republic of Korea

ABSTRACT: The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of tamping materials on explosion
gas blocking in blast holes. Three materials which were applicable for tamping procedures for the blasting:
anhydrite (AD); ultra rapid hardening cement (UC) and glass fiber reinforced cement (GC). The tamping
materials mixed with sand were filled in cylindrical paper containers. The wrapped tamping samples were
then immerged in water. Temperature and elastic wave velocity during early curing time were measured to
investigate the optimum hardening time and physical property change. Uniaxial compression and push-
out shear tests were performed to estimate the tamping resistance in the blast hole. Finally, small a scale
blast experiment with a cylindrical concrete sample was performed to verify the effectiveness of the sug-
gested tamping materials on the blasting.

1 INTRODUCTION velocity with curing time were measured to inves-

The explosive blasting technique has been used in
the field of building demolition engineering. More
accurate, controlled collapse behavior of building
structures has been demanded in order to reduce
blast operation-induced environmental hazards,
such as flyrocks, blowout, dust, etc (Little, 2007).
In explosive demolition of building structures,
complete removal of columns and shear walls
which have to be blasted through blast scenarios is
very important to ensure the entire collapse of the
building. In recent years, some tamping materials
have been suggested in order to reduce the tamping
work time and cost in blasting demolition opera-
tions (Suk et al., 2010). Recent research projects
have revealed that non-shrinking grout mortar and
mixtures of natural sand and crushed rocks are
effective as tamping materials for short tamping
length through blast experiments (Cho et al., 2010).
However the tamping work with the suggested
tamping materials was time consuming. It is nec-
essary to select tamping materials considering fast
hardening, tamping workability and push-out
resistance force, especially in case of shorter tamp-
ing length and small diameter.
In this study, anhydrite (AD), ultra rapid harden-
ing cement (UC) and glass fiber reinforced cement
(GC) were selected as tamping materials. The tamp-
ing materials were wrapped with paper to consider
workers handiness. Temperature and elastic wave
tigate the optimum hardening time after stemming
in a blast hole. Uniaxial compression and hardness
tests were also carried out to estimate the hardiness
of the tamping materials. Push-out tests were per-
formed to estimate the shear resistance of tamping
materials in the blast hole. Finally the effectiveness
of the suggested tamping materials on the blasting
was verified by small scale blast experiment.
2 EXPERIMENTS FOR SELECTING
OPTIMUM TAMPING MATERIALS
2.1 Experiment approaches
Experimental methods were chosen accounting for
the key factors affecting tamping effect, namely,
fast hardening, tamping workability and push-
out resistance force. From the beginning, the
water absorbing tests of paper-wrapped tamping
materials were performed because hydration of
cement materials is affected by water/cement ratio.
To examine hardening time, temperature and elastic
wave velocity with curing time were measured. The
hardening time is very important to decide tamping
timing before blast ignition. Uniaxial compressive
strength and shear strength of the tamping
materials are associated with pull-out resistance for
retaining explosion gases in a blast hole. Assuming
a blast case which has short tamping length and

677

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 677 10/3/2012 9:00:00 PM

 small diameter blast hole, the small scaled blast
experiment is performed to verify the effectiveness
of the suggested tamping materials. Figure 1 shows
the experimental approaches for suggesting the
optimum tamping materials acceptable to explosive
demolition works.

2.2 Water absorption tests

Cement hydration is affected by various conditions
such as chemical components and water/cement
ratio. To ensure complete hydration throughout
the paper-wrapped tamping materials, sufficient
water has to be suctioned into the tamping mass.
Figs. 2 show the paper wrapped tamping
samples for each of the tamping materials and
immerged tamping samples in water. Immerging
time was set as 30 and 60 seconds. To examine
the effect of sand mixture contents on the water
absorbing amount and immerging time, the sand
was added into tamping samples. Here amount of
tamping materials was constant at 100 g and sand
mixture amount ranged from 0 to 50 g.
Figs. 3 plot the variation of water absorbing
amount with increasing sand mixture weight for
30 and 60 second immerging. The water absorb-
ing amount of anhydrite (AD) tamping materials
ranged from 22.3 to 24.4 g for 30 seconds immerg-
ing and 28.4 to 33.8 g for 60 seconds immerging as Figure 2. Water absorption tests of tamping samples.
shown in Fig. 3(a). The water absorbing amount
of rapid hardening cement (UC) tamping materi- glass fiber reinforcement (GC) tamping materials
als ranged from 37.3 to 44.7 g for 30 seconds and ranged from 38.2 to 47.5 g for 30 seconds and 42.9
47 to 51.9 g for 60 seconds immerging as shown to 50.3 g for 60 seconds immerging as shown in
in Fig. 3(b). The water absorbing amount of Fig. 3(c).
Fig. 4 shows the water/cement ratio (W/C) of
each tamping material for 30 and 60 seconds
immerging under water when sand mixture weight
is 50 g. Considering the wet condition in a slice sec-
tion of tested tamping samples, appropriate water
immerging times were 60, 60 and 30 seconds for
AD, UC and GC respectively.

2.3 Measurement of temperature with curing time

Noncontact temperature measurement was
adopted to monitor the temperature variation of
tamping materials during initial curing time. This
study used an infrared thermometry gun (by Fluke
co.), having a capacity range from 30 to 500 C
and 0.5 C margin.
Fig. 5 shows the temperature variation with cur-
ing time for each tamping materials. Applied water/
cement (W/C) s of tamping materials is 14%, 27%
and 25% for AD, UC and GC respectively.
Temperature of AD sample started to increase
at about 25 minutes after adding water and reach
the peak value of 28.8 after 70 minutes. While
Figure 1. Experimental approaches. temperature of UC sample increased instantly

678

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 678 10/3/2012 9:00:01 PM


Figure 3. Water absorbing amount with time and sand
mixture contents.
after adding water and reach the peak of 44.2
after 4 minutes and that of GC started to increase
around 1 minute after adding water and reached
the peak of 36.2 after 10 minutes.
679
CH088_Paper 190.indd 679
Figure 4. Water/cement (W/C) for 30 and 60 seconds
water immerging when sand weight is 50 g.
Figure 5. Temperature with curing time.
It is recommend that the appropriate tamping
work time after adding water is 25, 4 and 10 min-
utes for AD, UC and GC respectively.
2.4 Measurement of elastic wave velocity with
curing time
Elastic wave velocity measurement was adopted to
monitor the hardness change of tamping samples
at early curing time,
Fig. 6 is a schematic diagram of the measuring
system for elastic wave velocity. Pulse generator
outputs trigger signals (5 volt TTL) and 500Volt
pulse with a repetition rate of 60 Hz. Piezoelectric
sensors were used as transfer and receiver. Tamping
samples after water suction were placed between
the transfer and receiver. A digital oscilloscope
capable of 1 Gig samplings per second was used
to monitor the output voltages of trigger signal
and receiver sensor signal. Using the time interval
between the trigger signal and receiver signal and
10/4/2012 3:35:58 PM
 distance between the sensors, elastic wave veloc- 2.5 Uniaxial compression tests
ity can be calculated. Acrylic tubes which have a
Uniaxial compression tests were performed to
height 60 mm and inside diameter 25 were used
estimate the tamping resistance under compres-
to fill tamping samples up.
sive loads. Fig. 8 describes the uniaxial compres-
Fig. 7 show elastic wave velocity variation with
sive strength of tamping samples at curing time of
curing time. The amount of tamping materials
over 1 hour. The uniaxial compressive strength was
was 100 g and sand mixture amount was 50 g.
13.9 MPa, 9.7 MPa and 11.5 MPa for AD, UC and
The elastic wave velocity of AD sample started
GC respectively. Uniaxial compressive strength
to increase at about 35 minutes and the velocity
of tamping material was directly proportional to
increasing rate become stable around 80 minutes.
elastic wave velocity and inversely proportional to
Velocity of UC sample increased instantly after
early curing temperature.
adding water and the velocity increasing rate
became stable over 20 minutes and that of GC
started to increase around 4 minutes after adding 2.6 Push-out shear test
water and velocity increasing rate became stable
To examine push-out resistance of tamping mate-
over 15 minutes. Terminal elastic wave velocities
rials from a blast hole, a push-out shear test was
were 3700 m/sec, 3000 m/sec and 3100 m/sec for
suggested using uniaxial compressive test machine
AD, UC and GC respectively.
and cylindrical steel chamber with a hole as shown
It is worth noting that the high curing tempera-
in Fig. 9. Tamping samples were filled up to 18 cm
ture causes the very early hardness while leads to
length in the hole. Using a high strength steel bar,
reduction of terminal elastic wave velocity.
the tamping sample was loaded and pushed out
from the hole.
Fig. 10 represents the push-out shear strength
of tamping materials. The push-out shear strength
was 5.9 MPa, 3.7 MPa and 4.6 MPa for AD, UC
and GC respectively. Considering the tamping
time after water suction and hardness, GC material

Figure 6. Schematic diagram for measuring elastic wave Figure 8. Uniaxial compression strength in each material.
velocity during early curing time.

Figure 7. Elastic wave velocity graph in each material. Figure 9. Push-out shear experiment setups.

680

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 680 10/3/2012 9:00:02 PM


Figure 10. Push-out shear resistance.
Figure 11. Small scaled blast experiment.
is recommended as optimum tamping material for
blast holes of short length and small diameter It is
concluded that high curing temperature raised the
very early hardness of tamping materials, but had
adverse effect on the mechanical properties such
as uniaxial compressive strength at curing time of
over 1 hour.
3 BLAST EXPERIMENTS WITH THE
SUGGESTED TAMPING MATERIAL
In order to verify the effectiveness of the GC mate-
rial tamping on the blast effect, a small scaled blast
experiment was carried out. The cylindrical con-
681
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 681
crete sample (500 mm height and 600 mm diam-
eter) with a hole of 20 mm diameter and 20 cm
length was prepared, as shown in Fig. 11 (a).
Explosive of 5 g was charged at the bottom of the
hole and the remainder of the hole was filled up
with GC tamping sample at 60 minutes in advance
of the blast ignition. Fig. 11 (b) shows the result-
ant fracture pattern of the concrete sample after
blast. Radial cracks and spellings around the top
of the hole are visible. This is evidence to show the
effectiveness of GC material tamping on the blast
effects.
4 CONCLUSION
Anhydrite (AD), ultra rapid hardening cement
(UC) and glass fiber reinforced cement (GC) were
examined for effectiveness of tamping materials to
be used short length blast holes. The findings from
this study are follows:
From the water absorbing tests, appropriate
water immerging times of tamping materials
are 60, 60 and 30 seconds for AD, UC and GC
respectively with considering the wet condition
in a slice section of tested tamping samples.
Temperature and elastic wave velocity measure-
ments revealed that appropriate tamping work
time after adding water is 25, 4 and 10 minutes
for AD, UC and GC respectively. It was noted
that the high curing temperature causes the very
early hardness but leads to reduction of terminal
elastic wave velocity.
From the mechanical tests, uniaxial compressive
strength of tamping material is directly proportional
to elastic wave velocity while inversely proportional
to early curing temperature. The push-out shear
strength is 5.9 MPa, 3.7 MPa and 4.6 MPa for AD,
UC and GC respectively. It was found that high
curing temperature raised the very early hardness
of tamping materials, but had an adverse effect on
mechanical properties, such as uniaxial compres-
sive strength at curing time of over 1 hour.
REFERENCES
Cho, S.H., Min, H.D., Park, J.H., Song, Y.S., Sung, N.h.,
Kim, H.M. & Kim, S.G. 2010. Full scaled-column
blast experiments for investigating the influence of
the stemming materials on the column fragmentation
in explosive demolition. Tech Energetic Materials.
Vol. 71. No. 5:123128.
Little, T.N. 2007. Flyrock risk. Explo conference. wollon-
gong. Nsw. No.34.
Suk, C.G. & Park, H. 2010. Explosive demolition of spe-
cial structure of soongeui complex stadium. Explo-
sives & blasting. Vol. 28. No. 2:108118.
10/3/2012 9:00:02 PM
This page intentionally left blank
 Section 10 - Rock Damage & Wall Control

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 683 10/3/2012 9:00:03 PM

This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Estimation of blast-induced damage through cross-hole

seismometry in single-hole blasting experiments

L.F. Trivino & B. Mohanty

Lassonde Institute, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada

ABSTRACT: Estimation of blast-induced damage due to blasting has been investigated through con-
trolled experiments involving single-hole experiments in a granitic outcrop, employing 30 mm emulsion
cartridges in 45 mm diameter holes in decoupled conditions and flooded boreholes. Pre-blast and post-
blast seismic velocity measurements were carried out over a wide range around the blast holes, by means
of high-precision in-hole sensors. Damage was assessed through crack density, which was calculated by
inversion of P-wave velocity measurements through an Effective Medium Theory (EMT) method. The
resulting change in P-wave velocity was found to be highly asymmetrical around each blast hole, both
along the vertical and horizontal planes, despite the apparent isotropy and homogeneity of the granitic
rock mass. Based on analytical and experimental techniques, an attempt has also been made to separate
stress wave induced damage from the total damage. For a 2 m long explosive column in flooded holes
with 67% decoupling, the stress wave induced damage extended to a maximum of 4 borehole diameters,
compared to the total maximum damage of 22 borehole diameters, which would be the combined effect
of both stress wave and gas expansion. The difficulty of quantifying their relative contribution and the
problems inherent in prediction of blast-induced damage has been described.

1 INTRODUCTION works of White & Sengbush (1963), Vanbrabant

Blast-induced damage is intrinsic to all blasting
operations aimed at fragmenting rock. The latter
represents several inter-linked characteristics such
as fragment size distribution, dilution, and safety.
Hence, proper blast design and control requires
characterizing both the explosive source and its
actions on the rock mass. The study of wave propa-
gation from blasting not only permits the analysis
of stresses induced by the shock wave itself, but
also provides essential information on loading con-
ditions at the source. Up until now, however, the
standard approach has been to assume the explo-
sive in the borehole to act as a point source, and
thereby, ignore the effect of the initiation mode of
the explosive column with regard to its alignment
with respect to its effect on the target.
Although some relevant work has been done on
the theoretical study of stress waves from blasting
in cylindrical boreholes (Heelan1953, Tubman et al.
1984, Meredith et al. 1993, Blair & Minchinton
2006, Blair 2007), and attempt has been made to
use numerical methods to estimate blast-induced
damage from stress waves (Trivino et al. 2009), there
is a significant shortage of field-scale experimental
studies on blasting. In particular, little experimen-
tal work has been done to properly study blast-
induced stress waves. Amongst the few examples
of proper wave measurement and analysis are the
et al. (2002), Trivino & Mohanty (2009), and
Trivino et al. (2012).
Field scale measurements of blast-induced
damage are not common either, and are limited
to specific rock types and conditions. Ouchterlony
et al. (1999 & 2001) and Olsson et al. (2002), for
example, have contributed with the study of blast-
induced damage in rock by conducting crack meas-
urements in granite blocks and bench blasting.
Other authors have used pressure sensors to
estimate damage extent by measuring rock swelling
(Brent & Smith 1996 & 2000) and gas penetration
into cracks (Yamin 2005).
The current study is intended to contribute to
the knowledge of blast-induced damage in rock by
providing results of damage measurements around
single-hole blasts. Additionally, a combined finite
and discrete element (FEM-DEM) method is
used to estimate blast-induced damage from stress
waves. Comparison of experimental and numeri-
cal results, including an estimation of the relative
contribution of stress waves and gas expansion to
damage, is provided.
2 EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
In the context of this work, the term damage
is used to refer only to macroscopic fractures

685

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 685 10/3/2012 9:00:03 PM

 (i.e., it does not include microscopic fractures)
and the method to quantify blast-induced damage
is based on a cross-hole seismic technique. This
method consists of measuring P-wave velocities
in the rock mass, both before and after blasting,
at various locations around the blasthole. The
changes (reduction) in P-wave velocities are used
to calculate crack density within the rock mass,
and thus, estimate blast-induced damage.
Although this method does not provide precise
information on the fractures created by blasting
(e.g. size, aspect ratio, opening), it permits to quan-
tify damage at various locations with respect to the
source.
2.1 Test site
The test site corresponds to an open area with
exposed granitic rock. Here, blast experiments
were conducted in 45 and 75 mm diameter, 6 m
long water-filled vertical boreholes. The specific
test area contains 27 boreholes on a surface of
approximately 12 m2. Selected boreholes were used
as blastholes (i.e. charged with explosive) and sur-
rounding holes were used to carry out the cross-
hole measurements.
Figure 1 shows a general view of the test site
including color-coded boreholes and a grid of
1 m 1 m squares marked on site.
The natural rock at this test site is a nearly mas-
sive granite with few joints. Although the area of
study is relatively flat, the surrounding rock sur-
face is undulated, presenting variable elevations,
and it is partly covered with layers of soil and
vegetation. The water table existing in the area is
approximately 2 m below surface, and all explosive
detonations and cross-hole measurements were
carried out below this water level.
Over 12 single-hole blasts were carried. These
involved short single emulsion explosive car-
tridges and 2 m long emulsion cartridges (30 mm,
Figure 1. Distribution of boreholes at the surface test
site. 45 and 75 mm boreholes are colored in red and
yellow, respectively.
686
CH089_Paper 243.indd 686
Figure 2. Cross-hole system layout.
measured VOD = 4900 m/s, 1.1 g/cm3 density, cap
sensitive) and detonating cord (20 g/m and 40 g/m).
All long charges were detonated in 45 mm diam-
eter flooded holes. The results of only the 2 m long
column emulsion charges with a decoupling ratio
of 0.67 are discussed in this paper.
2.2 Instrumentation
Multiple measurements of P-wave velocity were
executed in the area surrounding each of the
monitored blasts. The source for each of these
measurements was a single detonator initiated by
shock tube and placed in one of the boreholes sur-
rounding the blast. For receivers, up to 16 pressure
sensitive piezoelectric sensors were located in verti-
cal arrays of 4 sensors each. Each of these arrays
was inserted in a different borehole and the seis-
mic signals caused by the detonator were recorded,
obtaining P-wave arrival times at up to 16 locations
per source. As signals were recorded in flooded
boreholes with centrally located source and receiv-
ers, their arrival times were corrected by the travel
time in water within both source and receiver bore-
holes. The procedure was executed both before and
after blast with sources and receives at the same
locations, in order to obtain variations of P-wave
velocity. Figure 2 shows the schematic view of a
cross-hole measurement, including one array of
receivers and one source.
3 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
3.1 P-wave velocity measurements
Figure 3 shows various views of the ray-paths
(taken as straight lines from source to receiver)
10/4/2012 2:28:21 PM
 Figure 3. Cross-hole ray-paths for the measurement
of P-wave velocity changes to quantify damage caused
1.64 kg, 2 m explosive charge. a) 3D view; b) Cylindrical
projection of ray-paths on a vertical semi-plane with an
edge along the blasthole axis.
corresponding to the cross-hole measurements
executed around a 2 m long (1.64 kg) explosive
charge. A total of 160 successful measurements
before and after blasting were obtained for this
charge alone.
The figure shows views of ray-paths, explosive
charges and boreholes, as well as a cylindrical pro-
jection on a vertical semi-plane. For this projec-
tion each point maintains its relative location with
respect to the blasthole and explosive charge. In
other words, the blasthole becomes the axis of the
cylindrical projection and all distances and angles
from this axis are maintained. In all cases the coor-
dinate system is chosen to have its origin at the
center of the explosive charge.
The results of P-wave velocity measurements
before and after blast are shown in Figure 4. From
this figure, damage seems to be more severe in some
areas, given the significant drop in average P-wave
velocity and the dispersion of values. The extent
of damage is likely to be related to the charge size,
as a larger explosive amount causes both stronger
stress waves and larger volume of gases, resulting
in longer fractures.
3.2 Inversion method
The calculation of damage is done by using the
relationships between P-wave velocity and Youngs
modulus, and between the later and damage,
according to an Effective Medium Theory (EMT).
Here, the approach given by Kachanov (1994) is
used.
687
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 687
Figure 4. Measured variations in P-wave velocity caused
by a 2 m long (1.64 kg) explosive charge. VP values were
calculated by simple linear regression with zero intercept,
and the range shown corresponds to a 95% confidence
interval.
The simplest case of Kachanovs (1994) non
interactive theory considers cracks with cent-
ers uniformly distributed and randomly oriented
(isotropic). The ratio between the Young modulus
of the solid matrix and the corresponding effective
Young modulus is calculated as a linear function
of the crack density, , as:
E0
= 1+ H (1)
E
where E is Young modulus, the sub-index 0 indi-
cates undamaged properties (solid matrix) and H is
a positive scaling parameter that depends on crack
geometry and matrix and fluid properties, with the
following expression:
3 0
H h (2)
5 2 1 +
h=
16 ( ) and = 1 0 E0
h (3)
9( ) 2 Kf
Here, the factor h is a geometrical factor related
to the shape of the cracks (assumed to be circular),
and is a dimensionless number to characterize
the coupling between stress and fluid pressure, in
which Kf is fluid bulk modulus, is crack aver-
age aspect ratio (thickness/radius), and v0 is the
(undamaged) Poissons ratio. Note that Equation 2
10/3/2012 9:00:03 PM
 has been corrected from Kachanovs (1994) origi-
nal formulation as indicated in Benson et al.
(2006). For the rock mass under study the Poissons
ratio is 0.26, and the geometrical factor h equals
1.905. Additionally, assuming water filled cracks
and small crack aspect ratio ( < 103), the factor
becomes negligible. Thus, the scaling parameter
H equals 0.76.
Considering the elasticity modulus to be
proportional to the square of P-wave velocity,
i.e., assuming that density and Poissons ratio
are approximately constant, crack density can
be calculated from Equation 1 in terms of P-wave
velocities:
1 VP 0 2
= 1
H VP 2
From this equation, damage before and after
blast can be calculated as:
2 (VP0) is considered uniform throughout the whole
before =
1 VP 0 1 area and equal to 6.3 km/s (determined in labora-
H VP before
2 (5)
1 VP 0
after = 1
H VP aafter
from which blast damage (i.e., increase in crack
density caused by blasting) can be determined:
2 2
1 VP 0 VPPbefore
blast affter before =
H VP before VP aafter
where before, after, VP before and VP after are the crack
densities and P-wave velocities before and after
blast. From Equation 6, P-wave velocity after blast
can be calculated from damage according to:
VP before
VPaafter =
2
VP before
1+ H
VP 0
Note that the sub-index blast associated to
density ( blast) has been dropped for simplicity of
notation. Hereinafter the term will refer to blast-
induced crack density (i.e. = blast). In our case,
as several measurements of wave velocity are exe-
cuted at various locations before and after blasting,
blast damage at any specific point is determined
by adjusting the crack density distribution and
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 688
calculating P-wave velocity after blast along each
of the measured ray-paths from Equation 7. The
inversion process, which consists of finding an
optimal damage (i.e. crack density) distribution
around the blast, is executed through an itera-
tive process to minimize the differences (errors
or residuals) between measured and calculated
P-wave velocities after blasting. In this procedure
damage is assumed to decrease with increasing dis-
tance from the blast, and the minimization of error
is achieved through a minimum squares criterion,
similar to the method applied in a simple linear
regression.
As a starting point, an initial damage distribu-
tion is assumed around the explosive charge con-
sidering exponentially decreasing damage with
(4)
distance. Then, P-wave velocities after blast are
calculated based on this damage distribution and
the measurements before blast from Equation 7.
For this equation, VP before blasting is considered
to be approximately constant along each ray-path,
and the value of VP for the undamaged material
tory scale samples).
The RSS (Residual Sum of Squares) value of
the model is calculated as the sum of the squares
of the differences between calculated and meas-
ured velocities after blast, according to:
n
( yi yi )
2
RSS (8)
i =1
where the variable y in this case is used to denote
P-wave velocity after blast, with yi being the
measured values, and yi the calculated values
(6) (Equation 7).
The damage distribution is then modified at all
points, lines and planes (one point, line or plane
at a time) by increasing and decreasing the dam-
age values by a small amount. The RSS value is
recalculated for each case and the new estimation
of damage distribution corresponds to the case of
minimum RSS. The procedure is repeated until a
(7) negligible improvement on the residuals is achieved
when modifying the damage distribution (i.e., the
method searches for a minimum RSS).
The criterion of decreasing damage with
increasing distance from the blast, which is main-
tained throughout the procedure, is achieved by
choosing an appropriate coordinate system in
which one of the coordinates approximates the dis-
tance to the explosive charge. A standard system
that meets this requirement is provided by the
Prolate Coordinates, a 3-dimensional extension
of the 2-dimensional Elliptic Coordinate system.
Prolate Coordinates are produced by rotating the
688
10/3/2012 9:00:06 PM

Figure 5. Prolate coordinate system used to discretize
area to calculate damage from measurements around
2 m (1.64 kg) charge.
Figure 6. Measured blast-induced damage determined
from inversion of P-wave velocities corresponding to a
2 m (1.64 kg) charge of emulsion, 67% coupling, bottom
initiated. a) Vertical plane E-W; b) Vertical plane N-S.
689
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 689
Elliptic coordinates around its major axis, gener-
ating planar, ellipsoidal and hyperbolic surfaces
when taking one coordinate as constant.
For convenience, in the modeling of damage,
the foci of the system (i.e. the foci of ellipsoidal
surfaces) are located at the end points of the explo-
sive charges. Figure 5 shows the discretization of
the area used to compute damage around the 2 m
long charge.
3.3 Blast-induced damage from measurements
The inversion method described above is applied
to the cross-hole measurements. Figure 6 shows
the results of damage distribution correspond-
ing to the 2 m (1.64 kg) explosive charge. A large
damaged area ( > 3) propagating diagonally
down from the bottom of the explosive charge
is clearly seen to propagate in some preferential
directions. For example, the vertical plane E-W
(Fig. 6a) shows significantly more damage than
the plane N-S (Fig. 6b). The maximum damage
extent from this charge seems to significantly
exceed 1 m (22 borehole diameters) horizontally
from the blasthole.
4 MODELING
A 2-dimensional FEM-DEM model was con-
structed to simulate the (2 m) surveyed blast,
through the program Y2D (Munjiza 2004, Trivino
et al. 2009). The constitutive model used for the
rock mass corresponds to the Kelvin-Voigt visco-
elastic model (Kolsky 1963), which is typically
represented by an elastic element (spring) acting
in parallel to a viscous element (dashpot). These
properties were determined by measurements and
back-analysis as described in the next section.
The finite VOD (velocity of detonation) was
simulated by discretizing the explosive source in
elements of 0.025 m long. Figure 7 shows the mesh
used for the 2 m long model. Note the symmetry
of the problem was used to reduce the models size
(i.e., only the rock mass on one side of the bore-
hole is modeled) and thus, the computing time.
The mesh includes a uniform area (i.e., elements
of uniform size) close to the borehole. The outer
boundaries of the model are beyond this area in
order to minimize the effect of reflections on these
free boundaries. The uniform area (1 m 2.6 m)
is the target of the damage analysis and outside it
elements of increasing size are used to reduce com-
puting times.
Figure 7 also shows the control points used to
determine crack densities and velocity time histo-
ries from the model. The location of these control
points was chosen to match those used to calculate
10/3/2012 9:00:09 PM
 were executed to measure the strength proper-
ties of the rock. Material strength properties were
found to be dependent on the loading rate and
hence on the frequency content of stress signals.
Thus, the values of shear and tensile strength
used in the models were obtained from these tests
by estimating the loading rate from FEM-DEM
models. Fracture toughness (and hence, fracture
energy) was estimated from previous research
(Dai et al. 2008, Xia et al. 2008, Chen et al. 2009,
Dai et al. 2010a, b), as it was found to have little
influence on the results from blast models in the
FEM-DEM program.
Finally, viscous damping and pressure function
decay were calibrated in FEM-DEM models by
using seismic signals measured by triaxial accel-
erometers. Amplitude and frequency content of
signals were found to be significantly sensitive to
both parameters in contrasting ways (increasing
damping causes both decreasing amplitude and
frequency, while a faster pressure decay produces
decreasing amplitude but increasing frequency),
Figure 7. Mesh used for model 2 m (1.64 kg) explosive which allowed successful calibration with mini-
charge. mum error. Thus, the analysis of seismic signals in
terms of both amplitude and frequency proved to
be of significant importance for reliable calibration
damage from field measurements (Fig. 5), albeit of both material attenuation and in-hole pressure
with a higher density. Finally, on the side of the function.
mesh, the shape of the pressure function at 65 s Table 1 includes a summary of the properties
from initiation is shown. The initiation point is used for the numerical models in this research,
about 0.1 m above the bottom of the explosive determined as indicated above.
column, as this location corresponds approxi-
mately to the initiation point of field experiments.
Table 1. Summary of material and explosive properties
for numerical models.
4.1 Modeling properties
Model
In order to determine the model input parameters,
three different methods were used: a) laboratory Long charge
tests, b) field experiments, and c) a calibration 2 m, 1.64 kg
process of FEM-DEM models with field recorded Properties 67% coupling
vibration signals (Trivino 2012).
Field experiments were carried out to obtain Material (rock) properties
some of the most relevant material and explosive Young modulus, E (GPa) 75.3
parameters. Elastic constants were calculated from Poissons ratio, 0.26
field measurements of P and S-wave velocity using Density, 0 (kg/m3) 2670
triaxial accelerometers. In-hole peak pressure and Shear strength, s (MPa) 82
loading rate were determined by (pressure sensi- Tensile strength, t (MPa) 32
tive) carbon resistor sensors located on top of Fracture toughness, KIC (MPa m1/2) 10
the explosive column at various distances from Fracture energy, GC (J/m2) 1240
it (Austing et al. 1991 & 1995, Nie 1999, Nie & Viscous damping, 2 (MPa s) 0.55
Olsson 2001, Olsson et al. 2002). VOD was deter- Explosive/rock interaction properties
mined by measuring the variation in impedance
Velocity of detonation, (m/s) 4900
through a coaxial cable placed along the explosive VOD
column. In-hole peak pressure, (GPa) 0.9
Other essential material properties, including Pmax
density, shear and tensile strength, were deter- Peak loading rate, LR (GPa/ms) 1300
mined through laboratory tests. Compressive and Peak decay rate, DR (GPa/ms) 28
tensile tests in both static and dynamic modes

690

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 690 10/3/2012 9:00:10 PM

 4.2 Damage from models
Evaluation of damage is carried out based on
the fracture network resulting from the models.
Figure 8 shows the fracture pattern generated
from the simulation of the 2 m explosive column
with the FEM-DEM program (note that the sym-
metry of fractures with respect to the vertical axis
is only a consequence of the identical models on
both sides of the blasthole; an asymmetrical mesh
would not produce symmetrical fracture pattern).
This figure shows two main features; first, highly
crushed areas occur around the blasthole, particu-
larly close to both ends; and second, longer cracks,
up to 1 m long, develop in some particular direc-
tions radially from the blasthole, with a slightly
higher concentration of long fractures around the
upper half of the column.
4.3 2D-3D correction
The geometric spreading (or geometric attenua-
tion) of seismic signals in a 2D model (as those in
this work) is at variance with respect to the 3D real
situation, due to the different volume over which
the wave energy is distributed in each case. While
in 3D, vibration amplitudes decay by geometric
spreading at a rate proportional to r (where r is
the distance from the source), in 2D this attenu-
ation is only proportional to r0.5. Consequently,
and generally speaking, as seismic signals travel
away from the source, they attenuate faster in a 3D
material than on a 2D surface by a factor propor-
tional to r0.5. In order to make 2D models applica-
ble to real 3D situations, Trivino (2012) proposed
Figure 8. Fracture patterns from FEM-DEM models
for a 2 m long charge of explosive, bottom initiated.
691
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 691
a method to correct this difference, and thus esti-
mate blast-induced damage from 2D models. The
method consists of applying a correction factor
to blast-induced damage values based on the rela-
tionship between crack density and PPV, and the
relationship between the later in both 2D and 3D
situations.
The proposed expression to relate PPV in 2D
and 3D by blasting in boreholes is:
0.5
r
V3D = PPV
PPV V2 D (9)
BD 2
where r is the distance from the source, and BD is
borehole diameter.
In this approach, blast-induced damage is evalu-
ated in terms of crack density, defined according
to the following equations (Kachanov 1994):
1
2 D =
A
ai 2 ,in2D,and (10)
1
3D = ai 3 , in3D (11)
V
where A and V represent the area and volume of
representative elements in 2D and 3D respectively,
and ai represent the cracks radii (rectilinear cracks
of length 2ai in 2D, and circular cracks of diameter
2ai in 3D).
In order to establish the relationship between
PPV and damage (i.e., crack density, ) from
models, both variables were determined at multiple
points (as shown in Fig. 7). At these points,
PPV values are determined from velocity time
histories obtained from the FEM-DEM software.
Crack density values are calculated according to
Equation 10, considering circular areas centered at
the same control points.
The calculated values of are plotted against
PPV, as shown in Figure 9, indicating an approxi-
mated trend between and PPV. Upon observa-
tion of this correlation, a semi-log curve is fitted to
the data, with the form:
= b0 + b1 ln ( ) (12)
where PPV is in m/s, and b0 = 1.8 and b1 = 0.7 are
parameters determined by (minimum areas) linear
regression. The points inside the ellipse shown in
this figure correspond to relatively low crack den-
sities at high PPV values. These points are located
in the proximity of the blasthole (where PPV val-
ues are highest), where crack density values seem
to be influenced by mesh refinement (i.e. mesh
refinement seems to be insufficient to represent
accurately the crushed material near the blasthole).
10/3/2012 9:00:10 PM
 Figure 9. Damage vs. PPV from FEM-DEM model.
Consequently, these points were eliminated for
regression.
By assuming Equation 12 to be valid to estimate
damage in both 2D and 3D, and combining it with
Equation 9, the following relationship between 3D
and 2D crack density is obtained:
r 0.5
3 = 2 D + b1 ln (13)
BD 2 determination of the relative contribution of gas
with b1 = 0.7, obtained from the regression above.
Equation 13 is used to adjust calculated blast-
induced damage from stress waves obtained from 2D
models, in order to represent a 3D configuration.
5 COMBINED EXPERIMENTAL
AND MODELING RESULTS
As seen from Figure 6, damage measurements indi-
cate strong non-symmetry, not only on a vertical
plane, but also on any horizontal plane. In order to
compare results with 2D models, however, it is nec-
essary to obtain results representative of any verti-
cal plane. For this, the cylindrical average of damage
is calculated and utilized to compute total damage
(i.e. aggregate damage from stress waves and gas
expansion). In other words, the damage at any point
on a vertical plane is calculated as the average of
values along a horizontal circumference centered on
the (vertical) blasthole axis. Figure 10a shows the
contour plots of measured damage from the 2 m
(1.64 kg) explosive charge, considering cylindrical
average as indicated above (from Fig. 6).
The fracture pattern shown in Figure 8 (from
model) is also used to construct damage (crack
density) contour plots. In order to obtain an
estimation of 3D damage, Equation 13 is applied
to the calculated values of damage from the 2D
692
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 692
Figure 10. Relative contribution of stress waves and
gas expansion to damage for a 2 m long charge, bottom
initiated.
model. The result of this procedure applied to the
2 m long charge is shown in Figure 10b, represent-
ing an estimation of the contribution from stress
waves to damage.
The final part of damage quantification is the
penetration to damage. For this, two assumptions
are made: first, that crack densities determined from
both experiments and models are physically equiva-
lent, and second, that the only sources of blast-
induced damage are stress waves and gas expansion.
Thus, it is reasonable to assume that the contribu-
tion to damage from gas is equal to the difference
between total blast damage and stress wave damage.
In terms of crack density, this can be written as:
G C S (14)
where G and S are crack densities due to gas
expansion and stress waves, respectively, and C
is the combined blast-induced damage consider-
ing both stress waves and gas. Figure 10 shows the
results of this operation applied to the results from
measurements and models, thus representing the
relative contribution of stress waves and gas expan-
sion to damage, for a 2 m long (67% coupling) explo-
sive column. In order to facilitate direct assessment,
the scale of colors applied to all contour plots was
taken to the same range (0 2).
The gas expansion damage extends considerably
farther than stress wave damage. Also, albeit the
maximum crack density caused by stress waves is
slightly higher than that caused by gas (max = 2.2
for stress waves vs. max = 1.9 for gas), the total
damage caused by gas represents over 95% of the
total combined damage (in terms of crack density
integrated over the cylindrical volume represented
10/3/2012 9:00:13 PM
 in the figure). The effect of decoupling manifests in
a much larger damage zone due to gas, as would be
expected (the stress waves are greatly attenuated by
the 67% decoupling).
The variations on the extension of damage along
the explosive column, particularly the larger dam-
age observed around 1/3 and 2/3 of the column
length, are likely to be the result of the combined
action of both stress waves and gas expansion.
Even though stress wave damage contour plot in
Figure 10b does not indicate any extended dam-
age around these areas, from Figure 8b it is easy to
see that some long fractures tend to develop radi-
ally considerably beyond the relatively uniformly
damaged zone around the borehole. As these long
cracks develop, they conduct gases into the rock
mass causing damage to propagate even further.
Thus, damage observed at these points along the
column is likely to be due to the long cracks initi-
ated by stress waves, which are later expanded by
explosive gases driven into the rock mass.
6 DISCUSSION
The overall accuracy of the cross-hole method and
its execution allowed the measurement of damage
around 2 m column charge of emulsion. The total
number of wave velocity measurements success-
fully completed for the 2 m charge was 160. This
provided significant duplicate information nec-
essary to overcome the variations caused by het-
erogeneity and anisotropy resulting from both the
natural rock mass and blast-induced fractures.
One of the hypotheses in the method to calcu-
late crack density distribution was the assump-
tion of isotropic damage. Even though this not
the case of blast-induced damage, this hypothesis
was assumed in all calculations, and probably rep-
resents the main source of error and uncertainty in
the models. An anisotropic model would be more
accurate and would probably represent and permit
to identify better the fractures caused by blasting;
however, such approach was found impractical for
the purpose of this work, as the introduction of
anisotropy in the analysis would have given results
impossible to compare with the 2D numerical
models. The consideration of anisotropy would
be probably useful and relevant when applying
the method to predict blast damage in a particular
rock mass with strong anisotropy.
The experiments show strong asymmetry both
vertically and horizontally. The horizontal (or
cylindrical) asymmetry is manifested by damage
being propagated mainly in the direction E-W in
both models. This kind of asymmetry is likely to
be related to material anisotropy resulting from
previously existing fractures, micro-fractures,
693
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 693
foliation or joints in the natural rock mass, caus-
ing zones of weakness, which are more prone to
damage. This phenomenon may be the result of
previously existing deviatoric stresses in the rock
mass. Another potential source of this asymmetric
behaviour may be changes in mineral composition
causing both anisotropy and heterogeneity.
The 67% coupling of the 2 m long charge causes
a peak pressure considerably lower than the cal-
culated pressure from a fully coupled charge. This
lower pressure brings two main consequences:
first, the seismic waves in the immediate vicinity of
the blasthole are of lower amplitude, and second,
gases interact with the rock mass at lower pres-
sures. Thus, lower damage occurs from this charge
with respect to a fully coupled charge.
The concentration of damage close to the explo-
sives initiation point is to be noted. Although this
is contrary to the intuitive case when only damage
caused by stress waves is considered (Trivino et al.
2012), it can be explained as being the result of
the joint action of stress waves and gas expansion.
The later, being subject to higher confinement at the
initiation point (in these experiments), are under
higher pressures and hence cause a more dense
and extended fracture network. Furthermore, as
the initiation point corresponds to the place where
explosive reactions begin to take place, the fracture
network resulting from both stress waves and gas
expansion begin to develop precisely at this point.
Thus, it is natural to expect gases to be initially
driven into this area as a result of the newly cre-
ated stress wave induced fractures. This initial flow
of gas creates even more fractures, thus facilitating
more gas to penetrate. At the same time, this proc-
ess causes a drop in the overall borehole gas pres-
sure, decreasing the potential of damage from gas
penetration into other areas.
The orientation of damage propagating from
the explosive bottom (45 downwards) can be
explained by the directionality of stress wave frac-
tures as shown in Figure 8. From this figure it is easy
to see that long fractures tend to propagate precisely
downwards and out from the bottom of the explo-
sive. These stress wave induced fractures are likely to
be responsible for conducting gases in this direction,
causing the observed damage in this area.
Another significant observation in terms of
damage is the low crack density measured around
the top of the explosive, despite the model predic-
tions indicating high stress wave induced crack
densities in the same area. Although this could be
partly due to low coverage of this zone with the
cross-hole system, there is a significant difference
in confinement which may explain the lower dam-
age in this area. As the detonation front progresses
through the blasthole, gases are produced, prevent-
ing the immediate venting of the newly created
10/3/2012 9:00:14 PM
 gases along the borehole. At the top of the explo-
sive, however, there is no source of confinement
other than water, which evidently doesnt consti-
tute the same barrier as the high pressure gases.
Thus, the faster venting of gases would cause a
faster drop in pressure, thus reducing the damage
around this area.
Despite the relatively long extension of fractures
obtained from the 2D models (up to 1 m for both
long and short charges), the correction applied
to estimate 3D equivalent damage indicates that
actual damage from stress waves has a short range,
between 0.1 and 0.2 m (i.e., 2 to 4 borehole diam-
eters) for the decoupled cartridge. Also, stress wave
damage from models is more severe at both ends of
the explosive column, which is coincident with the
highest PPV values. This phenomenon is due to the
high gradient of loading existing at these points
caused by the discontinuity in loading conditions,
which results in large deviatoric stresses.
In terms of maximum crack density, the peak value
associated with stress waves was not substantially
different from that corresponding to gas, with the
former being slightly higher. In terms of total dam-
age, however, gas expansion showed a considerably
larger value than stress waves, accounting for over
95% of the total combined damage. This conclusion
is, however, tentative (even after accounting for the
decoupled condition that significantly reduces the
extent of stress wave cracking) as it is based on two
assumptions that require further research: a) that
FEM-DEM can accurately predict the crack distri-
bution, and furthermore, the results can be extended
from 2D to 3D with reasonable accuracy, and b) that
Kachanovs non-interactive model relating crack
density vs. modulus is valid in all cases. Both of these
points constitute fronts of future research.
Although the extension of damage from stress
waves reported here is significantly lower than
measurements carried out in small samples (as
in Mohanty & Dehghan Banadaki 2009, who
reported up to 10 borehole diameters of damage
from stress waves with detonating cord), it is neces-
sary to consider that the results from the models in
this work are akin to calculating average damage,
due to the application of the 3D/2D correction
(see Fig. 9 and Equation 13). Thus, the extent of
damage reported here does not correspond with
maximum crack length, but may be considered as
an average maximum distance where damage is
significant.
7 CONCLUSIONS
The successful implementation and application of a
cross-hole system to measure blast-induced damage
constitutes a significant result by itself. In spite of
694
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 694
being a relatively difficult procedure, due to the neces-
sity to drill several monitoring holes and the specific
requirements of equipment and delicate execution,
the method provided clear images of damaged zones
around the blasthole, permitting to quantify objec-
tively damage in terms of crack density.
The calculations show that the stress wave
induced damage for a 67% decoupled charge
would extend to a maximum distance of 4 bore-
hole diameters. In contrast, the actual measured
damage when combining the effect of gas expan-
sion would result in a damage zone extending to
22 borehole diameters. For a fully coupled charge,
as would be the case of bulk loaded explosives, the
total damage zone would extend to a much larger
range. The results also showed that, even for a
relatively homogeneous rock outcrop, as employed
in this investigation, the resulting damage is very
far from being symmetric around the borehole.
The variations are attributed to macro-structures
within the rock mass.
The measurement of damage showed a strong
concentration of damage originating at the explo-
sive initiation point. This damage cannot be
accounted for by stress waves alone, as seen from
seismic measurements (since direct initiation gives
higher amplitudes), but can be explained by the
joint action of stress waves and gas expansion.
On the other hand, the top of the explosive
column exhibits relatively low damage, compared
to the bottom and middle portions. This is attrib-
uted to the lower confinement conditions at the
top of the explosive due to the lack of stemming
material (in the experiments executed the only
source of confinement on top was the column
of water above). This lower confinement permits
gases to escape more quickly, causing a rapid drop
in pressure and thus reducing damage to the rock.
Additionally, variable extension of damage along
the explosive column is observed. This feature
seems to be the result of a combination of various
confinement conditions along the borehole (open
top), initiation mode (bottom initiated) and the
interaction between the fracture network created
by stress waves and the expanding gases penetrating
these fractures. Thus, the sequence of events taking
place during blasting (stress waves, gas expansion
and the creation of fracture networks) seems to
severely condition the resultant damage envelope
around the blasthole.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful to Natural Sciences
and Engineering Research Council of Canada
(NSERC) and the Ontario Research Foundation
for financial support of the project. The authors
10/3/2012 9:00:14 PM
 would also like to thank Professor Antonio Munjiza
for many helpful discussions on the subject.
REFERENCES
Austing J.L., Tulis A.J., Hrdina D.J., Baker D.E. &
Martinez R. 1991. Carbon Resistor Gauges for Meas-
uring Shock and Detonation PressuresI. Principles
of Functioning and Calibration. Propellants, Explo-
sives, Pyrotechnics 16: 205215.
Austing J.L., Tulis A.J., Joyce R.P., Foxx C.E.,
Hrdina D.J. & Bajzek T.J. 1995. Carbon Resistor Gauges
for Measuring Shock and Detonation PressuresIII.
Revised Calibration Data and Relationships. Propel-
lants, Explosives, Pyrotechnics 20: 159169.
Benson P., Schubnel A., Vinciguerra S., Trovato C.,
Meredith P. & Young P. 2006. Modeling the perme-
ability evolution of microcracked rocks from elastic
wave velocity inversion at elevated isostatic pressure.
Journal of Geophysical Research B: Solid Earth 111(4),
art n B04202.
Blair D.P. 2007. A comparison of Heelan and exact solu-
tions for seismic radiation from a short cylindrical
charge. Geophysics 72 (2): E33E41.
Blair D.P. & Minchinton A. 2006. Near Field blast vibra-
tion models. In Proc. 8th Int. Symp. on Rock Frag-
mentation by BlastingFragblast 8, Santiago, Chile:
152159.
Brent G.F. & Smith G.E. 1996. Borehole pressure meas-
urements behind blast limits as an aid to determining
the extent of rock damage. In B. Mohanty (ed.), Proc.
5th Int. Symp. on Fragmentation by BlastingFrag-
blast 5, Montreal, Canada: 103112.
Brent G.F. & Smith G.E. 2000. The detection of blast
damage by borehole pressure measurement. The Jour-
nal of The South African Institute of Mining and Met-
allurgy: 1721.
Chen R., Xia K., Dai F., Lu F. & Luo S.N. 2009. Deter-
mination of dynamic fracture parameters using a
semi-circular bend technique in split Hopkinson pres-
sure bar testing. Engineering Fracture Mechanics 76:
12681276.
Dai F., Xia K. & Luo S.N. 2008. Semicircular bend test-
ing with split Hopkinson pressure bar for measuring
dynamic tensile strength of brittle solids. Review of
Scientific Instruments 79, 123903.
Dai F., Chen R., Iqbal M.J. & Xia K. 2010a. Dynamic
cracked chevron notched Brazilian disc method for
measuring rock fracture parameters. International
Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 47:
606613.
Dai F., Huang S., Xia K. & Tan, Z. 2010b. Some Funda-
mental Issues in Dynamic Compression and Tension
Tests of Rocks Using Split Hopkinson Pressure Bar.
Rock Mech Rock Eng 43: 657666.
Heelan P.A. 1953. Radiation from a cylindrical source of
finite length. Geophysics 18: 685696.
Kachanov M. 1994. Elastic Solids with Many Cracks
and Related Problems. Advances in Applied Mechanics
30: 259445.
Kolsky H. 1963. Stress Waves in Solids. New York:
Dover.
695
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 695
Meredith J.A., Toksoz M.N. & Cheng C.H. 1993. Sec-
ondary shear waves from source boreholes. Geophysi-
cal Prospecting 41: 287312.
Mohanty B. & Dehghan Banadaki M.M. 2009. Charac-
teristics of stress-wave-induced fractures in control-
led laboratory-scale blasting experiments. Proc. 2nd
Asian-Pacific Symp. on Blasting Techniques, Wang X.
(ed), Metallurgical Industry Press, Beijing: 4349.
Munjiza A. 2004. The combined finite-discrete element
method. Chichester: J. Wiley & Sons.
Nie S. 1999. Measurement of borehole pressure history
in blast holes in rock blocks. Proceedings 6th Interna-
tional Symposium on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting,
Johannesburg, South Africa: 9197.
Nie S. & Olsson M. 2001. Study of facture mechanism
by measuring pressure history in blast holes and crack
lengths in rock. Proceedings of the 27th Annual Confer-
ence on Explosives and Blasting Technique I: 291300.
Olsson M., Nie S., Bergqvist I., & Ouchterlony F. 2002.
What causes cracks in rock blasting? Fragblast 6 (2):
221233.
Ouchterlony F., Olsson M. & Bavik S.O. 1999. Bench blast-
ing in granite with holes with axial notches and radial
bottom slots. Proceedings 6th International Symposium
for rock fragmentation by blasting, Johannesburg, South
Africa: 229239. Also 2000, Fragblast 4(1): 5582.
Ouchterlony F., Olsson M. & Bergqvist I. 2001. Towards
new Swedish recommendations for cautious perimeter
blasting. Proceedings of Explo 2001: 169181. Also
2002, Fragblast 6(2): 235261.
Trivino L.F. 2012. Study of Blast-induced Damage in
Rock with Potential Application to Open Pit and
Underground Mines. Ph.D. Thesis, Dept. of Civil
Eng., U. of Toronto.
Trivino, L.F. & Mohanty, B., 2009. Seismic radiation
from explosive charges in the near-field: results from
controlled experiments. In Proc. 35th Ann. Conf. on
Explosives and Blasting Technique, Denver, USA 2:
155166. ISEE.
Trivino L.F., Mohanty B. & Munjiza A., 2009. Investi-
gation of Seismic Radiation Patterns from Cylindri-
cal Explosive Charges by Analytical and Combined
Finite-Discrete Element Methods. Proc. 9th Int. Symp.
on Rock Frag. by Blasting, Granada: 415426.
Trivino L.F., Mohanty B. & Milkereit B. 2012. Seismic
waveforms from explosive sources in boreholes with
different initiation modes. Journal of Applied Geophys-
ics (in press).
Tubman K.M., Cheng C.H. & Toksoz M.N. 1984. Syn-
thetic full waveform acoustic logs in cased boreholes.
Geophysics 49: 10511059.
Vanbrabant, F., Chacon, E. & Quinones, L., 2002. P
and S Mach Waves Generated by the Detonation of
a Cylindrical Explosive ChargeExperiments and
Simulations. Fragblast 6 (1): 2135.
White J.E. & Sengbush R.L. 1963. Shear Waves from
Explosive Sources. Geophysics 28 (6): 10011019.
Xia K., Nasseri M.H.B., Mohanty B., Lu F., Chen R. &
Luo S.N. 2008. Effects of microstructures on dynamic
compression of Barre granite. International Journal of
Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 45: 879887.
Yamin G.A. 2005. Field Measurements of Blast-
induced Damage in Rock. MASc Thesis. University
of Toronto.
10/3/2012 9:00:14 PM
This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Reflections on the functionality of pre-split blasting

for wall control in surface mining

W.R. Adamson
Davey Bickford Chile SpA

ABSTRACT: Together with the optimization of Run of Mine (ROM) fragmentation and the control of
muckpile displacement for material handling efficiency promotion and minimisation of ore dilution; the
design and execution of adequate wall control blasting is a fundamental necessity for the economic opti-
mization and safe execution of mining operations. One aspect or element of many wall control strategies
is the practice of pre-split blasting; a well-known technique established and implemented the world over.
A healthy level of debate and questioning persists regarding the dominant mechanism that delivers the
effective protective benefits afforded to final walls that are sought in order to maximise slope angles and
operational safety. Perhaps the most prevalent concept in terms of protective mechanisms that appear in
the literature is that of the creation of a planar interface or discontinuity that impedes and filters, to some
degree, the blast induced, near-field vibrations that can produce fresh fracturing and extension of existing
rock mass fractures behind the desired final bench face. The current paper examines and critiques the case
for the vibration filter mechanism considering evidence from both large scale laboratory and full-scale
field experiments.

1 INTRODUCTION b. The creation of an escape path via which

The design and application of pre-split blasting
continue for form one of the principal tools avail-
able to mining and geomechanical engineers when
the successful implementation of the long term
mine plan requires the protection of final wall
bench faces from blast induced damage.
The intent of the pre-split blast is as widely
understood as the underlying design theory is dec-
ades old and widespread. The creation of a pla-
nar discontinuity to the full depth (or deeper) of
the bench, between the blast volume and the wall
that must be protected, through the agency of a
carefully drilled row of (preferably) small diameter
holes containing a carefully calculated and placed,
light explosive charge. The objective is to produce
a planar discontinuity.
The question of why is perhaps less completely
resolved, yet the answer to this question has an
important bearing on how the result can, and
should be evaluated. The mechanisms by which
a well created pre-split discontinuity may assist in
protecting a final wall or facilitating a clean result
include;
a. The filtering of a significant percentage of the
blast vibrations that, if left unhindered may
propagate back into the final wall, creating
new fracturing and reducing the mechanical/
structural integrity of the rock mass
explosion gases at high temperature and pres-
sure may be diverted up and away to atmosphere
rather than back into the final wall/bench face
c. The creation of a cleanly established final sur-
face back to which excavators, shovels, etc. may
dig unambiguously to create a smooth well
defined final face
d. The creation of a continuous, discrete disconti-
nuity towards which buffer row charges may act,
fragmenting and displacing the rock between
the final wall and the final row of charges.
In reality there is no need for any single one of
the above possible mechanisms to be the exclusive
and specific answer, although it is perhaps easier
to measure some (a and c), for example) rather
than other.
In the Chilean mining industry there remains a
fairly widespread appreciation for the concept of
the pre-split as a vibration filter, screen or shield
(Adamson, 1998; Villalba, 2007), although as will
be described presently, not without some degree of
reserve and skepticism.
Some degree of reserved judgement is based on
the dubious case for extending any expectations of
pre-split effectiveness beyond the immediate near
field. This author agrees with these reservations
however with the added caveat that not only is the
pre-split filter concept only valid in the near field,
it is very likely only needed in the near field.

697

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 697 10/3/2012 9:00:15 PM

 The main objective of the present paper con-
cerns of the measurement in quantifiable terms
of the pre-split screening effect (or filter) not
because a good pre-split must filter vibration
but rather because the presence of measured vibra-
tion attenuation across a defined and spatially
constrained volume (where the pre-split blast was
fired) indicates that some discrete change in the
rock mass, consistent with the intentions of a pre-
split, must have taken place.
In the following sections, the methodologies
available for measuring or estimating the potential
for vibration attenuation are discussed first in the
context of field measurement and subsequently
under more controlled circumstances in a large
scale laboratory setting.
Practical limitations to the field application of
the techniques are discussed.
2 FIELD MEASUREMENT OF PRE-SPLIT
FUNCTIONALITY
2.1 The need for measurement
The engineering design and practice of pre-split
drill and blast is extremely common and remains
a preferred option as a wall control measure at
mining operations worldwide. The degree of qual-
ity and care with which the issue is addressed is
variable however as is the extent of understanding
of what even a very successful pre-split will and
will not do. The development and application of
field techniques to measure the effectiveness or
success of pre-split blasting should assist in
improving the general level of outcome quality for
this type of blast. The question is therefore how to
assess this success.
Conceptually, the measure of success is tied
closely to the stated objectives of the practice
itself. If compliance with the mine plan in terms
of achieving crest and toe positions for each bench
is the goal, then use of survey techniques to estab-
lish these positional data will suffice as a means of
scoring the result.
Should the objective be the creation of a smooth
discontinuity, at the design location, towards
which the excavation process is carried out, then
a visual record, should, again, suffice. Much use
of half-barrel counting is common as an indicator
of quality, however this measure along may not be
enough. Design or implementation (or both) inad-
equacies can lead to the creation of a final wall
with visible half-barrels but without a smooth pla-
nar surface indicating the creation of a discontinu-
ity between the two holes. The presence of areas of
solid, intact rock between half-barrels indicates a
clear path through which blast vibration will have
propagated. Alternatively the pre-split blast itself
698
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 698
may have (through over-charging) become a source
of rock mass damage in and of itself.
It can be seen that as the range of success crite-
ria is widened, the probability of truly defining a
successful result will rise.
2.2 Vibration fitting as an indicator of success
The creation of a successful and clear pre-split dis-
continuity is no guarantee against blast induced
damage because there are a number of damage
mechanisms that have no relationship with vibra-
tion intensity or even gas penetration. Protection
from this damage requires other measures that lie
outside the scope of this paper.
The filtering of vibration is not the sole pur-
pose of a pre-split discontinuity (or a more exten-
sive trench-like pre-fractured zone, in its place).
However it is fair to say that a complete lack of
new vibration attenuation, beyond and in addition
to the natural attenuation of the rock mass, prob-
ably indicates a lack of success in creating the pla-
nar or volumetric discontinuity or zone.
On the basis of this supposition, there is value
in measuring vibration attenuation behaviour as
a means of assessing or detecting the extent of
change. It also helps that the change in attenuation
observed should be a step change uniquely attrib-
utable to the pre-split blast result.
Two broad types of measurement technique have
been applied in the past (and continue to be used)
in the field measurement of vibration attenuation
across pre-split planes. Both types of technique
employ a seismic source, the vibration from which is
detected and quantified using sensors (typically geo-
phones) in front of and behind the discontinuity.
In one approach to this measurement, the blast
event itself (or a series of blast events) becomes
the seismic source (or sources). The recorded
vibration signal amplitudes are matched with the
corresponding charge weight/distance data for
the origin detonations and them simple vibration
models are adjusted and graphed for each sensor
condition (with/without pre-split influence). The
difference between the amplitude at various dis-
tances between the two models can be considered
to represent the filter performance.
Figure 1 depicts such an analysis case reported
by Villalba (2007).
The reliability of such a method relies on the
feasibility of identifying, clearly and without
ambiguity, the detonating charge that is responsi-
ble for each registered vibration peak. At times this
presents considerable difficulty.
The interpretation of the captured vibration
waveform data is much simpler and unequivo-
cal when a test array of charges and geophones
is created as shown in Figure 2. Such an array of
10/3/2012 9:00:15 PM
 Figure 1. Vibration models with and without pre-split
(Data collected by Enaex S.A.) after Villalba.
Figure 2. Chargegeophone configuration for near
field vibration model fitting.
charges, suitably delayed and monitored at two
geophones (represented as blue dots in Fig. 2), will
report clear vibration/distance data as shown in
Figure 3, leading to the adjustment of two models
(with and without pre-split) as shown in Figure 4.
The vibrations are generated at a number of
charges, shown below as green dots and detected at
geophone sensors installed within the body of the
rock mass. Once again, these sensor locations are
shown as blue dots in Figure 2, below.
In the case of such an experiment described
herein, the geophone arrays return signals in three
directions that are combined mathematically in the
form of a Vector Sum array.
The maximum values for each vibration pulse
(shown in Fig. 3) are used in order to adjust the
vibration model traces shown in Figure 4.
699
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 699
Figure 3. Vector sum data for near field vibration pulse
data.
Figure 4. Fitted near field vibration model showing
attenuation behaviour across pre-split discontinuity.
Both of these techniques appear to offer a quan-
titative measurement of the severity of the vibra-
tion attenuation brought about as a result of the
presence of a pre-split discontinuity.
When the distances over which vibration meas-
urements are collected increase, the application of
vibration monitoring/modeling reveals a tendency
that, upon reflection, should be intuitively self-
evident; any filtering effect of a pre-split is a near
field effect, only appreciable within a relatively
close proximity of the discontinuity. It should also
be added that the effect is only appreciable immedi-
ately behind the pre-split discontinuity, not below,
to the side or in front of the same. The same con-
clusion is valid for other forms of screening such
as trench blasts.
Figure 5 describes the results of another moni-
toring and modeling exercise, similar to that shown
in Figure 1. However in this case it may be observed
that the two trends (or models) appear to con-
verge, eventually coinciding at a distance beyond
10/3/2012 9:00:15 PM

Figure 5. Vibration models with and without pre-split
with different attenuation factors (Data collected by
Enaex S.A.) after Villalba.
Figure 6. Near field vibration models with and with-
out pre-split demonstrating distance dependence of filter
effect, after Villalba.
which both will continue to coincide. In simplistic
terms, at this distance, the pre-split is essentially
invisible or imperceptible to the propagating
vibration waves, which pass around, over, above
and/or below the discontinuity.
Figure 6 is a similar case that shows the same
tendency, this time using near field model fitting
for a small quantity of date acquired under trial
blast conditions (similar to the array displayed in
Fig. 2). Once again, at a given distance between
source and pre-split the attenuation factor reduces
to effectively zero.
2.3 Pseudo cross-hole seismic measurements
The second field measurement technique that has
been applied successfully to evaluate the potential
for filtering or attenuation of vibration intensity
across a pre-split discontinuity is a derivative of
the cross-hole seismic technique whereby source
and detector are placed at the same vertical
position in neighboring holes and a controlled
700
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 700
Figure 7. Instrumentation layout for direct measure-
ment of pre-split filter effect, following the blasting of
the pre-split.
pulse is propagated between source and detector
(or detectors, if more than one receptor hole is
drilled).
Figure 7 shows such an array where a seismic
pulse introduced at one point is detected at two
further points at the same depth below the surface.
The difference in amplitude between the two meas-
urement points indicates the natural attenuation
in vibration due to transmission through the rock
mass in question.
If a pre-split blast is now fired along a vertical
plane equidistant between the two measurement
positions it might be supposed that a planar dis-
continuity has been created between the two points.
Repeat scanning using the same source point and
detectors allows collection of new characterisation
data. It may be concluded that any change in atten-
uation behaviour between the two sensors should
be attributed to the only thing to have changed; the
result of the pre-split blast.
Adamson et al (1998) used this technique to
measure an attenuation increase of some 48% for
a pre-split fired at a large open pit copper mine in
central Chile. This result was subsequently found
to be in agreement with further vibration modeling
studies conducted at the same mine.
Similar work at different mines in Chile has
reported changes in attenuation of between 50%
and 30% (Adamson et al, 2003; Villalba, 2007).
The cross-hole seismic scanning technique
alluded to in this discussion typically involves
the collection of a large quantity of data over a
range of depths between a series of probe holes.
The adaptation described above is an abbreviated
one-shot version applied in an operational min-
ing environment. A key difference between this
technique and the vibration modeling methodol-
ogy described previously is that the source hole
(charged blast hole) is not destroyed by the test.
Possible seismic sources used in this type of work
are usually detonators or small pentolite boosters.
The other limitation of the pseudo cross-hole
approach is in that the detectors (geophones,
10/3/2012 9:00:16 PM
 usually) are permanently emplaced at a single ref-
erence depth.
The application of a classical cross-hole tech-
nique with re-locatable source and detector combi-
nations in a working, productive mine environment
is practically very complex and unlikely to practi-
cally applicable on a regular basis.
There is merit in seeking a middle ground, more
controlled experimental environment where the
behaviour of seismic pulse attenuation across pla-
nar discontinuities may be studied. The following
section describes such a middle ground and some of
the learning obtained from the work undertaken.
3 DISCUSSION OF LABORATORY
SCALE INVESTIGATIONS
3.1 Limitations of field measurements
The forgoing discussion has indicated clearly that
the presence of a pre-split blast induced fracture
plane, or zone of smaller, sub-parallel fractures,
exercises an attenuating influence over the propa-
gation of a seismic pulse.
Whether the effective capacity to filter or
attenuate seismic amplitude is measured or esti-
mated through the comparison of vibration atten-
uation models (Adamson et al, 1998; Villalba,
2007) or as a result of more controlled small scale
experiments conducted in close proximity to the
pre-split, it is possible to detect a real, quantifiable
effect that indicates;
a. The presence of a discontinuity, although of
unknown physical characteristics
b. An approximate estimate of the effectiveness in
reducing vibration propagation.
The planning and execution of an experiment
to measure the apparent effective attenuation of
blast vibration pulses across the pre-split is practi-
cally feasible and achievable. Nonetheless, such a
procedure will require that preparation and meas-
urement work be conducted within the operational
environs of a producing mine and this will usually
lead to temporary closures of working areas of the
pit, representing loss production for the mine.
Reducing this lost time implies that only a
limited amount of data will collected for any given
pre-split design and result; restricting the examina-
tion of the attenuation effect to perhaps one depth
below the bench surface and one set of distances
between seismic source and detector (geophone or
accelerometer).
An advantage of this type of data collection is
the ability to ensure that the first pulse arrival has,
in fact, travelled across the pre-split plane or discon-
tinuity (as a result of the close proximity between
the pre-split discontinuity, source and detector).
701
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 701
It is possible to study the behavior or impact
of physical discontinuities on the propagation of
seismic pulses through an otherwise competent
medium through the construction of a suitable
large scale laboratory experimental environment.
An example of such work can be found in
work reported by Adamson (1992) that discusses
an artificially fractured environment, suitable for
the investigation of seismic pulse propagation
and attenuation across fracture planes of known
characteristics.
3.2 Construction of experimental environment
There are two important controlling influences on
the performance of models of seismic attenuation
due to fractures, a particular case of which might
be considered to be the filter effect of a pre-split.
One of these is the geometry of the in-situ struc-
ture, including location, size and orientation of
each planar feature. The second concerns of the
attenuation effects of each plane.
In order to study this second issue, an artificially
fractured pseudo rock mass was constructed at
the Julius Kruttschnitt Mineral Research Cen-
tre (JKMRC) to assess a number of the variables
describing fracture characteristics. Perhaps a fun-
damental benefit of this exercise was the ability
to eliminate virtually all sources of uncertainty
including the number of fractures present, exact
position and extent of each fracture, distance to
the seismic source (and detector) orientation and
condition (infill, state of closure, etc.).
A 3 m long, 2 m wide and 1 m deep block of
concrete containing four vertical and parallel frac-
tures, and pre-cast cylindrical holes was cast and
cured in order to simulate a physical rock-like envi-
ronment containing fully identified (presence and
characteristics) discontinuities.
All physical aspects of the block were quanti-
tatively characterized including density, strength,
P wave velocity (Vp), uniformity of seismic trans-
missibility, isotropy and acoustic impedance, to
rigorous standards such that any variation in seis-
mic attenuation behavior could be fully attributed
to the physical properties of the five millimeter
wide, cast discontinuities.
Four different fracture characteristics were stud-
ies, in terms of physical condition;
a. Completely open
b. Filled with water
c. Filled with a solid material of known but differ-
ent physical and acoustic properties
d. Closed fracture without infill
Figure 8 shows a three dimensional visualization
of the experimental block while Figure 9 shows a
photographic image of part of the construction
10/3/2012 9:00:16 PM

Figure 8. Three dimensional visualization of experi-
mental block.
Figure 9. Construction of concrete test block showing
fracture and scanning hole form work.
process, illustrating the arrangement of 5 mm steel
plates and 50 mm steel pipes to be cast into the
block to create discontinuities and source/detector
access holes.
3.3 Ultrasonic scanning of the block
Extensive seismic scanning of the block was con-
ducted, examining attenuation behavior in the
intact concrete as well as across discontinuities of
various condition and pulse incidence angle.
Due to the restricted size of the experimen-
tal environment it was considered ill advised to
use explosive seismic sources such as detonators.
Instead, a piezo-electric hydrophone source and
detector combination was used to create, detect
and analyse a series of stacked, extremely repeata-
ble sinusoidal transmitted pulses. Using this experi-
mental configuration the test block was extensively
scanned across all available hole pairs, throughout
the full depth of the block at 10 cm vertical inter-
vals, in order to obtain the most complete evalua-
tion of the physical environment possible.
Prior to examining the attenuation impact of
different discontinuity conditions, the block was
702
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 702
characterised in terms of the transmission quality
of the intact concrete throughout the entire volume
of the block to remove any ambiguity concerning
the intact rock condition. Pulse first arrival rise
times, amplitude and pulse propagation velocity,
Vp, were profiled and indicated that the consist-
ency of the block was maintained throughout the
full depth and across the full extent of volume.
An exception to this condition was a tendency for
transmitted amplitude to increase with depth pos-
sibly due to some settling of coarser sand particles
(no aggregate was used, precisely to avoid excessive
variability in physical makeup of the block) during
the block curing process.
Once the previous point had been established, a
series of scans were conducted across all available
pairs of holes, contemplating a range of different
incidence angles of pulse propagation across each
discontinuity. These scans were conducted for two
cases of discontinuity conditionfilled with water
and filled with a weak grout mixture designed to
simulate a weak infill material. Initial conclusions
regarding attempted scanning across open discon-
tinuities will be discussed presently.
In addition to the tendency described above,
Figure 10 indicates that there exists very little, if
any, difference between the velocity and amplitude
of pulse transmission across the discontinuities
with different in-fill material; this behavior is valid
for all angles of propagation incidence between
ray-path and fracture orientation (ranging from
Figure 10. Scans of Vp and pulse amplitude behaviour
across fractures containing different in-fill materials.
10/3/2012 9:00:16 PM
 90 to 32). It is likely that the lack of difference in
the impact of different infill material is a reflection
of the proportionally minor discontinuity width
compared with pulse transmission distances.
Initial attempts to scan across open fractures
served to demonstrate the totally expected result of
total reflection of the incident pulse and a totally
null detection of the signal. The condition of this
experimental configuration probably represents a
very extreme case in that a 5 mm, even air gap exists,
while vibration source characteristics include low
energy, high frequency (10 kHz) and low dynamic
displacement. These characteristics ensure that at
no point in time will the incident vibration gener-
ate a level of dynamic displacement sufficient to
close the physical cap that the discontinuity con-
stitutes. Therefore there can be no transmission of
energy across the gap.
In the case of full scale pre-split fractures, there
is some doubt that such a clearly defined and
constant fracture would be created. It is highly
probable that occasional points or areas of con-
tact or incomplete fracturing will make it possible
for some propagation of vibration energy to take
place.
In the event that the designed pre-split plane
should be angled (say, 70), then it may be possible
that the influence of gravity serves to close the pre-
split fracture, at least partially.
This raises the issue of how such a closed frac-
ture might behave in terms of its capacity to pre- Figure 11. Scans of Vp, rise time and pulse amplitude
vent full transmission of the incident blast induced behaviour across a closed fracture compared with same
vibration pulse of wave train. The laboratory scale distance propagation in intact concrete.
block experiment yielded results that might offer
some answers to this question.
A second concrete pour, with identical mix since physical contact is maintained across the
characteristics, was made in order to investigate fracture surface. Vp and rise time profiles do not
the attenuation characteristics of a closed fracture. distinguish clearly between intact and fractured
The high likelihood of encountering closed frac- concrete.
tures in an underground mining environment The rise time profile is somewhat ambiguous
lends importance to the ability to measure such with the value across the closed fracture at times
attenuation in a closed (controlled) environment. higher and at times lower than the more consistent
To ensure the creation of a closed yet un-bonded intact concrete rise time. This is difficult to explain,
discontinuity plane, the end face of the original however over the scanned depth the average rise
block was covered with grease in order to impede times for intact and fractured concrete differ by
the formation of an intimate bond with the second only 0.2 S.
pouring. The characteristics of the fracture were The first arrival pulse amplitude profile,
considered to represent a closed but de-stressed across the closed discontinuity displays a sig-
fracture plane. nificant difference from the intact case, to such
Figure 11 shows Vp, first arrival rise time, an extent that the closed discontinuity profile
velocity and amplitude profiles for scanning is only visible together with the intact concrete
between two hole pairs; one providing a ray path profile when amplitude is graphed on a logarith-
through intact concrete and the other providing mic scale.
a ray path perpendicularly crossing the closed The results obtained from the block study sug-
discontinuity. gest that even a closed fracture will act to attenu-
The rise time and velocity results are in accord- ate vibration propagation to a significant extent.
ance with intuitive expectations that a closed frac- However it is reasonable to expect that the severity
ture appears invisible to a propagating pulse, of attenuation will decrease with increased normal

703

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 703 10/3/2012 9:00:16 PM

 loading across the fracture surface. In fact this
was demonstrated by Sneath (1983) employing
fractured rock cores, used to measure pulse
transmission under conditions of steadily increas-
ing uniaxial compression.
4 DISCUSSION: RECONCILIATION
WITH FIELD OBSERVATIONS
AND PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
In reviewing, discussing and evaluating the use of
field vibration and modeling techniques, it becomes
apparent that;
Under conditions where seismic source and
vibration detectors are in close proximity to the
pre-split discontinuity, there is a very high likeli-
hood that the presence of the structure is detect-
able in a quantitative manner in the change in
amplitude attenuation in the rock mass, with
and without, before and after the introduction
of the discontinuity.
Large scale laboratory experiments offer evi-
dence to suggest that even a closed fracture will
influence this attenuation behaviour; supporting
the contention that even an incompletely formed
pre-split discontinuity will be detectable using
vibration attenuation techniques.
A significant decrease in amplitude is detect-
able but not to the extent discussed for the
constructed fractured block situation; it is
unrealistic to expect a full separation across
the pre-split plane and zones of un-fractured
rock will permit some transmission of greater
amplitude.
It is important to note that if there is visible
evidence of a reduction in Vp across the frac-
ture, then there is a possibility that the first
arrival pulse travel path has not been direct
across the discontinuity but rather by an alter-
native, longer path through rock unaffected
by the pre-split. Therefore careful attention
should be paid to this point during analysis of
field data.
Some Vp change, albeit slight might be expected
in the event that partial filling of the discontinu-
ity occurs (water, mud, dust and detritus).
A pre-split discontinuity will produce a screen-
ing effect but only when the source is located in
close proximity to the protective plane. As the
distance between source and the protected zone
increases then even a very good pre-split will
become imperceptible and therefore ineffective.
This means that attenuation behaviour is not
an inherent property of the pre-split but rather
a combination of physical result and geometric
circumstances.
704
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 704
For this reason any measurement campaign used
to assess the merits of different pre-split designs
under field conditions must include significant
attention to detail to ensure that these geometric
circumstances are held unchanged for every rep-
etition of the technique.
The geometric issues described imply that the
size of the pre-split, in particular the depth,
will have some direct impact on the relationship
between distance and effectiveness. A deeper
pre-split with respect to the height of the bench
where blasting is conducted should be more
effective as a partial barrier or attenuator of
blast vibration in the near field.
If the objective benefit of the pre-split sought by
the mine is vibration attenuation (remembering that
there others) then, as Villalba (2007) correctly points
out, the firing of a finely controlled trench blast
over a wider extent will produce a pre-conditioned
curtain that should act as a superior vibration fil-
ter. The result may not be as aesthetically pleasing
(half-barrel count may be down) however the final
wall should benefit from vibration protection.
It remains to be seen whether the trench blast
itself might constitute a new source of blast dam-
age, however tight control of drilling and loading
procedures would ameliorate this concern.
In closing, blasting practitioners are reminded
that the creation of a quality pre-split is highly
dependent on the correct and faithful implementa-
tion of the design principles; deviations from this
discipline will reduce the effectiveness of the tech-
nique, eventually to non-existence.
Finally it must be recalled that the pre-split
forms part of a larger blasting environment (even
in the case where it is fired previously). Damage
caused behind the eventual final wall prior to the
creation of the pre-split is, by definition, not pre-
vented and cannot be undone.
The control of muckpile movement and timely lib-
eration of displacement energy to control direction of
movement is critical; over-confinement of rock mass
that induces backward displacement of large blocks,
displacement along geological planes, wedges, etc. is a
notorious pre-split killer. Please consider.
REFERENCES
Adamson, W.R., 1992. Application of the crosshole seis-
mic technique to the quantitative assessment of insitu
rock structure., PhD Thesis, University of Queens-
land, Australia,1992.
Adamson, W.R. & Scherpenisse, C.R., 1998. The meas-
urement and control of blast induced damage of final
pit walls in open pit mining., Proceedings of the 24th
Annual Conference of the International Societ of
Explosives Engineers, 1998.
10/3/2012 9:00:17 PM
 McKenzie, C.K., 2007. Las limitaciones para alcanzar
la excelencia en la tronadura, Proceedings of the VII
Conference of the ASIEX, Puerto Varas, Chile.
Schellman, M., 2003. Personal CommunicationEvalu-
ation of Presplit Blasting at the Mantoverde Mine.
Sneath, W., 1983, Personal Communication, University
of Queensland, Final Year Thesis.
Van Kersen, A., 1989. The design, construction and char-
acterization of a fractured seismic study block, M. Eng.
Thesis, Delft Technical University, Netherlands.
Villalba, I., 2007, Efectofiltro del precorte, un paradigm
o unarealidad?, Proceedings of the VII Conference of
the ASIEX, Puerto Varas, Chile.

705

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 705 10/3/2012 9:00:17 PM

This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

A numerical analysis of the presplitting controlled blasting method

M. Sharafisafa & A. Mortazavi

Department of Mining & Metallurgical Engineering, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran

ABSTRACT: Controlled blasting techniques are used to control overbreak and to aid in the stability of
the remaining rock formation. The less competent the rock mass itself is, the more care has to be taken in
avoiding damage. Presplitting is one of the most common methods which is used in many open pit mining
and surface blast design. The purpose of presplitting is to form a fracture plane across which the radial
cracks from the production blast cannot travel. Presplitting should be thought of as a protective measure
to keep the final wall from being damaged by the production blasting. The purpose of this study is to
investigate the effect of presplitting on the generation of a smooth wall in a rock domain under a surface
blast process. The 2D distinct element method was used for the simulation of presplitting in a rock slope.
A simple blast load history was applied to the inner wall of each blasthole. Important parameters that
were considered in the analysis were stress tensor and fracturing pattern. The analysis results show that
the blast loading magnitude and blasthole spacing are significant parameter affecting the final results.

1 INTRODUCTION method for achieving crack control by utilizing a

Drilling and blasting continues to be an important
method of rock production and rock splitting.
Drill and blast technique has a disadvantage that
sometimes it produces cracks in an uncontrolled
manner and generates micro cracks within the
post blast opening geometry. Therefore, attempts
have been made to develop controlled growth
of crack in the desired direction. The control of
fractures in undamaged brittle materials is of con-
siderable interest in several practical applications
including rock fragmentation and overbreak con-
trol in mining [13]. One way of achieving con-
trolled crack growth along specific directions and
inhibit growth along other directions is to generate
stress concentrations along those preferred direc-
tions. Several researchers have suggested a number
of methods for achieving fracture plane control by
means of blasting. Fourney et al. [4] suggested a
blasting method which utilizes a ligamented split-
tube charge holder. Nakagawa et al. [5] examined
the effectiveness of the guide hole technique by
model experiments using acrylic resin plates and
concrete blocks having a charge hole and circular
guide holes. Katsuyama et al. [6] suggested a con-
trolled blasting method using a sleeve with slits in
a borehole.
Mohanty [7,8] suggested a fracture plane control
technique using satellite holes on either side of the
central pressurized hole, and demonstrated its use
through laboratory experiments and field trials in
rock. Nakamura et al. [9] suggested a new blasting
charge holder with two-wedge-shaped air cavities.
Nakamura [10] performed model experiments to
examine the effectiveness of the guide hole with
notches. Cho et al. [11] performed experiments
using a notched charge hole to visualize fracturing
and gas flow due to detonation of explosives.
Recently, model experiments using PMMA
specimens and electric detonators were carried out
to observe the propagation of cracks between two
charge holes in blasting by Nakamura et al. [12].
The applicability of the guide hole method using
a circular hole having two notches between the
charge holes was examined. Controlled blasting
techniques produce the macrocrack in a desired
direction and eliminate the generation of microc-
rack in the remaining rock. The principle behind
these methods is that closely spaced parallel holes
drilled on the final face are loaded with a light
explosive charge that has a diameter smaller than
that of the hole [13]. There are four methods of
controlled blasting, and the one selected depends
on the rock characteristic and the feasibility under
the existing conditions. These methods are line
drilling, cushion blasting, smooth-wall blasting
and presplitting (also pre-shear) [14].
When the rock is reasonably competent, smooth-
wall blasting techniques can be used to advantage
in underground applications. Horizontal holes are
charged with small-diameter low-density decou-
pled cartridges strung together and by providing
good stemming at the collar of the hole. Charges
are fired simultaneously after the lifters. If the rock

707

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 707 10/3/2012 9:00:17 PM

 is incompetent, smooth-wall blasting may not be
satisfactory [15]. Cushion and presplitting blast-
ing are the most commonly used methods, with
the main difference between the two being that
in cushion blasting the final row of holes is deto-
nated last in the sequence, while in pre-shearing the
final line holes are detonated first in the sequence.
Presplitting consists of creating a plane of shear
in solid rock on the desired line of break. It is
somewhat similar to other methods of obtaining
a smoothly finished excavation, but the main dif-
ference is that presplitting is carried out before any
production blasting and even in some cases before
production drilling [4]. Presplitting utilizes lightly
loaded, closely spaced drill holes, fired before the
production blast. The purpose of presplitting is
to form a fracture plane across which the radial
cracks from the production blast cannot travel.
The fracture plane formed may be cosmetically
appealing and allow the use of steeper slopes with
less maintenance. Presplitting should be thought of
as a protective measure to keep the final wall from
being damaged by the production blasting [15].
The presplit theory is that two simultaneously
fired holes emit shock waves, which, when they
meet within the web, place the web in tension,
causing cracks and shearing it. Figure 1 illustrates
the presplit theory. Figure 2. Fracture patterns in the presplitting blast
In extremely weathered material, presplitting method; a. location of presplit holes and production
may be carried out at very close spacing with a very holes; b. final fracture plane after presplit blast [18].
small amount of explosive. Presplit holes must be
stemmed with an increased bottom charge to move
the toe [14]. After detonation in presplit holes, waves Accordingly, this study was aimed at investi-
generated from each hole propagate in a spherical gating the effect of hole spacing and explosive
shape and cracks are generated around holes. load magnitude as two of the most important
Figure 2 shows a presplitting blast project and parameters affecting the outcome of presplitting
rock shearing and forming the fracture plane in pre- operations.
splitting method. As can be seen from Figure 2-a, In order to investigate the effects of differ-
presplit blast leads to the generation of a fracture ent parameters involved in presplitting, numeri-
plane parallel to the free face which is final wall cal tools were employed. In the present study, the
of temporary slope. Figure 2-b illustrates a suc- DEM method, which has the capability to simulate
cessful presplit blast with no unwanted damage in the response of rock subjected to static or dynamic
other sides. In order to operate a successful presplit loading was used.
blast, significant factures involved in rock blasting
should be noted and calculated properly.
2 NUMERICAL MODELLING OF THE
PRESPLITTING BLAST METHOD

Numerical codes are useful tools to build models

of complex problems, which have complex geom-
etry, loading condition and boundary condition.
The rock-explosive interaction in multi-row blast-
ing operations is an example of such problems. The
experimentation of such problems is very difficult,
expensive and not easily doable in actual field
scale. On the other hand, sophisticated numerical
tools enable handling of dynamic behavior, com-
Figure 1. Presplit principle [17]. plex geometries and nonelastic material behavior.

708

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 708 10/3/2012 9:00:17 PM

 Numerical methods, once calibrated with practi- Table 1. Rock mass properties used as input.
cal experiments and observations, can be used for
parametric studies aimed at analyzing the effect of Density E UCS Poissons
critical parameters on the structure response. It is Parameter (kg/m3) (GPa) (MPa) ratio
the goal of this paper to look into the effects of Value 2650 50 35 0.25
important parameters involved in the presplitting
blast method.

approach was adopted in this analysis. With

3 MODELLING STRATEGY AND INPUT regard to the continuum nature of the analysis,
DATA the study was focused on the stress wave load-
ing phase and the subsequent gas pressurization
As pointed out in the previous sections a numeri- phase and throw was not considered. In order to
cal approach was adapted in this study. Employing estimate the generated pressure from the charge,
the DEM method, a 2D model of a typical blast experimental methods can be helpful. The mag-
geometry was constructed. Figure 3 illustrates an nitude of shock wave pressure is a function of
overall view of the model. Identical holes of 10 cm velocity of detonation, density and charge ingre-
in diameter and in 0.5, 1, 2, 3 and 4 m in distance dients [10]. Although this relation is very com-
were considered within the blasting area. Further plicated, the following equation can be used to
details of the blast geometry are shown on the estimate the blast load:
figure. Since the objective was to look at the prob-
lem from stress/failure mechanism point of view,
e .VD 2
the Mohr-Coulomb material model was used to PD = 432 10 6 (1)
model the rock mass behavior. The problem was 1 + 0.8e
treated as a plane-strain section at bench/blasthole
mid-height. where, PD = blast pressure (MPa); e = explosive
In Figure 3, D is the distance between holes in density (gr/cm3); and VD = velocity of detonation
all simulated models. All boundaries were con- (m/s).
sidered as viscous boundaries (non-reflecting) Substituting for dynamite properties in the
to eliminate wave reflections from boundaries. It above equation:
should be noted that the number of holes depends
on the spacing between holes in the model and 1.45 3000 2
Figure 3 just shows a schematic view of the model. PD = 432 10 6 = 2610 MPa (2)
1 + 0.8 1.45
The rock type was assumed to be limestone. This
is the dominant rock type in most highway cuts in
Gas pressure usually is considered half of the
northern Iran. The materials properties used were
blast pressure as below:
compiled from rock mechanics studies conducted
on highway construction projects within Iran and
1
are shown in Table 1 [19]. PE = PD = 1305 MPa (3)
Considering the limitations of the employed 2
numerical method for blast simulation (e.g. gas
propagation modeling) and also the complex If the diameter of the explosive is equal to blast-
nature of blast loading mechanisms, a simplified hole diameter, then there is no gap between blast-
hole and explosive and the related pressure can be
calculated as follow:
q
r
PW = PE . h (4)
b

where PW is blast pressure at coupled detonation,

rh = hole radius (mm); b = explosive radius (mm);
= specific heat coefficient; and q = shape factor
of explosive (2 for cylindrical charges and 3 for
spherical charges) [11]. Therefore;

2 1.2
38
PW = 1305 = 1305 MPa (5)
Figure 3. Overall view of the model. 38

709

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 709 10/3/2012 9:00:17 PM

 On the other hand, applied dynamic pressure
on blasthole wall is a function of time because
of interaction between rock and generated shock
wave. Many experimental equations have been pre-
sented to calculate this parameter, but the equations
given by Starfield and Pugliese [12] and Duvall
[13] are most widely used equations. According to
Starfields equation, the generated dynamic pres-
sure on the wall (P(t)) is a function of rock density
( r ), explosive density ( e ), P-wave velocity (C
C p ),
velocity of detonation (VD) and PW. The follow-
ing equation gives P(t) as below:
8r . C p
P (t ) = PW . [e( Bt / 2 )
Bt
e(
r C p VD
. VD . e
& B = 16338
4 SIMULATION RESULTS OF THE
SPACING EFFECT ON FRACTURE
PLANE
As outlined earlier, five models consisting of five
different blasthole spacing (0.5, 1, 2, 3 and 4 m)
were analyzed. All models have the same dimen-
sions in width and length as presented in Figure 3.
The main difference between models is in the
number of holes which depends on the distance
between holes. After an initial static calculation,
the blast load was applied to the blasthole wall and
a full dynamic analysis was conducted. Figure 5
illustrates the velocity vectors indicating the wave
2 Bt
B )
] front propagation within the rock mass.
(6)

where B is a constant.
Assuming an explosive density ( e ) of 1.45
(g/cm3) and a limestone rock type, P(t) can be
determined as below;

P(t ) = 2350 [e
[e 11552 t
e( 32676t )
] (7)

Figure 4 shows the blast load pulse determined

based on the above equation. As can be seen from
Figure 2, the peak pressure is about 820 MPa. In
this study, it was assumed that the explosive is
of a shocky type (i.e. with very high detonation
velocity) and delivers most of its energy in the
form of stress wave.
In order to better understand the wave propa-
gation in presplitting method, plasticity indicators
and velocity vectors were monitored as a function
of stress wave propagation/collision in each model
and to compare the results, the monitored param-
eters were plotted at the same time. Moreover, his-
tory locations were considered at points between
holes as well as in locations lying parallel to Y-axis
around each hole.

Figure 4. Dynamic pressure applying on the blasthole Figure 5. Illustration of stress wave front at 0.2 ms after
wall. blast.

710

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 710 10/3/2012 9:00:21 PM

 As can be seen from Figure 5, each model has
different trend of wave propagation and collision
compared to the other ones. In the cases of 0.5, 1
and 2 meter hole spacing, before 0.2 ms the wave
fronts from each hole collide with one another and
a complicated interaction between wave fronts
occurs, whereas in the cases of 3 and 4 m hole
spacing, at 0.2 ms wave fronts have not collided
yet. These interactions between wave fronts lead
to development of different fracture pattern within
the rock mass. Figure 6 illustrates the rock failure
and crack propagation calculated from the five
simulated blasthole spacing scenarios.
Figure 6. Rock mass failure and crack propagation
under blast loading.
711
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 711
As illustrated in Figure 6, fracturing in each
model has a different trend indicating the effect
of different hole spacing. As mentioned earlier
in section 1, depending on the distance between
holes, different types of blast induced fracturing
are generated around holes. Once the spacing is too
close, numerous fractures link in the plane between
holes and when the blast is excavated the material
between holes will fall out leaving half casts pro-
truding from the final wall. Moreover, the most
yielded zones are crushed zones and other types of
fractures such as severely fractured zone and incip-
iently cracked zone are not created. This fracturing
pattern indicates less damage to adjacent walls lead-
ing to the formation of a straight fracture plane.
This process can be seen in Figure 6 in models with
0.5 and 1 meter in spacing. Increasing the blasthole
spacing leads to the generation of longer fractures
as well as decreasing crushed zone area. If spacing
is more than 2 m and less than 4 m, a severely frac-
tured zone will dominate around blastholes. These
fractures link in the plane between holes and lead
to the formation of a well-defined fracture plane
which is favorable. On the other hand, incipient
fractures generated from cracked zones are too
short to form linked cracks which means that at
this spacing wave fronts interference is just capable
of generating short cracks. Furthermore, fractures
initiated from the crushed zone causes damage
to adjacent walls. Therefore, if blasthole spacing
is selected too large, a rough post blast geometry
should be expected. In the cases with very large
distance between holes, wave front generated from
each hole acts similar to an individual blast in rock
mass and a complete fracture process zone around
blastholes is generated. This phenomenon means
that there is no constructive or destructive inter-
ference between stress wave fronts and rock failure
is limited the blasthole area. Hence, fractures ini-
tiated from blastholes do not link together which
means there is no fracture plane and applicability
of presplit blast is not fulfilled. As can be observed
from Figure 6 in the case of D = 4 m, a fracture
plane has not been generated and just longer frac-
tures propagated around the blasthole.
In order to evaluate the stress states and the role
of stress components, history points were placed at
various locations within the rock mass. Considering
the paper scope, more meaningful parameters (e.g.
xx-stress, xy-stress and yy-stress) were extracted
and presented here to compare the differences in
stress state in each model. Figure 7 illustrates the
variation of Sxx, Syy and Sxy at halfway points
between two blastholes.
As can be observed from Figure 7 three graphs
have the same trend and an increase in spacing
leads to decrease in stress level. On the other hand,
there is a big difference between xx-stress and
10/3/2012 9:00:24 PM

Figure 7. Histories of maximum stresses at halfway
between two blastholes.
the other two stress components. The maximum
yy-stress is about 17.85 MPa and the shear stress
(e.g. xy-stress) is about 2.9 MPa, whereas the maxi-
mum value for xx-stress is approximately 122 MPa.
These levels of stresses mean that Sxx is the major
stress and responsible for rock mass failure. Look-
ing at Figure 7, 2 meter spacing is the critical
spacing and spacing values less than 2 m lead to
higher rate of energy delivery to the rock mass
which cause severe rock failure between holes. This
phenomenon was described earlier in the descrip-
tion of Figure 6 which indicates a good match
between stresses state and the rock failure pattern.
Once the spacing is smaller than 2 m, higher levels
of stress leads to the generation of crushed zone
around holes that is due to high and fast delivery
of energy to the rock mass. Moreover, constructive
interference of stress waves generated from each
hole lead to higher fragmentation locally. In the
case of 4 m spacing, maximum xx-stress, yy-stress
and xy-stress are about 10, 1.3 and 0.127 MPa,
respectively. These magnitudes of stresses at half-
way point between blastholes are not able to cause
plastic failure in the rock mass. Therefore, fractures
initiated from holes cannot link together to gener-
ate a continuous fracture plane.
To further evaluate the issue the variations of
Sxx, Syy and Sxy along blasthole center line (paral-
lel to y-axis) at a distance of 40 cm were recorded
and plotted in Figure 8. This figure demonstrates
that the most significant stress component is the
Syy which has a maximum value developed at 4 m
spacing. The trends shown in Figure 8 indicates
that the propagation of fractures initiated from the
blastholes are due to yy-stress component and two
other stresses (e.g. Sxx and Sxy) can contribute to
the extend fractures.
Moreover, the shear stress components are too
low to cause rock mass failure and do not have
an effective role in the rock mass failure. On the
other hand, for spacings more than 1 m, there is
712
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 712
Figure 8. Histories of maximum stresses along blast-
hole center line.
an opposite trend between Sxx and Syy. Increasing
the distance between holes causes a uniform distri-
bution of energy in the rock mass around blasthole
and leads to the generation of a complete fracture
zone and unwanted damage to the adjacent wall of
the blasthole. In the early times of the blast, Syy
causes compressive failure of the rock mass and
after this time Sxx causes tensile stress concentra-
tion at the tip of cracks which will extend them.
Tensile stress concentration at crack tips leads to
the propagation of cracks in undesired directions
and unwanted fragmentation of the rock mass.
5 SIMULATION RESULTS OF THE EFFECT
OF BLAST LOADING MAGNITUDE
ON FRACTURE PATTERN
The dynamic responses of a rock mass to blast-
ing are much affected by loading magnitude of
the explosive charge, which may influence the
rock fracture pattern. In order to investigate the
effect of loading magnitude on the fracture pat-
tern, five pressure wave pulse with maximum pres-
sures values of 300, 400, 500, 600 and 700 MPa
and the same rise and decay times as Figure 4 were
applied to the model. These pressure wave pulses
were applied to a model with 4 m spacing to bet-
ter illustrate the rock failure. The general model is
the same as Figure 3. Figure 9 illustrates the rock
mass failure subjected to different blast loadings.
As can be seen from Figure 9, a higher loading
magnitude increases the number of fractures and
causes the intense stress release around the run-
ning fractures.
When the blast loading is less than 500 MPa,
fractures generated from the blastholes cannot
link together to generate a continuous fracture
plane and fracture pattern is similar to a single
blasthole scenario. When blast loading exceeds
500 MPa, constructive interference of stress waves
10/3/2012 9:00:25 PM
 Figure 10. Variation of Sxx, Syy and Sxy at halfway
point between blastholes.

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

20

10

10 Blast loadingmagnitude(Mpa)
Stress (Mpa)

20

30

40
Sxx
Series2
50
Syy
Series3
60

70
Sxy
Series1

80

Figure 11. Histories of Sxx, Syy and Sxy along blast-

hole center line at a distance of 40 cm.

record stresses, were considered at these points.

Figure 9. Illustration of rock failure subjected to five
different blasts loading.
generated from each hole leads to higher fragmen-
tation locally. This phenomenon occurs in points
between holes and leads to link incipiently frac-
tures which create final fracture plane. As can be
seen from Figure 9 in the case of 600 MPa, frac-
tures are not linked together entirely and linked
fractures have not generated a straight line which is
desired. When the blast loading exceeds 600 MPa
and reaches to 700 MPa, a perfect fracture plane is
generated which is the main goal of presplit blast-
ing performance. It should be noted that intensive
blast load leads to the generation of more fractures
around the hole which can damage the rock mass
around blasthole in unwanted directions.
In order to investigate the stress states at
the points between holes, history points to
Figure 10 shows the variation of Sxx, Syy and Sxy
at halfway points between two blastholes.
As illustrated in Figure 10, there is a meaning-
ful difference between Sxx and the other two stress
components. With increase in the applied pressure
on blasthole wall, the xx-stress increase gradu-
ally. The red line shows two trends. The first trend
begins at 7.65 and ends at 13.7 MPa, and the sec-
ond trend varies between 13.7 and 16.3 MPa. In
the first trend rock failure does not occur in this
point, whereas in the second trend rock failure
occurs. This means that to generate a continuous
fracture, 500 MPa is critical load and blast load-
ing should be increased to more than this value.
On the other hand, yy-stress and xy-stress do not
have significant effect on rock failure in this point
indicating that these stresses do not contribute to
link fractures between holes.
Figure 11 illustrates the variation of Sxx, Syy and
Sxy at a point along blasthole center line parallel to
the y-axis at a distance of 40 cm. In this figure it is
clear that at points along to blasthole center, rock
failure is due to high values of yy-stress. There is a

713

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 713 10/3/2012 9:00:25 PM

 dramatic increase in the magnitude of yy-stress with
increase in blast loading. It means that yy-stress is
responsible for creating fractures in directions par-
allel to the y-axis. Therefore, mainly the yy-stress
component leads to damage to rock mass in unde-
sired directions. On the other hand, xx-stress and
xy-stress have approximately remained constant
and maximum values of xx-stress and xy-stress are
about 10 and 5.6 MPa respectively.
6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
A 2D numerical method was employed to study
the presplitting blast method. The rock mass was
considered to be a medium strength limestone
typical of host rock in highway cuts in northern
Iran. A Mohr-Coulomb constitutive law was used
to model the rock mass deformation and failure.
Important stress components were monitored
at critical points (e.g. points between holes and
along blasthole center line). The stress wave front
and rock mass failure due to blast loading were
shown. Two significant parameters, spacing and
blast loading, were examined to better understand
the presplitting mechanism. The numerical results
show that spacing is the most significant governing
parameter which controls the final fracture plane
shape. Low spacing leads to a continuous and
straight fracture which is the desired scope. On
the other hand, in low spacings, crushed zone is
the dominate type of fracturing and areas between
holes are crushed completely. When spacings are
too large, a face that is generally rough in appear-
ance will result and long fractures are created in
all directions leading to damage to adjacent walls.
The second significant factor is blast loading. The
conducted numerical study indicated that increas-
ing the applied blast loading in very large spacings
leads to the generation of a continuous fracture
and low blast loads are not able to link fractures
generated around blastholes. Moreover, high mag-
nitudes of blast loading cause longer fractures
around blastholes which lead to damage to adja-
cent walls.
REFERENCES
1. Fourney WL, DC. Holloway snd JW. Dally. 1975.
Fracture initiation and propagation from a center of
dilatation. Int J Fract. 11:101129.
2. Fourney WL. 1993. Mechanisms of rock fragmenta-
tion in by blasting. In: Hudson JA, editor. Compres-
sive rock engineering, principles, practice and projects.
Oxford: Pergamon Press.
714
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 714
3. Kaneko K, Y. Matsunaga and Yamamoto M. 1995.
Fracture mechanics analysis of fragmentation proc-
ess in rock blasting. J Jpn Exp Soc, 58(3):919.
4. Fourney WL, JW. Dally and DC. Holloway. 1978.
Controlled blasting with ligamented charge holers.
Int J Rock Mech Min Sci. 15:1219.
5. Nakagawa K, T. Sakamoto and R. Yoshikai. 1982.
Model study of the guide hole effect on the smooth
blasting. J Jpn Exp Soc. 43:7582.
6. Katsuyama K, H. Kiyokawa and K. Sassa. 1983.
Control the growth of cracks from a borehole by
a new method of smooth blasting. Mining Safety.
29:1623.
7. Mohanty B. 1990. Explosive generated fractures
in rock and rock like materials. Eng Fract Mech.
88998.
8. Mohanty B. Fracture-plane control blasts with sat-
ellite holes. 1990. In Proceedings of the 3rd Inter-
national Symposium on Rock Fragmentation by
Blasting. Parkville, Australia, 1990. Australasian
Institute of Mining and Metallurgy. p. 40712.
9. Nakamura Y, H. Matsunaga, M. Yamamoto and
K. Sumiyoshi. 1992. Blasting methods for crack
control by utilizing charge holders. J Jpn Exp Soc.
53:317.
10. Nakamura Y. 1999. Model experiments on effective-
ness of fracture plane control methods in blasting.
Int J Blast Fragment. 3:5978.
11. Cho SH, Y. Nakamura and K. Kaneko. 2004.
Dynamic fracture process of rock subjected to stress
wave and gas pressurization. Int J Rock Mech Min
Sci. 41:439.
12. Nakamura Y, SH. Cho, M. Yoneoka, M. Yamamoto
and K. Kaneko. 2004. Model experiments on crack
propagation between two charge holes in blasting.
Sci Technol Energetic Mater. 65:349.
13. Persson, P.A., R. Holmburg, and J. Lee. 1993. Rock
Blasting and Explosive Engineering. CRC Press,
Boca Raton FL.
14. Lopez, J.C., J.E. Lopez. 1995. Drilling and blasting
of rocks. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam.
15. Rossmanith H.P., K. Uenishi. 2008. The Cua
ProblemReconsidered. In Proceedings of the 12th
International Conference of International Associa-
tion for Computer Methods and Advances in Geo-
mechanics. (IACMAG) 16 October 2008, Goa,
India.
16. Wyliie, D.C. and C.W. Mah. 2005. Rock slope engi-
neering. 4th ed. London: Taylor & Francis.
17. Hemphill, G.B. 1981. Blasting operation. McGraw
Hill Inc. New York.
18. Atlas Powder Company. (1987). Explosives and
Rock Blasting. Atlas Powder Company, Dallas, TX.
19. Sharafisafa, M., Mortazavi, A. (2011). A numerical
analysis of the effect of a fault on wave propagation.
45th US rock mechanics symposium, San Francisco,
USA.
10/3/2012 9:00:26 PM
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Wall control by blasting optimization at Las Cruces

open pit copper mine (Spain)

M. Rocha
Mining Engineer

I. Carrasco
Cobre Las Cruces, S.A., Seville, Spain

J. Castilla
Universidad Politcnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain

S. Cooper & M.D. Rodrguez

Geotechnical Division at Cobre Las Cruces, S.A., Seville, Spain

ABSTRACT: Slope stability is one of the most important challenges in open pit mining. Blasting can be
considered a principal cause of induced damage to these slopes. This induced damage has repercussions
with respect to design and maintenance, additional support costs and above all mining safety. Neverthe-
less, a firm control on design and implementation of contour blasting can help to minimize damage and
other adverse blast effects. This project deals with the optimization of contour blasting in the copper
mining project Las Cruces (Inmet Mining), located in Seville, Spain. It develops the concept of contin-
ued improvement of contour blasting to minimize induced damage to slopes, analyzing the effects of
energy distribution during rock blasting exercises. In this way, through a merging of energy data and
geotechnical rock characteristics, it may be possible to obtain, for a particular rock, characteristic dam-
age energy and, consequently, an optimum blast design. The final objective of the project is to minimize
damage to the rock mass, achieving a more precise excavation face, minimization of maintenance costs
and overall an optimum slope stability. During the evolution of the mining pit, blast design at Las Cruces
Mine has evolved, utilizing a variety of known techniques as considered appropriate with reference to
rock quality, water ingress, joint setting and required geometry. This project is divided into four different
stages. Firstly, blasting data has been collected and analyzed using bespoke blasting software. The second
stage comprises the analysis of the blasting energy data and rock mass joint distribution combined with
geotechnical data to estimate the energy blasting effects on each material. Stage 3 deals with the design
contour blasting. These blasts take into account the available energy limits obtained as a result of study-
ing previous blasting activities and geotechnical characteristics together. Then, in the final stage different
designs and implementation changes are formulated and trialed in situ to achieve results and meaningful
conclusions. In summary, the results to date, and their evolution in this project will be highly beneficial for
the mining operation, obtaining better and more efficient results in slope accuracy and stability.

1 INTRODUCTION The hydrometallurgical plant uses atmospheric

Las Cruces is a copper open pit mine located
20 km. northwest of Seville, Spain and fully owned
by Inmet Mining Corporation (Toronto, Canada).
Las Cruces project is located in the eastern part of
the prolific Iberian Pyrite Belt VMS district and
is one of the highest grade copper deposits in the
world. Original resource outlined was 17.6 million
tonnes @6.2% Cu, equivalent to 1 million tonnes
of contained copper. The Las Cruces mine has
been in operation since 2009, having processed
1.4M tonnes in total as of December 31, 2011.
ferric leaching technology, followed by SXEW
to produce copper cathode at a design produc-
tion rate of 72,000 tonnes per year with a 91%
recovery. An ongoing stockpile blending program
helps smooth the plant feed grade. The deposit is
a secondary sulphide mineral deposit formed by
supergene enrichment in the up dip part of a mas-
sive primary sulphide zone. Near surface oxidation
of the sulphide minerals to an iron oxide gossan,
transport and precipitation of copper and finally
replacement of unoxidized primary massive sul-
phides at depth formed the orebody. Subsequent

715

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 715 10/3/2012 9:00:26 PM

 submarine deposition buried the deposit under 100
to 150 meters of sandstone and calcareous mud-
stone (marl). The deposit has a general strike to
the east and a dip to the north at about a 71 angle.
The current ultimate pit design is approximately
240 meters deep, 1.5 kilometers long (eastwest),
and 0.9 kilometers wide (northsouth). Contour
blasting techniques are implemented to minimize
induced damage to slopes and other adverse blast
effects. Slope stability has a very important, posi-
tive and absolutely necessary consequence: safety.
Clearly, all these improvements can be translated
into profits for the operation. Contour blasting
allows a more precise excavation face to be achieved
and subsequently reduces dilution issues and risks
of material fall-off; it also contributes to minimi-
zation of slope maintenance costs and, in some
cases, additional slope support can be reduced or
eliminated. Blast energy that does not result in rock
fragmentation and displacement induces damage
to the rock mass, opening new fractures and creat-
ing weak planes. In consequence, what can remain
is a potentially hazardous fractured rock mass. The
best way to minimize the induced damage from
blasts areas to adjacent slopes is by controlling
blast energy release. Nevertheless, it is important
to take into account the balance between contour
blasting costs and slope maintenance costs.
2 GEOLOGY AND GEOTECHNICAL
DATA OF THE MINE
Geological and geotechnical information is essential
to slope design and optimized blasting design. At
Las Cruces the general geological profile predomi-
nately comprises tertiary Guadalquivir Blue Marls
over a Paleozoic Volcano-sedimentary sequence
hosting the poly-metallic ore body. The Table 1
below provides a summary of rock types encoun-
tered as work progressed within the mine pit:
As can be seen from the data in Table 1,
rock strength and rock mass rating is variable.
Table 1. Paleozoic rock strengths.
Volcanics Shale
Slope U.C.S. (MPa) R.M.R. U.C.S. (MPa)
SE 107 55 57
E 80 44 73
NE 104 48 90
N 119 51
NW 75 50 82
SW 137 60 79
Mean 104 51 76
716
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 716
Weak rocks are especially prevalent in the con-
tact zones between ore and shale, and other areas
closely associated with post-formation faulting.
3 BACKDROP OF THE MINING
OPERATIONS
The Las Cruces Mine is a moderately sized open
pit mining operation utilizing contract drilling and
blasting, loading with hydraulic excavators, and
transport by trucks. The overall pit slope angle
is 28 in the marls and sandstone, and 43 in the
Paleozoic bedrock. Trucks haul the ore to blending
stockpiles prior to introduction into the crusher.
Current mining rate is 1.2 Mt ore and 7 Mm3 waste
per year. An option for underground extension of
the operations exists at the end of the life of mine.
Bench parameters are provided in the
Table 2 shown below. Operational bench height is
reduced down to 5 m in Paleozoic rocks to improve
grade control and selective mining.
Pit development comprised 6 consecutive push-
backs. Currently, ore production comes from
phase 2. Phase 3 stripping is well advanced and ore
is expected to be excavated in this Phase in second
quarter of 2013.
The overburden layer is free-dig to 90 m depth.
Preblasting with ANFO is then used (0.15 kg/m3).
Blasting starts when marls and sandstone inter-
phase is reached. Dope emulsions are used system-
atically due to the presence of water.
4 CONTOUR BLASTING FUNDAMENTALS
The purpose of contour blasting is to produce sta-
ble and homogeneous surfaces, easy to clean and
maintain, by reducing damage and cracking in the
remaining rock mass. This kind of blast helps to
achieve an increase in slope angle, with economic
benefits such as increased ore reserves or decreased
ore to waste ratio. Also, a minimization of fall-rock
Gossan
R.M.R. U.C.S. (MPa) R.M.R.
46
45 103 47
50 113 51
141 69
48 127 63
48 132 59
47 123 58
10/3/2012 9:00:27 PM
 Table 2. Pit design parameters.
Tertiary Paleozoic
Batters
50 7075
Berms 4 m10 m 5m
Bench high 10 m 5 m/10 m
Ramps 8% 10%
risk associated with slopes could reduce berm
width improving the productivity and the opera-
tion safety.
In contour blasting techniques, the principal
characteristic is that the spacing in the last row
(near the wall) is less than the spacing in a pro-
duction blast or a modified production blast.
Therefore, cracking progresses towards the lower
strength path, that is to say, from hole to hole to
create a cutting plane with decreasing radial frac-
tures creation. The fundamental conditions of the
slope row in contour blasts are:
The relation between burden and spacing is
inverted. Now, burden is bigger than spacing.
Reduced charge concentrations, to use only suf-
ficient energy to open a cutting plane between
the holes. Different explosive loading techniques
can be considered to achieve this effect such as
decoupled charges, decking or air decking.
Appropriate stemming material (1/10 drilling
diameter and angular shape) to achieve the nec-
essary timing of the explosive gases inside the
hole to make use of all the possible energy whilst
avoiding over confinement.
Reduction of inter hole surface delays, even det-
onating them simultaneously.
There are 3 fundamental ideas needed to be
clear for a better control of the blasts:
1. The explosive energy in its movement will always
travel along a preferred lower strength path
so there must be sufficient distance from the
required slope location. Blast relief is critical.
2. Productivity decreases in slope control zones.
3. Considering the geotechnical structure of the
site, there are 4 types of blast to control the
energy in the slopes, pre/post-splitting, buffer
blasting, trim blasting and line drilling.
Contour blasting is based on a balance between
the keys of the efficient blast design that link sev-
eral aspects of explosive energy with blast results.
These keys are the base and guide to the optimiza-
tion process. They are: Energy Distribution, Con-
finement and Energy Amount. (Floyd, 2009)
Detailed information is needed to achieve an
accurate blast design adjusted to the site condi-
tions and to the goal:
717
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 717
Seismic characteristics of the site. Sometimes,
vibration data is only taken into account if there
exists local restrictions such as third parties
buildings or structures close to the mine. Slope
responses to blast vibrations should be consid-
ered in contour blast design process.
Free faces available. Ensuring a good blast
release with one or two free faces is critical to
facilitate the blast displacement away the slope.
Water conditions. The presence of water in the
site reduces the effective strain and, therefore,
the cutting strength of the discontinuities of the
rock mass.
Slope design. Occurrence of alteration zones
will impact on the rock mass strength and, sub-
sequently, slope stability and design parameters.
It is important to identify these potential haz-
ardous areas prior to short term planning and
blast design processes.
Geology and Geotechnical data. No doubt, this
is the most important information needed to
achieve a good contour blast. Design param-
eters will change depending on the geotechnical
properties of the rock mass.
5 PREVIOS STUDY OF THE PIT SITUATION
Prior to develop the optimization process itself, an
analysis was carried on site to evaluate current blast-
ing procedures and their effects on pit slopes. The
study comprises different stages: geotechnical and
geometrical study, blast modeling and analysis, KPIs
identification and blast performance evaluation.
Based on this study, a series of recommendations
were proposed to the Mines Department staff to
improve contour blasting.
5.1 Planned pit design
The initial pit design of Las Cruces pit imple-
mented studied dimensions to achieve project
continuity, not only from an operational level but
for safety as well. The design of the mineralization
area of the pit is shown in Figure 1.
5.2 Contour blasting practices at Las Cruces
During the mining operation and related to slope
stability and contour blasting, there have been
different blasting designs looking for the optimal
results and improvement. The stages followed are:
a. Production blasting: damage to the final slope
as shown in Figure 2.
b. Modified production blasting (Fig. 3): is a first
approach to the problem but is not properly a
contour blast.
10/3/2012 9:00:27 PM

Figure 1. Open pit slope design (Paleozoic area).
Figure 2. Induced cracking due to high confinement
and excessive energy levels.
Figure 3. Design of modified production blasting.
The modified production blast has a few differ-
ences with a normal production blast. The most
important changes between both blasts are:
Short sequence times between rows.
Improves berm definition by eliminating sub-
drill in the holes close to future berm areas.
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 718
Figure 4. Backbreak caused by modified production
blasting.
Ensures blast relief by limiting the number of
rows to 3 or 4.
The slope row is located with a designed offset
to the toe of the projected final slope, to avoid
damage but to guarantee ease whilst excavating
the slope toe. This distance changes depending
of the geotechnical domain in the pit.
The explosive charge of the modified contour
blast is the same as in a production blast. The
stemming material is the drilling detritus and
the pattern is 4 4.5 m. The damage caused to the
remaining rock mass is still important in certain
areas of the pit, as showed in the Figure 4.
c. Contour blasting: optimization.
6 PRE-OPTIMIZATION BLASTING STUDY
After modeling 9 modified production blasts (pre-
optimization blasting) several results are shown in
different subjects: field measurements of the real
situation of slopes and berms in the pit and results
of the simulation with JKSimBlast software, using
2D Bench module.
6.1 Berm situation
Perhaps the most important issue in the pit is the
deviation of actual berm widths related to the
planned design. An example is given for 125 level
(Fig. 5).
The average berm width is 3.14 m compares to
planned 5 m. Only the 6% of 100 measurements
are between +10% and 10% (4.5 m and 5.5 m) of
the required dimension.
Over excavation of catch berms is the most
important problem, overall in the gossan area.
6.2 Slope situation
The study of the real situation of slopes in the pit
is done by measuring and comparing actual and
projected crests and toes of the benches.
718
10/3/2012 9:00:27 PM
 Figure 6. Bench toe is out of design.
Figure 5. Real vs. theoretical berm widths at 125 level.

The analysis of more than 140 surveyed points

showed that over than 92% of bench toe was more
than 0.20 m out of design. The average difference
between actual and projected toe was approxi-
mately 1 m.
The problem with bench head is almost the
same. More than 93% of bench head was out of
design for more than 0.20 m, with an average dif-
ference of 1.30 m. An over excavation in crests
appeared and considering the problems with the
toe, this explains the berm width issue as shown
before. Secondary effects of this situation were that Figure 7. Bench head is out of design.
hazards increased for non-operative catch berms.
Figures 6 and 7 show the problem.

6.3 Energy distribution analysis

Blast simulation with JKSimBlast software allows
quantification of the energy range in which the
blast creates a break, damage or no effect in the
rock mass. It is possible to estimate the response of
the rock mass given a certain energy level.
Nine contour blasts were modeled and the
energy distribution analyzed and joined with the
pre and post blasting topography, taking into Figure 8. Energy distribution analysis with the real
account the heterogeneity of the geology. It is topography of the slope loaded.
possible to adjust the energy range needed in the
design step to guarantee the appropriate cutting
and the minimization of induced damage to the 7 PRE-OPTIMIZATION STUDY RESULTS
surrounding rock mass.
The energy distribution analysis was checked in The study above concluded that fragmentation
different ranges between 40 MJ/m3 and 3 MJ/m3. problems can be caused by many factors, that
With the results of the analysis, a confirma- heterogeneous blasting material should be taken
tion of the studied pit area is obtained: the cutting into account and affects subsequent blast energy
plane in the slope blasting is created with energy distribution. The principal effects of blasting in the
levels over 5 MJ/m3. The Figure 8 shows the energy slopes of the pit are:
distribution and the topography of the final slope.
The dominant energy of cracking and cutting is
7.1 Blasting domains
all over 5 MJ/m3, being the energy that creates the
slope (the red color marks 5 MJ/m3 energy limit). After the development of energy distribution
(Scott, A. et al. 1996) analysis all around the pit, blasting domains were

719

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 719 10/3/2012 9:00:27 PM

 established related to the behavior of the different
existing material. Pit domains are:
1. Shale zone (Fig. 9): this is the most problem-
atic area. Jointing dips into the pit and water
inflow and rock mass weakness makes it a real
challenge for the engineers. Following feasibility
trials, this area is now loaded directly without
drilling and blasting.
2. Fault zone (Fig. 10): more consistent than the
shale area but its highly weather condition
makes over excavation very easy. It is necessary,
therefore, to pay close attention at design stage
and during subsequent loading of this material.
Figure 11. Mineral-gossan zone.
The energy pathways need to be tightly
controlled.
3. Mineral-gossan zone (Fig. 11): this is the most
In general, the entire pit needs an accurate and
competent and consistent geotechnical area of
appropriate blasting energy control depending of
the pit but, the contour blasting results can be
the zone sensitivity.
improved with an accurate control of the energy
distribution. The trial blasting will be in this
zone. 7.2 No continuity in the open pit design
The damage is caused by an inappropriate energy
level and an incorrect energy distribution. As
shown in the Figures 6 and 7, the implemented
energy in the slope, for the geological conditions,
isnt appropriate in related to the distribution.
Loading and slope cleaning operations are very
important in this stage and they need to be under-
taken with care.

7.3 Berm width reduction

An incorrect energy distribution was found in this
study. That is why toes were out of design and it
implies that future slope crest rock quality could
be worst and weaker than expected. It causes an
overbreaking that, if the loading of the muckpile
and bench scaling are not carried out accurately,
Figure 9. Shale zone. width berm could be reduced and, in some cases,
berm width could be lost. This effect has to be
eliminated to improve the safety of the pit.

7.4 Increased of damage in weak zones

An excess of energy and vibration induced to the
rock mass can increase the accumulated stress in
weak material, compromising staff safety and the
operation as well. Because this material is sus-
ceptible to movement and with the situation of
the berms, the retaining of this material is not
guaranteed. Figure 12 shows the weak material
with a very close contour blast.

7.5 Costs increase

Maintenance, clean operations and support costs
Figure 10. Fault zone. increase when the blast is less consistent or is

720

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 720 10/3/2012 9:00:29 PM

 Figure 13. Energy distribution simulation of the trial
contour blasting.

Figure 12. Increase of stress in weak areas by induced

blast damage.

poorly located. Loading and transport costs are

increased as well because more material is been
blasted for an uncontrolled backbreak.

8 TRIAL BLAST

With the collected data registered during the study

of contour blasting and its effects, a new contour
blasting design is suggested to improve and opti-
mize the wall control.

8.1 Design
For the design of the trial blast, the most impor-
tant data to take into account is the energy needed
to cut the slope (Scott, et al. 1996). As said before,
this energy is 5MJ/m3 so, designing and simulat-
ing different patterns and explosives charges to
leave this energy in the cutting plane is desirable.
Figure 13 shows an energy distribution simulation
of the new contour design.
This blast design is called trim blasting. The trial
was done in a simulated slope in the middle of the
pit, with the geology parallel to the real slope to be
similar to the real geological structures (Fig. 14), to
test the results and effects with the goal of contin-
ued improvement method.
The outlined blast design is shown in the Table 3
and Figure 15.
8.2 Implementation
Implementation is, after a consistent and logic design,
the most important stage for a successful blasting.
The bench preparation begins with a good
cleaning of the face and the floor of the bench.
The implementation of the pattern is fundamental
for an appropriate drilling operation.
Figure 14. Trial contour blast located in the middle of
the pit.
In this case, every stage of the design implemen-
tation is done with care, accurate procedures and
in accordance with best practice (Cebrin, 2007).
The pattern and general data of the design
is as shown above, and the explosive charges of
Table 4, are the result of many tests and simula-
tions to achieve conditions to guarantee successful
blasting.
After an adequate preparation of the bench
and an accurate drilling operation as shown in the
Figure 16, the charge of the explosive is placed
with precision.
When the explosive is charged a single person
makes the sequence connection. The timing is
100 ms between rows and 17 ms between holes.
In this case, 150 ms are implemented between

721

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 721 10/3/2012 9:00:29 PM

 Table 3. Trial trim blast characteristics.

Blast 394 Slope row Buffer row Production row

Drilling diameter 140 mm 140 mm 140 mm

Subdrilling No No Yes
Pattern (m m) 3.00 2.25 3.50 4.50 4.00 4.50
Loading HANFO (80/20) + airdeck + HANFO (80/20) + deck + HANFO (80/20) +
stemming HANFO (80/20) + stemming stemming
Stemming Cuttings Cuttings Cuttings
Offset to final slope 1 m /3 m

Figure 16. Preparation and drilling of blast bench 394.

Figure 15. Trial contour blast located in the middle of

the pit. The blast is iniciated.
Following a checkup of complete denotation of
the blast, access and activity returns to normal for
Table 4. Explosive charge characteristics of trial trim the mine.
blast.

Slope row Buffer row Production row 9 TRIAL BLAST RESULTS

Stemming Stemming Stemming The results of this trial trim blast were highly satis-
Airdeck 20 kg HANFO 55 kg HANFO factory. The aims achieved were:
(80/20) (80/20)
Middle deck Accurate cutting for future slope excavation.
20 kg HANFO 22 kg HANFO Backbreak was significantly reduced compared
(80/20) to modified production blasting.
Good displacement with a high fragmentation
rate.
No flyrock problems.
production row and buffer row to guarantee a bet-
ter burden relief of the material previous to the Figure 17 shows the result post blasting.
detonation of slope row. Figure 18 shows how the simulation and the
Once all blasts are connected, all staff exit the energy distribution established in the previous
area and a last review is done by the blast manager study are correctly predicted.
in charge. Then the blasting protocol starts. After completion of the loading of the blasted
With distance as the best safety rule with blast material and cleaning final slope accurately follow-
detonation, the pit is cleared, all access closed and ing the survey limits of the bench crest, a consist-
the radio channel is only open for the blasting team ent slope was achieved closely matching design, as
and emergency. shown in Figure 19.

722

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 722 10/3/2012 9:00:30 PM

 Figure 17. Trial blast back cut and pile fragmentation.
Figure 20. Las Cruces pit.

10 CONCLUSIONS

One of the most important concepts obtained is

Figure 18. Energy distribution analysis with the real
topography post blasting.
Figure 19. Final slope achieved by trial blast 394.
that an accurate implementation of the blast is
essential for this energy-based method. The com-
mitment of all the staff involved in each stage is the
key to achieve the best results.
The process of improvement and optimization
of contour blasting continues at Las Cruces.
Different factors that affect the blasting opera-
tions are still been classified as the pit deepens
and reaches new areas and rock classes (Fig. 20).
In this sense, nowadays the approach to contour
blasting design in Las Cruces mine covers different
categories:
a. Hard rock mass: trim blasting.
b. Medium-hard rock mass: modified trim blast-
ing (Slope row: spacing increased up to 3 m with
an offset of 1 m).
c. Soft rock mass: modified production blasting.
The contour blasting area is opened from 3 to
4 rows (i.e. 1416 m) to increase the distance
of high energy production blasts from the final
slopes.
d. Very soft rock mass: direct excavation.
e. In localized pit areas where there is not enough
space to separate contour and production blast-
ing, a mixed blast design is now in evolution.
In this case a good timing sequence is essential
to ensure sufficient relief of both toe and inner
buffer rows.
As a final conclusion, a proper blast design,
following a systematic procedure, improve blast
results, mainly regarding blast contour. It has been
check that using an average energy distribution,
fixed at 5 MJ/kg, blast result implies a better sta-
bility of the bench head. This energy factor makes
easier blast design and, above all, provides a quick
and easy reference to design blasts properly.

723

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 723 10/3/2012 9:00:30 PM

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank the Management of
Cobre Las Cruces, S.A. for the permission to pub-
lish this paper. Our gratitude to all the personnel
from the Mining Department directly involved in
this project, with special dedication to the Drilling &
Blasting Team.
Floyd, J. (2009). Guidelines for Open Pit Slope Design:
276304.
Scott, A., Cocker, A., Djordjevic, N., Higgins, M., La
Rosa, D. Sarma, K.S. & Wedmaier, R. 1996. Open
Pit blasting analysts and optimization. Indooroopilly,
Queensland, Australia: Julius Kruttschnitt Mineral
Research Centre.

REFERENCES

Cebrin, B. (2007). Wall control by contour blasting-

airdeck. XII International Congress of Energy and
Natural Resources, Oviedo, 711 October 2007

724

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 724 10/3/2012 9:00:31 PM

 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Assessment of blast-induced damaged zone and its control

C.H. Ryu & B.H. Choi

Korea Institute of Geoscience & Mineral Resources (KIGAM), Daejeon, Korea

J.H. Jeong
Southern Mining Safety Office, Ministry of Knowledge Economy, Jeollanam-do, Korea

ABSTRACT: Rock blasting inevitably accompanies the damage to the surrounding rock mass. Efforts
have been made to assess the blast-induced excavation damaged zone (EDZ) in rock and to minimize the
damage by controlled blasting technique. This paper presents some results of a series of research projects
carried out at Korea Institute of Geoscience and Mineral Resources. A new concept of hydraulic EDZ is
introduced together with mechanical EDZ. Some experimental results to assess excavation damaged zone
are presented, which include borehole radar reflection surveys, and other seismic exploration methods. In
order to minimize the damaged zone, a pilot drift method is suggested. The blast design and some results
of field application are presented.

1 INTRODUCTION 2 BLAST DAMAGE CAUSED BY THE

In constructing rock slopes and underground
openings by drill and blasting methods, the rock
in the excavated area should be well fragmented,
while the remaining rock material should not be
damaged so as to improve the stability of the
rock structures. Rock blasting, however, inevita-
bly accompanies damage to the surrounding rock
mass. Rock damage from blasting results both
from impulsive loading by stress waves and gas-
driven fracture propagation. Efforts have been
made to assess the blast-induced excavation dam-
aged zone (EDZ) in the rock and to minimize the
damage by controlled blasting techniques.
In series of research projects carried out at
Korea Institute of Geoscience and Mineral
Resources (KIGAM), the new concept of hydrau-
lic EDZ was introduced, together with mechanical
EDZ. A theoretical rock damage model was devel-
oped and experimental methods to detect EDZs
were studied (Ryu et al. 2005). Some experimental
methods to assess an EDZ were also developed,
which include borehole radar reflection surveys,
Rayleigh wave inversion techniques, and other
seismic exploration methods (Kim et al. 1999, Ryu
et al. 2006). In order to minimize the EDZ, some
controlled blasting techniques and an excavation
method using a pilot drift were developed (Ryu &
Choi, 2008). Some of these results are presented
in this paper.
EXCAVATION PROCESS
2.1 Blast-induced excavation damaged zone
Damage is mainly caused by development of
cracks, displacement along existing joints, and dis-
turbance of stresses. The original state of the in
situ rock mass, such as stress, strain, rock stability,
water flow, etc. are affected to some extent around
an excavation. The definition of the affected zone
depends on the nature or the purpose of the exca-
vation. For example, a major concern for a road
tunnel is the regions in which rock blocks have
undergone notable displacement, or where the
tangential stress shows a major increase, which
controls tunnel stability. For nuclear waste dis-
posal, a region with hydraulic changes is of more
concern than the tunnels local stability because it
changes the water flow, and hence increases the
possibility for the migration of radioactive materi-
als. Figure 1 shows a conceptual diagram of the
damage zone around a tunnel.
The EDZ is generally defined as the zone beyond
the excavation boundary where the rock has been
significantly disturbed and/or damaged due to the
excavation process and re-distribution of stresses.
Various studies have investigated EDZs, with most
studies focusing on the mechanical behavior of
EDZ using in situ experiments (Sato 1998, Shen &
Barton 1997).

725

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 725 10/3/2012 9:00:31 PM

 in shape and is perpendicular to the fracture
direction. Thus, we define H-EDZ as an elliptical
model, as shown in Figure 3. Using the model,
the H-EDZ was easily represented by fracture
direction on the major/minor axis length and
central point of ellipse.
The availability of the H-EDZ model was verified
through some field experiments at an abandoned

Figure 1. Conceptual diagram of damage zone around

a tunnel.

2.2 Hydraulic-EDZ corresponding to tunnel

excavation
The EDZ could potentially form a highly per-
meable pathway for groundwater flow. For high
level radioactive waste disposal, it is important to
assess the damaged zone with regard to flow and
transport characteristics, admitting that areas of
hydro-mechanical and geochemical modifications Figure 2. Hydraulic EDZ (initial aperture: 0.2 mm,
with major changes in flow and transport proper- K: 0.5, joint spacing: 2 m, dip of joint: 45).
ties should be distinguished from those without
negative effects on long-term safety. In this regard,
a hydraulic excavation damaged zone (H-EDZ)
is defined as the zone adjacent to the excavation
where the hydraulic aperture has been changed due
to excavation (Park et al. 2008).
In order to assess the influence of the hydraulic
aperture change, a numerical analysis was carried
out by using a discrete fracture network (DFN)
which can simulate groundwater flow through
three-dimensional discrete fractures. The hydraulic
aperture changed zone near the excavated cavern
was estimated using the two-dimensional distinct
element method, with hydraulic-mechanical
coupling analysis (Park 2007). In the same
groundwater level, the behavior of the hydraulic
aperture near the cavern was analyzed for different
stress ratios, initial apertures, fracture angles and
fracture spacing. Typical results of the coupled
analysis are shown in Figure 2. Figure 2 shows
that the hydraulic aperture changed zone induced Figure 3. Determination of the range of the aperture
by the hydraulic mechanical interaction is elliptical changed zone (ellipse model).

726

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 726 10/3/2012 9:00:31 PM

 mine. In the case of reflecting hydraulic aperture
change, groundwater inflow into the cavern was
14.48% greater than before. This value did not
show a significant difference compared to a real site
inflow value. To ensure safety, numerical analysis
always requires conservative results. Therefore, the
model would be useful to investigate the realistic
hydraulic-mechanical behavior of underground
excavation.
One of the results shows that the H-EDZ Figure 5. Schematic diagram of the measuring system.
induced by excavation was found to be a dominant
factor affecting hydraulic safety. When consider-
ing the hydraulic aperture change, inflow into the
cavern increases with a constant head boundary
condition, and time to reach equilibrium decreases
with a constant flux boundary condition.

3 INVESTIGATION OF EXCAVATION
DAMAGED ZONE

3.1 Transverse wave generating apparatus for

seismic survey
The most general method to assess the damaged
zone is to find a region of changes in P- and
S-wave velocities in the surrounding rock mass. It
is, however, very hard to identify the S-wave in the Figure 6. Field application.
wave record. A special apparatus was developed
so as to simplify S-wave identification, generating
waves with opposite phase by applying the upward
impact and downward impact consecutively to
the borehole wall (see Figure 4). Figure 5 shows
the schematic diagram of the measuring system.
Availability of the system was tested at the con-
struction site of the pilot plant cavern for under-
ground compressed air storage (see Figure 6).
Figure 7 shows one of the results. We estimated
that the EDZ would be about 60 cm from the tun-
nel wall.

Figure 7. Travel time of P- and S-wave vs. depth (dis-

tance from wall).

3.2 Borehole radar reflection survey

Fractures induced by explosive blasting may pro-
duce a change of dielectric constants in the sur-
rounding rock mass, which is expected to be
monitored by the borehole radar reflection survey.
The field experiment was carried out at a construc-
tion site of the tunnel for the research facility of
the nuclear waste disposal in Korea. A 35 m long
borehole (borehole no. 9 in Figure 8) was drilled
Figure 4. Transverse wave generating apparatus. horizontally from a shelter parallel to the main

727

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 727 10/3/2012 9:00:31 PM

 tunnel axis. After the construction of the turning
shelter, seven boreholes were drilled into the tunnel
wall for borehole tests and the installation of sen-
sors including an MPBX and a stress meter. The
construction of the access tunnel was restarted
and the response of the rock mass was meas-
ured. Three more boreholes were drilled after the
construction of the access tunnel to measure the
property changes due to a blasting impact. During
tunnelling with the drilling and blasting method,
the borehole radar reflection surveys were car-
ried out 5 times with the interval of 2 or 4 days for
monitoring the EDZ (see Table 1). Figure 9 shows
a schematic diagram of the borehole radar reflec-
tion survey in a horizontal borehole.
Figure 10 shows some results of the borehole
radar reflection survey. A 100 MHz dipole antenna
was used and monitoring distance was 10 cm. Proc-
essed images from Ex 2 to Ex 5 were subtracted
from a baseline data of Ex 1, respectively.
Figure 8. Horizontal borehole for detecting EDZ by
using the borehole radar reflection surveys (borehole
no. 9).
Table 1. Experimental schedule.
Experiment ID Ex 1 Ex 2 Ex 3 Ex 4 Ex 5
Date (MM/DD) 07/19 07/21 07/25 07/28 08/01
Excavation from
shelter 13 m 17.5 m 22 m 28.9 m 33.3 m
Figure 9. Schematic diagram of borehole radar reflec-
tion survey.
728
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 728
Event A in Figure 10(b) seems to be formed by
reflection at the newly excavated tunnel wall, and
the preceding event B, at fractured plane. Event
C in Figure 10(c) becomes weak and complicated,
while it is included in the strong signals of A and
B in Figure 10(b). This implies that the changes
are caused by the extension of fractures due to
explosive blasting done between 07/21 and 07/25.
The EDZ seems be extended about 1 m or over in
this area. RQD and electric resistivity of the core
specimens supported the overall weakness of the
reflected wave signal.
4 CONTROL OF EXCAVATION
DAMAGED ZONE
The effect of the blasts will vary with several
features, such as rock properties, the amount of
explosive used, the distance between the blast holes
Figure 10. Experimental results: Subtraction image
between the first measurement (Ex 1) and others.
10/3/2012 9:00:32 PM
 and the number of holes initiated at the same time,
and so on. Control of overbreak in tunnel blast-
ing is one of the key factors affecting the construc-
tion expenses and safety. Controlled blasting is an
indispensable routine in tunnel excavation in order
to get a smooth face and reduce damage to the
final wall. It is, however, hard to expect the effects
of controlled blasting of contour holes when blast-
ing the cut and stopping holes are not done, espe-
cially for a large-face underground excavation. In
this paper, a new method is suggested to minimize
the effect of failure in the first round of blasting
and maximize that of contour blasting. The key
concept is based on how to provide a free face as
largely as possible before final round of blasting. A
pilot drift method was suggested for effective con-
trol of both overbreak and advance rate, especially
for the excavation of large-face tunnels. Other con-
trolled blasting techniques may be found elsewhere
(Ryu et al. 2010).

4.1 A pilot drift method

The excavation sequence in a pilot drift method
is shown in Figure 11. A pilot tunnel is advanced
6 to 9 m on the centreline of the arch section in two Figure 11. Design of excavation method.
or three cycles. Drilling is then done 3.7 to 4.5 m
for both side stopping and another pilot tunnel fol-
lowed by charging and blasting simultaneously. The
blasting efficiency for side stopping is much better
than that of the pilot tunnel because the wall of
a pilot tunnel acts as a free face for side stopping.
After several cycles of simultaneous blasting of side
stopping and pilot tunnel, the faces are positioned
on the same plane because of the difference between
advance rates. Then the pilot tunnel is advanced only
for two or three cycles. The procedure is repeated.
The drilling length for side stopping and work cycle
may be modified according to the results.
The main features of the method are as fol- Figure 12. Drilling and initiation pattern.
lows: Reinforcement and smooth blasting are not
applied to the pilot tunnel. The pilot tunnel and advance rate is about 92% for the full face blast-
side stopping are advanced at an interval of a cer- ing with cylinder cut. The average powder factor is
tain distance, and simultaneously blasted like full about 1.1 kg/m3. Investigation of the half cast fac-
face blasting. The pilot tunnel may be placed at tor shows that overbreak could be controlled con-
any location on the tunnel face depending on the siderably compared to full face blasting. The peak
geological conditions. level of ground vibration measured in underground
A field experiment was carried out at an under- ranges from 8.6 to 19 mm/s at a distance of 105 to
ground LPG storage cavern construction site. 123 m away from the blast source and that measured
Figure 12 shows a typical blast pattern. Test blasts on the ground ranges from 0.85 to 1.64 mm/s at a
consist of two rounds of pilot tunnel blasting, two distance of 174 to 187 m away from the source.
rounds of simultaneous blasting of pilot tunnel
and side stopping, and two rounds of traditional
full face blasting with cylinder cut. 5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Advance rate, defined as the ratio of advance-to-
hole depth, ranges from about 87 to 92% for the It has been a major aim of ours to understand the
pilot tunnel. It is over 97% for side stopping, which blast-induced EDZ. Various studies were carried
is due to the increase of free face. The average out to assess and control the damaged zone through

729

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 729 10/3/2012 9:00:32 PM

 a series of research projects at Korea Institute of
Geoscience and Mineral Resources (KIGAM). A
concept of hydraulic EDZ was introduced. This
approach may be effectively used in the analysis
of mass transportation through discontinuities.
The techniques and tools developed for assess-
ment of the damaged zone are still progressing to
improve the performance. A pilot drift method was
found to be very effective to minimize the damaged
zone and to improve the advance rate as well. It is
expected to be applied especially in the excavation
of a large face tunnel.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was supported by the Basic Research
Project of the Korea Institute of Geoscience
and Mineral Resources (KIGAM) funded by
the Ministry of Knowledge Economy of Korean
government.
REFERENCES
Kim, D.S., Yang, D.W. & Ryu, C.H. 1999. Micro damage
model and Rayleigh wave inversion for assessment of
damaged zone in rock mass, 99 KSRM symposium on
Blasting Techniques: 167180. (in Korean)
Martin, C.D. 2006. Quantifying the excavation damaged
zone (EDZ) in a fractured rock mass, Progress report:
19. KIGAM.
Palmstrm, A. & Singh, R. 2001. The deformation modu-
lus of rock massescomparisons between in situ tests
and indirect estimates, Tunnelling and Underground
Space Technology 16(3): 115131.
Park, J.S. 2007. Defining the hydraulic excavation dam-
aged zone considering hydraulic aperture change,
Tunneling Technology 9(2): 19. (in Korean)
730
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 730
Park, J.S., Ryu, D.W., Lee, C.I. & Ryu, C.H. 2008.
Numerical analysis of coupled behavior of ground
water flow around an excavation damaged zone in
discontinuous rock mass, 5th Asian Rock Mechanics
Symposium (ARMS5) 2426. Tehran, Iran.
Ryu, C.H. & Choi, B.H. 2008. Blasting Design for Excava-
tion of a Large Underground Storage Cavern in Rock,
Indo-Korean Joint International Symposium on Geo-
science & Technology, IIT Karagpur, India, 6369.
Ryu, C.H. et al. 2005. Construction of Deep Underground
Research Laboratory and Core Technology Development,
Korea Institute of Geoscience and Mineral Resources,
Rpt. JCA2003011-2005(1): 266. (in Korean)
Ryu, C.H. et al. 2006. Construction of Deep Underground
Research Laboratory and Core Technology Devel-
opment, Korea Institute of Geoscience and Min-
eral Resources, Rpt. JCA2003011-2006(2): 202. (in
Korean)
Ryu, C.H. et al. 2010. Development of IT-based opti-
mized excavation method for rapid construction, Rpt.
R&D/05D03: 239. (in Korean)
Sato, T. 1998. In-situ experiment on an excavation dis-
turbed zone induced by mechanical excavation in
Neogene sedimentary rock at Tono mine, Central
Japan, Eng. Geology, 56: 97108.
Shen, B. & Barton, N. 1997. The disturbed zone around
tunnels in jointed rock masses, Int. J. Rock Mech. &
Min. Sci. 34: 117125.
Shin, S, Martin, C.D. & Park, E.S. 2007. Methodology
for estimation of excavation damaged zone around
excavations in hard rock, 1st Canadian-US Rock
Mechanics Symposium, Vancouver.
Singh, R. & Bhasin, R. 1996. Q-system and deformability
of rock mass. Proc. of Conf. on Recent Advances in
Tunnelling Technology, New Delhi, 5767.
Singh, R. & Rajvansi, U.S. 1996. Effect of excavation
on modulus of deformation. Proc. of Conf. on Recent
Advances in Tunnelling Technology, New Delhi, 5767.
Song, W.K. et al. 2011. Development of Underground
Energy Storage System in Lined Rock Cavern, Final
Rpt, Korea Institute of Geoscience and Mineral
Resources: 393. (in Korean)
10/3/2012 9:00:33 PM
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Pre-split blasting for final wall control in a nuclear power project

G. Gopinath, H.S. Venkatesh, R. Balachander & A.I. Theresraj

National Institute of Rock Mechanics, Bangalore, India

ABSTRACT: In order to construct a surface nuclear power plant in proximity to existing nuclear power
plant in India, about 1.6 million cubic meter of hard rock had to be excavated by drilling and blasting
method. These excavations are to be carried out for site grading and foundation excavations in sand stone
with horizontal joints. To minimise the volume of excavation it was decided to have vertical slopes and
hence the stability of these high-walls was very important as they have to serve for decades. Therefore
damage to the wall rock was controlled by adopting pre-split blasting. This paper discusses in detail the
design and field implementation of pre-split blasts successfully carried out for the construction of nuclear
power plant. The suggested blast design ensured the pre-split of about 45,000 m2 with minimal damage
to the rock mass.

1 INTRODUCTION Different blasting techniques are used for differ-

To augment the power generation from an oper-
ating nuclear power plant (6 units) in India, two
more units of 700 MW (unit 7 & 8) were to be con-
structed in proximity to these units. As part of this
construction work, about 1.6 million cubic meter
of hard rock had to be excavated by drilling and
blasting method. Out of this, about 0.32 million
cubic meter of rock was to be removed for grading
and 1.28 million cubic meters was to be removed
for construction of various building structures.
The ultimate wall of the excavation areas need
to be maintained at the desired angles and with
least damage to rock mass as they are to remain
stable for several decades. In order to have stable
undamaged vertical/inclined walls in rock, about
45,000 m2 of pre-splitting was required.
Generally in the blasting process, rock damage
is produced in three ways (Hustrulid 1999).
i. Creation of new cracks around the borehole
by high detonation pressure.
ii. Creation and extension of cracks remote from
the blasthole by explosion generated strain/
shock waves and
iii. Extension of cracks around the bore hole by
static strain field created by gas pressure.
The best approach to control wall rock is to
control the effects of blasting so that the inherent
strength of the wall rock is not destroyed. To do so,
the first step is to keep the powerful energy released
by the production blast sufficiently far away from
the final wall to avoid damage. The second step is
to design the blast round within the cautious blast-
ing zone so that the rock is broken but the final
wall is protected.
ent purposes depending on the specific excavation
requirements. Pre-splitting is one of the special-
ized blasting technique that is used to control
damage to wall rock. Though there are other con-
trolled blasting methods to minimise the damage
to wall rock, pre-splitting happens to be the most
suitable for all practical purpose. The purpose of
pre-splitting is to isolate the blasting area from the
surrounding rock mass by forming an artificial
plane to limit gas and stress wave penetration into
the remaining rock formation (Olofsson 1998,
Scott et al. 1996).
2 PRE-SPLIT DESIGN CONSIDERATION
Pre-splitting involves a single row of closely spaced
holes drilled along the final excavation line. The
holes are lightly charged and the charge is de-
coupled from the rock by leaving an air gap between
the charge and hole. All these holes are loaded and
fired in advance of the adjoining main blast.
The theory of pre-splitting is that when shock
waves from simultaneously detonating charges in
adjoining blast holes collide, tension occurs in the
rock, forming a crack in the web between the holes.
For that reason it is important that charges are det-
onated simultaneously or as close as possible.
The range of hole diameter recommended by
different researchers for pre-split holes do not vary
much. The holes are usually 51 to 101 mm diame-
ter (ISEE. 1998). Olofson et al. (1998) recommend
a hole diameter range of 30 to 64 mm, Jimeno
et al. (1995) recommend a range of 35 to 75 mm
and Hagan et al. (1973) recommended a range of
75 to 250 mm.

731

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 731 10/3/2012 9:00:33 PM

 In pre-splitting it is important to find the right sive energy and also influences the energy parti-
hole spacing and charges. Different researchers tioning with respect to shock and gas energies.
recommended the hole spacing and the charge Explosive diameter should be 1/2 to 1/3 of the
density for different hole diameters. Since the hole hole diameter and the load should be distributed
diameter at these site is 115 mm, the spacing and all along the length of hole except 2 to 3 m near the
the charge density for the hole diameter more than collar (Chiappetta et al. 2001).
64 mm recommended by the different researcher Blasting the last row of the final production blast
which are presented in Table 1. In pre-splitting the must be a buffer row. The buffer row must be designed
hole spacing is generally not exceeded twice the with a sufficient charge to break the rock between
major joint spacing. The characteristics of rock the buffer row and the final wall (pre-split wall). The
influence the result. charge in the buffer row must not so great as to cause
Apart from these an empirical approxima- breakage beyond the plane of the final wall. Often,
tion (Jimeno et al. 1995) which relates the spacing when damage is observed beyond the final wall limit
dimension to the characteristics of the explosive, the problem is the buffer row design rather than the
with or without decoupling, and to the dynamic pre-split. The burden between the buffer row and the
properties of the rock in pre-split blasts were given final wall is the function of normal burden and is
by Calder & Jackson (1981), in whose equation the given by Scott et al. (1996) as below.
tensile strength of the rock across the plane of the cut
is equaled to the gas pressure on the walls of the blast Bp = (0.40.5) B (4)
holes, taking that these perform in an area that is
Bb = (0.751.0) B (5)
equivalent to the diameter of said blast holes.
where, Bp = Burden between pre-split and buffer
PBe D (S D) RT (1) row, Bb = Burden between buffer row production
S D (PBe + RT)/RT (2) row, B = Normal burden.
When the pre-split blast is detonated along
where, S = Hole spacing, D = Hole diameter, with the main blast, the minimum delay period
PBe = Decoupled borehole pressure of the explo- required is 100 ms. In case of current blasting for
sive charge, RT = Tensile strength of the rock. pre-splitting the Bp was taken as 0.5 times the B
If the in-situ tensions are high, the above men- and Bb was kept equal to B.
tioned equation can be modified by adding the nor-
mal stresses that act upon the pre-splitting plane.
The minimum required linear charge concentra- 3 INFLUENCE OF STRATA CONDITIONS
tion for pre-splitting blasting is a function of the ON PRE-SPLITTING
hole diameter and is given by Person et al. (1994)
as below. The properties of the rock and the site geology are
of significant importance when designing a control-
l = 90 d2 (3) led blast. More so the results of a pre-split are influ-
enced by the rockmass characteristics at the collar
where, l = Charge concentration in kg/m, d = Hole and toe region of the drilled holes. If these factors
diameter in m. are ignored the consequence could be under cutting,
The detonation behavior of the explosive is over break, back break, damage to the crest, rock-
also responsible for the difference in their dam- mass collapse etc. It is also important to recognize
age potential. Velocity of Detonation (VOD) is that in complex geological settings it may not be
an important indicator of the performance of an possible to achieve the classic result. In such cases
explosive. It controls the rate of release of explo- pre-strengthen of the rockmass by grouting could
improve the quality of pre-split and ensure the sta-
Table 1. Pre-split parameters recommended by different bility of the high wall. These treatments may incur
researchers. additional expenses but in the long run the cost fac-
tor could prove to be insignificant. Many a time, even
Author Hd, mm Sp, m Cc, kg/m
though the half-casts of all the holes are not visible
Gustafsson 64 0.60.8 0.46 on the face, the controlled blast will still have been
Persson 80 0.60.8 0.57 successful if a safe, stable wall has been achieved at
Sandvik co. 102 0.81.1 0.90 an economical cost. Important rock properties to
Atlas powder co. 102 0.91.2 0.89 be considered are the tensile strength, compressive
Blaster hand book 102 0.61.2 0.381.12 strength and crushing strength. The other impor-
Hagan 115 1.2 1.10 tant factors are the nature, frequency, orientation
of joints, joint spacing and fractures, rock density,
Hd, Hole diameter; Sp, Hole spacing; Cd, Charge density. longitudinal wave velocity and Youngs Modulus.

732

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 732 10/3/2012 9:00:33 PM

 Ideally these properties should be measured in-situ.
In-situ values reflect the effects of weathering and
structural features in the rock. A rock which tests as
quite strong in the laboratory may be considerably
weaker when weathering, groundwater alteration,
presence of structures such as open joints, bed-
ding or foliation planes and fractures due to previ-
ous blasting are accounted for. Most practical is to
design the controlled blast based on the laboratory
results and observe the results in the field. Then the
design can be adjusted to account for any problems
until an optimum result is obtained. Major back
break problems are likely if an explosive loading that
was successful in competent ground is subsequently
used in highly jointed or fractured ground, even
though the rock type is the same. Therefore, specific Figure 1. General layout of the excavation area.
charges and decoupled borehole pressures must be
adjusted to account for structural conditions and the
actual crushing strength of the rock surrounding the
blasthole. The orientation of the joints has a major
influence on the controlled blast results. When joints
or fractures strike parallel to the excavation face a
smooth clear wall may be obtained. When the joints
are steeply dipping (>70) the wall can be made to
conform to the joint planes. When the joints are shal-
low dipping it is undesirable to cause the wall angle
to conform to these planes. There is a greater chance Figure 2. Structures of the running nuclear power plant
that planes will undercut the face. When this occurs, located near blasting site.
it is more difficult to obtain a good result because
there is a greater likelihood that portions of the wall
will slide off along these structured planes (Sharma
the excavation area and the nearest running units
2010). Pre-splitting may be more successful if great
5 & 6. During the initial excavation, the Natural
care is taken to design the pre-split and buffer rows
Draft Cooling Tower (NDCT) of unit 5 & 6 was
to minimize the disruption experienced on the joint
at about 310 m from the blasting site (Fig. 2) but
planes. It takes relatively little movement along the
as the excavation progressed, the blasting was car-
plane to destroy cohesion resistance and cause the
ried out as close as 50 m to these towers. Similarly
material resting on the joint to be more prone to
the other critical structures like control room and
slide. When steeply dipping joints dip back into the
400 KVA switch yard were at a distance of 590 m
wall while striking parallel to the face, sliding on
and 240 m to the blasting area, but as the excava-
undercut planes is not possible. However, toppling
tion progressed they were as close as 220 m and
failures may occur. In the presence of these features
130 m. All other structures of the running plant
the final wall should not be vertical. Open joints are
are located beyond these distances.
likely to break back more than tight, infilled joints.
The frequency of jointing is important. Jointing
4.2 Geology of the area
begins to interfere with wall control results when
the joint spacing is less than the hole spacing. Rocks The area consists of very hard and competent
with a higher longitudinal wave velocity are also usu- sandstone. Stratigraphically within 5 km radius
ally found to be stronger. Weaker rock or strata that of unit 7 & 8, a thick sequence of reddish shale is
have been weakened by weathering, alteration or overlain by buff to reddish brown sandstone trend-
fracturing due to dense jointing or previous blasting ing in NW-SE direction dipping at 45 towards
exhibits a lower longitudinal wave velocity. SW. At few places sandstone is directly overlain by
recent soil, silt and sand. Usually, beds are horizon-
tal to sub-horizontal and general slope of the area
is towards west. The prevalence of ripple marks
4 SITE DESCRIPTION
in the strata is indicative of shallow water origin;
while the red sandstones indicate semi-arid and
4.1 Structure around the project site
continental conditions. The top layer comprised
The excavation area is located adjacent to running of pale pink colored quartzitic sandstone with a
units 5 & 6. Figure 1 shows the general layout of thickness varying from 6 to 20 m. The middle layer

733

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 733 10/3/2012 9:00:33 PM

 of pale pink to light brown quarzitic sandstone
was having a thickness varying from 36 m.
The bottom portion of the rock mass comprised
of dark brown quartzitic sandstone with a thick-
ness varying from 1420 m with occasional presence
of thin lenses of greenish chloritic clay throughout
the depth. The most prominent joint sets are the
bedding joints dipping at 26 in WSW direction.
The spacing of bedding joints are varying from
1560 cm. The horizontal joints are slightly rough
to rough. The physico-mechanical properties of the
rockmass is given in Table 2 (Naithani et al. 2011).
4.3 General drilling and blasting practices at the site
The excavation was carried out by making benches
of 3 to 8 m high. The height of the bench was
governed by the surface terrain of the area and
required foundation/grading level. Few trial blasts
were conducted to arrive at suitable blast design
parameters for production blasts. Blastholes were
drilled with crawler mounted wagon drills of
115 mm diameter. Holes were charged with 83 mm
diameter cartridge slurry explosives (each car-
tridge 2.78 kg weight, 400 mm long). The burden
varied from 2.0 to 3.0 m and spacing varied from
2.5 to 3.5 m. The holes were initiated with shock
tube initiation system and the details of the pro-
duction blasts carried out is given in Table 3. The
blast results in terms of fly rock, ground vibration
and fragmentation were within acceptable levels.
5 FIELD INVESTIGATION AND RESULTS

Table 2. Physico mechanical properties of rockmass at 5.1 Borehole pressure calculation

unit 7 & 8. Borehole detonation pressure is considered to be
a good criterion to describe the intensity of an
Result
explosive. For the success of pre splitting, bore-
Rock properties MinMax hole pressure of the explosive should be less than
the dynamic compressive strength of the rock and
Density, g/cm 3
2.472.59 the tensile force produced must be higher than the
UCS, MPa 106.6116.8 dynamic tensile strengths of the rock. Dynamic in-
Tensile strength, MPa 10.527.4 situ compressive strength of the rock could be two
Modulus of elasticity, GPa 32.959.9 times or more than its static value. Dynamic in-situ
Porosity, % 9.8710.33 tensile strength of sand stone could be 3 times the
Weathering grade W-I to W-II static value (Kaiwen et al. 2010). Borehole pres-
RQD, % 75100 sure can be calculated by the following equation
Vp, km/sec 3.874.38 (Chiappetta et al. 2001, Singh et al. 2010).
Cohesion, MPa 0.953.10
Friction angle, Deg 4563 2.6
Poisson ratio 0.30 r
Pb 1.25x10 (VOD ) e
4 2
(6)
RMR 6575 r h

UCS, Uniaxial Compressive Strength; RQD, Rock Quality

Designation; Vp, P wave velocity; RMR; Rock Mass where, Pb = Borehole pressure in MPa, p = Specific
Rating. gravity of explosives, VOD = Detonation veloc-
ity of explosives in m/s, re = Radius of explosives
charge, rh = Radius of borehole.
Table 3. General blast design followed at the site for
production blats. In-the-hole VOD measurements were done by
the authors for 25 mm diameter cartridges. As the
Different bench heights hole diameter was 115 mm while explosive was
25 mm in diameter the explosives were continu-
Parameters 3m 5m 8m ously taped to a 10 mm thick conventional nylon
rope. The same was lowered into the blasthole
Hole diameter, mm 115 115 115 along with the DTH placed inside the bottom most
Drill depth, m 3.2 5.4 8.6 cartridge and the VOD probe cable was shortened
Drilling pattern Staggered Staggered Staggered and taped at this point (Fig. 3).
Burden, m 2.0 2.5 3.0 The measured values were 3454 m/s and 3708 m/s
Spacing, m 2.5 3.0 3.5
as shown in Figure 4, (Gopinath et al. 2011). These
Stemming, m 1.5 2.4 3.0
values were consistent with the measurements
Charge per hole, kg 8.3 22.3 50.0
made by other researcher for similar explosives in
Initiation system Shock Shock Shock
tube tube tube India (Singh et al. 2010).
Sp. charge, kg/m3 0.55 0.6 0.6 The effective borehole pressure in pre-split holes
was calculated by Equation 6. The average value of

734

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 734 10/3/2012 9:00:34 PM


Figure 3. Field set up for in-the-hole VOD measure-
ment of explosive (25 mm diameter).
Figure 4. Measured in-the-hole VOD of cartridged
slurry explosive (25 mm diameter).
the measured VOD of explosives was 3581 m/s and
specific gravity was 1.1 g/cc. The calculated bore-
hole pressure comes to:
Pb = 1.25 104 1.1 (3581)2 (0.21739)2.6
= 33.35 MPa
The range of compressive strength measured for
the rockmass at the site is given in Table 2 and they
are between 106 and 116 MPa. The measured tensile
strength is in the range of 10 to 27 MPa. Consider-
ing the above, the computed dynamic compressive
and tensile strength of the rockmass could be 212
to 232 MPa and 31 to 82 MPa respectively.
Comparing the calculated borehole pressure
(33.35 MPa) with the strength properties of the rock-
mass it satisfies the field condition of being lower
than the dynamic compressive strength of rockmass
(212 MPa) and being more than the dynamic tensile
strength of the rockmass (30 MPa).
5.2 Pre-split with vertical holes
The drill hole diameter of 115 mm used for pro-
duction holes was also used for pre-splitting as
735
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 735
the entire work was allocated to multiple sub-
contractors. Most of the contractors were having
drill rigs capable of drilling 115 mm diameter.
There was not much scope on altering the hole
diameter for pre-splitting.
To start with, eighteen vertical holes were
drilled at a spacing of 0.9 m to a depth of 8 to
9.7 m depending on surface profile. Pre-split
holes were charged with 25 mm dia explosives
cartridges (each cartridge 125 g weight, 200 mm
long) made into a string with 10 g/m detonating
cord and connected to the trunk line detonating
cord. To avoid toe, 83 mm diameter cartridge of
1.3 kg was placed at the bottom of each hole.
Total charge used per hole including 83 mm
diameter cartridge is 4.8 kg. The charge density
per unit area was kept as 0.55 kg/m2. The sur-
face area of a pre-split hole is 8.73 m2 (hole spac-
ing depth of hole). To minimise the borehole
pressure, stemming was done by plugging at a
depth of 2.5 to 3 m from the top of the holes and
leaving an annular space all along the explosive
column.
Since blasting was carried out close to the exist-
ing structures surface trunk line delay of 17 ms
was connected after the 9th hole to control ground
vibration due to this blast. The maximum charge
per delay used for this blast is 43.2 kg. The details
of the blast design and charging pattern is pre-
sented in Figure 5. The crack developed along the
pre-split line is seen in Figure 6. Figure 7 shows the
clean vertical cut achieved from a pre-split blast
with a spacing of 0.9 m.
Figure 5. Pre-split design when carried out separately.
10/3/2012 9:00:35 PM
 Table 4. Result of the pre-split blasts with different hole
spacing.

Sp. Cd. Df. Av. HCF

S. no. m kg/m2 m/m2 %

1 0.9 0.55 1.11 75

2 0.8 0.55 1.25 80
3 0.6 0.55 1.66 90

Sp, Hole spacing; Cd, Charge density; Df, Drill factor;

Av. HCF, Average half cast factor.

Figure 6. Per-split line with 0.9 m spacing.

Figure 8. Results of pre-split blast with spacing of 0.6 m.

Figure 7. Result of pre-split blast on 8 m high wall with

a spacing of 0.9 m.

The Half Cast Factor (HCF) is the ratio of

total length of visible half cast to the total length
of drilled holes expressed in percentage. The HCF
achieved with a spacing of 0.9 m and a charge den-
sity of 0.55 kg/m2 was 75%. With these encouraging
results it was decided to study the role of hole spac-
ing on the pre-split results. Considering this, exper-
iments were carried out with reducing the spacing
by 0.1 m (0.8 m, 0.7 m and 0.6 m) and keeping the
charge density of 0.55 kg/m2. After conducting the
experiments with 0.9 m spacing, blasts with 0.6 m
and 0.8 m spacing were carried out. The details of
the blasts are given in Table 4. The images of the
pre-split walls with 0.6 and 0.8 m spacing is shown Figure 9. Results of pre-split blast with spacing of 0.8 m.
in Figures 79.
Experiments with 0.7 m spacing could not be
carried out as the project authorities were satis- hole diameter was 115 mm while the pre-split hole
fied with the results with 0.8 m spacing and it was depths varied from 4 m to 14 m depending on the
decided to go ahead with full-fledged pre-split location of the blast and the required foundation
blasts. They were of the opinion that by further levels. On an average 40 to 45 holes were blasted in
reduction in the hole spacing there would be an a pre-split blast. In order to control the vibration
increase in the drill factor. levels in general 9 pre-split holes were blasted in a
The finalised charge density in pre-split holes delay. However, in cases where the pre-split blast
was 0.55 kg/m2 and the spacing was 0.8 m. The was to be carried out within 50 m from any critical

736

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 736 10/3/2012 9:00:39 PM

 structure the maximum charge per delay was con-
trolled by having delays every four holes instead
of nine holes. Around 45,000 m2 of pre-split was
carried out from about 200 blasts. In all the blasts
for the ultimate production blast abutting the pre-
split blast the last row in this production blast was
drilled at a distance half the normal burden. The
specific charge was reduced to 80% of the normal
production blast charge.
Creation of access for the drill machines to
drill pre-split holes need additional efforts and
flirting of the drills and also to accelerate the
production, it was decided to take the pre-split
blasts along with production blasts (Fig. 10).
Even in these blasts the last row of the pro-
duction holes were drilled at half the designed
burden and the charge was 80% of the normal
production charge.
It is appropriate to mention here that if pre-
splitting holes are parallel to the production holes,
good results were observed when compared to that
of pre-splitting holes perpendicular to the produc-
tion holes (Fig. 11).
Figure 11. Blast design for pre-split holes and produc-
5.3 Pre-split with inclined holes tion holes to be blasted in a single roundFace perpen-
dicular to pre-split line.
Near the foundation wall of reactor building there
was a need to maintain a slope of 45 to the ver-
tical. The vertical height of these slopes is about
2.9 m and 4.5 m. The pre-split holes were drilled
at a spacing of 0.6 m with 45 inclinations. The
inclined hole depths were 4.1 and 6.36 m. Being
shallow holes in fractured and bedded rockmass it
was decided to charge the buffer row with 50% of
the normal specific charge. The standoff hole dis-
tance was kept at 0.6 m (Fig. 12).

Figure 10. Blast design for pre-split holes and produc-

tion holes to be blasted in a single roundFace parallel
to pre-split line. Figure 12. Pre-split blast design for slopes.

737

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 737 10/3/2012 9:00:39 PM


Figure 13. Result of a pre-split blast for slopes jointed
rock.
Figure 14. Result of a pre-split blast for slopes in
massive rock.
When the inclined pre-split holes encountered
closely spaced horizontally bedded rockmass, it
was observed that the top layers about 1.0 to 1.5 m
were uplifted due to the venting gas pressure. This
phenomenon was predominantly observed in
shallow depth holes (<4.5 m vertical depth). This
led to improper line of pre-split. However in case
of massive rockmass the results were similar to
the one with vertical holes. The area of inclined
pre-split was a meager of 2000 m2 of the 45,000 m2
of vertical pre-splitting. Details of the blast design
and the results are shown in Figures 1214.
6 GROUND VIBRATION
FROM PRE-SPLITTING
The ground vibration was recorded with six
calibrated seismographs for the blasts carried
out at different locations. These instruments are
microprocessor-based portable units and each
738
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 738
unit consists of a standard external transducer
for monitoring ground vibration and a mike for
measuring air overpressure. Radial distances
between the blast and the instrument locations
were given by the client after each blast. The trig-
ger level set for ground vibration was 0.51 mm/s
and for air overpressure it was 121 dB. In locations
where there was sub-soil, the geophone was buried
in soil. In case the monitoring location comprised
of mass concrete, compacted bitumen road, rock
surface the geophone was coupled using Plaster of
Paris (POP). The mike was installed on the stand
supplied along with the seismograph. In order to
derive the site specific predictor equation for blast
vibrations it is essential to monitor blast vibrations
at different distances from the blasting rounds.
This means, sometimes measurements are made
not at the critical structure but at a closer distance
from the blasting round. Hence the monitored lev-
els could be higher than the permissible level but
the recordings are not at the structure and hence
not a concern. The monitored ground vibration
levels varied from 0.52 to 62.4 mm/s, while the
maximum charge per delay varied from 12.5 to
90 kg. The monitored distance varied from 30 to
520 m while the scaled distance varied from 3.2
to 90.9.
The generated vibration data is categorized into
two groups; data from production blasts, and pre-
splitting blasts. Figure 15 shows the plot of peak
particle velocity versus scaled distance for the two
categories. Regression analysis was carried out
individually for each category and the predictor
equations obtained at 95% confidence level are
given in Table 5.
Different countries adopt different standards of
safe limits of vibration. In India, the permissible
ground vibration for different types of structures
for mining is specified by Directorate General of
Mines Safety (DGMS), which considers PPV and
the frequency of ground vibration for deciding the
permissible levels (Table 6). These standards (Anon
1997) are adopted by NIRM while considering
Figure 15. Peak particle velocity versus scaled distance
for different categories of blasts.
10/3/2012 9:00:45 PM
 Table 5. Ground vibration predictor equations for dif- Table 7. Safe maximum charge per delays for different
ferent categories of blasting. distances based on site specific studies.

Correlation Maximum charge per delay, kg

Category Predictor equation coefficient
Production blast Pre-split blast
Production blasts V = 538 (D/Q)1.38 0.85
Presplitting blasts V = 370 (D/Q)1.13 0.89 Distance 5 mm/s 20 mm/s 5 mm/s 20 mm/s

Note: Where, V = peak particle velocity, (mm/s) 50 2.8 21.2 1.2 14.3
D = distance from blast to monitoring station (m) and 100 11.7 84.6 4.9 57.2
Q = maximum charge per delay (kg). 150 25.6 190.4 11.1 128.7
200 45.4 338.5 19.7 228.9
250 71.0 528.9 30.7 357.6
300 102.2 761.7 44.3 514.9
Table 6. Permissible peak particle velocity (mm/s) as
per DGMS, India (Anon 1997).

Dominant excitation pre-split blasts (Table 7). In other words, pre-split

frequency, Hz blasts generate higher intensities of vibration that
the production blast for the same distance and
Type of structure <8 825 >25
maximum charge per delay.
Buildings/structures not belonging to the owner
Domestic houses 5 10 15
(Kuchha, brick & 7 CONCLUSIONS
cement)
Industrial Buildings 10 20 25 Based on the suggested blast designs about
(RCC & framed
1.6 million cubic meter of hard rock was excavated
structures)
for site grading and foundation excavations in close
Objects of historical 2 5 10
importance & sensitive proximity to an operating nuclear power plant. The
structures suggested blast design for pre-splitting controlled
the damage to the rock mass in laminated sand-
Buildings belonging to owner with limited span of life stone and ensured stable 14 m high walls. In total,
Domestic houses/ 10 15 25 45,000 m2 was successfully pre-split using 115 mm
(Kuchha, brick & dia holes from about 200 blasts. The average HCF
cement) achieved with a spacing of 0.8 m and a charge den-
Industrial buildings 15 25 50
sity of 0.55 kg/m2 was 80%. Irrespective of whether
(RCC & framed)
the pre-split blasts were taken separately or along
with production blasts, the charge in the ultimate
row and its distance from the pre-splitting holes
plays an important role. The last row in produc-
blasting applications in civil engineering projects tion blast was drilled at a distance half the normal
for arriving at permissible limits for various struc- burden. The specific charge was reduced to 80% of
tures as the response of structures due to blasting the normal production blast charge.
does not change with reference of the purpose for When the inclined pre-split holes encountered
which blasting is carried out. closely spaced horizontally bedded rockmass, it
The frequency of the ground vibration was was observed that the top layers about 1.0 to 1.5 m
determined by analysing the records of the blasts were uplifted due to the venting gas pressure. This
using the software provided with the instrument. phenomenon was predominantly observed in shal-
From Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) the frequency low depth holes (<4.5 m vertical depth). This led to
of ground vibration is greater than 15 Hz. The per- improper line of pre-split. However in case of mas-
missible level of ground vibration for structures is sive rockmass the results were similar to the one
20 mm/s and in case of structures containing elec- with vertical holes.
trical and electronic equipments (control room) is It was observed that the ground vibration pro-
5 mm/s. The computed safe maximum charge per duced due to pre-split blast was higher than the
delay for the permissible limits are given in Table 7. production blast. However, the maximum charge
It may be noted that for an assigned vibration limit per delay was computed based on the site specific
the allowable maximum charge per delay in case predictor equation and the permissible vibration
of production blast is higher than that with the limits.

739

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 739 10/3/2012 9:00:47 PM

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are thankful to the HCC, who are
the contractors at this site, for their co-operation
and providing necessary arrangements for
conducting field trials. The permission of the
Director, National Institute of Rock Mechanics,
KGF, India to publish the paper is thankfully
acknowledged.
REFERENCES
Anon, 1997. Damage of structures due to blast induced
ground vibrations in the mining areas. DGMS (Tech)
(S&T) Circular No. 7. India.
Atlas Powder Company, (1987), Explosive and Rock
Blasting: 461.
Calder, P.N. & Jackson, R.J. 1981. Revised perimeter
blasting chapter. Canmet pit slopes manual.
Chiappetta, R.F. 2001. The importance of pre-splitting
and field controls to maintain stable high walls, elimi-
nate coal damage and over break. Proc. l Oth Hight-
ech Seminar on State of the Art Blasting Technology.
Instrumentation and Explosives Application, GI-48,
Nashville, Tennesse, USA, July 2226.
Gopinath, G. Theresraj, A.I. Balachander, R. &
Venkatesh, H.S. 2011. Final Report on Controlled
blast design for rock excavation close to structures and
green concrete and ground vibration measurement at
Unit 7 & 8, Nuclear plant, RAPP, Kota, NIRM report
number RB 10 04 C (Unpublished), July.
Gustafsson, (1973), Swedish Blasting Techniques. SPI,
Gottenburg, Sweden:173.
Hagan, T.N. & Mercer, J.K. 1983. Safe and efficient
blasting in open pit mining. Proceedings of workshop
held by ICI Australian operation Ltd. at Karratha:
2325 November.
740
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 740
Hustrulid, W. 1999. Blasting principles for open pit mining.
V-1. Rotterdam: Balkema: 295303.
ISEE Blasters Hand book 17 Ed. (1998), ISEE.
Jimeno, C.L. Jirneno, E.L. & Carcedo, F.J.A. 1995.
Drilling and blasting of rocks. Rotterdam: Balkema:
252271.
Kaiwen, X. Sheng, H & Jha, A.K. (2010). Dynamic
Tensile Test of Coal, Shale and Sandstone Using
Hopkinsen Pressure bar: A Tool for Blast and Inpact
assessment. International Journal of Geotechnical
Earthquake Engineering. Volume 1, Issue 2.
Naithani, A.K. Rabi Bhusan. & Prasanna Jain. 2011.
Report on Construction stage engineering geology
mapping of foundation strata for Rajasthan atomic
power project, Nuclear plant, RAPP, Kota, NIRM
report number EG 10 03 C (Unpublished), February.
Olofsson, S.O. 1998. Applied explosives technology
for construction and mining, Rotterdam: Balkema:
183186.
Ouchterlony, Olsson, M. & Bavik, S.O. 2000. Perimeter
blasting in granite with holes with axial notches and
radial bottom slots. Int. J Blasting and Fragmen tation
4(1): 5582.
Persson, P.A., Holmberg, R. and Lee, J., (1994), Rock
Blasting and Explosives Engineering.
Sandvik Tamrock, Excavation hand book for civil
engineering:191.
Scott, A. Cocker, A. Djordjevic, N. Higgins, M. La
Rosa, D. Sarma, K.S. & Wedmaier, R. 1996. Open
pit blasting design analysis and optimization. Queens-
land, Australia: Julius Kruttschnitt Mineral Research
Centre. Indooroopilly: 214243.
Sharma. P.D. (2010), Techniques of controlled blasting
for mines, tunnels and con-struction workingsto
mitigate various blast induced ad-verse effects; Journal
of Mines, Metals & Fuels, June: 152161.
Singh, P.K., Roy, M.P., Joshi, A. & Joshi, V.P. 2010.
Controlled blasting (pre-splitting) at an open-pit mine
in India. Int J. Rock fragmentation by blasting: 481489.
10/3/2012 9:00:47 PM
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

The division of damage area under blasting vibration in rock mass

slopes

Honglu Fei, Jilong Tian, Guoxin Wang & Yingjie Xia

The Engineering Blasting Technical Institute of Liaoning Technical University, China

ABSTRACT: The degradation of the rock mass structure process caused by the microstructure defects
(such as crack, holes) in the external environment is referred to as rock damage. There is theoretical and
practical significance in the research of the division of the rock slope damage area, which is affected by
the action of blasting vibrations. This paper is based on measured sound wave data collected from the
rock slope of Huolinhe open-pit mine.

1 INTRODUCTION acoustic characteristics of the slope, and the basic

As blasting technology is used more and more
widely, the study of rock blasting injury has become
one of the core issues of the field of blasting. One
area that received much attention from scholars is
the damage caused by blasting vibration to rock
mass slopes. The impact of the fatigue damage of
blasting vibration on the slope and stability of rock
slopes is a complex geomechanical problem that
involves engineering geology, dynamics, mechan-
ics, vibration mechanics, and related disciplines.
Tests provide information about the structure plane
of the rock, joints, and layer management trace
distribution. Controlling factors are proposed based
on surveys of the actual rock slope, geology, genesis,
structure, hydrology and other conditions. In rela-
tively stable conditions of hydrogeological aspects
of a rock slope, blasting vibration data is repeatedly
collected and analyzed, and a summary law of the
cumulative damage of blasting vibration on rock
slope is developed. Researchers have examined the
laws of fatigue damage in conditions of repeated
blasting vibrations and shocks. On that basis, the
researchers in this study explored the regional divi-
sion of dangerous weakening of the mine slope
due to blasting vibrations, gradually revealing its
inherent laws, using rock blasting vibration damage
accumulation theory. And this research is gradually
being applied to engineering practice.
2 REPEATEDLY BLASTING THE
VIBRATION OF THE VIBRATION
UNDER THE ACTION OF MINE ROCK
SLOPE AND ACOUSTIC FIELD TEST
2.1 Rock acoustic test system
2.1.1 Test system
The rock acoustic test device is a non-metallic
ultrasonic detector, used in field testing. The trans-
mitter transducer and the transducer are connected
(see Fig. 1).

2.1.2 Arrange point

According to the mining conditions of the Huolinhe
surface mine in Eastern Inner Mongolia, as well as
the energy and test conditions, a horizontal plat-
form with an elevation of +820 was chosen as the
test area. Acoustic testing holes were drilled by
atlas150 machines, to a depth of 10 m. Each group
had six holes, divided into three rows. The length
between two holes was 1.5 m. The length between
the slope and the rows were 3 m, 7 m and 11 m.

2.2 Analysis of acoustic test results

2.2.1 Experimental process
The acoustic test site was on the slope of the rock
Figure 1. Ultrasonic testing system. mass near the mine. Before the experiment, the

741

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 741 10/3/2012 9:00:47 PM

 acoustic test holes were filled with water, which
plays the role of coupling to reduce the error of
ultrasonic wave propagation in the air. Then, the
transmitter and receiver transducers were put into
the test tube. It was checked that the two probes
were at the same level for every level. Blasting
vibration and blasting production are produced at
the same time. The instrument determines its loca-
tion according to the arrangement direction of the
blasting vibration measuring line.

2.2.2 Analysis of acoustic test results

Four acoustic tests were carried out. The acoustic
test data from the transducer was obtained within
Figure 3. The forth three places after blasting rock
010 m. Stripping gun hole blasting is divided into
damage contrast.
steps, with sub-steps on each step. The test holes
were also composed of such steps and substeps. In
order to eliminate the last step of blasting vibra-
tion in the acoustic test, we selected 19 m acoustic
data for analysis. Thus, the depth of the transducer
varied from 19 m. In addition, the data sample
was too large. For comparison purposes, we list
only the data from each meter in Figure 2.
A visual map of the picture shows A1 in the
acoustic data. A1, A2, A3 also conform to the law
obtained from the data. We can find laws from the
figures of four blasting sound waves before and
after the process. Rock acoustic velocity decreased
with the increase in number of blasts. Thus, with the
increasing number of blasts, the blasting vibration
constant slope of the rock mass disturbance resulted
in cumulative damage to the slope of rock mass.
Blasting vibrations generated by the disturbance of
internal rock that undergoes continuous develop- Figure 4. The fourth three places after blasting rock
ment, such that the acoustic velocity reduces. damage contrast.
With the increase in the number of blasts, the
cumulative damage of the rock gradually increased.
This shows that after each blast, the rock integrity blast of A1, A2, A3, rock damage varied. In order
continues to decline, accompanied by exacerbated to more clearly reflect the relationship between the
damage. Due to the different distances from the degree of cumulative damage and the explosion
pitch. We compared three damaged rocks after four
blasts (This article selects the first and the fourth
blasts for the description of data), Figures 3 and 4
are selected the extent of the rock damage from the
first to the forth blasting.

3 DIVISION OF THE SLOPE ROCK MASS

DAMAGE AREA BASED ON ACOUSTIC
MEASUREMENT

3.1 Damage evolution under blasting vibration

Figure 2. A1 placed four times before and after blasting
acoustic transform.
In acoustic testing, the medium parameters include
the elastic modulus E and density changes, which
lead to changes in rock acoustic wave propagation
characteristics. The device can take advantage of
the wave velocity to establish the elastic modulus E,

742

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 742 10/3/2012 9:00:48 PM

 the relationship between density and the damage Take formula (5) into (4):
tensor D to produce the constitutive equation under
the action of blasting vibration on the basis of the D1 1 c p c p 0 D2 1 v v cp c p 0 (6)
energy principle. Thus, the relationship between the
load generated by blasting, the increase in dam- Further take formula(1) into (6):
age to the medium, and the blasting vibration time
becomes clear. Whatever the relationship between D1 1 L0 ( L0 T ) D2 1 v v12 L0 (L
L0 T )
crack width and the wavelength ultrasonic wave in
the medium, blasting vibration damage will be fur- (7)
ther away, so the propagation time is longer.
Formula (7) shows that the pulse time T and
Velocity in the material after blasting vibration
material parameters of blasting vibration have
damage is given by:
an effect on damage variables D1 and D2 in every
direction.
cp L0 l L0 c p 0 L = L0c p 0 (L
L0 T) (1) For the medium damaged by blasting vibration,
the inner defects of the rock spread as the increas-
where cp = P-wave velocity of rock particles after ing load of blasting vibration increases. Cubic
blasting vibration; c p0 = P-wave velocity of rock strain v can be:
particles before blasting vibration; cp0 = The appar-
ent wave velocity. v = 1 + 2 + 3 = (1 2v ) 1 E
Cauchys stress tensor is instead of the effec-
tive stress tensor  . The medium damaged and the As it is a plane strain problem, 3 = 0.
medium not damaged are on the same principle Suppose volume of sample is V. After blasting,
about remaining flexibility energy. We use formula it becomes V :
A to deduce the constitutive equation after dam-
age. It is shown as follows: V vV = (1 2v ) 1V E
(1 + ) I D 1
e 2
vI D t (I D ) 1 E
So the  after damage:
(2)
 = m (V + V ) = E 0 E [(1
/ ( 2v ) 1]
[(1
The tensile stress is positive in the uniaxial condi-
tion. The strain in the direction of the compressive (m is the quality of sample)
stress 1 is 1. The damage variable is D1. E2 and D2 According to this formula and (5), we conclude
were perpendicular to the compression modulus of that:
elasticity and damage variables. Assuming that the
material itself is of the same nature all directions cP2 (1 2v ) 1
are, we can derive (3): D1 = 1 +
cP2 0 E0
(8)
1 1 E (1 D1 )2 = 1 E v v c 2
(1 2v ) 1

2 v1 E ( D 1 )(  
)( D2 ) = v121 E
(3) D2 = 1 (1 D1 ) = 1  2P +
v v cP 0 E0

v D1 ) (1 D2 ) , E E ( D1 )2 .
where v12 v(1 This formula is the damage evolution law
We can determine that the compressive stress under uniaxial compression conditions in the
and vertical compressive stress on the damage vari- direction 1 of the damage the media and the
able are D1 and D2. vertical direction 1.

D1 1 ( E E )1 2 , D2 1 v v ( D1 ) (4) 3.2 The regional division based on the acoustic

measurement of the slope rock mass damage
According to the previous derivation, we can
Three acoustic test points were located south
obtain relationships between the ultrasonic lon-
of the Huolinhe open pit, where the dip meter
gitudinal wave velocity cp and degree of damage
was 6 to 7. There is a local crushing zone in
after the affect of blasting vibration. Assuming
the transducer depth of 4.5 m6.5 m, which was
the P-wave velocity before and after blasting are
consistent with the geological conditions. On the
respectively c p and cp
0 other hand, the numbers are collected every 0.2 m,
and can be approximated as being continuous data
cp E0 0 cp E 0 (5) by the test. Therefore, in order to delineate the

743

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 743 10/3/2012 9:00:48 PM

 damage range of the region of slope, A1, A2, A3,
at vertical sections, can be arranged at a number of
test points, and their average can be considered. In
order to study the damaged area of the slope rock
mass after blasting we use the MATLAB fitting
method to analyze the distance to the edge of the
slope and the cumulative damage after four blasts.
Regression analysis results are shown in the flow-
ing Figures 5 & 6 and Table 1.
1. The correlation coefficients are 0.9040, 0.8952,
0.9983 and 0.9470, which show that there is a
relatively linear relationship between the degree
of damage and the distance from the edge of
the slope after blasting. As the regression coef-
ficients are more than 90%, this is entirely
reasonable.
2. According to the formula derived above, when
the rock mass damage threshold D > 0.19, the
rock mass slope is destroyed by blasting. Based
on the regression equation of the slope rock
mass after four blastings in the vibration region,
we can calculate the slope rock mass damage
area after each blasting, as is shown in follow-
ing Table 2.
Figure 5. The regression analysis of slope rock mass
region after first blasting.
Figure 6. The regression analysis of slope rock mass
region after forth blasting.
744
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 744
Table 1. The four times regression analysis and
correlation coefficient linear equation.
N times blasting k b R2
1 0.1464 12.93 0.9040
2 0.2587 23.15 0.8952
3 0.3075 27.78 0.9983
4 0.3470 31.56 0.9470
Table 2. The damage area after four blasts.
The number of blasting 1 2 3 4
Damaged area (m2) 41.46 16.04 20.55 22.20
In the table, after the first blast, the damage
area of the slope rock mass is negative when the
ground zero distance is 57 m, and the maximum
single charge is under 200 kg. Blasting vibration
in the rock slope caused damage directly, but did
not move the rock so as to cause damage. After the
second, third and fourth blasts, the damage areas
of the slope rock mass gradually increased.
In the same explosion center and the largest sin-
gle dose conditions, the areas of destroyed slope are
different. After the second, third, and forth blasts,
the slope of damage and failure region increased
by 16.04 m, 4.51 m and 1.65 m, respectively. The
reasons are as follows:
1. Although there was no damage after the blast-
ing vibration in some regions of the slope rock
mass, there was a disturbance. After one or sev-
eral blasts, rock is broken. Damaged areas will
continue to experience damage with an increas-
ing number of blasts. Blasting vibration of
rock mass damage is a cumulative effect, and is
irreversible.
2. Jointed rock slopes play a role in obstructing
the next blasting vibration transmission. There-
fore, the increasing regional damage after three
blasts is gradually reduced. It also shows that
the blasting vibration of rock mass damage
value is nonlinear.
4 TO DETERMINE THE SAFETY FACTOR
OF SLOPE BASED ON THE BLASTING
4.1 Determination of slope model and parameters
According to the actual conditions of the Huolinhe
surface mine in Eastern Inner Mongolia, the height
of the bench is between 8 and 10 meters, and the
hole depth is between 10 and 13 meters. Accord-
ing to the content of the fourth chapter (i.e, that
10/3/2012 9:01:00 PM
 the slope of the weakening is divided when deter- On comparing the four blast simulations with
mine the size of the model. The model selects the the slope damage zone data using regression analy-
region which is 40 m in the X direction, 15 m it the sis, the first blast made the damaged area of slope
Z direction, and 5 m at the Y direction). Then, we negative, due to the damage threshold. So, it was
divided it into a grid shown in Figure 7. excluded. Regional damage in the other three
According to the geological report of the blasting scopes and the damage regression analysis
Huolinhe surface mine, the mine rock slope is are roughly equal, but the third and fourth are dif-
mainly composed of siltstone, sand rock and so ferent by 2 meters. The reasons are as follows:
on. On the basis of the previous experience of
1. The calculation of the return to the damaged
the slope simulation model, the selected models
area of the slope is based on the rock acous-
mechanical parameters are shown in Table 3.
tic velocity changing in the blasting vibration
Based on the field test, in this study we loaded
effect. There is already the original damage in
four transverse and longitudinal waves on the
the open-air production blasting in rock, such
mine rock slope model. We obtained the safety
as jointed rocks. During the simulation, these
factor, shear strain modulus of cloud images and
cannot be considered. It is one of the main
the velocity vector after four blasting vibrations.
reasons that the damage area under regression
The following references the first Figure 8 and the
analysis of the slope is larger.
fourth Figure 9 as examples.
2. The calculation for damaged area of the slope
The slope safety coefficient is an important
regression is based on rock mass damage thresh-
parameter in measuring the stability of the slope.
old D > 0.19. It does not take the weight of slope
Table 4 lists the safety factor after four blasts and
rock mass and the original stress into account.
the attendant vibrations.
It is also a main reason that the damage area
From the change of the slope safety coefficient
under regression analysis of slope is larger.
in the Table 4 after the four blasting vibration, we
see the safety factor of the slope drops from 1.43
to 1.27, while the blasting vibration frequency
increasing. The safety factor of the slope decreased
gradually while blasting vibration in damaged
slope areas increased.
According to the coordinate parameters of the
sliding center of establishment of the model, we
can calculate the slope damage area after four
blasts using a simulation. These results are com-
pared with the slope damage area of the fourth
chapter after regression analysis. Specific contrast
values are shown in Table 5. Figure 8. First loaded safety coefficient of slope, shear
strain increment cloud vector diagram and speed.

Figure 9. Forth loaded safety coefficient of slope, shear

Figure 7. The mesh slope model. strain increment cloud vector diagram and speed.

Table 3. Mechanical parameters of the slope model.

Modulus of Poissons Angle of

Parameter Density, Kg/m3 elasticity, Pa ratio Cohesion, Mpa internal friction

Value 16 1.1 107 0.3 0.125 25

745

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 745 10/3/2012 9:01:00 PM

 Table 4. Four times after blasting vibration effect of REFERENCES
slope safety factor.
Blasting Safety Regulations (GB 6722-2003). 2003.
After the brust of N times 1 2 3 4 National Bureau of Standards Publications.
Blasting Safety Regulations (GB 6722-2003), 2003.
Safety factor 1.43 1.37 1.31 1.27 National Institute of Standards of the Peoples
Republic of China.
Honglu, Fei & Xingpu, Zhao. 2009. Research on effects
of blasting vibration of rock slope cumulative dam-
Table 5. Four blasting regression analysis and simula- age. Blasting. 4:13+21.
tion of the slope regional correlation. Jianjun, Li & Zhuping, Duan. 2005. Jointed rock blast-
ing test. Blasting. 22(3):1216.
After the brusting Langefors, U & Kihlstrom, B. 1963. The modern tech-
of N times 1 2 3 4 nique of rock blasting. John Wiley &Sons Inc.
Sayers, C.M. & Kachanov, M. 1995. Microcrack-induced
Damage region-wide (m) 9.8 16 18.52 19.98 Elastic Wave Anisotropy of Brittle Rocks. Journal of
Analysis of damage 41.46 16.04 20.55 22.20 Geophysical Research. 100(B3):41494156.
area (m2) Siskind, D. 2000. Vibration From Blasting. International
Society Explosives Engineers. Cleveland OH USA.
Tien, Y.M. & Lee, D.H.S. 1990. Proe Pressure and Fatigue
characteristic of standstone under various loading
5 CONCLUSIONS conditions. International Journal of Rock Mechanics
and Ming Science. 27(4):281283.
The damaged area under the action of blasting Wang, Zhiliang et al. 2006. Plastic compression and shear
numerical simulation of damage in rock blasting, Chi-
vibration was divided according to the computed nese Journal of Explosives & Propellants. 5:14+16.
results. The destruction area of the second, third Yan, Changbin. 2006. Blasting rock cumulative damage
and fourth after blasts rose from 16.04 m to effect and stability studies. Changsha: Central South
22.20 m gradually. University.
With the increasing number of blasting vibra- Yang, Guitong. 1992. Rock dynamic properties and the
tions, the safety factor of side slope dropped propagation of shock waves in the rock. Metal Mine.
from 1.43 to 1.27. This shows that the degree 6:3338.
damage to the slope increases, and the slope Yang, Nianhua. 2008. Presplit blasting on the slope rock
safety coefficient declines gradually, result from mass damage were studied. Journal of the China Rail-
way Society. 3:9699.
the cumulative effects of blasting vibration. Zhou, Weihuan. 2001. Retrospect and Prospect of Geo-
The damage area of simulation and regression technical Engineering. Beijing: China Communica-
analysis is roughly equal, illustrating that the tions Press.
damage division of the slope rock mass is cor- Zhang, Yongxing. 2008. Slope Engineer Chongqing.
rect and reliable. Chongqing: University Press.

746

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 746 10/3/2012 9:01:01 PM

 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

A case study on wall stability at Rampura Agucha Mine using electronic

blasting systems

V.P. Joshi
AGM, Hindustan Zinc Limited, India

Anurag Tripathi, Rajendra Konidina & Vivek Misra

Technical Services, Orica Mining Services, India

ABSTRACT: Vibration is generally quantified by Peak Particle Velocity (PPV), which is a good indicator
of vibration levels but it is best to be specified with a frequency. The proximity of the frequency of ground
vibrations to the structures natural frequencies may generate the condition of resonance in the structure,
which may result in its failure. The aim of frequency channeling is to shift the dominant frequencies away
from the natural frequency of the structure. Frequency channelization is affected by the number of blast
holes in the blast, the accuracy of the initiation times and the geology through which the vibrations propa-
gate. The work included understanding the effects of resonance due to blast vibrations by finding the
natural frequencies of the structures and designing the shots to move the blast frequencies away from the
natural frequencies to minimize the damage. The blast patterns were designed by understanding the geol-
ogy, structures, site constants and signature waves as inputs to Monte Carlo. The output of the models
determined the blast pattern. This paper is a critical analysis of the observations and the results obtained
during the work done for wall control at Rampura Agucha Mines, Hindustan Zinc Limited.

1 INTRODUCTION there can be no extension in this direction. Two joint

planes are present in foot wall forming a wedge.
1.1 Rampura Agucha Mine The foot wall stability control has become a chal-
lenge to the mine. Traditional wall control blasting
Rampura Agucha Mine (RAM) of Hindustan
practice has been employed; using small diam-
Zinc Limited (HZL) is the worlds largest zinc
eter pre-splits and dedicated free face trim blasts
mine with an annual ore production capacity of
adjacent to the final walls. The mine started fac-
6.15 Mt. In FY 2010, it produced 5 Mt of Ore
ing some wall problems in the early 2010, in order
and 75 Mt of waste. FY-11 plan for RAM was to
to mitigate this, the mine management decided to
increase the production capacity from 5.0 Mt to
put vertical pre-splits in addition to presplits at
6.15 Mt per annum. The stripping ratio planned
30 angle. Their effectiveness has not always been
for FY-11 is 1:16.07. RAM is an open-pit mine,
satisfactory due to conventional blasting systems.
commissioned in 1991. It is located 230 km north
In partnership with HZL, Orica Mining Services
of Udaipur, in the state of Rajasthan in India.
undertook a work for understanding the role of
Rampura Agucha is stratified, sediment-hosted,
blast induced vibrations on the stability of the
high grade zinc & lead deposits. The ore body is
wall.
massive and lens shaped. Ore grade is consistent
and is not deteriorating with the increase in depth.
RAM is also one of the lowest cost zinc producer
globally. The mine is equipped with latest slope
monitoring radar, truck dispatch system, equip-
ment simulator etc.

1.2 Situation
The pit has reached its final limits in western side
(foot wall) and is currently operating at a depth
of 220 m from surface. The final targeted depth is
372 m. Footwall has reached the mine limits and Figure 1. Footwall showing joint plane area.

747

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 747 10/3/2012 9:01:01 PM

 2 EFFECTS OF BLAST INDUCED Table 1. Shows the flow chart of work done.
VIBRATIONS
Fixation of monitoring station
One of the unwanted by-products of any blast-
ing operation is ground vibration that results from Single hole blasts to measure the natural frequency of
the sudden release of explosive energy on the sur- the high wall
rounding ground. This vibration places unwanted
stress and strain on pit walls which must be main- Monitoring of blast vibrations of the trim and produc-
tion blasts in footwall area
tained at low levels to minimize its effect. In order
to achieve the targeted mineable reserves, stabil-
Blast design for frequency channelling
ity of the high wall plays an important role. Any
damage to the high wall will result in blockage of
reserves and safety hazard.
Strain produced by the blast vibrations is directly
proportional to particle velocity and inversely pro-
portional to frequency. In other words, if the fre-
quency is low, for the same peak particle velocity,
greater strain is produced in a structure and vice-
versa. Therefore, to reduce the damage due to blast
vibrations it is required to either decrease the Peak
Particle Velocity (PPV) levels or increase the blast
vibrations frequencies, or both. In addition, if the
blast induced vibrations are produced at frequen-
cies which are in the range of natural frequencies
of the structure, they can cause structures to reso-
nate leading to their failures even at lower PPV.
Figure 2. Snapshot from blast design software;
SHOTPlus.
3 RESONANCE

Resonance is the tendency of a system to oscillate

with larger amplitude at some frequencies than at Table 2. Details of signature blasts.
others. These are known as the systems resonant
Signature blast Scaled distance PPV
frequencies. At these frequencies, even small peri-
odic driving forces can produce large amplitude Blast 1 20.53 8.05
oscillations, because the system stores vibration Blast 2 19.26 10.75
energy. Resonances occur when a system is able Blast 3 21.70 7.51
to store and easily transfer energy between two Blast 4 25.55 4.86
or more different storage modes (such as kinetic Blast 5 27.56 3.40
energy and potential energy in the case of a pendu-
lum). Resonance is important in blasting as well, if
a blast produces frequencies in the range of natural
frequencies of a structure like the final wall, it will 4 SIGNATURE BLASTS
cause more displacement and strain in it, which
may cause damage to it even at lower peak particle Five signature blasts were conducted in the foot-
velocities. wall area at different distances from the monitoring
The whole work involved the steps depicted in station to find out the range of natural/resonant
Table 1. frequency of the structure as shown in Table 2.
All the vibration monitoring was done at the Figure 3 shows the mean of vibration amplitude
same location; Figure 2 shows the exact location spectra of one of the signature blast. Furthermore,
of the monitoring station with respect to the blast seismic waves and air overpressure waves reaching
area. times were used to determine the sonic velocity of
During the course of work, the following tools the rock.
and apparatus were used for analysis: The findings of the signature blasts are:
Instantel Minimate Blaster, with external i. The natural frequency can be said to be in the
geophone. range of 1316 Hz.
Shotplus I. ii. The sonic velocity of the ground is around
Cycad. 3400 m/s.

748

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 748 10/3/2012 9:01:01 PM

 Figure 3. The figure above is a snapshot from cycad;
it shows the natural frequency of the high wall.
Figure 4. VPPV & dominant frequency: Production
blast with non-electric systems.
5 OBSERVATIONS AND TRIALS
In order to understand the effects of current blast-
ing practices, a series of blasts with non-electric sys-
tems were conducted in the footwall and vibration
readings of the same were analyzed (Figures 46
show the vibration readings of one of the non-
electric system blasts). For analysis of the vibra-
tion readings, frequency spectra of the vibration
trace was also observed, which was obtained from
Fourier Transformations of vibration readings.
The following four parameters were analyzed for
deriving conclusions from the vibration recordings:
i. Vector Peak Particle Velocity (VPPV)
ii. Vector Peak Particle Displacement (VPPD)
749
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 749
Figure 5. VPPD: Production blast with non-electric
systems.
Figure 6. Percentage of power below resonance fre-
quency: Production blast with non electric systems.
iii. Dominant Frequencies
iv. Percentage of Power Below Resonant Frequency
The following observations were made from the
above analysis of the vibration trace recorded from
the conventional pyrotechnic delay systems:
The dominant frequencies being produced are in
the range of natural frequency of the structure
indicating that resonance is taking place.
More than 60% of relative distribution of ener-
gies due to vibrations is below the natural fre-
quency of structure i.e. low frequencies.
To minimize the effect of blast vibrations on
slope stability, it was required to produce lower
PPVs or higher frequencies, or both and to reduce
the effect of blast induced resonance on struc-
tures, it was important to produce blast vibration
frequencies away from the natural frequency of
10/3/2012 9:01:02 PM
 Table 3. The performance of the blasts on the above four parameters.

Production Production Trim blast: Trim blast*: Trim blast#:

Parameters blast: Waste blast: Ore Non-elctric system Electronic system Electronic system

Peak particle 26.26 30.36 16.32 13.1 14.7

velocity, mm/s
Peak particle 0.32 0.35 0.19 0.15 0.11
displacement, mm
Dominant 13.75 13 14 14.25 23.25
frequency, Hz
Power below 62 59 69 53 9
15 Hz, %

* Trim blasts with electronic systems designed for reduced PPV; # Trim blasts with electronic systems designed for
reduced PPV and higher blast frequencies.

Figure 8. VPPD: Production blast with electronic

systems.

Figure 7. VPPV & dominant frequency: Production

blast with electronic systems.

the structure. Therefore, to produce desired fre-

quencies and lower PPVs, it was imperative to use
precise blasting system integrated with modeling.
The pyrotechnic delay detonators because of their
inherent characteristics of scatter were not suit-
able. Hence, highly accurate and flexible electronic
detonators were used for the study. The blast pat-
terns were designed by understanding the geol-
ogy, structures, site constants and signature waves
as inputs to Monte Carlo Simulation model. The
output of the simulations determined the blast
designs.
Figure 9. Percentage of power below resonance
frequency: Production blast with electronic systems.
The scaled distances of the blasts were main-
tained similar to the non-electric blasts due to min-
ing constraints. The initial blasts with electronic
detonators were conducted with the existing pat-
tern and aim was to reduce PPVs, whereas the later
were done with an aim for frequency channeling

750

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 750 10/3/2012 9:01:02 PM

 along with reduced PPVs. The aim was to produce
frequencies higher of natural frequency and reduce
the PPVs so as to reduce the strain in the wall. The
details of the results of the production, trim blasts
with non-electric system and electronic systems are
mentioned in Table 3.
Blasts were designed for producing different
ranges of vibration frequencies such as 2030 Hz
and 3040 Hz. However, blast vibrations frequen-
cies more than 30 Hz was never achieved. The
reason may be that ground is not supporting the
higher frequencies.
Figures 79 show the results of one of the blast
done with electronic System for lower PPVs and
higher frequencies.
6 BLAST DESIGN
Knowledge of geotechnical aspect is important for
design of any blast; the predominant joint set ori-
entation has to be carefully studied before deciding
on the opening point (zero). The initiation point
of a blast has to be decided in such a way that the
angle of initiation is approximately parallel to the
predominant joint sets.
7 CONCLUSIONS
Initiation pattern is one of the aspects of blast
design; the other two being drill pattern and explo-
sives. This whole work involved the change of blast
751
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 751
design only by changing the initiation pattern.
Based on the work done, the following conclusions
and recommendations were made:
The natural frequency of the high wall is in
the range of 1316 Hz; this means that if the
blast frequency is in this range or lower, then
it will produce more strain and damage to the
highwall. The ground is not supporting fre-
quencies higher than 30 Hz, so the blast design
should intend to produce frequencies in the
range of 2428 Hz.
The PPV of the blast vibrations were reduced
and blast frequencies were channelizedshifted
to higher ranges away from natural frequen-
ciesby using precise blast initiation systems
and designing the blasts using modeling tools.
The cumulative power: Vector sum vibration
power below the 15 Hz was reduced from 62%
to 9%
After successful implementation of the new
blasting system, as per radar system readings,
the wall is stable with no movement.
REFERENCES
Dowding, C.H. 2000. Construction Vibrations. Prentice
Hall international series in civil engineering and engi-
neering mechanics, Published by International Society
of Exploives Engineer, p 610.
Orica Software. 2007, CycadVibration monitoring and
analysis.
Orica Software, 2008, ShotPlusBlast design Software.
10/3/2012 9:01:03 PM
This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Blasting vibration control based on whole time-history response

prediction of high rock slope

P. Li
Changjiang River Scientific Research Institute, Wuhan, Hubei, China

W.B. Lu, J.H. Yang, M. Chen & P. Yan

State Key Laboratory of Water Resources and Hydropower Engineering Science, Wuhan University, Wuhan,
Hubei, China
Key Laboratory of Rock Mechanics in Hydraulic Structural Engineering of Ministry of Education, Wuhan
University, Wuhan, Hubei, China

ABSTRACT: The construction of hydropower projects in southwest China involves large-scale and
high-intensity excavations in high slopes. It is thus urgent to resolve the problem of controlling the blast
vibration effect on these slopes. A model of whole time-history prediction of blast vibrations with the
application of electronic delays is developed based on the attenuation laws of the amplitude and fre-
quency of blast vibration and the nonlinear superposition scheme. In combination with the model and the
DFEM, a method of blast vibration control is proposed. The production blast on the Xiluodu abutment
slope was analyzed with this method. Results show that when the delay interval is below 20 ms or above
50 ms, there is significant energy distributed in the resonant frequency band of the slope; a preferable
delay interval for this case is in the range of 4448 ms. This method is capable of predicting and con-
trolling the blasting vibration of multiple targets, such as multiple berms and multiple potential sliding
masses on high rock slopes.

1 INTRODUCTION controlling method based on the whole time-his-

Numerous large-scale hydropower projects in south-
west China are in the process of construction or
are scheduled for construction. These hydropower
projects are located in mountains and valleys where
the abutment slopes of the dams must be excavated
by drilling and blasting. The excavation heights of
the slopes vary from 300 m to 500 m. Their topog-
raphy and geology are complex, and the spaces
between excavation zones are too narrow for effec-
tive laying of roads. The scale of blasts has to be
adjusted so as to prevent disturbance between dif-
ferent constructing procedures, improve the effec-
tiveness and efficiency of machines, and accelerate
the construction progress. Thus, the large scale mil-
lisecond delay blasting technique is widely applied.
In such situations, it is important to address the
technical problem of controlling the effects of the
blast vibration on such high slopes.
The traditional controlling methods, based on
simple vibration predictors and safety criteria of
single parameters, are not sufficiently refined to
meet the needs of construction requirements. The
dynamic responses of high slopes under blasting
vibrations should be forecasted in order to miti-
gate the effects of blast vibration. The vibration
tory response prediction takes the three factors of
amplitude, frequency and duration into account,
and is an active controlling approach.
Since the 1980s, the whole time-history predic-
tion of blasting vibration has been studied world-
wide. The linear superposition model based on the
measured vibrations from single blasts was pro-
posed by Blair (1987) and Hinzen (1988), who put
forth that signature waveforms from single blasts
could be used to predict the vibration waveforms
of full-scale blasts through linear superposition.
Blair (2008) proposed and compared two nonlin-
ear superposition models with the linear super-
position model. Yang (2011) suggested a multiple
seed waveform vibration model, in which multiple
vibration waveforms measured at different loca-
tions during a single blast were treated as the seed
waveforms and used to simulate the vibration from
the full-scale blasts. Wu (1990) and Lu (1996) also
investigated and demonstrated the feasibility of
the linear superposition model.
There are two methods of vibration control
based on the whole time-history prediction of
blasting vibration. One is the wave interference
method. It uses the proper delay intervals to achieve
the cancelation of the vibration waveforms from

753

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 753 10/3/2012 9:01:03 PM

 different delays, which reduces the intensity of
blast vibration. Many researchers (e.g., Yamamoto
et al, 1998a, 1998b, Zhang & Naarttijaervi, 2005,
Aldas et al, 2008) conducted relevant studies on
this method, which is valid when there is only one
protective target and the location of the blast area is
relatively fixed. As for the case of multiple targets,
it is comparatively more difficult to proceed. The
second technique is the spectral control method,
which minimizes the vibration amplitudes in
the resonant frequency band of the structures
by optimizing the blast design. Representative
studies of this method were done by Blair (1993)
and Yang (2009). This method is able to control
blasting vibration with multiple targets and has
good prospects for future applications.
Furthermore, the delay errors in pyrotechnic
detonators that are widely used in China are too
large. When pyrotechnic detonators and large-scale
millisecond delay blasting techniques are applied
to high slope excavation processes, it becomes too
difficult to predict the whole time-history of the
blast vibration. On the other hand, it is well know
that electronic detonators are characterized by
their precise delay and programmable delay time,
and some researchers (e.g., Blair & Armstrong,
1999, Hoshino, 2000, Zhang & Lindqvist, 2004)
have made an effort to minimize the hazard of
blast vibration by applying electronic delays. How-
ever, there are still many questions that are in need
of further investigation, such as how to predict the
whole time-history of blasting vibration on high
slopes and control the blast vibrations with mul-
tiple targets. Thus, the emphasis of this study is
to develop a prediction model of the whole time-
history of blasting vibrations induced by high rock
slope excavation using electronic detonators and
propose a multi-target vibration control method
based on this model.
2 METHOD OF PREDICTING WHOLE
TIME-HISTORY BLASTING VIBRATION
In this method, measured vibrations from single
hole blasts are taken as the seed waveforms and
used to predict the whole time-history responses
of multi-hole blasts by the superposition law. Nor-
mally, a large amount of seed waveforms need to
be measured to better predict results, a process that
is very costly and difficult to achieve. A substitute
scheme is to simulate the single hole blast with the
Dynamic Finite Elemental Method (DFEM), treat
the simulated waveforms as the seed waveforms
and predict the whole time-history vibration of the
production blast.
754
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 754
2.1 Modelling of vibration from each blasthole
Vibration waveform from each blasthole of mul-
ti-hole blasts is divided into two parts: peak and
normalized waveform. At a point of interest the
vibration waveform from the nth blasthole can be
written as:
vn (t ) = wn un (t )
(1)
where wn is the peak and un(t) is the normalized
waveform.
In the case of high slope excavation, the peak wn
is predicted with a formula derived from dimen-
sion analysis (Tang & Li, 2011):
3q h
wn K
n
n (2)
rn rn
where K and are site constants, is the coeffi-
cient indicating the height effect, qn is the charge
weight of the nth blasthole, rn is the distance from
the nth blasthole to the point of interest, and hn is
the height difference between the nth blasthole and
the point of interest.
The normalized waveform un(t) can be acquired
by seed waveforms and a transfer function. Define
s(t) as the seed waveform, d as the distance from
the point at which the seed waveform is obtained to
the single blast source and rn is the distance differ-
ence between d and rn of the nth blasthole from the
multi-hole blast. Waveform change brought about
by rn is simulated through the transfer function,
which embodies the high frequency filtering effect
of the rock. Equation 3 is the transfer function
derived by Kjartansson (1979) in terms of fre-
quency f: (Yang, 2011)
2 f r
1
(
R rn , f ) exp
c
0 n f
f
tan ( )
g f
i sgn
(3)
0 0 2
Here, = 1/arctan(1/Qp), Qp is the quality
factor representing the attenuating rate, f0 is the
reference frequency (which is usually half of the
Nyquist sampling frequency), and c0 is the phase
velocity at the reference frequency.
Multiplying seed waveform by the transfer func-
tion, we can get the vibration waveform Un(t) from
the nth blasthole of the multi-hole blast in the fre-
quency domain:
Un f ) = S f ) R ( rn , f ) (4)
where Un(f) and S(f) are the Fourier Transforms
of un(t) and s(t) respectively. After inverting
10/3/2012 9:01:03 PM
 the Fourier Transform of Equation 4, un(t) is time greatly affects the outcome spectrum, which is
acquired. As un(t) only represents the waveform, proved as follows.
normalization should be carried on. All the blastholes in a multi-hole blast are
assumed to generate the same blast vibration vs(t)
2.2 Superposition model of blast vibrations at the point of interest. Duration of vs(t) is ts and its
Fourier Transform is Vs(f). Hence, the power spec-
The total vibration of the multi-hole blast is the
tral density is Ps(f) = [Vs(f)]2/ts. The charge weight of
sum of blast vibrations from all the blastholes, i.e.,
each blasthole is assumed to be the same, and the
N N delay interval between two holes is assumed to be
vT (t ) = vn (t n ) = wn un (t n ) (5) t. When a linear superposition model is used, the
n =1 n 1
n= total vibration of the multi-hole blast is given by:
N
where vT(t) is the total vibration at t time, n is the vT (t ) = vs (t ( n ) t) (9)
total delay time of the nth blasthole, including the n =1
delay of initiation and wave travel time.
From Equation 2, the above equation turns to: Fourier Transform of both sides of Equation 9
yields:
N 3q h
vT (t ) = K n n un (t ) (6) N
rn
n
rn VT f ) = Vs ( f ) e Vs ( f ) 1 e j
j fNt
n =1
j f( )t (10)
ft
n =1
1 e
A nonlinear superposition model based on the
charge weight scaling law proposed by Blair (2008) where VT(f) is the Fourier Transform of vT(t).
is adopted in the present study. In this model, The duration of vT(t) is assumed to be tT, and
Cn represents the contribution made by the nth then the power spectral density of the total vibra-
blasthole: tion is given by:
2
Ps ( f ) 1 e j 2 f (t /tt ) (11)
j Nt

n 3 n1 3
n1 3 n 3

PT f ) = VT f ) /tT
2 ffN

q j q j + ln P qn 3 + q j q j
P
Cn (7) 1 e t s T
1+ ln
j =1 j =1 j =1 j =1
After simple manipulation, the spectrum
becomes:
where qj is the charge weight of the jth blasthole, ln
is a dimensionless parameter which represents the sin2 ( fN
N t )
transfer from nonlinear response to linear response PV f ) = Ps f ) (t /tt ) (12)
of the nth blasthole, and the integer P is used to sin 2
( f t ) s V

adjust the transfer rate.

Replacing the charge weight part in Equation 6 by Let:
Cn, the nonlinear superposition model is given by:
sin2 ( fN
N t) (13)
M f)=
sin2 ( f t )

N
C n hn
vT (t ) = K u (t ) (8)
n =1
rn rn n n

where M(f) is denoted as the vibration spectral

factor of multi-hole blasts. It is the periodic func-
3 VIBRATION CONTROL METHOD WITH tion of frequency f, with period F = 1/t. When
THE USE OF ELECTRONIC DELAYS f = nF = n/t (n is an integer), M(f) reaches its
maximum value of N2.
Delay errors can often be omitted when predict- To analyze the effect of this factor on the power
ing the vibration in the middle zone because of the spectrum of the blast vibration, vs(t) is assumed to
precise delay of the electronic detonators. Thus, be a sinusoidal waveform decaying exponentially:
it will be more convenient to predict and control
blasting vibrations. vs (t ) = vmaxe (t f0 )
sin ( f t) (14)

3.1 Spectral control theory

where vmax is the peak of vs(t), f0 is the main fre-
The key to vibration control with the application quency and is the damping parameter. Such a
of electronic detonators is spectral control. Delay waveform and its spectrum are shown in Figure 1.

755

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 755 10/3/2012 9:01:06 PM


Figure 1. Waveform and spectrum of single hole blast
vibration (f0 = 15 Hz, = 4 and vmax = 5 cm/s).
Figure 2. Normalized PSD curves of the multi-hole
blasts with different delay intervals.
From Figure 1, we observe that the waveform
is a sinusoidal, decaying rapidly, and has a single
dominant frequency and narrow frequency band.
756
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 756
Assuming N = 10, the normalized PSD curves
of the multi-hole blasts with different delay inter-
vals are shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2 shows that when the delay interval is
10 ms or 20 ms, the spectral energy still focuses
around 15 Hz; when it is 50 ms, the energy propor-
tion at f = 1/t = 20 Hz increases, attaining half
of the energy at the main frequency of 15 Hz; at
100 ms, the main frequency shifts from 15 Hz to
f = 1/t = 10 Hz, and there are also prominent
peaks at f = n/t (mainly 20 Hz, 30 Hz and 40 Hz).
Thus, we conclude that the main frequency shift of
the multi-hole blast will take place when the poten-
tial shift frequency f = n/t is close to the main fre-
quency of the single-hole blast.
Fixing the delay interval at 50 ms, the normal-
ized PSD curves of the multi-hole blasts with dif-
ferent blasthole numbers are plotted in Figure 3.
Figure 3 shows that the energy proportion
at f = 1/t = 20 Hz increases with the number of
blastholes N and for N 50, the frequency shifts
to 20 Hz. Thus, as the number of blastholes (or
delays) increases, the frequency shift becomes
more obvious.
In conclusion, when the blasthole number of a
multi-hole blast is sufficient and the potential shift
frequency f = n/t lies in the resonant frequency
range of the ground or the structures (Yang, 2009),
the main frequency of the multi-hole blast will shift
to the potential shift frequency. Hence, when adopt-
ing an appropriate delay interval, the main frequency
of the blast can be shifted to a higher value so as to
avoid the resonant frequency of the targets.
If the resonant frequency band f1f2 of the
structure is known, the relative amount of the
blast vibration energy in the range of the resonant
frequency band can be estimated by a structural
vibration factor SV (Blair, 1993):
Figure 3. Normalized PSD curves of the multi-hole
blasts with different blasthole numbers.
10/3/2012 9:01:12 PM

PT ( f t ) df
f2
fu
SV = f1
(f ) 0 PT ( f t ) df
fu
f d
where PT(f, t) is the power spectrum of the vibra-
tion of the multi-hole blast with the delay interval
t and fu is the upper frequency limit of the blast
vibration.
If the blast has a dominant vibration output
in the range f1 to f2, then SV>1, and such blasts
have a high chance of induce structural resonance
in houses. On the other hand, if the blast output
is attenuated to the range f1f2, then SV<1, and
such a blast has a low chance to induce structural
resonance. With the whole time-history prediction
method, the power spectra of multi-hole blast
vibrations can be attained, and Equation 15 enables
a determination of the relationship between the
structural vibration factor SV and the delay interval
t. Hence the delay interval corresponding to the
minimum SV is the optimized delay design.
Figure 4. Procedure of the blast vibration control method for multiple targets.
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 757
3.2 Blast vibration control method for multiple
targets
(15)
According to the theory above, we suggest a method
for the blast vibration control of multiple targets.
The blast vibrations at all points of interest are
predicted for the cases of differently designed blast
parameters. According to the permissible range of
the peak and frequency of the blast vibration at
the points of interest, the blast parameters can be
optimized and the vibration intensity kept under
control. This procedure is shown in Figure 4.
4 CASE STUDY FOR BLAST VIBRATION
CONTROL OF HIGH SLOPE BASED ON
DFEM
4.1 Simulation for a single hole blast of high slope
4.1.1 Numerical model
A case is presented from the abutment slope exca-
vation of the Xiluodu hydropower station. The
Xiluodu hydropower station is located in the Jinsha
757
10/3/2012 9:01:12 PM
 River valley, between Leibo County in Sichuan
province and Yongshan County in Yunan prov-
ince. The river is straight and the valley slope is
steep and high. The height of the dam abutment
slope is about 400 m.
A single-hole blast of the abutment slope at the
left bank of the Xiluodu hydropower project is
simulated with DFEM. The blast is operated from
the elevation 560 m to 570 m and the whole model
is in the elevation range of 540 m 760 m. The
model is shown in Figure 5 shown.
In Figure 5, the outer part is the 3rd grade rock
mass, while the inner part is the 2nd grade one. All
the materials are elastic. Parameters for the former
part are as follows: the density is 2400 kg/m3, the
Youngs modulus is 6 GPa and the Poisson ratio is
0.26. The parameters for the latter are 2500 kg/m3,
20 GPa and 0.21, respectively.
Modal analysis should be carried out first, aim-
ing to analyze the vibration characteristics of the
slope and calculate the damping parameters for the
DFEM.
4.1.2 Modal analysis
Modal analysis is capable of calculating natural
frequencies and vibration modes of structures.
Following this, the damping matrix can be deter-
mined. Rayleigh damping is often used in the FEM
analysis. The element damping matrix is the linear
superposition of the mass matrix and the stiffness
matrix:
[C ]e c [M ]e c [ K ]e (16)
in which c and c are the mass damping and stiff-
ness damping coefficients, respectivel, and can be
expressed as:
2 (i j ji ) i j
c =
2j i2 these key points are regressed with Equation 2,
(17)
2 ( j j ii ) and the attenuating law is given by the following
c =
2j i2
Figure 5. Model for DFEM analysis.
758
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 758
where i and j are the ith and jth natural circu-
lar frequencies respectively, which often originate
from the first two vibration modes of the modal
analysis; i and j are the ith and jth damping ratio
respectively, which are constants usually assumed
to be equal, (i.e., i = j). As for the elastic vibra-
tion of the continuum, damping ratios vary in
the range of 0.020.25. Here, 0.05 is taken as the
damping ratio.
In the modal analysis, the normal DOF of the
boundary around the model and all the DOFs of the
bottom boundary are constrained. Table 1 shows
the first 10 vibration mode results of the natural
frequencies and the corresponding periods.
From Table 1, the natural frequency band of the
slope model is estimated to be 714 Hz. The natu-
ral circular frequencies from the first two vibration
modes are used as the controlled frequencies, i.e.,
i = 2f1 = 45.8 rad/s and j = 2f2 = 55.4 rad/s.
Then from Equation 16, the mass damping coeffi-
cient c = 2.5 and the stiffness damping coefficient
c = 0.001.
4.1.3 DFEM analysis
Adopting the damping coefficient from the modal
analysis, the single blast is modelled through the
DFEM. Blast parameters are as follows: bench
height is 10 m, stemming is 2 m, diameter of the
blasthole is 90 mm, diameter of the charge is
70 mm, and charge weight is 35 kg. The equivalent
triangle blast load is exerted on the elastic bound-
ary outside the blasthole. The time of build-up and
reduction of the load are 2 ms and 6 ms respec-
tively and the load peak is 10 MPa. The model sets
a prior, pre-splitting crack at the contour face.
The 35 nodes on the slope in the elevation from
580 m to 750 m are chosen as points of interest,
in which the points at the berms are at the toe of
the slope. The peaks of the blast vibrations of
expressions:
3Q
1.91
( HR )
0.976
Vertical : V = 400 (18)
R
3Q
1.74
( HR )
0.486
Horizontal : V = 178 (19)
R
Comparing the two equations, it is seen that the
decaying coefficient and the height effect coef-
ficient of the vertical component are both larger
than those of the horizontal component, which
indicates that the vertical component of the blast
vibration attenuates faster than the horizontal one.
10/3/2012 9:01:13 PM
 Table 1. Vibration modes of the slope. at all the points of interest will attain their minima
where the delay interval is below 20 ms, due to
Frequency Period waveform interference. The peaks are all within the
Order Hz S permissible vibration of 10 cm/s.
1 7.2832 0.137 Power spectral analysis of the predicted multi-hole
2 8.8213 0.113 blast vibrations is conducted and the relationship
3 10.459 0.096 of the main frequencies of the vibrations at points
4 10.593 0.094 of interest, the elevation differences and the delay
5 11.794 0.085 intervals is plotted in Figure 8 (For the convenience
6 12.020 0.083 of judgment, a contour plot is used. The grey scale
7 12.891 0.078 represents the values of the main frequencies.).
8 13.239 0.076 Figure 8 shows that while t < 20 ms, the main
9 13.644 0.073 frequencies of most points of interest are in the
10 14.341 0.070 range of 010 Hz, which is because of the broad-
ening of the total vibration waveform caused by
the superposition of waveforms emitted from all
4.2 Optimization of delay interval of multi-hole the blastholes. While t>50 ms, in the far zone (ele-
blast vation difference >100 m), the main frequencies of
The blast design of the multi-hole blast is as fol- these points of interest are below 20 Hz, the conse-
lows: there are 3 rows, each of which has 6 blast- quence of the frequency shift principle.
holes; the space between holes is 4 m; the distance The structural vibration factors can be calcu-
between rows is 3 m; the charging structure of lated using Equation 15 (where f1 = 7, f2 = 14 Hz
each hole is the same as the single blast mentioned and fu = 200 Hz). The relationship of the structural
above. Blasthole arrangement is shown in figure 6:
The blastholes are blasted sequentially from
#1 to #18 as shown in Figure 6. The hole of the
single blast modelled by DFEM is assumed to be
located in the middle of the first row. According to
the safety criterion of the abutment slope excava-
tion of the Xiluodu hydropower project, the per-
missible peak vibration in the elevation 580 m is
10 cm/s.
The vibration waveforms of the points of inter-
est from the single hole blast modelled with the
DFEM are treated as the seed wave. With the delay
interval varying from 1 to 100 ms, multi-hole blasts
are simulated using Equation 8. The relation-
ship of the vibration peaks at points of interest,
the elevation differences (between the source and
points of interest) and the delay intervals is plotted
in Figure 7.
From Figure 7, it is seen that the vibration peak
essentially decays as the elevation increases. Peaks

Figure 7. Plot of relationship of vibration peaks, eleva-

Figure 6. Blasthole arrangement of the multi-hole blast. tion differences and delay intervals.

759

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 759 10/3/2012 9:01:15 PM

 Figure 8. Contour of relationship of main frequencies,
elevation differences and delay intervals.
vibration factors at the points of interest, the ele-
vation differences and the delay intervals are illus-
trated in Figure 9 (The grey scale represents the
values of the structural vibration factors).
Figure 9 shows that when t < 20 ms or t > 50 ms,
the structural vibration factors at most points of
interest are larger than 1, which indicates that the
energy distributed in the resonant frequency band
of the slope is relatively large. From Figures 89,
we can see that with the delay interval being
4448 ms, the main frequencies of all the points
are larger than 20 Hz, and the structural vibration
factors are smaller than 0.5. Thus, the optimized
delay interval is in the range of 4448 ms.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The present study has shown that, under certain
conditions, electronic delays can be used to control
the frequency content of ground vibrations due to
production blasting. Thus, combining the whole
time-history prediction method of blast vibration
and the DFEM, a blast vibration control method
760
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 760
Figure 9. Contour of relationship of structural vibra-
tion factor, elevation difference and delay interval.
for multiple targets on high slopes with the appli-
cation of electronic detonators is proposed.
A case study for the blast on Xiluodu abutment
slope is carried out and conclusions are drawn as
follows. (1) When the delay interval is below 20 ms
or above 50 ms, the main frequencies of many
points are low, and there is a large amount of
energy distributed in the resonant frequency band
of the slope. (2) When the delay interval is in the
range of 4448 ms, the energy distributed in the
resonant frequency band is the smallest. Thus, the
optimized delay interval is from 44 to 48 ms. (3)
This method is capable of predicting and control-
ling the blasting vibration of multiple targets, such
as multiple berms and multiple potential sliding
masses on high rock slopes.
In the present treatment, the vibration screen-
ing effect whereby the damage zone of previ-
ously initiated holes lies in the path between the
initiating hole and the monitor is not considered.
Waveform change due to geological variation is
also not included. These two phenomena can usu-
ally be observed through field monitoring. Thus,
future work should investigate and account for
10/3/2012 9:01:16 PM
 the screening effect and geological variation to
enhance prediction and control of the production
blast.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work is supported by Chinese National Pro-
grams for Fundamental Research and Development
(973 Program) (2011CB013501), Chinese National
Science Fund for Distinguished Young Scholars
(51125037) and the Research Fund for the Doctoral
Program of Higher Education (20110141110026).
REFERENCES
Aldas, G.G.U. & Ecevitoglu, B. 2008. Waveform analysis
in mitigation of blast-induced vibrations. Journal of
Applied Geophysics 66(1): 2530.
Blair, D.P. 1987. The measurement, modelling and control
of ground vibrations due to blasting. Proc. 2nd Int. Frag-
mentation by Blasting, Keystone, Colorado, 88101.
Blair, D.P. 1993. Blast Vibration Control in Presence of
Delay Scatter and Random Fluctuations Between
Blastholes. International Journal for Numerical and
Analytical Methods in Geomechanics 17(2): 95118.
Blair, D.P. 2008. Nonlinear superposition models of blast
vibration. International Journal of Rock Mechanics &
Mining Sciences 45(2): 235247.
Blair, D.P. & Armstrong, L.W. 1999. The spectral control
of ground vibration using electronic delay detonators.
FragblastInternational Journal of Blasting and Frag-
mentation 3(4): 303334.
Hinzen, K.G. 1988. Modelling of Blast Vibration. Int
J Rock Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr. 6(25):
435445.
Hoshino, T., Mogi, G. & Kou, S.Q. 2000. Optimum delay
interval design in delay blasting. FragblastInter-
national Journal of Blasting and Fragmentation 4(2):
139148.
761
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 761
Kjartansson, E. 1979. Constant Q-wave propagation and
attenuation. Journal of Geophysical Research 84(B9):
47374748.
Lu, Wenbo. & Wang, Jingong. 1996. A simulation of
blasting vibration in middle and far field of explosion
source. Blasting 13(3): 811. (in Chinese)
Mogi, G., Hoshino, T., Adachi, T., Yamatomi, J. &
KOU, S.Q. Consideration on local blast vibration
control by delay blasting. Journal of the Japan Explo-
sive Society, 1999, 60(5): 233239.
Tang, Hai. & Li, Haibo. 2011. Study of blasting vibration
formula of reflecting amplification effect on elevation.
Rock and Soil Mechanics 32(3): 820824. (in Chinese)
Wu, Congshi & Wu, qisu. 1990. A preliminary approach
to simulating blast vibration. Explosion and choke
waves 10(2): 170175. (in Chinese)
Yamamoto, M., Noda, H. & Kaneko, K. 1998a. Theo-
retical Study on Blast Vibration Control Method
Which is Based Upon Wave Interferences I. Journal
of Japan Explosives Society 59(5): 221230.
Yamamoto, M., Noda, H. & Kaneko, K. 1998b. Theo-
retical Study on Blast Vibration Control Method
Which is Based Upon Wave Interferences II. Journal
of Japan Explosives Society 59(5): 231240.
Yang, R. 2009. PPV Management and Frequency Shift-
ing in Soft Ground Near Highwalls to Reduce Blast
Damage. Asian-Pacific Symposium on Blasting Tech-
niques, Dalian, China, 7283.
Yang, R., Wiseman, T. & Scovira, D.S. 2011. Multiple
Seed Waveform (MSW) vibration model and some
case studies. International Journal of Mining and Min-
eral Engineering 3(2): 124140.
Zhang, Z.X. & Lindqvist, P. A. 2004. A Feasibility Study
on Controlling Ground Vibrations Caused by Blasts in
Malmberget Underground Mine. FragblastInterna-
tional Journal of Blasting and Fragmentation 8(1): 321.
Zhang, Z.X. & Naarttijaervi, T. 2005. Reducing ground
vibrations caused by underground blasts in LKAB
Malmberget mine. FragblastInternational Journal of
Blasting and Fragmentation 9(2): 6178.
10/3/2012 9:01:16 PM
This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Investigation into effect of blasting on slope stability

in opencast coal mines

N.R. Thote & Ch. Venkat Ramana

Department of Mining Engineering, Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology, Nagpur, India

ABSTRACT: This paper describes the blasting studies in one of a large opencast coal mine situated
in the central region of India. Investigations were carried out to assess the wall damage due to blasting.
Various experiments were conducted at mine A and the results were presented and discussed. The study
included damage due to PPV (peak particle velocity), frequency and displacement of blast vibrations to
slopes. The study was initiated into two phases, in the first phase to carry out damage assessment and in
second phase to suggest the remedial measures in the blast design to minimize slope damage. In this paper
study is confined to the first phase. Eighteen production blasts in addition to single-hole and double-hole
blasts were conducted on overburden benches and vibrations characteristic was investigated. It has been
observed that the mine is producing lower range of dominant frequencies resulting from which may prove
to be detrimental to slopes. Possibly, a shift of low range of frequency to higher would be necessary to
minimize the damaged to slopes. Optimized blast design and delay configuration would be the suggestive
measure. Attempt is made to find out the correlation of frequency and displacement. Lower frequency of
blast vibrations generate higher displacement and vice versa. In second phase of study it is proposed to
conduct experimentation on suggestive controlled blasting techniques to minimize slope damage.

1 INTRODUCTION According to him, blasting operation is one of the

Blasting is an essential operation to break the rock in
opencast mines. Some part of unused energy during
blasting would be converted into ground vibrations
and damage involved in failure of bench slopes. Even-
tually, maintaining the stability of slopes in opencast
mines becomes a vital issue of great importance of
economy and safety of the mine. Slope failure mech-
anism is a complex phenomenon involved with many
parameters. Blasting is one of them. Many research-
ers expressed that heavy blasting in opencast mine
alters the rock mass characteristics and ground stress
conditions, which trigger slope failures.
The benefit of an open pit coal mine largely
depends on the use of deepest slope possible
which should not fail during the life of mine. So,
the design engineer is faced with the two opposite
requirements, i.e. stability and steepness. Steepen-
ing slopes thereby reducing the amount of material
to be excavated can save money. At the same time
excess steepening may result into slope failure lead-
ing to the loss of production, extra stripping costs
to remove the failed material, reforming of benches,
rerouting of haul roads and production delays.
major causes in any opencast mining which alter
the rock mass characteristics and stress conditions.
He observed wedge slope failure due to repeated
opening of horizontal joints on the bench. This
incident occurred just after the heavy blast which
indicates the seismic effect of blasting on slopes.
Holmberg & Maki (1981) studied the effect of
ground vibration on rock mass and concluded that
due to repeated dynamic loading (by blasting) causes
displacement in the rocks. It is more predominant in
case of wedge type failure generally occurred in hard
rock mining. Many researchers expressed that the
dynamic loading of rock mass is one of the major
factor basically causing damage to rock slopes.
Similar observations were noted by the authors
in Mine A as shown in Figure 1.

2 EFFECT OF BLASTING ON SLOPES

Floyd (2003) explained that blasting, which

generates seismic waves causes damage to slope. Figure 1. Opening of joints by repeated blasting on bench.

763

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 763 10/3/2012 9:01:17 PM

 The blast damage factor (D) was first introduced
in the 2002 version of the Hoek-Brown criterion
and it is used in the estimation of rock mass damage
due to blasting (Hoek et al. 2002). In case of bench
blasting in open pit mines, the blast is designed to
create a muckpile which can be dug quickly and
efficiently by a shovel, front end loader or similar
equipment. The generation of the muckpile, shown
in Figure 2, will inflict a certain amount of damage
on the rock that lies between the digging limit and
the in-situ undisturbed rock mass. The properties
of this blast damaged rock mass will control the
stability of the slope that remains after digging of
the muckpile has been completed.
The thickness T of the blast damaged zone will
depend upon the design of the blast. Based upon
experience, Hoek and Karzulovic (2000) suggested
that the following approximate relationships as
shown in Table 1 may be used in judging the extent
of the blast damaged zone resulting from produc-
tion blasting.
Hagan (1982) agreed with the postulated mech-
anism of release of load fracturing, the fact that
cracks can be induced at very considerable distance
from the point of detonation of an explosives must
be a cause of serious concern. These fractures, what-
ever their cause, will have a major disruptive effect
upon the integrity of the rock mass and this, in turn,
will cause a reduction in overall stability. Damage to
slopes by blasting is estimated by various research-
ers and may be summarized below (Floyd 2003).
Stress condition is altered in rock mass due to
induced stresses imparted due to blasting.
Liberation of excessive energy which is very
harmful to bench slopes.
Toppling type of slope failure is accelerated due
to blast vibrations.
Tension cracks are opened due to low
frequency.
3 BLAST VIBRATION AND STABILITY
OF SLOPES
Velocity, displacement and frequency are three
of the most critical vibration factors that influ-
ence slope stability. In weak rocks dominant
frequency response is low. This low frequency
resonance increases the potential for damage dur-
ing high amplitude vibration due to relationship
between Peak Particle Velocity (PPV), frequency
and displacement (Floyd 2003). This vibration
relationship is illustrated by the graph as shown
in Figure 3. Floyd (2003) concluded that for any
vibration amplitude, higher frequency vibration
will produce less displacement than low frequency
vibration. In addition there is also inverse relation-
ship between frequency and strain. If accelera-
tion is constant, a frequency of 5 Hz will generate
10 times more strain that a frequency of 50 Hz.

Figure 2. Diagrammatic representation of the transi-

tion between the in-situ rock mass and blasted rock (after
Hoek 2012).

Table 1. Blast damaged zones resulting from produc-

tion blasts.

S.N. Production blast Damage

1 Large production blast, confined T=2

or little or no control to 2.5 H
2 Production blast with no control T=1
but blasting to a free face to 1.5 H
3 Production blast, confined but T=1
with some control to 1.2 H
4 Production blast with some T = 0.5
control and blasting to free face to 1 H
5 Carefully controlled production T = 0.3
blast with a free face to 0.5 H Figure 3. Vibration relationship for simple sinusoidal
waves (after Floyd 2003).

764

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 764 10/3/2012 9:01:17 PM

 Figure 4. Influence of frequency on slope motion (after
Floyd 2003).
Figure 5. Geological cross section and design of slopes.

Another factor that should be considered when Table 2. Geotechnical properties of rock formations.
evaluating the damage potential of blast vibrations
is the length of the wave. The length of the wave is Density C.S. Vp
calculated by dividing the seismic velocity of the Bench Lithology (kg/m3) (MPa) (m/s)
rock mass by the frequency of the vibration. The
relationship between wave length and slope motion Top Sandstone, 2100 12.0 2015
is illustrated in Figure 4. Long wavelength can be Sandy Soil
Middle Sandstone 2240 20.0 3038
detrimental to the stability of slope so, every effort
Bottom Sandstone 2560 32.7 3071
should be made to control the blast vibra tions, fre-
quency and amplitude. The frequency content of C.S. = Compressive Strength, Vp = p-wave velocity.
ground vibration is primarily controlled by delay
configuration. With the use of correct timing plan,
low frequency vibrations can often be shifted into Table 3. Typical blast designing parameters of mine A.
higher frequency vibrations.
S.N. Details of blast

4 CASE STUDY OF MINE A 1 Location of blast Top bench, sandstone

2 No. of holes 100
Mine A is an opencast coal mine from Deccan 3 Diameter of blast hole 150 mm
region of India. The mine is annually producing 4 Average depth 6.0 m
36 Mt of coal and operating at the Stripping Ratio 5 Spacing burden 5.0 m 4.0 m
of 1:7. Coal seams with thickness ranging from 6 Charge/hole 60 kg
0.5 m to 3.5 m were worked by benching. Overburden 7 Maximum charge 120 kg
per delay
benches consist of sandy, medium grained and fine
8 Delays 25 ms, 67 ms, 250 ms
grained sandstone of Barakar formations. The
9 Explosive type SME + cast booster
individual benches are sloped at 59 in top soil and
36.5 in bottom hard benches with bench height
ranging from 6 m to 10 m. The overall slope angle
for the mine is 45 degrees. Figure 5 shows geologi- in Table 2 were tested in the laboratory. This was
cal cross section and final bench configurations. necessary for determination wave length of sinu-
The general trend of the coal measures is NW-SE soidal waves released during blasting used in fur-
with northeasterly dips, which are in conformity ther analysis.
with regional trend. Every day blasting is an essential feature of
The study was confined to top, middle and this mine by firing 80100 holes. Site Mixed
bottom overburden benches mainly consisted of Emulsion (SME) and Large Diameter Cartridge
low strength sandstone. Top bench consisted of (LDC) explosives were used with NONEL initia-
sandy soil and weak sandstone whereas medium tion system. Pre blast survey was conducted for all
grained sandstone of moderate strength. Bottom those production blasts which were monitored for
bench was partly of grayish fine grained sand- ground vibrations. Table 3 shows a representative
stone. Important strength properties as indicated blast design for mine.

765

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 765 10/3/2012 9:01:17 PM

 5 EXPERIMENTAL WORK
Experiments were conducted to assess the damage
caused due to blast vibrations on top three benches.
In the first phase of study, assessment of damage to
rock mass due to blast vibration was investigated.
Three blasting seismographs (Instantel make Mini-
mate) were placed in a straight line (Evaluation line)
at different distances named A, B & C for each blast.
In each case, A was the nearest point and C was the
farthest point on Evaluation line over which seismo-
graphs were installed. Geophones were buried prop-
erly in the soil or ground to measure vibrations for
single shot as shown in Figure 6. Eighteen produc-
tion blasts were monitored for vibrations. Single-
hole and double-hole test were also conducted to get
the realistic vibrational characteristics from a single
charge. This was used for signature wave analysis.
Observations of experimental blasts and meas-
ured parameters like PPV, dominant frequency
and displacement is indicated in Table 4. PPV,
Dominant frequency were measured directly during

Figure 6. Installation of seismographs on evaluation line for monitoring of blast A1.

Table 4. Vibration monitoring details of experimental blasts conducted at mine A.

Blast no. MCD (kg) IS R (m) PPV (mm/s) f (Hz) Ds (mm)

A1 110 A 50 30.5 13 0.37

A1 110 B 150 28.5 17 0.17
A1 110 C 200 14.2 11 0.18
A2 120 A 25 81.3 13 0.86
A2 120 B 40 59.9 13 1.04
A3 120 A 35 127.0 39 0.12
A3 120 B 40 88.4 39 0.22
A3 120 C 50 87.4 14 1.15
A4 100 A 20 129.0 27 1.16
A4 100 B 60 14.5 13 0.24
A5 120 A 90 12.2 05 0.13
A5 120 B 140 11.7 12 0.13
A5 120 C 190 7.62 15 0.07
A6 130 A 100 24.9 18 0.20
A6 130 B 150 13.2 20 0.09
A6 130 C 200 8.64 26 0.60
A7 120 A 50 28.4 15 0.25
A7 120 B 60 22.4 08 0.37
Single hole test
S1 60 A 50 53.8 47 0.22
S1 60 B 75 22.9 17 0.18
S1 60 C 100 11.9 39 0.17
Double hole test
D1 120 A 75 36.6 17 0.30
D1 120 B 100 15.7 16 0.63
D1 120 C 125 14.7 22 0.06

MCD = Maximum Charge/Delay, IS = Instrument Station, R = Radial distance, PPV = Peak Particle
Velocity, f = Dominant frequency, Ds = Peak Displacement.

766

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 766 10/3/2012 9:01:18 PM

 monitoring and displacement was taken from FFT stations were fixed on it which covered near to far
analysis by using BLASTWARE software. Blasts field monitoring. Blast A3 was specially conducted
were conducted on overburden benches consisted to assess near field damage on top bench. Three
of sandstone, hence p-wave velocity of rock was blasting seismographs (Instantel make Minimate)
taken from Table 2. Wave length was calculated were used to record the vibration at instrument
dividing seismic velocity by vibration frequency. stations A, B, C respectively. For blast A3, instru-
ment stations were at 35 m, 40 m, 50 m away
respectively. Table 5 indicates observation of A3
6 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION blast. Similarly, Blast A6 was conducted to evalu-
ate vibrations over a large distance. Results of blast
The objective of the study was to know vibra- A6 is given in Table 6.
tion characteristics of this mine and its damaging PPV for A3 blast, at 35 m has been recorded as
effect on slope stability. Dominant frequencies of 127 mm/s, which would consequently, resulted into
vibrations were evaluated for present delay system. higher displacement. Higher displacement cause
A partial study was done to find the vibration more damage to rock mass. Whereas, at 200 m
characteristics of the mine. Remedial measures to recorded PPV has been 8.68 mm/s. PPV reduces
protect the slope damage will be done in second with increasing distance and same have been shown
phase of project. Presently, assessment of damage graphically in Figure 8.
is quantified and discussed further. Predictor equation was derived from the data
collected from field during blast monitoring. The
derived equation is given below.
6.1 Assessment of damage on overburden benches
Damaged thickness zone (T) was assessed as sug- PPV = 288.4 SD1.17 (1)
gested in Table 1. Considering the present bench
height and no adoption of control blasting, thick-
ness of damaged zone (T), may be estimated 6.0 Table 5. Details of A3 blast (near field monitoring).
to 9.0 m from the crest of the bench. It was meas-
ured by tape in many cases and verified. In some Distance from blast (m) 35 40 50
cases, back break lied on bench as indicated in PPV (mm/s) 127 88.4 87.4
Figure 7. Once back break is developed on bench it Dominant frequency (Hz) 39 39 14
will govern the angle of slope for that bench. This Displacement (mm) 0.12 0.22 1.15
may sometimes create an uneven contour to high Wave length (m) 51.66 51.66 143.9
wall. During investigations, it has been revealed
that it may due to higher PPV and low frequency
response of ground.
Table 6. Details of A6 blast (far field monitoring).
6.2 Damage due to vibration characteristics Distance from blast (m) 100 150 200
Ground vibrations were measured for eighteen PPV (mm/s) 24.9 13.2 8.64
blasts in the vicinity of slopes within 20 m to 200 m. Dominant frequency (Hz) 18 20 26
An Evaluation Line has been drawn from blasting Displacement (mm) 0.20 009 0.60
site to other end towards high wall and monitoring Wave length (m) 111.94 100.75 77.50

Figure 7. Photograph of back break damaging bench. Figure 8. Graph of PPV versus radial distance for mine A.

767

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 767 10/3/2012 9:01:18 PM

 where SD is scaled distance and 288.4 and 1.17
are site specific constants for this mine. See Figure 9.
6.3 Damaging effect of dominant frequencies
Dominant frequencies of blast vibration play an
important role in damage criterion. Lower domi-
nant frequencies produce higher displacement
and cause more damage. A graph was drawn of
frequency and displacement as shown in Figure 10.
The general trend of dominant frequencies showed
to lower ranged between 1020 Hz. It is necessary
to shift this frequency range to higher range by
properly designed delay configurations.
Figure 9. Graph of PPV versus scaled distance for
mine A.
Figure 10. Correlation of dominant frequency and
displacement.
768
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 768
7 CONCLUSIONS
The potential for blast induced slope damage
could be significantly reduced by the following
approaches:
Accurate quantification of the vibration charac-
teristics of the mine site.
Careful design of blast on the basis of ground
vibration predictor equations.
During blasting attention should be given to
have minimum displacement and high dominant
frequency.
The frequency content of ground vibrations is
controlled primarily by delay configuration will
also play a vital role in frequency produced.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Authors are thankful to Mine authorities for
extending all sorts of help for the experimentation
conducted at mines. We are also indebted to Direc-
tor, V.N.I.T., Nagpur for his kind permission and
laboratory facilities. The above research work is a
part of dissertation for M. Tech. (By Research).
REFERENCES
Floyd, J.L. 2003. Improving slope stability with electronic
delays. In R. Holmberg (ed.), Explosives and blasting
technique. Rotterdam: Balkema, pp. 179182.
Hagan, T.N. 1982. Controlling blast induced crack-
ing around large caverns. Proc. ISRM Symp. Rock
Mechanics, Aachen, Germany.
Hoek, E. 2012. Blast damage factor D, Technical note for
RocNews, February, Winter Issue (pdf version).
Hoek, E., Carranza-Torres, C.T. & Corkum B. 2002.
Hoek-Brown criterion2002 edition. Proc. Fifth
North American Rock Mechanics Symposium, Toronto,
Canada, pp. 1, 267273.
Hoek, E. & Karzulovic, A. 2000. Rock-Mass properties
for surface mines. In W.A. Hustralid, M.K. McCarter &
D.J.A. van Zyl (eds.), Slope Stability in Surface Min-
ing. Littleton, CO: Society for Mining, Metallurgical
and Exploration (SME), pp. 5970.
Holmberg, R. & Maki, K. 1981. Case examples of blast-
ing damage and its influence on slope stability. IR Sve-
DeFo DS:1981:9.
10/3/2012 9:01:18 PM
 Section 11 - Blasting for Civil Construction Projects

CH099_Paper 154.indd 769 10/3/2012 9:12:36 PM

This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Vibration modeling of three eDev tunnel rounds in the Citybanan

tunnel in Stockholm

A.T. Spathis & M. Wheatley

Orica Mining Services Technology Centre, Kurri Kurri, NSW, Australia

ABSTRACT: The ground vibrations from three eDev blasts in the Citybanan of Stockholm, Swe-
den were monitored on the surface using several triaxial accelerometer arrays and GPS-synchronised
data acquisition units. The data enabled the prediction of 26 peak vibration levels. Three sets of pre-
dictions were made: one using a waveform superposition model, and two using a scaled charge weight
superposition model. Both methods relied on using some form of calibration from a given production
blast. The root-mean-square residual values for the full data sets were 8.3, 1.5 and 7.8 mm/s, respec-
tively. The scaled charge weight superposition model gave the minimum residual error while the other
two predictions had a similar number of outliers or relatively poor predictions for some events. For the
present data, it appears that waveform superposition may not be the preferred method of predicting
ground vibrations from tunnel blasts. It is recommended that further testing of these models is done to
increase the range of conditions used to test their ability to predict ground vibration levels from tunnel
blasts.

1 INTRODUCTION basic assumptions of the models are less applicable

Three tunnel blasts were fired using the eDev
initiation system at the Vasa Tunnel section of the
Citybanan project in Stockholm (Kay, 2010). The
blasts were in the Eastern Service Tunnel and were
adjacent to each other with the tunnel face moving
approximately in an easterly direction. The blasts
were drilled to some 4.2 m length based on designs
downloaded from the Sandvik i-Sure system. The
initiation sequence was designed in the Orica tun-
nel software ShotPlus-T.
The primary purpose of the exercise was to
familiarise the contractor with the electronic blast-
ing system and to explore the possibilities of differ-
ent timing sequences. Monitoring of the vibration
levels was conducted at various surface sites and in
adjacent tunnel sites as part of the environmental
requirements. A secondary purpose was to do some
further monitoring using Orica Mining Services
equipment and use that data to examine the pre-
dictive capability of in-house vibration prediction
tools. These include waveform superposition tools
that have been designed primarily for use in surface
blasting such as in quarries and open-cut mines.
They have been quite successful in a wide range of
applications but have been used rarely for tunnel
blasting (Lesberg and Yuill, 2005; Blair, 2006). In
tunnels we have blastholes in close proximity to
each other so that powder factors are high and the
(e.g. superposition of waveforms assumes no inter-
hole interaction).
The present report applies the waveform superpo-
sition model to vibration prediction from the three
tunnel blasts. It uses the model of Blair (1999). The
opportunity was taken to test the vibration predic-
tion model of Spathis (2006). An alternative super-
position model is reported by Yang and Kay (2011).
Key assumptions of the work and waveform
superposition models are that earlier firing charges
are representative of those in a tunnel blast and
encode to some extent such factors as:
the coupling and disposition of the charges in
the rock mass
the quantity of charge
the horizon of the charge with respect to the
surface
the rock type and hydrology in which they were
fired
the effect of the free surface and void space cre-
ated by the tunnel
vibration signatures identified within the pro-
duction blast from the earlier firing charges may
be used as signature waveforms for waveform
modelling.
The assumptions above are tested by the experi-
mental work conducted and the modelling pre-
sented below.

771

CH099_Paper 154.indd 771 10/3/2012 9:12:37 PM

 The paper presents the information collected
as three distinct parts: an analysis of the raw data
to produce charge weight scaling laws for proba-
bilistic design curves; assessment of the ground
velocity from the production blasts using the GPS
synchronisation capability of the OMS monitors;
and waveform modelling using a statistical linear
superposition technique. An alternative method of
vibration prediction using a scaled charge weight
superposition approach is presented and the pre-
diction methods compared.
1.1 Experimental work
1.1.1 Overview
Figures 1 and 2 show three views of the monitor
locations for the present study. The monitors are
well located in terms of their distance from the
three blasted rounds and also their orientation
with respect to the direction of the tunnel heading.
Figure 2 shows the tunnel alignment and the com-
plex range of existing urban infrastructure.
Figure 1. (a) Plan view and (b) elevation view of eDev
blast at 02-3148E showing the OMS monitor locations.
Figure 2. Plan view of the infrastructure through which
the Citybanan tunnel is proceeding.
772
CH099_Paper 154.indd 772
The vibrations were recorded on Kelunji Echo
Pro 24 bit, 2 kHz digital acquisition units. These
systems record continuously and are not ham-
pered by unwanted trigger signals that may arise
from local activities such as traffic or other cul-
tural noise. They can also use traditional triggering
methods such as threshold levels or the ratio of the
short term to long term average. The recorders are
GPS synchronised so that all data may be aligned
with the same time base within a few microsec-
onds. The transducers were PCB Piezotronics tri-
axial accelerometers with 0.5 g or 5 g maximum
range. The recorded data was integrated in the
post-processing to produce the traditional particle
velocity data used in most vibration standards.
Special care was taken to couple the transduc-
ers at each monitoring location. The preferred
method for surfaces thought to accurately repli-
cate ground motion is to secure the transducer to
a metal plate which in turn is glued with brittle
epoxy resin cement (Plastibond). This was the
approach adopted and Figure 3 shows a typical
mounted triaxial accelerometer. The three blasts
were monitored and from that data some early
firing holes could be identified. The details of the
three blast events and the number of single hole
triaxial vibration recordings identified is summa-
rised in Table 1.
The three blasts were charged similarly in the
production blastholes with nominally a one metre
Figure 3. PCB triaxial accelerometer bonded to rock
outcrop and connected to Kelunji Echo recorder.
Table 1. Data collection summary.
Number of single
Blast Date fired holes identified
02-3148E 16 June 2010 33
02-3152E 17 June 2010 31
02-3156E 18 June 2010 43
10/3/2012 9:12:37 PM
 toe charge of 0.9 g/cc density emulsion explosive
and a two metre decoupled charge of 0.9 g/cc
density emulsion explosive above (Figure 4). The
primer was a Pentex 25F (25 g, 15 50 mm) and the
detonators were eDev electronic delay detona-
tors. Contour blastholes were charged with a fully
coupled 0.5 kg toe charge and decoupled charge
leaving 0.6 m uncharged. Sub-contour holes had
a 0.6 kg toe charge. Floor holes used fully coupled
charges throughout. Further details are described
by Kay (2010). It is assumed that the charging was
implemented as provided in the blast design Shot-
Plus-i files and summarised above.
1.2 Charge weight scaling
An important input to the waveform superposition
modelling is the charge weight scaling law param-
eters. A series of test charges within the vicinity
and rock type of the planned production blast are
fired while the particle velocity or acceleration is
measured at the desired points of interest. Here,
the approach taken was to identify the early fir-
ing charges in a production round that were read-
ily distinguished and with no or limited overlap in
the waveforms due to other charges firing within
a time window that encompassed the waveform
from the individual blasthole. The same approach
may be used in surface blasting where the seed
Figure 4. Typical charging for the production blast-
holes using a 1.7 kg base charge and 2.2 kg main charge
with an electronic delay detonator.
773
CH099_Paper 154.indd 773
waveform is obtained from the vibration due to a
delayed single hole in a production blastthe sin-
gle hole may be the first or the last in the produc-
tion blast depending on the geometry. An example
of a production blast vibration recording is shown
in Figure 5. It is expanded to show the front part
of the record and the individual holes may be iden-
tified there.
The vibration data is recorded at various moni-
tors on the surface for each blast and the distance
between the charge and each monitor is calculated
from survey data and combined with the charge
weight to produce a so-called scaled distance. The
data is assumed to follow a charge weight scaling
law of the form,
n
ppv = K x (1)
w
where ppv is the peak particle velocity recorded,
x is the distance between the charge and a given
monitor and W is the charge weight. K is the scale
factor and n is the attenuation factor, both of
which are found from a linear regression curve fit
to Equation 1 after it has been linearised by tak-
ing logarithms of both sides. The term in brackets
is termed the scaled distance. Equation (1) may
be applied to component vibrations, that is, the
three components recorded by the triaxial accel-
erometer. It is sufficient for the current purposes
to restrict the analysis to the vector peak particle
velocity obtained by calculating the time varying
peak amplitude of the time-synchronised compo-
nents. This is done readily in the OMS vibration
analysis software Cycad.
In the analysis that follows, the data is presented
individually for each blast. Charge weight scaling
laws are found for each of these data sets and the
adequacy of the assumptions for such a fit are
Figure 5. Expanded view of the 02-3148E blast record
at location ECHO 3. A series of individual holes can be
identified at the front of the record.
10/3/2012 9:12:37 PM
 presented. Finally, a charge weight scaling law for
the aggregated data is presented.

1.3 Blast 02-3148E, 16 June 2010

Blast 02-3148E was the first blast fired of the
three blasts monitored. Figure 6 shows the data
in a log-log plot of vector peak particle velocity
versus the scaled distance. As with most analy-
ses of this type, a square root scaling is adopted
(Equation (1)). The plot shows the raw data, a
straight line fit to the raw data plus a line that
encompasses 95% of the data assuming the mean
standard error (MSE) of the residuals applies
across all the data. The summary data in Table 2
gives information about the straight line fit to the
Blast 02-3148E data.
Figure 7 (a) and (b) show plots of the fit residu-
als and a probability plot, respectively, to test the
normality assumptions for the estimate of the
linear regression line. The majority of the data
appears to fit the normality assumption for the
residuals apart from three data points (18, 25 and
32). These are vibrations that have relatively small
peak levels and are located late in the blast where

Figure 7. Blast 02-3148E (a) plot of the residuals of the

fit versus the fitted points (b) probability plot for regres-
sion fit.

Figure 6. Blast 02-3148E vibration data. screening can become significant. The result of
removing these data gives the fit in Table 3 for Blast
Table 2. Summary of linear regression parameters for 02-3148E data.
Blast 02-3148E.
1.4 Blast 023152E, 17 June 2010
Standard 95% 95%
Parameter Mean deviation lower upper Figure 8 shows the charge weight scaling law data
for Blast 02-3152E. An analysis of the normality
Log10(K) 2.83 0.242 2.34 3.32 assumption is tested in the plots of Figure 9 that
n 1.62 0.148 1.92 1.31 show the residual plot and the probability plot of
Log10(K*) 3.304 the data. In these, points 6, and perhaps 9, and 21
are identified as potential outliers. However, an
MSE 0.232 for 31 DOF r^2 0.793
examination of the original data does not reveal

774

CH099_Paper 154.indd 774 10/3/2012 9:12:38 PM

 Table 3. Summary of linear regression parameters for
Blast 02-3148E with three outliers removed.

Standard 95% 95%

Parameter Mean deviation lower upper

Log10(K) 3.12 0.162 2.78 3.44

n 1.75 0.098 1.95 1.55
Log10(K*) 3.41

MSE 0.149 for 28 DOF r^2 0.919

Figure 8. Blast 02-3152E vibration data.

any specific reason to remove them from the analy-

sis. Table 4 summarises the linear regression data
drawn from Figure 8.

1.5 Blast 02-3156E, 18 June 2010

Figure 10 shows the charge weight scaling law data
for Blast 02-3156E. An analysis of the normality
assumption is tested in the plots of Figure 12 that Figure 9. Blast 02-3152E (a) plot of the residuals of the
fit versus the fitted points (b) probability plot for regres-
show the residual plot and the probability plot of the
sion fit.
data. In these, points 16, 25, and 42 are identified as
potential outliers and possibly the next two or three
lowest data points and the highest data point.
Once more it appears appropriate to remove Table 4. Summary of linear regression parameters for
at least the numbered points as they occur late Blast 02-3152E.
in the blast and result in relatively small values as
discussed earlier. Table 5 summarises the linear Standard 95% 95%
regression data drawn from Figure 10 after remov- Parameter Mean deviation lower upper
ing the outliers.
Log10(K) 3.08 0.162 2.75 3.41
N 1.75 0.099 1.95 1.54
1.6 Combined results Log10(K*) 3.401
The results from the three blasts are combined in MSE 0.156 for 31 DOF r^2 0.914
this section. The outliers identified in the previous

775

CH099_Paper 154.indd 775 10/3/2012 9:12:38 PM

 Figure 10. Blast 02-3156E vibration data.

sections have been removed from the analysis. Fig-

ure 12 shows the linear regression line and the line
estimated from the mean standard error of the
residuals at a 95% confidence level. Table 6 sum-
marises the regression line data.
Figure 13 shows plots of the residuals versus the
fitted values and the probability plot for the com-
bined data.

1.7 Estimate of ground velocity

Part of the input to the waveform superposition
model is the travel time from each blasthole to
the point of interest. An estimate of the ground
velocity is necessary to estimate these delays in the
arrival of the vibrations. The OMS monitors are
GPS synchronised and the first arrivals of the blast
vibrations may be used to calculate the ground
velocity by aligning the time base for data at each
measurement location and using their respective
distances to the first hole firing in the blast.
Figure 11. Blast 02-3156E (a) plot of the residuals of
Figure 14 shows the distance versus time data the fit versus the fitted points (b) probability plot for
for the first arrivals of the vibration at each of the regression fit.
stations plus an aggregated plot. Table 7 summa-
rises the ground velocity values obtained from the
slope of these plots.
ing how well the chosen COV is able to simulate the
observed scatter (Figure 15). This is a somewhat
1.8 Estimate of coefficient of variation (COV)
subjective assessment and recent efforts have not
Another input required for the waveform superpo- produced a means of calculating it directly from
sition model is the coefficient of variation (COV) the scatter within the data (Spathis and Rothery,
of the observed vibration levels. The COV is used 2010). Table 8 provides the COV estimates.
to randomise the amplitudes of the individual seed
waveforms used within the model and attempts to
1.9 Discussion
reflect observed real-world variation in the vibra-
tion levels. It is estimated by creating simulated data The linear regression data yield the charge weight
using scatter about the regression line and assess- scaling equations (Equation 1) for each of the

776

CH099_Paper 154.indd 776 10/3/2012 9:12:39 PM

 Figure 12. Combined vibration data for the three blasts
with linear regression fit to transformed data plus the
dashed line estimated from the mean standard error of
the residuals at a 95% confidence level.

Table 5. Summary of linear regression parameters for

Blast 02-3156E with three outliers removed.

Standard 95% 95%

Parameter Mean deviation lower upper

Log10(K) 2.69 0.147 3.26 3.41

n 1.34 0.091 1.66 1.58
Log10(K*) 3.01

MSE 0.159 for 38 DOF r^2 0.850

Table 6. Summary of linear regression parameters for

all blasts excluding outliers.

Standard 95% 95%

Parameter Mean deviation lower upper

Log10(K) 2.984 0.117 2.978 3.108

Figure 13. All three blasts (a) plot of the residuals of
n 1.62 0.072 1.50 1.43 the fit (b) probability plot for the combined data.
Log10(K*) 3.38

MSE 0.202 for 99 DOF r^2 0.836

sites and for the combined data and these are
given in Table 9. Also shown are the charge weight
scaling equations for the line estimated from the
mean standard error of the residuals at an upper
95% confidence level. The data from the first two
blasts show remarkable similarity in terms of the
estimated charge weight scaling laws. The third
blast has lower levels and also a slower decay with
increasing scaled distance. The combined data is
fit by a regression curve that lies somewhere in
between. The assumption of a normal distribu-
tion of the residuals for each site is supported
generally by plots of the residuals from the linear
regression line and by the associated probabil-
ity plots. Where appropriate a small number of
outliers have been excluded based on the physi-
cal nature of the blasting. In particular, late firing
holes in the cut region can be expected occasion-
ally to produce somewhat smaller vibration levels
due to localised damage and void creation by the
earlier firing blastholes.

777

CH099_Paper 154.indd 777 10/3/2012 9:12:39 PM

 Figure 14. Distance versus time plots (a) Blast 02-3148E (b) Blast 02-3152E (c) Blast 02-3156E (d) Combined data.

Table 7. Estimates of ground velocity for the three that the regression of the data for the last blast had
blasts. less attenuation with scaled distance and also the
smaller scaling coefficient. This will depend some-
Blast 02-3148E 02-3152E 02-3156E Combined what on the grouping of the data and the relative
Velocity weighting of groups to the group population.
(m/s) 5526 5805 5180 5728

2 RESULTS AND DATA ANALYSIS

The K values of the individual sites span a factor
of under three (488 to 1281), while the slopes range
from 1.34 to 1.75. A feature of the regression
lines is that the smaller K value is associated with
smaller absolute value of the slope, n. This means
Spathis et al. (2010) describe the waveform super-
position model as follows:
Orica Mining Services Monte Carlo model uses
linear waveform superposition to produce proba-
bilistic blast vibration predictions. The model can

778

CH099_Paper 154.indd 778 10/3/2012 9:12:39 PM

 Figure 15. Randomised data for COV estimates. Dark circles are the measured data with outliers removed. (a) Blast
02-3148E (b) Blast 02-3152E (c) Blast 02-3156E (d) Combined data.

Table 8. Estimates of COV for the three blasts. Table 9. Summary of charge weight scaling laws

Blast 02-3148E 02-3152E 02-3156E Combined Mean regression line 95% regression line

COV 0.3 0.25 0.25 0.35 Blast K n K n

02-3148E 1281 1.75 2588 1.75
02-3152E 1209 1.75 2518 1.75
be summarised in a few simple steps. Firstly, the 02-3156E 488 1.34 1023 1.34
vibration from a single charge is used to quantify Combined 964 1.62 2410 1.62
the vibration propagation characteristics at a spe-
cific site for a defined range of scaled distances. A
seed wave is then selected to best represent the ray the holes in the production blast in order for the
path taken by holes within the modelled blast. The best results to be achieved. Usually, the final step
distance, geology and geometry of the ray path is calibration of the model by adjusting the model
all need to be similar between the seed wave and parameters based on measured full-scale blasts.

779

CH099_Paper 154.indd 779 10/3/2012 9:12:39 PM

 The model requires as input the charge weight
scaling law parameters (Equation 1) obtained from
field measurements, an assessment of the ground
velocity as this introduces relative time delays
between charges at different locations, and an esti-
mate of the coefficient of variation (COV) in the
measured vibration data that encapsulates the var-
iations from the mean regression line. The model
also incorporates the statistical scatter of the delay
times of the initiating system which is generally ten
times lower for electronic delay detonators. It also
can include the effects of local damage around a
blasthole and also the reduction of vibration from
a currently firing charge that has earlier firing
holes between it and the point of interest. This last
effect is termed screening and has been determined
experimentally in surface blasting.
Monte Carlo modelling has primarily been
developed and used in open cut mining and quarry-
ing operations. There is one prior use of the Monte
Carlo model in tunnelling at the Eastlink tunnel in
Melbourne (Lesberg and Yuill, 2005, Blair, 2006).
However, in that instance the model was not cal-
ibrated and applied to a site 1.5 km from where
the site law was established. As a result the model
over-predicted the expected vibration levels. This
highlights two important criteria to achieve the
predictive power of the model: it must be calibrated
to provide accurate vibration predictions and the
ground needs to be characterised over the length
of the tunnel in case of variation. Whilst the model
produced by this report is uncalibrated, it can eas-
ily be calibrated by the initial blasts during tunnel
development. In any case, the model can still iden-
tify relative advantages between blast designs to
help control ground vibrations while maintaining
the desired advance.
We have determined the primary model param-
eters based on the field data. These include the
charge weight scaling law site constants, the ground
velocity and the COV that is a measure of ampli-
tude scatter. It remains to choose a suitable single
hole seed waveform that encapsulates the vibration
output, the characteristics of the travel path and
geology and the local site conditions at each point
of interest. This is not trivial as in the production
blasts several signature waveforms may be identi-
fied from the earlier firing holes. Noy (2011) has
suggested the use of the inverse Fourier transform
of the averaged amplitude spectra over all seed
wave candidates. This would require some estimate
of the phase spectrum which is almost certainly not
minimum phase which makes its estimate difficult.
The seed waveform must be chosen for the
particular point of interest. For example, it is not
desirable to predict a vibration from a production
blast using the waveform superposition model at a
point where no seed waveform has been measured.
Table 10 gives the locations/monitors where triaxial
recordings were obtained successfully and where
single hole triaxial waveforms can be obtained
unambiguously (denoted by ). At each such site
the waveform superposition model may be used
with more confidence to predict the production
blast vibration.
It is important to note that for each location
the seed waveform is selected from one production
blast and that seed waveform may be used to cali-
brate the result in the same blast. If another blast
has been recorded at the same monitor location,
then the calibrated model may be used to predict
the result from the other production blast. Table 11
shows the number of possible predictions at each
monitor location using this approach.
2.1 Data analysis using waveform superposition
The predicted vibration levels from a blast using
the waveform superposition method is invariably
different to a measurement at a given point of
interest. There are many reasons including the
local confinement and geology around each
explosive charge, the initiation time accuracy
plus variable travel time delays and the dynamic
interaction between each of the explosive charges
amongst other factors. The seed waveform used to
predict the vibration level for a given blast design
is assumed to be representative of the shape and
Table 10. Locations of where seed waveforms are avail-
able and calibrations are possible (denoted by ).
Blast Blast Blast
Monitor 02-3148E 02-3152E 02-3156E
ECHO 1
ECHO 2
ECHO 3
ECHO 4
ECHO 5
ECHO 6
ECHO 7
Table 11. Monitor location and the number of predictions
possible using a single blast for a seed and calibration.
Monitor location Possible number of predictions
ECHO 1 2
ECHO 2 6
ECHO 3 6
ECHO 4 6
ECHO 5 0
ECHO 6 0
ECHO 7 6

780

CH099_Paper 154.indd 780 10/3/2012 9:12:40 PM

 spectral content of each of the vibrations that
radiate from the charges in the blast. In the present
model scatter on the individual hole vibration
is produced through the coefficient of variation
parameter described earlier.
The general process used to analyse the data was:
determine a seed waveform at a given point of
interest for a given blast
use the blast design information (geometry,
charge weights and initiation sequence), the esti-
mates of the charge weight scaling law parame-
ters, seismic velocity and coefficient of variation
of the given blast, and the seed waveform to
predict the blast vibration at the given point of
interest
form the envelopes of both the predicted and
measured peak particle vibration waveforms
at the point of interest for the given blast
(Figure 16)
align the predicted and measured envelopes
based on the result of a cross-correlation
between them. Form the ratio of the two to
obtain the calibration distribution for a given
point of interest
form a new predicted envelope for another blast
at the same point of interest using the original
seed waveform for that location
scale the new predicted envelope by using the
calibration distribution above. Note it is not the
calibration distribution that is used directly but
parameters from it such as survival values or the
Figure 16. (a) Envelope of predicted peak particle
mean and standard deviation of the calibration
velocity (b) Envelope of measured peak particle velocity.
distribution The point of interest was ECHO 1 and the blast Blast
compare the measured envelope from the new 02-3148E. The measured waveform has been aligned with
blast at the same point of interest to the scaled the predicted waveform.
predicted envelope at that location.
The above process is different to that often used.
Typically, the scale factor used is the ratio of the
measured peak amplitude to the average value of
the predicted amplitude.
An example will demonstrate the general proc-
ess. After that the predictions for the peak value for
each of the blasts will be compared to the meas-
ured peak data.
The example data is for the ECHO 1 location
and the model calibrated using Blast 02-3148E.
The calibration information is used to predict a
result at ECHO 1 for Blast 02-3152E.
We begin by forming the envelopes of both
the measured peak particle velocity and the mean Figure 17. Parameters used for the prediction of the
envelope of all the simulated predicted peak parti- peak particle velocity at ECHO 1 for Blast 02-3148E.
cle velocity data. The envelope is calculated using Blasthole screening OFF.
standard techniques with the Hilbert transform
and the analytic signal (Bracewell, 1986). Figure 16
shows the two envelopes. Shotplus-I PRO. Figure 17 shows a screenshot of
The predicted waveform was generated using the input fields when running the vibration predic-
the waveform superposition model available in tion software.

781

CH099_Paper 154.indd 781 10/3/2012 9:12:40 PM

 We see that the prediction used 1000simulations,
with the average ground velocity, COV and charge
weight scaling law parameters taken from Tables 7,
8 and 9, respectively. The model allows for delay
scatter and random fluctuations of amplitude
from each blasthole based on the COV. No blast-
hole screening or damage effects are used.
It is clear from Figure 16 that the predicted peak
particle velocity envelope over all the simulations
is different to the measured data envelope. The
predicted envelope has already smoothed out the
fluctuations introduced for each individual simula-
tion by showing the mean only. It shows a good
deal of uniformity, and interestingly, larger values
towards the end of the blast, unlike the measured
envelope. The measured envelope data has a peak Figure 18. Calibration distribution formed by the ratio
value of approximately 0.97 mm/s which is a lit- of the measured data envelope and the predicted data
tle larger than the actual peak particle velocity of envelope.
0.89 mm/sthe envelope will always be equal to or
greater than the original data.
It is worth noting that there are one or two other
peaks in the measured data that are not much
smaller than the actual maximum and that these
occur at quite different times. This suggests that
one must be careful in using a single value from a
blast to calibrate any prediction. In principle, one
expects that the measured data would lie within the
bounds of the mean data with appropriate scatter
about it. The current file output from Shotplus-i
PRO does not produce that information. It pro-
duces the mean envelope, the mean peak level and
the standard deviation about that mean peak value.
The distribution of the simulated data at each time
increment is not currently available.
The next step in the process is to form a cali- Figure 19. Histogram of the calibration factors.
bration distribution as the ratio of the envelopes,
measured over predicted. From this distribution
a histogram of the calibration factors over the
full blast may be formed (similar to a probability
density distribution) and from this a survival plot
(similar to a cumulative distribution function) of
these calibration factors may be produced. These
are shown in Figures 18, 19 and 20, respectively.
The calibration factors vary with time from
approximately 0.03 to 3.98 with a mean value
of 1.06 and a standard deviation of 0.63. The
80%, 90%, 95% and 99% survival values for the
calibration factor are 1.58, 1.98, 2.30 and 2.98,
respectively.
By comparison, the calibration factor calculated
as the ratio of the maximum measured level over
the mean predicted level is 4.43 (= 0.971/0.219) Figure 20. Survival plot of the calibration factors.
while the calibration factor calculated as the ratio
of the maximum measured level over the value of
the predicted level at the same location in time is blast design is used in Shotplus-i PRO with the same
3.43 (= 0.971/0.283). seed waveform measured at the ECHO 1 location.
We now wish to predict the vibration level for a The model parameters are those that apply for the
different blast measured at the same location. The new blast: a ground velocity of 5728 m/s, a COV of

782

CH099_Paper 154.indd 782 10/3/2012 9:12:40 PM


Figure 21. (a) Envelope of predicted peak particle veloc-
ity and (b) envelope of measured peak particle velocity.
The point of interest was ECHO 1 and the blast Blast
02-3152E. The measured waveform has been aligned with
the predicted waveform.
0.25, and charge weight scaling parameters of 1209
and 1.75, respectively.
Figure 21 shows the predicted and measured
data at ECHO 1 for Blast 02-3152E. The predic-
tions are similar to those of Blast 02-3148E shown
in Figure 16. Note that we have not scaled the pre-
dictions at this stage. The blast duration for Blast
02-3152E is shorter than that of Blast 02-3148E.
The amplitudes are similar with somewhat less scat-
ter in the Blast 02-3152E data in the middle of the
blast and with the stronger amplitudes occuring at
the end of the blast. The peak vibration levels in the
Blast 02-3152E occurs in the early part of the blast
whereas it occurs later in Blast 02-3148E. Applying
the 95% survival calibration factor of 2.30 to the
raw predicted data yields a peak level of 1.23 mm/s
versus 1.22 mm/s for the measured data! A remark-
able result indeed.
However, results for the full set of 26 blast pre-
dictions are much more variable. Figure 22 shows
783
CH099_Paper 154.indd 783
Figure 22. Comparison of measured and predicted
peak particle velocity for the 26 possible predictions
(Table 11). The predictions are from the waveform super-
position model in ShotPlus-i PRO.
the peak values for both the measured and pre-
dicted peak vibration levels.
2.2 Data analysis using scaled charge weight
superposition
It is possible to predict the peak particle velocity
using a scaled charge weight superposition model
(Spathis, 2006). This method uses the charge weight
scaling law in conjunction with the initiation design
and a time window parameter (here set to 50 ms
based on preliminary testing) to estimate the peak
vibration levels at a given point of interest. Cor-
rections are made for travel time delays based on
the ground velocity. In many blasts there is oppor-
tunity for screening by earlier firing holes and the
model does not account for this effect directly. An
indirect approach to deal with this screening is to
use a calibration blast and scale the results based
on that. For the present blasts the calibration scales
the predictions based on the earlier single firing
holes that are well separated in time. Once the pre-
diction is scaled for these holes a future prediction
can be formed by scaling once more by the ratio
of a measured peak to the scaled time-separated
holes. An example will help explain the approach
adopted.
Figure 23 shows the measured vibration at the
ECHO1 location for the Blast 02-3148E. The pre-
dicted vibration using the scaled charge weight
superposition model is also shown. A close inspec-
tion of the two show similarities and indeed their
10/3/2012 9:12:41 PM

Figure 23. (a) Measured vibration for Blast 02-3148E at
ECHO 1 location. (b) Predicted vibration levels for Blast
02-3148E at ECHO 1 location using scaled charge weight
superposition model and a time window of 50 ms.
cross-correlation is maximised when they are
overlapped.
As with the full waveform superposition predic-
tion we see a notable discrepancy at the tail of the
measured and predicted vibrations. In what fol-
lows we ignore these tails as there appears to be
failure of any screening effect from the model for
these holes and use the rest of the data for scaling
purposes.
Consider Figure 23 (a). In the measured data,
P is the average of the peak vibration levels for the
individual blastholes firing in the cut region of the
tunnel blast. Q is the peak vibration level over the
whole blast, but ignoring the tail due to the effects
of screening. Similarly, for the predicted data, P is
the peak vibrations level for the individual blast-
holes firing in the cut region and Q is the peak
vibration level over the whole blast, again ignoring
the tail data. We may form a predicted peak vibra-
tion level, Qi, for a blast (subscript i) at the same
point of interest using,
784
CH099_Paper 154.indd 784
Qi Q
=k i (2)
Pi s Pi
where the subscript, i, refers to the current blast
and k is a calibration factor. We may use a single
blast to determine a common value for k. However,
in using Equation (2) we must assign a value to Pi
and the obvious choice is the value from the cali-
bration blast used to estimate k, namely, P0 where
the subscript 0 refers to the calibration blast.
An alternative peak vibration prediction could
be obtained simply using,
Q0
Qi Qi (3)
Q0
where once more the primed quantities are meas-
ured and the unprimed quantities are outputs from
the model. In this second method no adjustment is
made for the single hole amplitude as determined
from the earlier firing cut holes. Both methods of
prediction have been applied for all the possible
data given in Table 11. The results are shown in
Figure 24.
2.3 Discussion
The prediction of the blast vibration levels from a
tunnel blast is complex and difficult. The complex-
ity arises from the strongly non-linear behaviour
occuring in the vicinity of the explosive charges
as they initiate and create fractures that link with
those produced from adjacent charges that follow
or precede them. Most measurements of blast-in-
duced ground vibrations are taken within the far-
field of the blast; that is, relatively remote from
the non-linear regions. Waveform superposition
approaches that add elemental or seed waveforms
to produce the resultant wave train are inherently
linear processes. Non-linearities may be intro-
duced and may include the use of a non-linear
scaling law for the amplitude of each elemental
waveform and the use of vibration screening mod-
els to help reduce the vibration levels predicted
and hence produce predictions more in accord
with the observations.
Waveform superposition models have been rea-
sonably successful in their predictions when applied
to locations in the far-field and on occasions in the
near-field. At such far-field locations waveform
spreading occurs and depending on the initiation
sequence, overlap of vibration waves from various
blastholes is likely. In the case of tunnel blasts, the
timing between blastholes is longer than that used
in surface blasting and the number of blastholes
involved in the overlap is reduced.
10/3/2012 9:12:41 PM

Figure 24. (a) Measured versus predicted vibration
levels using Equation (2). (b) Measured versus predicted
vibration levels using Equation (3). A time window of
50 ms was used in the scaled charge weight superposition
model.
Three sets of predictions have been produced
in this report. Firstly, a waveform superposition
approach was used without any screening. A cali-
bration blast was used and a calibration distribution
was produced from which a histogram of scaling
factors across the whole duration of the wavefrom
was calculated. The resulting survival plot offered
the opportunity to select a value for the scaling that
785
CH099_Paper 154.indd 785
accounted for most of the scaling values across the
whole prediction/measured calibration waveform.
Secondly, the scaled charge weight superposition
model was used. It did not include any screening
algorithm. It uses the charge weights and the fir-
ing sequence to produce an estimate of the peak
vibration levels across the complete blast wave-
form assuming a time window that encompasses
groups of charges. The superposition is inherently
non-linear in the way the effect of each charge is
included via the charge weight scaling law.
These two prediction methods differ essentially
in the order of the non-linear scaling inherent in the
charge weight scaling law and the linear superposi-
tion used. The waveform superposition approach
scales each waveform by the charge weight scaling
law and then adds the scaled waveforms to produce
the resultant waveform. The scaled charge weight
superposition method adds the charge weights lin-
early and then scales the resultant charge weight
via the non-linear charge weight scaling law.
A casual inspection of the three data sets
producedone for the waveform superposition
method and two for the scaled charge weight
superposition methodshows that the best pre-
dictor for this data set was the scaled charge weight
superposition method when used with Equation (2)
calibration scaling (Figure 24(a)). Indeed the root-
mean-squared residual errors for the three predic-
tions were 8.3, 1.5 and 7.8 mm/s, respectively, for
Figures 22, 24(a) and 24(b). There are fewer out-
liers in the plot for the first scaled charge weight
superposition plot compared to the other two plots
which had a similar number of outliers.
It is interesting to compare the present work to
the approach taken independently by Yang and
Kay (2010). In their work a multiple seed wave-
form approach is applied that included screening
and the monitoring locations were different to
those described here. Their data is reproduced in
Figure 25. It is clear by visual inspection that their
charge weight scaling law produces predictions
closer to the measured data than does the multi-
ple seed waveform model. The root-mean-squared
residual errors were 2.4 and 3.8 mm/s, respectively.
It is worth noting, however, that the latter model
produces data mostly above the measured data
and thus it is a conservative prediction for practi-
cal purposes.
2.4 Conclusions and recommendations
The prediction of blast vibrations has relied on
charge weight scaling laws that are based on curve
fits to measured data for over forty years. Wave-
form superposition models of various complex-
ity have tried to include more of the basic physics
of waves emanating from each blasthole and
10/3/2012 9:12:42 PM

Figure 25. Data from Yang and Kay (2011) showing
measured data (solid diamonds), predictions using the
multiple seed waveform model (white triangles) and the
added predictions using their charge weight scaling law
(white diamonds).
travelling to a point of interest. Both methods have
had mixed success.
The present work has used a waveform super-
position method and a scaled charge weight
superpositon method for vibrations measured at a
number of surface locations. In related work with
measurements at different locations, a more com-
plex waveform superposition model was used and
its outputs have been compared to a direct applica-
tion of a charge weight scaling law. For the primary
data set used in the present report, it was found
that the scaled charge weight superposition model
gave the best predictions overall. In the second
data set, a direct application of the charge weight
superposition law gave the best predictions.
It appears that waveform superposition mod-
els are less suited to the prediction of vibrations
from tunnel blasts than they have been for sur-
face blasts. A possible reason is that in tunnel
blasts each charge is initiated so as to minimise
the amount of overlap of the vibrations emanat-
ing from each hole and arriving at a given point
of interest. Such a firing sequence is consistent
with the need in tunnel blasting to allow sufficient
time for the broken rock to move and provide suf-
ficient void space for rock from later firing holes
to move into. A further effect in tunnel blasting is
the complex dynamic screening of the void space
as the blast proceeds. Finally, the proximity to the
ground surface and the tunnel orientation may
also influence the vibration levels produced. The
proximity of adjacent blastholes in a tunnel blast
will also enhance non-linear effects in the vibra-
tions radiated from them.
786
CH099_Paper 154.indd 786
It is recommended that further work be under-
taken in comparing tunnel blast vibrations with
the predictions from the models described here.
That is, it is necessary to extend the present work
and increase the data set to confim the conclusions
drawn here. There is a need to focus improvements
in the existing models on the mechanisms of frac-
ture, damage, and void creation and screening that
occurs in tunnel blasting.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Mike Wheatley died suddenly prior to this report
being completed. He did not get to review its
final contents but I hope it would meet with his
approval. I do know that the report has and would
have benefited from his sharp intellect. Mike and
I worked together in Stockholm in the summer of
2010. For some of that time, we had our wives with
us and together with Dave Kay and his wife, we
had a ball.
We acknowledge the assistance and hospital-
ity provided by Nitro Consult and Orica staff
throughout our stay in Sweden.
REFERENCES
Blair, D.P. 1999. Statistical models for ground vibration
and airblast. Int. J. Blasting and Fragmentation, 3,
335364.
Blair, D.P. 2006. Probabilistic vibration analysis of seven
blasts in the EastLink freeway tunnel construction.
Orica Internal Report 58754.
Bracewell, R.N. 1986. The Fourier Transform and its
Applications (2nd edition). McGraw-Hill Inc., New
York.
Kay, D. 2010. Summary of the three eDev blasts fired
at the Citybanan cross city railway project, Stock-
holm. Orica Mining Services, Technical Note.
Lesberg, P. & Yuill, G. 2005. Monte Carlo vibration pre-
diction for the Eastlink freeway tunnel construction.
Orica Mining Services Technical Report 58732.
Noy, M.J. (2011). Personal communication.
Spathis, A.T. 2006. A scaled charge weight superposition
model for rapid vibration estimation. Int. J. Blasting
and Fragmentation, 10, 931.
Spathis, A.T. & Rothery, M. 2010. Estimate of COV
for Monte Carlo model. Orica Mining Services, File
Note.
Spathis, A.T., Rothery, M. & Yang, R. 2010. Vibration
measurements and modeling for the Brisbane North-
ern Link Tunnel. Orica Mining Services Technical
Report.
Yang, R. & Kay, D.B. 2011. Multiple seed blast vibration
modelling for tunnel blasting in urban environments.
Blasting and Fragmentation, 5,2:109122.
10/3/2012 9:12:42 PM
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Monitoring ground vibrations for predicting overbreak threshold levels

in underground drivages

Kaushik Dey
Department of Mining Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India

V.M.S.R. Murthy
Department of Mining Engineering, Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad, India

ABSTRACT: Blasting is one of the most essential unit operations required in driving underground
drivages may it be for mining or tunnelling. The visible form of rock damage, commonly termed as
overbreak, is a major concern today. One of the prime reasons for overbreak is the unacceptable levels of
ground vibration generated due to lack of adequate free face apart from the rock structure itself. From
the literature survey and practical experience, it was found that the threshold levels of PPV for overbreak
depend on rock/rockmass properties, namely, rock/rockmass strength, P-wave velocity, specific gravity and
Poissons ratio. Determination of threshold level of Peak Particle Velocity (PPV) is crucial for controlling
blast-induced overbreak. Near-field vibration monitoring with suitable sensors such as accelerometers is
the technique suggested. This paper reports the experiments carried out in the underground drivages of
a Chromite mine, in which, near-field ground vibrations were monitored using accelerometers having a
range upto 500 g planted on the side wall along with a normal PPV measuring geophone fixed at the floor.
The ground vibration predictors were established for both the cases. Blast-induced overbreak for each blast
has been measured using a sunflower cross sectioner. The threshold levels of PPV for overbreak have been
estimated using near-field approximation technique for both the predictors. The estimated threshold level
of PPV for overbreak has been found to be 331 mm/s from the accelerometer based readings placed within
a distance range of 10 to 25 m. Similarly, the estimated threshold level of PPV for overbreak have been
found to be 185 mm/s from the PPV measuring geophones placed within a distance range of 25 to 60 m.
The allowable charges per hole to be used were computed from the site characteristics (K, ) obtained from
both the predictors. It was observed that the charges were found to be similar in the both the methods.

1 INTRODUCTION day production blasting. Blasting in underground

Rapid development in underground drivages is the
need of the hour to reduce the gestation period of
mining and tunnelling projects. Despite the intro-
duction of modern rock cutting machines, namely,
tunnel boring machines, road headers, continuous
miners etc., blasting still is the common excavation
technique owing to its adaptability in wide rang-
ing geo-mining conditions. Faster drivage rates
are possible with the longer blast holes drilled by
multi-boom drill rigs and wide range and type of
delays available now-a-days. Since longer pulls
are associated with high concentration of explo-
sives they often cause overbreak due to excessive
ground vibrations. Overbreak increases the over-
all drivage cost due to extra support and mucking
required. Most of the existing controlled blast-
ing techniques, namely, line drilling, pre-splitting,
smooth blasting, micro-sequential contour blast-
ing etc., need additional drilling and sophisticated
delays and thus become costly to adopt in day to
drivages aims at the following objectives:
achieving longer pulls
reducing overbreak and rock damage
optimizing drilling and blasting cost.
Ground vibration, in terms of Peak Particle
Velocity (PPV), is an accepted criterion for
rock/structural damage prediction world over.
Blast-induced overbreak is related to ground
vibration by many researchers. Thus, it is essential
to estimate the threshold levels of Peak Particle
Velocity (PPV) in order to control overbreak.
Threshold levels of PPV can be derived once the
PPV predictors can be established either by near-
field vibration monitoring or by far-field vibration
monitoring. Near-field vibration monitoring is
critical as the level of PPV is higher and risk of
damage to the instrument from fly rock/ground
movement is high. Thus, the near-field vibration
is seldom practiced and if practiced, accelerome-
ters are used instead of PPV measuring geophones.

787

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 787 10/3/2012 9:01:24 PM

 In this paper, a brief discussion on the previous
research conducted on the near-field vibration
estimation models and threshold levels of PPV for
rock damage is provided initially. Subsequently,
both the near and far-field vibrations monitored
in underground drivages of a Chromite mine and
the threshold level of PPV for overbreak estimated
from them are compared.
2 BLAST DAMAGE ASSESSMENT
MODELSA REVIEW
Bauer and Calder (1970) in their studies observed
that no fracturing occurred for a PPV < 254 mm/s.
PPV in the range of 254 to 635 mm/s resulted in
minor tensile slabbing and PPV values between
635 and 2540 mm/s caused strong tensile/radial
cracking. Break up of rockmass occurred at
PPV > 2540 mm/s.
Langefors and Kihlstrm (1973) proposed that
PPV in the range of 305 mm/s to 610 mm/s resulted
in formation of new cracks and fall of rock respec-
tively in unlined tunnels.
Holmberg and Persson (1979) stated that for
an extended charge of charge length H of linear
charge concentration of l (kg/m), a first approxima-
tion of the resulting vibration (v) can be obtained
by integrating the generalized equation for the total
charge length and the equation is given by,
H dx
v = K q l
(1)
0
{
R0 + (Z
2
}
x)2 2
where, R0 = horizontal distance between blast and
point of interest (m); Z = vertical distance between
blast hole and point of interest (m); H = charge
height in the hole (m); ql = linear charge concentra-
tion (kg/m); and K, and are constants based on
site characteristics. Vibration values for overbreak
were arrived at using this near-field model and it
has been reported that the damages occur when
PPV lies in the range of 700 mm/s to 1000 mm/s.
Oriard (1982) proposed that most rockmass
are damaged at a PPV value above 635 mm/s and
Rustan et al. (1985) estimated a PPV range of
10003000 mm/s for rock damage.
Meyer and Dunn (1995) computed threshold level
of PPV for rock damage as 600 mm/s and 300 mm/s
for minor damage in a Nickel mine in Australia.
Bogdanhoff (1996) measured near-field blast
acceleration in an access tunnel at distances
between 0.25 and 1.0 m outside tunnel perimeter
holes. Threshold PPV level for rock damage was
found to lie between 2000 and 2500 mm/s.
788
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 788
Murthy and Dey (2003) reported the threshold
level of PPV for overbreak as 2050 mm/s in a tunnel
through a basaltic formation using far-field ground
vibration monitoring and its extrapolation.
McKenzie and Holley (2004), found that
the threshold PPV level exceeds 700 mm/s for
intense damage, 400 mm/s for significant damage,
350 mm/s for open cracking and 300 mm/s for fine
cracking in wall blasting.
Dey and Murthy (2011) solved the equation 1
considering the point of interest P (R0, Z) (taking
hole bottom as (0,0)) which becomes the last point
(boundary) of overbreak from the blast hole. It is
assumed that the vibration at this point becomes
the threshold level of vibration for overbreak.
Thus, the threshold level of PPV for overbreak (vth)
at point P (R0, Z) becomes,
q Z Z H
v th = k l t an
1
tan 1 (2)
R0 R0 R0
Further to this, if the damage has to be restricted
for an allowable overbreak distance of R0c at the
blast hole collar (i.e. Z = length of blast hole, L),
Dey (2004) suggested an equation for estimating
the charge per hole as given below:
L v th R 0c
1
Q q l L R 0c 1
tan tan
R 0c K q l
(3)
where, Q = allowable charge per hole (kg),
vth = threshold peak particle velocity for overbreak
(mm/s), R0c = allowable overbreak distance (m),
L = blast hole length, ql = Linear charge concentra-
tion (kg/m), K and are constants based on site
characteristics.
Most of the above review indicated the use
of far-field vibration measurements to develop
ground vibration predictor except the study of
Bogdanhoff (1996). Thus, it is felt essential to
measure the near-field and far field measurements
both for the same blasting rounds to develop
separate vibration predictors and use them in
determination of vibration threshold levels. Field
experimental blasts were carried out in a Chromite
mine and the details of the same are given in the
following section.
3 EXPERIMENTAL BLASTS
A few experimental blasts were conducted in the
development drift of a Chromite mine located in
Eastern India. The face size was 2.5 2.5 m and
10/3/2012 9:01:25 PM
 the depth of drill round was 1.6 m. The stand-
ard blast pattern practiced is shown in Figure 1.
Post-blast drivage cross sectional area was meas-
ured using Sunflower cross sectioner which had
been designed and fabricated under the supervi-
sion of the authors (Fig. 2).
The overbreak measuring telescopic rod is fixed
at the centerline of the drivage. The drivage over-
break profile is measured at a section lying exactly
in the middle of the blast hole depth. The desired
profile is fixed based on the location of different
holes drilled actually in the field following the pat-
tern fixed for a given drivage. Offsets are measured
at every 15 angle and then carefully plotted on a
graph sheet. The area of the same was determined
using a Planimeter. The overbreak is expressed in
percentage of drivage area. As the predominant
overbreak zone is found to be in the roof, the over-
break distance can be approximated to the same
percentage of height of drivage.
Peak Particle Velocity (PPV) and acceleration
values were monitored near to the blast face using
triaxial geophone and accelerometer based seis-
mographs (Minimate Plus and Minimate 077 of
Instantel Inc Canada). The fixing arrangement of
the accelerometer sensors with a mounting block is Figure 2. Sunflower cross sectioner for measuring
shown in Figure 3. The broad specifications of the overbreak.
sensors used in the study are mentioned in Table 1.
Vibration predictor equations were developed
using square root scaling law for both the near-field
(measured with accelerometers) and the far-field
(measured with triaxial geophone) measurements.
To arrive at the overbreak threshold levels of PPV,
the constants from the vibration predictors are
used in the near-field vibration estimation model
for a distance equal to the observed overbreak dis-
tance (Dey, 2004).
The measured vibration data with two sensors
were used to establish the square root vibration
predictors as given in equation 4 for accelerometer

Figure 3. Wall fixing of triaxial accelerometer.

Table 1. Major specifications of ground vibration

sensors.

Accelerometer Triaxial
Parameters (g) geophone (PPV)

Frequency 13000 2300 Hz

range (Hz)
Acceleration/ Up to 500 g Up to 254 mm/s
PPV range (4903 m/s2)
Figure 1. Blast pattern of the face.

789

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 789 10/3/2012 9:01:26 PM

 Table 2. Overbreak threshold PPV levels for an allow-
able overbreak of 0.4 m.
From near-field From far-field
Parameters predictor predictor
PPV threshold levels 331 mm/s 185 mm/s
Allowable charge/hole 0.80 kg 0.80 kg
based measurement and equation 5 for PPV based
measurement.
0.87
R
v = 589 0.5
Q magnetic sensors.
0.93
R
v = 342 0.5
Q ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
where, Q = maximum charge per hole, R = Distance
of sensor from the blast site, v = measured PPV,
K = the multiplying constant, 589 for Eqn. 4 and
342 for Eqn. 5, and = geometrical spreading con-
stant is 0.87 for Eqn. 4 and 0.93 for Eqn. 5.
The overbreak corresponding to each blast was
measured using sunflower cross sectioner and
averaged to arrive at the overbreak distance. The
computed average overbreak distance was found to
be 0.78 m from the perimeter roof blastholes. The
threshold levels of PPV were computed using the
K and values in the near-field vibration model
and the results are given in Table 2. These thresh-
old PPV values were used to obtain the allowable
charge per hole at the roof to control the overbreak
upto a distance of 0.4 m and the results are given
in Table 2.
It can be seen that though the threshold PPV
levels estimated from the two predictor equations
are significantly different, but the allowable charge
per hole in the roof, computed from the near-field
equation, is almost identical. Thus, it may be con-
cluded that both the measurements can be used for
underground explosive charge design to control
overbreak in drivage.
4 DISCUSSION
Blast-induced overbreak has been investigated
from the experimental blasts and ground vibration
monitoring was carried out using the accelerom-
eter and PPV based seismographs. The overbreak
measurements have been utilized to fix the peak
particle velocity thresholds using the vibration pre-
dictors established from both the near-field accel-
erometer and far-field PPV measuring geophone
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 790
measurements. The estimated threshold level
for overbreak was found to be higher in case of
near-field accelerometer reading (331 mm/s) than
far-field geophone reading (185 mm/s). This is
probably due to the effect of geometrical spread-
ing and inelastic damping, whose effects are less in
case of near-field monitoring. However, the sug-
gested allowable charge per hole is approximately
same (0.8 kg) to restrict the overbreak upto 0.4 m
distance. To eliminate the effect of damping and
estimate the PPV thresholds more accurately near-
field vibration monitoring using accelerometers is
suggested. Moreover, use of piezoelectric based
accelerometer is less affected by electromagnetic
(4) field in comparison to geophone with electro-
(5)
Authors are thankful to the mines authority, IMFA
group for providing the facilities to carry out field
investigation in their mines under a MHRD, GOI
sponsored research project. Authors are also
thankful to Indian School of Mines Dhanbad for
providing laboratory and workshop facilities for
carrying out this research work.
REFERENCES
Bauer, A. and Calder P.N. (1970). The influence and
evaluation of blasting on stability in open pit min-
ing, Society of Mining Engineers of the American
Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum, P 3.
Bogdanoff, I. (1996). Vibration measurements in
damage zone in tunnel blasting, Proceedings of Rock
fragmentation by blasting, FRAGBLAST-5, (Ed)
Mohanty, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, 2529 August,
pp. 177185.
Dey, K. (2004). Investigation of blast-induced rock
damage and development of predictive model in
horizontal drivages. Unpublished Ph. D. thesis in
Indian School of Mines. Dhanbad. pp. 45103.
Dey, K. and Murthy, V.M.S.R. (2011). Determining blast
damage envelope through vibration model and valida-
tion using seismic imaging, Mining Technology, Vol.
120, No. 2, 9094.
Holmberg, R. and Persson, P.A. (1979). Design of Perim-
eter Blasthole Pattern to Prevent Rock Damage, Tun-
nelling 79, IMM London, pp. 280283.
Langefors, U. and Kihlstrm, B. (1973). The Modern
Techniques of rock blasting, John Wiley and Sons,
New York, P 473.
McKenzie, C. and Holley, K. (2004). A Study of Dam-
age Profiles behind Blasts, Proceedings of the 30th
Annual Conference on Explosive and Blasting Tech-
nique, February 14, 2004, New Orleans, Lousiana,
pp. 203214.
790
10/3/2012 9:01:27 PM
 Meyer, T. and Dunn, P.G. (1995). Fragmentation and
Rockmass Damage Assessment Sunburst Excavator
and Drill and Blast, Proceedings of North American
Rock Mechanics Symposium, pp. 609616.
Murthy, V.M.S.R. and Dey, K. (2003). Predicting Over-
break From Blast Vibration Monitoring In Lake Tap
TunnelA Success Story, FRAGBLAST, Vol. 7,
No. 3, September, pp. 149166.
791
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 791
Oriard, L.L. (1982). Blasting effects and their control,
SME Handbook, Littleton, Colorado, pp. 15901603.
Rustan L.N. (1985). Controlled blasting in hard intense
jointed rock in tunnels, CIM Bulletin, Dec. Vol. 78,
No. 884, pp. 6368.
10/3/2012 9:01:28 PM
This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Controlled blasting for a metro rail project in an urban environment

H.S. Venkatesh, G. Gopinath, R. Balachander, A.I. Theresraj & K. Vamshidhar

National Institute of Rock Mechanics, Bangalore, India

ABSTRACT: A metro rail project under construction in Bangalore City, India consists of elevated parts
and underground components. The tunnels are being made by tunnel boring machines while the under-
ground stations were planned to be excavated by drill-blast method (cut & cover). In general, each station
box is about 20 m wide, 272 m long and 20 m high. Based on the site specific ground vibration studies,
condition of the structures and the prevailing norms, a permissible limit of 10 mm/s was decided. The
suggested muffling in conjunction with heavy rubber blasting mats restricted the flyrock distance within
10 m. The blasthole diameter was restricted to 45 mm while the maximum charge per delay was kept
below 2.5 kg. The specific charge was between 0.5 and 0.6 kg/m3. Bench heights were gradually increased
from 1.5 to 3.0 m and a production higher than the targeted production of 300 m3 per day was achieved
many times.

1 INTRODUCTION Table 1. Distances in meters of various structures on

either sides of the central line of the stations.
As part of the excavation works to be carried out
in connection with proposed under ground stations Cricket Vidhana Central City railway
stadium soudha station college station
for Bangalore Metro Rail Corporation Limited
(BMRCL), blasting of hard rock was carried out 34 24 57 125 67 57 20 to 70
at different locations in the heart of Bangalore 34 24 89 115 59 49
city. Controlled blasting operations were car- 33 23 65 97 57 47
ried out keeping the adverse impacts like flyrock, 34 24 119 87 73 63
ground vibration and air overpressure within 47 37 74 40
the stipulated limits. Excavation was carried out 55 64
for the EastWest corridor at Cricket stadium, 38 45
Vidhana Soudha, Central College station (Sir M 30 28
Visveswaraya Station) and City Railway Station 31 20
(Fig. 1). 21
The distances from critical structures to centre
line of these station areas varied from 20 to 125 m
(Table 1).
2 FIELD EXPERIMENTS AT AN
ALTERNATE LOCATION

Before starting the actual blasting operations at the

proposed sites of BMRCL within the city of Ban-
galore, it was decided to conduct trials at an alter-
native site to establish initial baseline data with
regard to vibration, air overpressure and flyrock
distances. Based on the field trials the following
approach was adopted for carrying out the actual
controlled blasting operations at the Bangalore
Metro sites (Venkatesh et al. 2008).
a. Considering the frequency of ground vibra-
tion monitored at the alternate site (>8 Hz and
<25 Hz) and the structures around the metro
sites, the corresponding permissible vibration
Figure 1. Alignment of metro stations. levels of 10 mm/s was arrived (Table 4) as per

793

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 793 10/3/2012 9:23:12 PM


Figure 2. Attenuation of peak particle velocity with
distance for the experiments at an alternate site.
Directorate General of Mines Safety (DGMS,
India) norms (Anon 1997).
b. The derived predictor equation shall be used
to compute the maximum charge per delay till
such time the site specific predictor equations
are established for each station area.
c. For this permissible limit of 10 mm/s vibra-
tion it was found that the vibrations attenuated
below this level beyond a distance of 20 m at the
alternate site (Fig. 2). The maximum charges
per delay used during these trials were 0.5 and
1.0 kg. Considering this 20 m as a safe distance
it was decided not to carry out blasting closer
than 20 m from any structures till site specific
observations were made at the actual metro
blasting sites.
d. Keeping in view the safety and to minimize
the inconvenience to vehicular movement and
public it was decided to carry out blasting
during day time between 6.00 AM to 7.00 AM
and 3.00 PM to 4.00 PM. Traffic shall be
halted/diverted 30 minutes prior to the blast-
ing and people shall be evacuated within a
distance of 50 m.
3 BLASTING AT UNDERGROUND
STATION AREAS
3.1 Marking and drilling
Hole positions were marked in the field using
measuring tape with white/red paint so that the
holes are drilled as per the design. Drilling accu-
racy was maintained with regard to position of
the holes, verticality, burden, spacing, depth etc.
Drilling was done under supervision and was not
left to the discretion of the drilling crew.
3.2 Plugging of drilled holes
Wooden plugs were used to protect the drilled
holes from water, mud, drill cuttings etc.
794
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 794
3.3 Cleaning of blast area
All loose stone pieces on the blasting area were
removed prior to charging of holes to minimize
the risk of flyrock.
3.4 Transportation of explosives and other
accessories
All Explosives were transported to the drilled site
only upon completion of drilling. No simultane-
ous drilling and charging was taken up.
3.5 Charging of holes
Priming of explosives was done at a safe place and
charging was carried out as per the approved design.
Watery holes were flushed before charging. The
primer was placed at the bottom of the hole. Soft,
wet clay sticks were used as stemming material. The
blasts were initiated with shock tube initiation sys-
tems comprising of Down-The-Hole delay (DTH)
of 200 ms in conjunction with surface Trunkline
Delays (TLD) of 17 ms, 25 ms and 42 ms.
3.6 Muffling
No blasting was carried out without proper muf-
fling. To restrict the flying fragments from the
blast, the blast area was muffled comprising of
sand bags, followed by an over lapping layer of
Standard Wire Gauge 14 link mesh (SWG 14,
opening size of 35 mm 35 mm), over which suf-
ficient number of over lapping rubber blasting
mats of minimum specified size (1.5 m 2.7 m,
1100 kg weight per mat) was placed as per the
design shown in Figure 1. A barricade of galva-
nized iron sheets > 10 m high all around the entire
station areas was erected. In addition, depending
on the local conditions a meshed iron canopy of
sufficient strength, weight and size was placed on
the blasting block especially for the box cut blast/
wedge cut blasts (Fig. 3).
Figure 3. Iron canopy being placed over the muffled
blasting block. (Can see the barricade also).
10/3/2012 9:23:13 PM
 3.7 Precautions before and after blasting Table 2. Blast design for wedge cut with jack hammer
holes.
Sufficient numbers of display boards showing
blasting time were installed at appropriate places. Parameters Specification
Men and machinery were evacuated to safe places.
Sentries carrying red flags evacuated all the non Hole diameter, mm 32 to 38
blasting personnel away from the danger zone Burden, m 0.8
(50 m). A signaling system using sirens was estab- Spacing, m 0.8
lished for getting clearance for blasting. No person Hole depth, m 1.51.7 (Hole angle
was allowed to approach the blasting face and no as per Fig. 5)
operation was commenced until the authorized Number of rows 8
person in charge of the blasting operation had Number of holes in a row 6
given clearance. Traffic was stopped before the Total number of holes 48 (including 16 cut holes
at 70)
blast at a safe distance from blasting area on all
Type of explosive Cartridge slurry/emulsion
the roads nearby the blasting area. After blasting
Charge diameter 25 mm
the blasting crew inspects the site for any misfires
Charge length 200 mm
etc and gave clearance to resume the traffic.
Charge weight 125 g/cartridge
Charge per hole, kg
3.8 Blast design for bench creation (box cut) Cut holes 0.625 (5 cartridges)
Other holes 0.5 (4 cartridges)
This design with wedge cut was used in general for Stemming material Wet clay sticks
opening of free face and to form benches using Total charge, kg 26
small diameter holes (jack hammer drills). The box MCD*, kg 1.25
cut was positioned at the farthest place from the Initiation system Shock tube initiation
existing structures. In no case box cut was made system
within 20 m from the existing structures. If the Blasted volume, m3 37
structures were equidistant from the station area Specific charge, kg/m3 0.7
on both the sides, the position of box cut was at
the axis of symmetry of the station area (Fig. 4). MCD*: Maximum charge per delay (two holes spatially
The charge per hole was modified depending distributed).
on the rock type at the site during actual excavation
at the station areas. However, the maximum charge
per delay was adhered to as per the approved plan.
The general blast design parameters are given
in Table 2. The blast design is given in Figure 5.
After executing one blast (box cut blast), blasts

Figure 4. Location of the box cut when surface structures Figure 5. Wedge cut for bench creation (Jack hammer
are at equidistant from station area (Sir M V station). holes).

795

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 795 10/3/2012 9:23:14 PM

 were conducted to expand the available free face 3.9 Blast design for regular bench blasts
towards the width of the station area. The blast
After achieving a bench height of 1.5/3.0 m in the
design for regular benching with jack hammer
station area using jack hammer holes, progressive
was used (Fig. 6, Table 3). In order to achieve
blasting was carried out by vertical benching. In
the desired bench height of 1.5/3.0 m for vertical
locations where vibration norms could be complied
benching, deepening blasts at the box cut area were
3 m benches were developed. Rig-On-Crawler drill
carried out using wedge cut.
(ROC) of 45 mm diameter was used to drill these
holes. The blast design for regular bench blast is
given in Figure 6. The design parameters are given
in Table 3.

3.10 Sir M Visveswaraya underground station

The various surface structures that are at close prox-
imity to the blasting sites at Sir M Visveswaraya
underground station (Central college/Sir M V
station) are city civil court, central college, exami-
nation centre, Visveswaraya college of Engineer-
ing, Government arts college etc (Figs. 4 and 7).
All these structures are beyond 20 m from the
current blasting locations. The first box cut blast
was carried out at Sir M V station on 12 Feb 2011.
Figure 6. Blast design for regular bench blasting (Jack A total of 20 holes (Five rows and four holes in
hammer and ROC drill machine).
a row) of 1.5 m deep were blasted. Due to mal-
functioning of the detonators the blast was not as
expected. However the detonators were checked at
Table 3. Blast design parameters for regular bench
an alternate site and the problem was sorted out.
blasting.
The second box cut blast with 24 holes (wedge cut
Specification with four rows and six holes in a row) was success-
ful carried out (Fig. 8).
Parameters Jack hammer ROC drill Blasting was continued and the 1st bench (1.5 m)
was excavated. In order to increase the production
Hole diameter, mm 32 to 38 45 to the daily targeted production of 300 m3, it was
Burden, m 0.8 1.0 decided to increase the bench height from 1.5 m
Spacing, m 0.8 1.0 to 3 m (Balachander et al. 2010). While the bench
Hole depth, m 1.5 3.0 heights were being increased it was observed that
Number of rows <3 the rockmass in Block A and in Block B drastically
Number of holes <20 varied though the distance between them was only
in a row 140 m of the entire station length of 272 m (Fig. 4).
Total number of holes <60 (all vertical) Even within Block A the rockmass was varying
Type of explosive Cartridge slurry/ from massive to highly fractured (Figs. 910).
emulsion
Charge diameter 25 mm
Charge length 200 mm
Charge weight 125 g/cartridge
Charge per hole, kg 0.3750.625 1.0
Charge length, m 1.0 1.6
Stemming length, m 0.50.6 1.21.4
Stemming material Wet clay sticks
Total charge Varying
MCD*, kg 1.25 2.0
Initiation system Shock tube
initiation system
Specific charge, kg/m3 0.390.65 0.3

MCD*: Maximum charge per delay (two holes spatially Figure 7. Ariel view of Sir M V station from city civil
distributed). court.

796

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 796 10/3/2012 9:23:14 PM

 top boulders were needed to be further broken
down using a rock breaker as secondary blasting
would have lead to excessive noise and flyrock. The
rock was highly abrasive and the consumption of
bit was high with ROC drill. The rods too were get-
ting jammed in the cracks leading to loss of drill
rods. Overall this led to cost escalation and pro-
duction delays. Keeping the above in view, blasting
was reverted back with 1.5 m deep holes.
In case of Block B the strata comprised of
embedded massive hard boulders in soft/weaker
strata. This hampered systematic drilling as per
design. The blasts had to be carried out with scat-
tered holes of varying hole depths (0.6 m to 1.5 m).
Figure 8. Box cut blast result. The explosive gases were venting out, holes were
getting blown out. Blasting with closely spaced
shallow holes was one of the solutions and this led
to increased cost and reduced production. Even the
massive rubber blasting mats and the link mesh was
prematurely getting damaged. The strata improved
below 3 to 5 m from the top and the bench heights
were increased to 3 m in Block A (Fig. 11). While
at Block B excavation was carried out with 1.5 m
deep holes as there was no significant improve-
ment in rockmass conditions with depth.
With the increased bench heights and acceler-
ated production the excavation reached the desired
level at Block A area in time despite the transpor-
tation of blasted muck in the city being permitted
only during night hours. This made it possible to
launch the TBM from the station area itself rather
Figure 9. Variation in rockmass within the same blast. than from the launching shaft which was proposed
to be excavated by the eastern flank of the station
(Figs. 4 and 12).
As of April 2012 it is reported that both the
TBMs have reached west end of the station area
and preparations to launch them from east end
of the station is under progress (Anon 2012). The
details of the production achieved are shown in
Figure 13. About 430 blasts were carried out dur-
ing the investigation period at this station area
(Feb. 2011 to Aug. 2011). As of March 2012 about

Figure 10. Highly fractured rockmass.

When the hole depth was increased to 3.0 m,

gases were venting out at the joint planes and the
blasts malfunctioned. Only the top 1.5 m rock used
to break into big fragments while the bottom 1.5 m
used to be intact. Sometimes the top used to remain
intact while the bottom used to be blasted. This in
turn led to mucking problems and re-drilling. The Figure 11. Showing the 2.8 m bench at Sir M V station.

797

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 797 10/3/2012 9:23:15 PM


Figure 12. Centre lines for TBM twin tunnels from the
station area.
Figure 13. Consolidated production details during the
investigation period at Sir M V station.
54,375 m3 of rock has been excavated and 56 m
base slab concreted (Anon 2012). The quantity of
soil removed with out blasting is not discussed.
3.11 Vidhana Soudha underground station
The various surface structures that are at close
proximity to the blasting sites at V S station are the
Vidhana Soudha steps at 57 m and beyond while the
main building is at a distance of 89 m and beyond.
The High Court is beyond a distance of 87 m.
There is a metal statue (Panchaloha) of Dr. B. R.
Ambedkar abutting the station area. No blasting
closer than 80 m from the statue was under taken
during this field investigation period. The first blast
was carried out at Vidhana Soudha station on 12
June 2011. To start with, the blast was carried out
at the farthest point from the structures. The sta-
tion area predominantly comprised of soil which
could be removed with an excavator with out blast-
ing. However, there were some randomly scattered
embedded massive boulders (Fig. 14) within this
soil whose removal was essential to pave the way for
the widening and deepening of the station area at
798
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 798
Figure 14. Embedded boulders in soil at Vidhana
Soudha station area.
the Vidhana Soudha site. An attempt was made
by the project authorities to break these boulders
with a rock breaker but it was found to be slow
and non productive. Blasts were designed just to
split the boulders rather than to fragment them. To
start with 10 to 15 holes of 1.5 m deep (jack ham-
mer) were being blasted by using one cartridge of
0.125 kg slurry/emulsion in each hole. The blasts
were muffled as discussed earlier. During the inves-
tigation period a total of 60 blasts were conducted.
The number of holes blasted varied from 10 to 111.
The hole depths varied from 0.9 to 1.8 m. The bur-
den and spacing varied between 0.7 and 0.8 m. The
charge per hole varied from 0.125 to 0.375 kg. The
total explosive used varied from 1.25 to 28.375 kg.
The maximum charge per delay varied from 0.25
to 1.25 kg.
During the investigation period the total pro-
duction from the blast was about 2843 m3 while the
maximum production achieved in a day was about
111 m3. The detail of the production is given in
Figure 15. The depth at certain areas in this station
has reached 15 m during the investigation period
(Feb. 2011 to Aug. 2011) and the remaining excava-
tion to the final level was about 5 m. As of March
2012 about 21,300 m3 of rock has been excavated
and 103 m base slab concreted (Anon 2012).
3.12 City Railway underground station
The various surface structures that are at close prox-
imity to the blasting sites at City Railway station
are the railway quarters and private structures (resi-
dential & commercial) (Fig. 16). These structures
were situated 30 m and beyond from the blasting
locations and as such no blasting was needed closer
than 30 m from any of these structures. Unlike
other station areas this station area comprised of
soil with some embedded boulders which were ame-
nable to be broken by a rock breaker and removed
by an excavator. Hence there was no need for any
blasting till it reached a depth of about 18 m.
10/3/2012 9:23:15 PM

Figure 15. Production details at V S Station during the
investigation period.
Figure 16. Controlled blast at City railway station area.
At this depth there was a layer of jointed rock which
could not be handled by stand alone rock breaker
and hence a need was there to initiate cracks in this
zone such that it can be further broken by second-
ary breaking by a rock breaker or as such be lifted
by an excavator. Considering this mild blasts were
designed so that this strata is cracked with out cre-
ating any disturbance to the surrounding structures.
The first blast was taken on 29 June 2011. A small
quantity of charge (0.125 kg) was loaded in each
hole and muffled. The numbers of holes were
16 having a depth of 1.5 m. The blasts were con-
tinued and the rock was completely excavated by 25
July 2011 at this station area. During 29 June to 25
July 2011, a total of 24 blasts were conducted. The
number of holes blasted varied from 16 to 57. The
hole depths varied from 0.8 to 1.5 m. The burden
and spacing varied between 0.5 and 0.7 m. The
charge per hole varied from 0.125 to 0.1875 kg.
The total explosive used varied from 1 to 10.75 kg.
The maximum charge per delay varied from 0.125
to 0.1875 kg. Though this approach was slow, the
total required rock quantity of about 1000 m3 could
be excavated safely.
4 GROUND VIBRATION MONITORING
Four calibrated seismographs were used for mon-
itoring ground vibration and air overpressure
799
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 799
(Minimate Plus from Instantel, Canada). These
instruments are microprocessor-based port-
able units and each unit consists of a standard
external transducer for monitoring ground vibra-
tion and a mike for measuring air overpressure.
Radial distances between the blast and the instru-
ment locations were given by the client after each
blast. The trigger level set for ground vibration
was 0.51 mm/s and for air overpressure it was 121
dB. In locations where there was sub-soil, the geo-
phone was buried in soil. In case the monitoring
location comprised of mass concrete, compacted
bitumen road, rock surface the geophone was
coupled using Plaster of Paris (POP). The mike
was installed on the stand supplied along with the
seismograph. Printouts of the monitored ground
vibration and air overpressure were submitted to
the client on a daily basis. In order to derive the
site specific predictor equation for blast vibra-
tions it is essential to monitor blast vibrations at
different distances from the blasting rounds. This
means, some times measurements are made not at
the critical structure but at a closer distance from
the blasting round. Hence the monitored levels
could be higher than the permissible level but the
recordings are not at the structure and hence not
a concern. In some cases the monitoring stations
were 8 to 10 m before the structures (Fig. 17). The
monitored ground vibration levels varied from
0.54 to 14.2 mm/s, while the maximum charge per
delay varied from 0.5 to 1.5 kg. The monitored
distance varied from 32 to 163 m while the scaled
distance varied from 28 to 188.
4.1 Estimation of peak particle velocity
For deriving the site specific predictor equation
for Sir M V station area 47 blasts were monitored
from 12/02/2011 to 19/03/2011 and were used
Figure 17. Monitoring ground vibration near a
structure.
10/3/2012 9:23:16 PM
 for regression analysis (139 vibration readings). 200

Figure 18, shows a plot of peak particle velocity 175

150
(vector sum) against square-root scaled distance

Frequency, Hz
125
on a log-log graph. The derived predictor equation
100
1 at 50% confidence level is given below: 75

50
1.52
D 25
V = 1301 (1) 0
Q 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Distance, m

where, V = peak particle velocity, (mm/s)

D = distance from blast to monitoring station (m) Figure 19. Recorded frequency for ground vibrations at
and Q = maximum charge per delay (kg). The different distances.
equation was used to estimate the peak particle
velocity and the charge per delay. The frequency
of the ground vibration was determined by ana- Table 4. Permissible peak particle velocity (mm/s) as
per DGMS, India (Anon 1997).
lysing the records of the blasts using the software
provided with the instrument. From Fast Fourier Dominant excitation
Transform (FFT) the frequency of ground vibra- frequency, Hz
tion in and around the station area was found to
be greater than 25 Hz (Fig. 19). Type of structure <8 825 >25

Buildings/structures not belonging to the owner

4.2 Permissible levels of ground vibration Domestic houses 5 10 15
Different countries adopt different standards of (Kuchha, brick &
safe limits of vibration. In India, the permissible cement)
Industrial Buildings 10 20 25
ground vibration for different types of structures
(RCC & framed
for mining is specified by Directorate General of structures)
Mines Safety (DGMS), which considers PPV and Objects of historical 2 5 10
the frequency of ground vibration for deciding the importance &
permissible levels (Table 4). These standards (Anon sensitive structures
1997) are adopted by NIRM while considering
Buildings belonging to owner with limited span of life
blasting applications in civil engineering projects
Domestic houses/ 10 15 25
for arriving at permissible limits for various struc- (Kuchha, brick &
tures as the response of structures due to blasting cement)
does not change with reference of the purpose for Industrial buildings 15 25 50
which blasting is carried out. (RCC & framed)
For the recorded frequency range >25 Hz, the
permissible particle velocity for the brick/stone
and cement structures around the blasting areas
as per the DGMS circular happens to be 15 mm/s levels to be within the suggested levels the maximum
(Table 2). However in order to ensure the vibration charge per delay was computed for a vibration level
of 10 mm/s at 50% confidence level. This took care
of the scatter and still ensured the vibrations were
1000 well within 15 mm/s at the specified locations.
V = 1301 (D/? kg)-1.52
r = -0.71
Substituting the permissible level of ground vibra-
100
N = 139 tion of 10 mm/s for different distances in equation 1,
Peak particle velocity, mm/s

the safe maximum charge per delay was computed

10
and adopted at Sir M V station. With regard to the
Best fit line
blast vibration monitoring at Vidhana Soudha sta-
tion and City railway station the maximum charge
1
per delay used was so low (refer section 3.11 and
3.12) for boulder blasting that the vibration levels
0.1
1 10 100 1000
near the structures were lower than the threshold
Scaled distance
limit of the instrument (0.51 mm/s). In any case the
vibration levels had never exceeded even 5 mm/s at
Figure 18. Peak particle velocity versus scaled distance. these locations.

800

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 800 10/3/2012 9:23:16 PM

 5 CONCLUSIONS
In total about 500 controlled blasts were suc-
cessfully conducted to excavate about 35,000 m3
of hard rock within the city of Bangalore dur-
ing the study period. Bench heights were gradu-
ally increased from 1.5 to 3.0 m and a production
higher than the targeted production of 300 m3 per
day was achieved many times at Sir M V station. In
case of City railway station and Vidhana Soudha
station the methods suggested ensured the safe
excavation of hard rock/embedded boulders. The
suggested muffling in conjunction with heavy rub-
ber blasting mats restricted the flyrock distance
within 10 m. The blasthole diameter was restricted
to 45 mm and ANFO was not used in order to
have absolute control on maximum charge per
delay. Blast vibrations were restricted with in the
permissible limits.
Controlled blast designs and the guidance on
sequencing of benching operations facilitated to
avoid the excavation of a launching shaft for the
TBM at Sir M V station area. This has brought
down the need for hard rock excavation and also
saved time as the TBM launching could be done
from the station area itself.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are extremely thankful to Mr. N. Sivasailam,
Managing Director, Mr. B.S. Sudhir Chandra,
Director of Projects and Planning, and Mr. N.P.
Sharma, Chief Engineer, UG, BMRCL without
801
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 801
their active involvement and support this project
could not have been successfully completed.
We thank Mr. Y. Raghavendra, Project Direc-
tor, SOMA, for his keen interest in awarding the
project and for his ever extended co-operation and
support. Our thanks are due to Mr. Ken Wong,
Project Leader, CEC-SOMA-CICI Jv for his
co-operation.
We are thankful to Mr. Nigel Butterfield,
Project Manager, UG, Mr. Y. Tezuka, CSE, UG,
Mr. K.V.V. Ramana Murthy, CREGC to BMRCL
for their kind cooperation and technical discussions.
We are thankful to Director, NIRM for permitting
to publish this paper.
REFERENCES
Anon, 1997. Damage of structures due to blast induced
ground vibrations in the mining areas. DGMS (Tech)
(S&T) Circular No. 7. India.
Anon, 2012. Bangalore Metro news letter, April issue.
www.bmrcl.co.in
Balachander, R. Gopinath, G. Theresraj, A.I.
Vamshidhar, K & Venkatesh, H.S. 2011. Report on
Technical guidance for rock blasting and monitoring
of ground vibration, air overpressure and flyrock dur-
ing excavation at Underground stations from Chinnas-
wamy stadium to City railway station, BMRCL site.
NIRM Project No. RB 10 06 C. Unpublished. India.
Venkatesh, H.S. Theresraj, A.I & Balachander, R. 2008.
Report on Ground vibration and air overpressure
study conducted during test blasts at an alternate site
for Bangalore Metro Rail Corporation Ltd (BMRCL).
NIRM Project No. RB 08 04 C. Unpublished. India.
10/3/2012 9:23:17 PM
This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

A preliminary empirical model for prediction of response spectra of

blast vibrations at construction sites

I.D. Gupta & G.R. Tripathy

Central Water & Power Research Station, Pune, Maharashtra, India

ABSTRACT: The safety criteria in vogue in terms of Peak Particle Velocity (PPV) and associated pre-
dominant frequency of ground motion are unable to take into account accurately the effect of the struc-
tural characteristics on the peak response. The response spectrum of the blast vibrations can be used to
get the maximum relative velocity response of structures covering wide ranges of natural frequency and
damping ratio. As the relative velocity response is related to the blast induced stresses in a structure, it
provides a more realistic basis for assessing the structural safety. Using ground motion data from 35 con-
struction blasts, an empirical predictive model has been developed to obtain the response spectrum with a
specified confidence level for any desired charge weight and distance combination. The utility of response
spectrum vis--vis the PPV based criteria is discussed in the paper.

1 INTRODUCTION system as a function of its natural period or fre-

The peak particle velocity (PPV) of ground motion
and the associated predominant frequency are
used the most commonly as the safety criteria
against the damaging potential of blast vibrations.
However, the PPV is not equally effective for pro-
ducing damages in all the structures with different
dynamic characteristics; viz., natural frequency and
damping ratio. The various frequency-dependent
safety criteria in terms of PPV are applicable to
specific class of structures and the blast charac-
teristics. For example, frequency-dependent safety
criteria due to Siskind et al. (1980) is based on the
observations on one and two storey structures sub-
jected to mining blasts. These are thus not appro-
priate for other type of structures with different
dynamic characteristics subjected to construction
blasts with quite different frequency and ampli-
tude ranges. The more generalized safety criteria
of much wider applicability are thus required to
be formulated directly in terms of the peak struc-
tural response to the blast vibrations. To estimate
the safe charge weight per delay for blasting at a
given distance, it is then necessary to have a predic-
tive model for the peak structural response in terms
of the maximum charge weight per delay and the
distance. To this end, an empirical model has been
developed to estimate the response spectral ampli-
tudes of blast vibrations, because the response of
most structures can well be approximated by its
fundamental mode.
A response spectrum represents the maximum
response of a single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF)
quency and specified damping ratio to a given
ground motion (Biot, 1941; Housner, 1941; Hudson
et al., 1954, 1961; Scholl, 1976; Nadolski, 1969).
The damaging potential of blast vibrations in terms
of the response spectra has been defined by many
investigators (Medearis, 1975, 1978, 1979, 1993;
Hendron, 1977; Hendron and Dowding, 1974;
Dowding, 1985; 1992; Siskind et al., 1980; Steven
and Siskind, 1993; Siskind, 1996; Sen et al., 1996).
The response spectrum represents the whole fre-
quency range of structures with specified damp-
ing ratio, it is more realistic than the peak motion
for determining the damaging potential of blast
vibrations. However, no study exists on developing
a generalized prediction model for response spec-
trum due to given charge weight and distance, par-
ticularly for the blasts involved in civil engineering
construction activities.
To compute the actual response spectra with dif-
ferent damping ratios for specified charge weight
and distance from a blasting site, it is essential to
have the corresponding ground motion record.
However, the required instrumental ground motion
records are not always available. Further, such
records are characterized by large random fluctua-
tions and even the response spectra of blasts with
the same charge weight at the same distance are not
found to be identical. To arrive at more stable results
for practical engineering applications, it is desirable
to smooth out the random fluctuations by statisti-
cal averaging and account for its effect by associ-
ated standard deviation. Such a statistical predictive
model has been developed in this paper by using 65

803

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 803 10/3/2012 9:23:17 PM

 analog ground motion records from 35 blasts with
differing charges per delay (0.2 to 500 kg) at dif-
ferent distances (3 to 800 m). All the blast vibra-
tion data used for developing the predictive model
were recorded on hard rock formation in the free
field. The results of this model have been compared
with several actual structural response measure-
ments. The SDOF calculations with average struc-
tural properties are found to correlate well with the
measured structural response. The proposed model
can be used to obtain the structural response with
any desired confidence level due to a given quantity
of charge at a specified distance. Alternatively, for
a given safe level of structural response at a speci-
fied distance, it can be used to estimate the corre-
sponding safe charge. The developments made in
the paper are also expected to provide a basis for
proposing more realistic safety criteria in terms of
the structural response to construction blasts.
3 COMPUTATION OF RESPONSE
SPECTRA
A response spectrum is defined in terms of the
maximum response of a single-degree-of-free-
dom (SDOF) system, which can be modeled by
a lumped-mass, dash-pot and spring system as
shown in Figure 1.
With m as the mass, c as the damping constant
and k as the spring constant, the relative displace-
ment, xr (t ) , of the mass to ground acceleration,
xg (t ) , can be described by the following equation
of motion.
mxr + cxr + k
kxr = mxg
(1)
Table 1. Details of the digitized time-histories used for
computation of response spectra.

2 DATA BASE USED Record Distance Charge

numbers Components m kg Geology
The database used in the present analysis consists 01 & 02 T&V 518.0 7.00 Traps
of 65 time-histories of blast vibrations from 35 dif- 03 to 05 T, V&L 155.0 18.00 Traps
ferent blasts as listed in Table 1. Out of these, all 06 V 13.5 1.00 Basalt
the three components of motion are available only 07 V 22.0 1.00 Basalt
for 11 blasts, and two components are recorded for 08 V 12.5 2.00 Basalt
eight blasts and only one component is recorded 09 V 16.0 2.00 Basalt
for the remaining 16 blasts. All these records are 10 V 12.5 3.00 Basalt
obtained on hard rock site condition and hence are 11 V 16.5 3.00 Basalt
free from the site amplification effects. The avail- 12 V 10.0 2.00 Basalt
able data are recorded with charge weight varying 13 V 14.0 2.00 Basalt
from 0.2 to 500.0 kg at distances between 3 m and 14 V 10.0 3.00 Basalt
800 m. All the 65 time-histories were obtained in 15 V 12.0 3.00 Basalt
the form of analog records. 16 V 15.0 3.00 Basalt
The digitization of the analog records was per- 17 V 18.5 3.00 Basalt
formed using a 4958 graphics tablet. The record to 18 & 19 T&L 39.0 0.63 Basalt
be digitized was placed on the digitizing table with 20 to 22 T, V&L 76.0 1.57 Basalt
the horizontal axis lined up by eye to an estimated 23 to 25 T, V&L 80.0 2.28 Basalt
zero axis and a cursor with a cross-head was manu- 26 & 27 T&L 560.0 65.00 Sandstone
ally set at different points on the record trace. The 28 to 30 T, V&L 250.0 500.00 Laterite
cursor has a switch, which when pressed, the X-Y 31 & 32 T&L 160.0 245.00 Laterite
coordinate of each point were transferred to the 33 T 110.0 198.00 Laterite
computer. The digitized data was then converted into 34 to 36 T, V&L 55.0 180.00 Laterite
actual ground motion data by using the instrument 37 to 39 T, V&L 9.0 0.52 Traps
gain and were corrected for the base-line distortions 40 to 42 T, V&L 10.0 0.52 Traps
using digital filtering technique (Trifunac, 1970) to 43 & 44 T& V 11.0 0.52 Traps
get accurate ground motion data. These corrected 45 & 46 T&L 17.0 1.30 Traps
47 to 49 T, V&L 15.0 1.00 Traps
data was interpolated to equispaced time interval of
50 V 15.0 1.00 Hard soil
0.001 s and was band pass filtered with lower and
51 V 15.0 1.00 Basalt
upper cut-off frequencies as 5 Hz and 200 Hz to
52 to 54 T, V&L 13.0 0.52 Traps
remove the low as well as high frequency noise. The
55 to 57 T, V&L 3.0 0.20 Traps
corrected data are used for computing the response
58 & 59 T&V 3.0 0.40 Traps
spectral amplitudes at 51 different frequency values 60 to 62 T, V&L 800.0 183.00 Basalt
(equispaced in log-log domain) between 5 Hz and 63 & 64 V&L 200.0 110.00 Laterite
200 Hz with four different damping values equal to 65 V 15.0 1.00 Basalt
2, 5, 10 and 15% of critical.

804

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 804 10/3/2012 9:23:17 PM

 xg (t ) . But, the available blast records are in the
form of ground velocity, x g (t ) , for which the above
formulation cannot be used straightaway. There-
fore, the frequency-domain approach based on the
Fast Fourier Transformation (FFT) technique has
been used to obtain the solution, xr (t ) of Equa-
tion (2) for the computation of the response spec-
tra in the present study. For harmonic excitation
acceleration xg (t ) = Xg ( ) e i t , where Xg ( ) is the
complex Fourier Transform of the ground accel-
eration xg (t ) , the solution xr (t ) can be expressed
in terms of its complex Fourier Transform X r ( )
as X r ( )e i t . Substituting these into Equation (2)
gives the complex Fourier Transform of the dis-
placement response as:

Figure 1. A single-degree-of-freedom system idealized X ( )

by a lumped-mass, a dash-pot and a spring.
( )
X =
g

( )
(5)
r
2 2 + 2i
By dividing throughout with mass m, this equa- n n
tion can be expressed as.
For harmonic excitation of frequency , the
xr + 2 n xr + n2 xr xg (2) complex Fourier Transform of ground acceleration
can be expressed in terms of the Fourier Trans-
Here, = c km is the damping ratio and
( ) ()
form X g of ground velocity, x g t , as i X g ( )
. Thus, equation (6) can also be written as
n = k m is the natural frequency of the SDOF
system.
Assuming zero initial conditions, the solution i X ( )
( )
X =
g

( )
of Equation (2) is given by the Duhamel integral (6)
r
(Trifunac, 1972). 2 2 + 2i
n n

()
t

()
xr t = 1
x ( ) e
g
( ) i 1 2 d
n t
n
(3) The required solution xr t can finally be
n 1 2 0 obtained easily by
y taking the inverse Fourier Trans-
formation of X r as ( )
By differentiating the above equation, similar
expressions can also be obtained for the relative
velocity response, xr (t ) and the absolute accelera- ()
xr t = 1
2 X ( ) e
r
i t
d (7)
tion response, xr (t ) + xg (t ) . For a given damping
ratio, , the maximum values of relative displace-
ment, relative velocity and absolute acceleration at This has been used to obtain the SD and PSV
different frequencies, n, can be computed to define spectra in the present study.
the displacement spectrum SD(n), velocity spec- Figure 2 shows a typical example of the PSV
trum SV(n), and acceleration spectrum SA(n), spectra with damping ratios of 2, 5, 10 and 15%
respectively. However, for typical civil engineering of critical along with the Fourier spectrum for
structures with low damping values, SV(n), and record #24 in Table 1, plotted on a tripartite loga-
SA(n), can be approximated by the pseudo spec- rithmic coordinate system. In this plot, the vertical
tral velocity PSV (n) and pseudo spectral accel- axis represents the PSV and the two oblique axes
eration PSA(n) given by the following: at 45 to the horizontal axis represent the spectral
displacement (SD) and pseudo spectral accelera-
( )
PSV n n SD )
S ( n and (4) tion (PSA), respectively. From Figure 2 it is appar-
ent that the predominant frequency of the ground
S ( )
PSA n
SD ( )
2
n n
motion as observed from the Fourier spectrum
is almost identical to the frequency at which the
To use the foregoing formulation for computing pseudo velocity spectra with different damping
the response spectra of blasting, the blast record is values have their peak amplitude. As the predomi-
required to be in the form of ground acceleration, nant frequency refers to the peak ground motion

805

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 805 10/3/2012 9:23:20 PM

 amplitude, the peak spectral amplitudes are pro-
portional to the peak particle velocity of the blast
ground motion.
From the dynamic response analysis of SDOF
structures, it is known that the low-frequency
structures (much lower than predominant fre-
quency of ground motion) respond in propor-
tion to the peak ground displacement and very
high-frequency structures respond in proportion
to the peak ground acceleration. The response of
the intermediate-frequency structures is found to
be proportional to the peak ground velocity. Thus,
as mentioned before, the peak particle velocity is
not a suitable parameter to assess the damaging
potential of blasting for all the structures with a
wide range of frequency. The response spectra,
on the other hand, are able to give an exact idea
of the ground motion parameter (displacement,
velocity or acceleration) to which a structure with
a specified natural frequency and damping value
may respond.
4 EMPIRICAL PREDICTIVE MODEL FOR
PSV SPECTRA
The blast vibration records are normally obtained
for three orthogonal components of ground
motion; viz., transverse (T), longitudinal (L) and
vertical (V). Depending upon the frequency con-
tents and the amplitudes, one or the other of these
components may contribute more significantly
to damage in a structure. As it is not always pos-
Figure 2. Typical example of the PSV spectra with four
different damping ratios equal to 2, 5, 10 and 15% of
critical along with Fourier spectrum for the record #24 in
Table-1.
806
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 806
sible to identify such a predominant component
of ground motion and, in general, more than one
component acting simultaneously may be respon-
sible for the damage, the safety criteria for blast-in-
duced damages are generally specified in terms of
the resultant of all the three components. In case
of peak particle velocity, the resultant is defined
by the pseudo vector sum (Dowding, 1985) and
the same method has been used to obtain the
resultant for the response spectral amplitudes at
different frequencies. However, to compute the
resultant response spectra, all the three compo-
nents of ground motion are not available for many
of the blasts. Therefore, to approximately convert
the spectral data for an individual component to
the resultant spectra, the ratios of the resultant to
the individual components have been used in the
present analysis.
The ratios of the resultant spectral amplitudes
for damping ratio of 5% obtained by pseudo vector
sum with the amplitudes of individual components
for the 11 blasts for which all the three components
are available, when plotted, the results did not
show any definite trend with frequency. Similar
behaviour has been observed for the spectral ratios
for other damping values also. Thus, considering
the spectral ratios to be independent of frequency,
more stable estimates of the resultant to individual
components of ground motion are obtained by
using a much bigger data base on peak particle
velocities of about 600 blast records. The ratios
of the resultant peak particle velocities to those of
the individual components, when plotted as a func-
tion of the square root scaled distance R Q , no
definite trend was seen. Thus, all the data was com-
bined together and are plotted in the form of histo-
grams in Figure 3. In view of the large dispersion
in the values of velocity ratios, the most likely val-
ues are proposed to be used, which is incidentally
found to be 1.75 for all the three components. This
factor has been thus used to convert the response
spectrum of an individual component of motion
to an approximate resultant spectrum. In using the
most likely value of the conversion factor to get
the resultant spectrum it is assumed that the effect
of the wide dispersion of the velocity ratios will
inherently be carried forward through the spec-
trum of the individual blasts. Using this procedure,
the 65 time-history records listed in Table 1 have
been converted into 43 sets of resultant response
spectra.
To develop the predictive model for the response
spectra of blasts in the present study, the 43 result-
ant spectral amplitudes obtained as above at each
of the 51 frequencies have been used. Using the
square root scaled distance, similar to the PPV
scaling (Siskind et al., 1980), the resultant pseudo
10/3/2012 9:23:31 PM

Figure 3. Histograms for the ratios of the resultant
peak particle velocity with the amplitudes of individual
components.
spectral velocity, PSV f ) , at frequency f has been
described by a relationship of the following form:
( )
n f
( )
PSV f = K f R ( ) (8)
Q The original estimates of statistical parameters
In this equation, constants K f ) and n f ) at
frequency f are evaluated by performing a linear
regression analysis of the 43 resultant spectral
amplitudes at 51 frequencies and the four damping
ratios (2, 5, 10 and 15% of critical) in logarithmic
domain as:
log (f) ( ) ( )
log K f n f log R (9) Then the response spectrum PSV
Q
The regression constants thus obtained are
found to be somewhat zig-zag, probably due to
various uncertainties related to charge weight,
distance and interaction of seismic waves with
geological formations, which could not be modeled
807
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 807
explicitly. Thus, to get more stable and reliable
estimations of spectral values from Equation (8),
it is proposed to use the smoothed versions K ( f )
and n( f ) of the regression constants K f ) and
n f ). Typical example of the original unsmoothed
(continuous curves) and the smoothed (dashed
curves) regression constants for damping ratio of
5% of critical are shown in Figure 4.
Use of the smoothed coefficients K ( f ) and
n( f ) gives the least square estimate, PSV f ) of
the response spectrum amplitude at frequency f .
However, to take into account the large ran-
dom fluctuations in the spectral amplitudes of
the blast time-histories, it is necessary to obtain
the spectra with different higher confidence lev-
els also. For this purpose, we have developed
the probability distribution of the residuals,
( f ) logg P ( f ) log PSV ( f ) , to describe
the distribution of observed PSV f ) , about the
least square estimate PSV f ) . It has been found
that the following Gaussian probability function
describes the distribution characteristics of the
residuals ( f ) quite well,
( )
2
( )
f
1
x f
() 1 2
( )
P = e ddx (10)
2 f
Here P( ) represents
p the probability that
log V ( f ) log PSV V ( f ) ( f ) ; i.e., the prob-
ability that the spectral amplitude PSV f ) will
not be exceeded. In the expression of Equation
(10), ( f ) and ( f ) are the mean value and the
standard deviation of the residuals, ( f ) , at fre-
quency f . From knowledge of these parameters,
Equation (10) can be used to get the theoretical
estimate of the residual ( f ) for a specified prob-
ability P( ) of not exceeding.
( f ) and ( f ) are also found to be quite zig-zag,
which has since been smoothed to get stable esti-
mates of the response spectra. Typical example of
unsmoothed (continuous curves) parameters ( f )
and ( f ) and their smoothed versions ( f ) and
( f ) are shown plotted in Figure 5.
Using the smoothed statistical parameters ( f )
and ( f ) in Equation (10), residual ( f ) can be
computed for any desired confidence level P( ) .
dence level P is given by
VP f ) with confi-
log V( f )+ ( f )
VP ( f ) log PSV (11)
Here PSV f ) is the least square estimate
obtained from Equation (9) using the smoothed
coefficients K ( f ) and n( f ) . For use in numerical
10/3/2012 9:23:32 PM

Figure 4. Comparison of the original (zig-zag) and the
corresponding smoothed versions of the regression coef-
ficients K f ) and n f ) .
computations of the response spectra of blast
vibrations using Equations (9), (10) and (11), the
values of the smoothed regression parameters
K ( f ), n( f ), ( f ), and ( f ) for all the four damp-
ing ratios are listed in Tables 2 to 5 at 18 selected
frequencies, which can be considered sufficient
to define quite accurately the complete smooth
spectrum.
To investigate the applicability of the foregoing
empirical relations to predict the response spectra
of blast vibrations due to varying charge weight
and distance, Figures 6 to 9 show typical examples
of the comparisons between the response spectra
of actual blast records and those predicted by
Equation (10) with confidence levels of 0.5,
0.1 and 0.9. Keeping in view the large random
fluctuations in the spectra of actual blast records,
their agreement with the predicted spectra can be
considered very good in all the cases with widely
differing charge weight, Q, and the distance, R.
Thus, the proposed predictive model can be used
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 808
Figure 5. Comparison of the original (zig-zag) and the
corresponding smoothed versions of the regression coef-
ficients ( f ) and ( f ) for the probability distribution
of residuals.
successfully to get very conveniently the response
spectra for any desired Q and R values.
From the results in Figures 6 to 9, it is seen that
the maximum relative velocity response of a SDOF
model for a building is approximately constant over
an intermediate frequency range and falls down rap-
idly for both lower and higher frequencies. In the
middle frequency band, the structural response is
directly proportional to the peak ground velocity with
amplification factor depending mainly on the damp-
ing value of the building and also to some extent on
the charge weight and distance of blasting through
the predominant frequency of motion. The safety
criteria can thus in principle, be specified in terms
of PPV for this frequency band. Figure 10 shows the
amplification factors for the spectral amplitudes with
respect to the peak particle velocity as a function of
the predominant frequency for different damping
ratios. The logarithm of the amplification of PPV as
a function of frequency for various damping ratios
has been approximated by a linear relationship.
808
10/3/2012 9:23:53 PM
 Table 2. Values of smoothed regression coefficients log K ( f ) and n( f ) and the statistical parameters ( f ) and
( f ) for damping ratio as 2% of critical.

Smoothed regression coefficients

Natural
frequency f Hz log K ( f ) n( f ) ( f ) ( f )

5.0000 2.0276 1.2380 0.0186 0.4563

6.7200 2.2246 1.2886 0.0007 0.4588
8.4000 2.3446 1.3118 0.0025 0.4710
11.2600 2.3999 1.2692 0.0030 0.4852
14.0500 2.4401 1.2287 0.0047 0.5009
18.8700 2.5847 1.2309 0.0076 0.5478
25.3400 2.7585 1.2958 0.0119 0.5584
31.6200 2.8144 1.3244 0.0075 0.5355
42.4700 2.7910 1.3138 0.0044 0.4928
52.9900 2.7452 1.2983 0.0004 0.4637
71.1900 2.7853 1.3567 0.0012 0.4507
88.8200 2.9058 1.4693 0.0002 0.4500
119.3100 3.0024 1.5677 0.0066 0.4676
148.8700 2.9979 1.5978 0.0123 0.4959
200.0000 2.9295 1.6490 0.0188 0.5044

Table 3. Values of smoothed regression coefficients log K ( f ) and n( f ) and the statistical parameters ( f ) and
( f ) for damping ratio as 5% of critical.

Smoothed regression coefficients

Natural
frequency f Hz log K ( f ) n( f ) ( f ) ( f )

5.0000 2.0226 1.2655 0.0139 0.4378

6.7200 2.1807 1.3002 0.0034 0.4490
8.4000 2.2977 1.3161 0.0004 0.4619
11.2600 2.3941 1.2880 0.0011 0.4786
14.0500 2.4502 1.2574 0.0012 0.4936
18.8700 2.5864 1.2737 0.0062 0.5296
25.3400 2.7191 1.3190 0.0084 0.5373
31.6200 2.7678 1.3406 0.0064 0.5131
42.4700 2.7551 1.3343 0.0048 0.4742
52.9900 2.7213 1.3269 0.0009 0.4505
71.1900 2.7593 1.3870 0.0013 0.4436
88.8200 2.8594 1.4858 0.0002 0.4478
119.3100 2.9472 1.5812 0.0071 0.4619
148.8700 2.9292 1.6054 0.0105 0.4828
200.0000 2.8235 1.6237 0.0181 0.4886

5 CORRELATION BETWEEN PSV frequency content of the ground motion as well as

RESPONSE AND PPV OF GROUND
MOTION
The damage due to ground vibrations generated
by blasting depends on the maximum response of
a structure or structural component, rather than
just the amplitudes of the ground vibration. The
structural response depends on the amplitudes and
the natural frequency and damping of the struc-
ture, which are governed by the type and condition
of a structure as well as its foundation soil con-
dition. What really damages a structure is the maxi-
mum value of the structural strains, defined by the
peak particle displacement response, which in turn
is related to the peak particle velocity response
through the natural frequency of the structure.

809

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 809 10/3/2012 9:23:56 PM

 Table 4. Values of smoothed regression coefficients paper log K ( f ) and Paper n ( f ) and the statistical parameters
( f ) and Paper ( f ) for damping ratio as 10% of critical.

Smoothed regression coefficients

Natural
frequency f Hz log K ( f ) n( f ) ( f ) ( f )

5.0000 2.0122 1.2809 0.0129 0.4336

6.7200 2.1635 1.3141 0.0034 0.4428
8.4000 2.2724 1.3254 0.0001 0.4529
11.2600 2.3753 1.3061 0.0017 0.4641
14.0500 2.4414 1.2880 0.0024 0.4766
18.8700 2.5750 1.3127 0.0057 0.5037
25.3400 2.6811 1.3445 0.0072 0.5053
31.6200 2.7124 1.3542 0.0048 0.4831
42.4700 2.7110 1.3530 0.0049 0.4518
52.9900 2.6928 1.3549 0.0019 0.4358
71.1900 2.7334 1.4170 0.0009 0.4317
88.8200 2.8151 1.5017 0.0006 0.4368
119.3100 2.8813 1.5831 0.0071 0.4501
148.8700 2.8529 1.6027 0.0090 0.4658
200.0000 2.7323 1.6058 0.0170 0.4721

Table 5. Values of smoothed regression coefficients log K ( f ) and paper n( f ) and the statistical parameters ( f )
( )
and f for damping ratio as 15% of critical.

Smoothed regression coefficients

Natural
frequency f Hz log K ( f ) n( f ) ( f ) ( f )

5.0000 2.0058 1.2910 0.0124 0.4288

6.7200 2.1503 1.3220 0.0033 0.4367
8.4000 2.2538 1.3314 0.0000 0.4450
11.2600 2.3616 1.3205 0.0021 0.4535
14.0500 2.4326 1.3110 0.0027 0.4638
18.8700 2.5571 1.3355 0.0053 0.4847
25.3400 2.6506 1.3620 0.0064 0.4817
31.6200 2.6771 1.3686 0.0042 0.4610
42.4700 2.6818 1.3703 0.0043 0.4362
52.9900 2.6732 1.3765 0.0022 0.4241
71.1900 2.7128 1.4348 0.0001 0.4202
88.8200 2.7807 1.5091 0.0014 0.4259
119.3100 2.8281 1.5801 0.0065 0.4404
148.8700 2.7929 1.5964 0.0073 0.4539
200.0000 2.6734 1.5953 0.0158 0.4601

It may be interesting to note that the existing
frequency-dependent PPV based safety criteria,
which are in a strict sense applicable to specific
categories of structures and type of blasting, also
depend inherently on the structural response. In
fact, the USBMs original frequency-independent
criterion of 51 mm/s for ground vibrations (Duvall
and Fogelson, 1962) was causing large structural
response and damages due to resonance in one
and two storey residential buildings subjected to
low-frequency surface mining and quarry blasts,
and had to be thus modified to ensure the safety
of these structures. As the one and two storey resi-
dential buildings are characterized by a frequency
band of about 412 Hz, the modified frequency-
dependent criterion (Siskind et al., 1980) recom-
mended a safe ground PPV of only 19 mm/s for
frequencies between 4 and 12 Hz, so that the struc-
tural response with an amplification of about two
and half may not exceed the 51 mm/s criterion.
On the other hand, for ground vibration with
dominant frequency higher than the range of the

810

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 810 10/3/2012 9:24:04 PM

 natural frequency of these buildings, the PPV of pressional wave velocity, VC, of its material. The
building vibrations was similar or less than the strain can further be related to the stress, , and
PPV of ground vibrations, and this was the basis the modulus of elasticity, E, as /E. Replacing the
of 50 mm/s criterion due to Siskind et al. (1980)
for frequencies above 40 Hz. Also, for structures
with natural frequencies below 4 Hz, the response
to typical mining and quarrying blasts is character-
ized by constant displacement proportional to the
peak ground displacement. In this frequency range,
a ground peak displacement of 0.76 mm, which
corresponds to a PPV of 19 mm/s at 4 Hz, was thus
taken as the safe vibration limit.
It may be noted that the safety criterion due to
Siskind et al. (1980) was based on the measure-
ment of ground vibrations and observations of
damage to one and two storey houses due to min-
ing blasts at distances of about 12 km. No direct
measurement of blasts with dominant frequencies
below 5 Hz and only a few construction blasts with
dominant frequencies about 40 Hz were involved
in their study (Dowding, 1996). In this regard, the
present study is expected to provide a useful basis
to arrive at structure specific safety criterion for
high frequency construction blasts. For this pur-
pose, on physical grounds, the safe limit of the PPV
response in mm/s for a structure can be expressed
in terms of the tensile strength and the shear wave
velocity of its material. In this regard, the PPV Figure 7. Comparison of the response spectra of the blast
response can be taken equal to the product of the record #9 as per Table 1 with the corresponding empirical
strain, , developed in a structure and the com- spectra with confidence levels of 0.1,0.5 and 0.90.

Figure 6. Comparison of the response spectra of the blast Figure 8. Comparison of the response spectra of the blast
record #1 as per Table 1 with the corresponding empirical record #27 as per Table 1 with the corresponding empirical
spectra with confidence levels of 0.1, 0.5 and 0.90. spectra with confidence levels of 0.1,0.5 and 0.90.

811

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 811 10/3/2012 9:24:12 PM

 Figure 9. Comparison of the response spectra of the
blast record # 31 as per Table 1 with the corresponding
empirical spectra with confidence levels of 0.1, 0.5 and
0.90.
permissible stress by the tensile strength, fct , and
taking E equal to the product of density, , and
square of the compressional wave velocity, VC, the
safety criterion can finally be expressed as (Gupta
et al., 2003)
fct
a PPV =
Safe 10 3 (12)
Vc
In practical applications, the tensile strength can
be taken as a fraction (say 10%) of the compressive
strength. Thus, as an example, for concrete struc-
tures with compressive strength of 20 MPa, assum-
ing a compressive wave-velocity of 4.0 km/s and
density as 2.5 gm/cm3, will result in the safe PPV of
200 mm/s, which would meet the safety criterion of
50 mm/s with a safety factor of 4.0. Once the safe
limit of the PPV response at resonance of a given
type of structure has been thus decided, the results
on the response spectra obtained from the proposed
predictive model can be used to define the safety
criterion in terms of the PPV of ground motion.
6 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
Though the safety criterion in terms of PPV and
associated frequency of ground motion provides a
very simple and convenient way for monitoring the
812
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 812
Figure 10. Dependence of structural amplification of
peak particle velocity on predominant frequency for four
damping ratios equal to 2, 5, 10 and 15% of critical.
blasts, it may be noted that the damaging potential
is related to the maximum value of the PPV of the
structural response. It is now well recognized that
the peak particle velocity of blast vibrations is not
equally effective to cause damage to all the structures
with different natural frequencies and damping
values. The drawback of existing frequency-
dependent safety criteria has been illustrated by
Quesne (2001), who has reported a case of damage
to exterior walls of a house due to PPV values
below 12.5 mm/s as a result of 4 to 9 times dynamic
amplification for blasts at 1.6 to 6.4 km distance.
Use of the proposed response spectrum method
may be quiet helpful in such situations to get an
idea about the structural response, even without
knowing the ground motion at the site.
The predictive model in the present study is
developed using 65 ground motion time-histories
recorded from 35 different blasts. To consider the
random scattering of the amplitudes of time-his-
tory response spectra about the predicted spectra,
suitable probability distributions are also devel-
oped to predict the response spectra with any
desired confidence level. The attenuation rela-
tions developed in this study are helpful in eval-
uating the PSV values over the frequency range
of 5200 Hz from a known charge at a specified
distance. This can directly be useful to implement
and monitor the safety criteria in terms of the rel-
ative velocity response of a structure, which may
10/3/2012 9:24:13 PM
 be more realistic than that in terms of the PPV
and associated frequency of ground motion.
REFERENCES
Biot, M.A. 1941. A mechanical analyzer for the predic-
tion of earthquake stresses, Bull. Seis. Soc. of Amer.
31(2): 151171.
Dowding, C.H. 1985. Blast vibration monitoring and
control, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ
07632.
Dowding, C.H. 1992. Suggested method for blast vibra-
tion monitoring, Int. Jour. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. and
Geomech. Abstr. 29(2): 14362.
Dowding, C.H. 1996. Construction Vibrations, Prentice-
Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ 07632.
Gupta,I.D., Tripathy, G.R. & Shirke, R.R. 2003 Techni-
cal memorandum on controlled blasting for rock exca-
vation in civil engineering applications, Central Water
& Power Research Station, pp. 165.
Hendron, A.J. & Dowding, C.H. 1974. Ground and struc-
tural response due to blasting, Proc. of 3rd Congress of
the Intl. Soc. of Rock Mech., Vol. IIb, 13591364.
Hendron, A.J. 1977. Engineering of rock blasting on
civil projects, Structural and Geotechnical Mechanics,
W.J. Hall (ed.), Prentice Hall Englewood Cliffs, NJ.,
242277.
Housner, G.W. 1941. Calculating the response of an oscil-
lator to arbitrary ground motion, Bull. Seism. Soc. of
Amer., 31: 143149.
Hudson, D.E., Alford, J.L. & Housner, G.W. 1954.
Measured response of a structure to an explosive gen-
erated ground shock, Bull. Seism. Soc. of Amer., 44:
513528.
Hudson, D.E., Alford, J.L. & Iwen W.D. 1961. Ground
acceleration caused by large quarry blasts, Bull. of
Seism. Soc. of Amer., 51: 191202.
Medearis, K. 1975. Structural response to explosion
induced ground motion, ASCE, Special Publication,
New York.
Medearis, K. 1978. Blasting damage criteria for low rise
structures, Proc. of 4th Conf. on Soc. of Explosives
and Blasting Techniques, Soc. of Explosive Engineers:
280290.
813
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 813
Medearis, K. 1979. Dynamic characteristics of ground
motions due to blasting, Bull. Seism. Soc. of Amer.,
69(2): 627639.
Medearis, K. 1993. A rational method for predicting
damage to historical structures subjected to blasting
vibrations, Proc. of 19th Conf. on Explosives and Blast-
ing Techniques, Soc. of Explosive Engineers: 201218.
Nadolski, M.E. 1969. Architectural damage to residen-
tial structures from seismic disturbances, Bull. Seism.
Soc. of Amer. 59: 487502.
Scholl, R.E. 1976. Low rise building damage from low
amplitude ground motions, Proc. of 2nd Conf. on
Explosives and Blasting Technique, Soc. of Explosive
Engineers: 5166.
Sen G.C., Yang, H.S. & Ju, J.S. 1996. Ground vibration
generated by blasting and construction equipmenta
comparison, Jour. of Explosives Engineering, 13 (4):
2532.
Siskind, D.E., Stagg, M.S., Koop, J.W. & Dowding C.H.
1980. Structure response and damage produced by
ground vibration from surface mine blasting, United
States Bureau of Mines, Report of Investigations No.
8507.
Siskind, D.E. 1996. Frequency analysis and the use of
response spectra for blast vibration assessment in min-
ing, Proc. of the 12th Sympo. on Explosives and Blast-
ing Research, Intl. Soc. of Explosives Engineers: 111.
Steven, V.C. & Siskind D.E. 1993. Response of structures
to low frequency ground vibrations: A preliminary
study, Proc. of the 9th Annual Symp. on Explosives and
Blasting Research: 149162.
Trifunac, M.D. 1970. Low frequency digitization errors
and a new method for zero base-line correction of
strong motion accelerograms, Report No. EERL
70-07, Earthquake. Engineering Reearch Laboratory,
Pasadena, California.
Trifunac, M.D. 1972. Analysis of strong motion earth-
quake accelerograms, Report No. EERL 7280,
Earthquake. Engineering Reearch Laboratory, Calif.
Inst. of Tech., Pasadena, California.
Quesne, J.D. 2001. Blasting vibration from lime stone
quarries and their effect on concrete block and stucco
homes, Vibration problems, Geo Discussion Forum,
www.geoforum.com
10/3/2012 9:24:14 PM
This page intentionally left blank
 Section 12 - Case Studies

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 815 10/3/2012 9:24:14 PM

This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

A specialised blasting technique to maintain better safety and

productivity in limestone mines of JK Cement Works

P.C. Dhariwal
J.K. Cement Works, Nimbahera, Chittorgarh, Rajasthan, India

ABSTRACT: JK Cement Works is producing cement to a tune of 4.0 Million Ton from Nimbahera &
Mangrol Cement Plants to full-fill the public and industrial need. The required mineral production from
the mine is being achieved through drilling and blasting. As the mining is approaching towards the urban
sprawl, it became essential to assess the magnitude of vibration being felt within the adjoining villages.
Blast designing parameters like matching bench height and hole diameter, blast geometry, charge factor,
distribution of charge within the hole, suitable explosive, type and sequence of initiation were reassessed
and designed with due consideration to nature of fragmentation and level of ground vibration. Blast
design consisting of short burden, extended spacing, keeping delay timing of more than 15 millisecond
between the holes and changing the direction of initiation effectively improved the fragmentation, mini-
mized the level of vibration and enhanced productivity and safety of the mine.

1 INTRODUCTION a separate event in blasting if they are separated

The captive limestone mines of JK Cement works,
Rajasthan (India) are fully mechanized and being
worked with deep hole drilling and blasting sub-
system adopting shovel-dumper combination for
loading. The blasting for winning the ore mineral
was selected because the mechanical breaking
devices like Surface Miner/Primary Rock breaker
could not be found suitable as the rock is very hard
having compressive strength more than 130 MPa
and thickly bedded. However, mechanical rock
breakers are available in all the mines for secondary
rock breakage utilizing the existing resources.
The overall blasting efficiency of a mine depends
upon matching hole diameter and bench height;
blast geometry; charge factor (Singh, 1991); explo-
sive distribution; delay timing between the holes
and rows and rock condition. Although, some
guidelines have been suggested by various research-
ers for optimal selection of above parameters
(Langefors & Khilstorm, 1973; Ash, 1983; Singh
& Shastry, 1986; Hagan, 1983; Dally et al., 1975;
Cunningham, 1987; Bhandari, 1975a and Gupta
et al., 1975), however, the exact parametric specifi-
cation to design an optimal blast is still dependent
on trial blasts in a particular rock condition.
The magnitude of vibration is reported to be
dependent mainly upon distance, maximum charge
per delay and rock condition. Recently, the impact
of magnitude of delay timing between holes or
in a row has also been reported to affect degree
of fragmentation and level of vibration. Earlier
most of the researchers considered two holes as
by a delay gap of 89 milliseconds (Andrew, A.B.,
1980; Dick et al., 1983). A continual research on
this subject utilizing the video-camera could come
with a recommendation that a time delay of more
than 15 ms may be considered as effective time to
separate the charges (Duvall et al., 1963; PalRoy
et al., 1994; Adhikari et al., 2005; Wiss and Line-
han, 1978). For this reason the scientists of Central
Institute of Mining & Fuel Research were called
for detailed investigation on this subject to find
out the optimum delay time separation between
the holes which can improve fragmentation and
minimize vibration.
2 GEO-MINING DETAILS
Limestone deposits exposed in this area are a part
of the Nimbahera Limestone Belt belonging to
Semri series of Lower Vindhyan age. The lime-
stone deposits are thickly, moderately and thinly
bedded with thin parting of shale at places. The
sequence of formation exposed in the area is: Dark
Grey Limestone; Medium Grey Limestone; Light
Grey Limestone; Banded Pink Limestone; Pink
Limestone; Greenish Grey Limestone and Light
Grey Limestone (Low Grade).
At Maliakhera mine, the dip of the beds varied
from 5 to 20, however, at places they were almost
horizontal. The thickness of the soil cover varied
from 1 to 2 m. The deposit in this mine is of mod-
erate thickness having closely spaced joints which
may not pose problem of fragmentation in blasting

817

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 817 10/3/2012 9:24:15 PM

 operations except the zone of embedded boulders
particularly on the top bench.
The deposit of Karunda mine is hard and thickly
bedded, the top portion of which contains massive
embedded boulders within in-situ rock.
In the Mangrol-Tilakhera mine, the deposit
had comparatively higher magnitude of dip vary-
ing from 20 to 35 degrees. This formation is gen- (a) (b)
tly folded to form an asymmetrical anticline. The Figure 1. A view of Limestone mines & plant (a) JK
limestone bands dip in both the East and West Limestone mine (b) Tilakhera mine.
directions. The stratum is hard and thickly bedded
having massive boulders along with clay pockets in
between on the top bench.
The deposit of JK Limestone mine (Nim-
bahera) is gently folded to form a doubly plunging
syncline. The syncline occurs in the central portion
of the block and towards the western margin these
bands are again folded to form an anticline. The
dark grey limestone being the youngest unit occurs
in the core of the syncline and is underlain by light
grey and grey limestone bands are exposed at the
surface. The deposit is comparatively medium hard
and exposes medium thick beds. The dip of the No. of Holes/delay = 2
bands varied from 5 to 10 and occasionally up
Figure 2. Existing blast pattern in the mines (two rows),
to 15 degrees. All the mines have four benches with JKCW.
the bench height varying between 7.59 m. The
view of the plant and mines is shown in Figure 1.

3 EXISTING BLASTING PRACTICE

The Blasting work was carried out using 115 mm

diameter holes with a burden varying between 3.5
and 4.5 m (for thickly and fractured strata) and
spacing 5 and 5.5 m respectively. ANFO was used
as column charge and Kelvex-600 (83 mm dia.) &
Kelvex-P (a type of cast booster) as booster charge. No. of Holes/delay = 2
The number of holes per round varied between 12
and 45. Depending upon the depth of holes, the
Figure 3. Existing blast pattern in the mines (three
explosive charge per hole varied between 23.39 rows), JKCW.
& 48.61 kg and total charge per round between
275.0 and 2125.0 kg. Top stemming column var-
ied between 2.1 & 2.4 m. Stone-chips of less than
initiation, two holes can be seen to be fired within
10 mm size as well as drill cuttings were used as
15 ms, hence, increasing the level of vibration.
stemming material. A sub-grade drilling of about
0.3 m was being followed at few locations where
dip of foliation was against the free face. The air-
4 EXPERIMENTAL BLAST &
deck charging practice with air-deck length vary-
METHODOLOGY
ing between 0.6 and 1.0 m was being adopted in
every blast to distribute the explosive properly
Initially, a review of the existing blasting practice
within the hole.
was made to assess the problem and find scope to
Nonel system of initiation with DTH of 250 ms
improve it. A number of trial blasts were conducted
and Trunk Line Delay (TLD) consisting of 17, 25
in all the mines by varying blast design parameters.
and 42 ms were commonly used in blasting opera-
These included:
tions. The drilling, firing & charging pattern of holes
shown in Figures 2 & 3 indicate a minimum delay 1. Adopting shorter burden and extended spacing
separation of 17 ms between two adjacent holes in (3.30 & 5.50 m) particularly in hard and thickly
a row and 59 ms in between the rows. In the above bedded formation;

818

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 818 10/3/2012 9:24:15 PM

 2. Raising the pocket charge (top deck) slightly than 15 ms (Figures 6 & 7). The magnitude of vibra-
upward in the blastholes as fragmentation could tion measured at 250 and 300 m distances from the
be observed mainly from the top bedding plane; blasting site (Tables 1 & 2) were below the safe limit
3. Restricting the number of rows to three only; except a couple of measurements.
4. Using TLD of 42 and 65 ms for the firing of
holes which could create minimum delay length
(MDL) of 23 ms (double rows) and 19 ms (triple
row) imparting sufficient relief to line of holes
of back rows;
5. Keeping direction of initiation opposite to the
structures to be protected.
Blast induced vibrations in terms of peak particle
velocity (PPV, mm/s) were measured for all the blasts
(a) Thickly bedded (b) Thinly bedded &
at varying distances (100 to 400 m). Considering
fratcured
DGMS Guidelines, 10 mm/s as safe limit of vibration
was recommended by CIMFR for structures around Figure 4. Fragmentation in different rocks, JKCW.
the mines considering magnitude of frequency more
than 12.4 Hz recorded during the blasts.

5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Blast geometry consisting of 4 to 4.5 m burden and 5

to 5.5 m spacing in thinly bedded and fractured strata
resulted into fine fragmentation. However, reducing
the burden to 3.3 m and extending the spacing upto
5.5 m, distributing the explosive within each band
using air deck, putting optimum quantity of pocket
charge within top band (Singh, 1991) was noticed to Figure 5. Layout of a recommended blast pattern, JKCW.
be effective to improve fragmentation, Figure 4.
The longest relief time (delay time) between
the holes and rows generating lowest vibration
and good fragmentation has been reported to be
14.3 ms/m of burden (Dick et al, 1983; Kopp &
Siskind, 1986). In view of the above fact, the initia-
tion pattern was designed to maintain burden relief
of 9.5 to 10.5 ms/m and spacing relief of 11.8 to
13 ms/m (Figure 5). The above design consideration
yielded good fragmentation without generation of
toe. The above fact could be realized while achieving
an increased crushing capacity from 700 ton/hr to
1100 ton/hr against a designed value of 800 ton/hr Figure 6. Magnitude of vibration at almost same scaled
of compound impact factor. In addition to it, the distance, Maliakhera Mine, JKCW.
crusher installed for 1.5 MTPA clinkerization plant
is being used for producing 2.4 MTPA clinker.
The single blast hole wave form indicates persist-
ence of vibration upto 200 ms (Duvall et al., 1963).
This indicates that total cessation time (CST) should
always be greater than total firing time (TFT). How-
ever, during the investigation, such effects could not
be clearly noticed and may be described either due
to constructive/destructive interference of waves or
due to high scattering of delay time of NONEL
detonators than what is ascribed to it. This might
have been a reason of comparatively higher vibra-
tion in the mine while using delay window of less
than 15 ms. A substantial reduction in vibration Figure 7. Ratio of Total Firing Time (TFT) vs. Total
resulted when delay window was maintained more Cessation Time (TCT).

819

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 819 10/3/2012 9:24:15 PM

 Table 1. Measured values of vibration (DTH 250 ms, TLD 42 & 65 ms) Maliakhera Limestone Mine, JKCW.

Vibration parameters

Top Avg. Max

Burden Depth stem. charge/ charge/ Total Scaled
Sr. Date of No. of spacing of hole length hole delay charge Dist. distance PVS Freq. AOP
No. blast Location holes (m m) (m) (m) (kg) (kg) (kg) (m) (D/vQ) (mm/s) (Hz) dB(L)

1 07/05/11 3rd Bench 12 4.0 5.5 8.83 1.8 45.83 45.83 550.0 300 44.31 9.5 28 119.1
2 08/05/11 1st Bench 16 4.0 5.0 8.83 1.65 43.56 43.56 697.0 300 45.45 6.4 30 114.0
3 13/05/11 3rd Bench 15 4.25 5.5 8.53 1.8 43.51 43.51 652.7 300 45.48 5.56 85 118.1
4 14/05/11 2nd Bench 18 4.25 5.5 8.0 1.8 42.13 42.13 758.3 300 46.21 4.81 57 114.0
5 15/05/11 1st Bench 18 3.5 5.0 9.14 1.5 42.74 42.74 769.4 300 45.89 6.05 19 118.1

Table 2. Measured values of vibration (DTH 450 ms, TLD 42 & 65 ms) Maliakhera Limestone Mine, JKCW.

Vibration parameters

Top
stem. Avg. Max
Burden Depth deck charge/ charge/ Total Scaled
Sr. Date of No. of spacing of hole length hole delay charge Dist. distance PVS Freq. AOP
No. blast Location holes (m m) (m) (m) (kg) (kg) (kg) (m) (m/vkg) (mm/s) (Hz) dB(L)

1 31/01/12 3rd Bench 17 3.0 4.0 8.83 2.4/ 28.92 28.92 491.6 250 46.55 12.9 47 117.1
1.5 300 55.86 9.7 43 114.0
2 01/02/12 2nd Bench 1 3.0 9.14 2.4/ 41.66 41.66 41.66 250 27.47 8.52 24 109.5
1.5 300 32.96 3.07 37 108.4
3 01/02/12 2nd Bench 2 3.0 4.0 9.14 2.4/ 41.66 41.66 83.32 250 27.47 7.02 26 115.6
1.5 300 32.96 2.57 26 111.5
4 01/02/12 2nd Bench 3 3.0 4.0 9.14 2.4/ 41.66 41.66 124.9 250 27.47 6.37 23 112.0
1.5 300 32.96 3.25 22 105.5
5 01/02/12 2nd Bench 17 3.0 5.0 8.22 2.1/ 31.0 31.0 527.7 250 31.7 8.9 43 116.4
0.9 300 38.11 5.79 51 116.9

6 CONCLUSIONS 6. The optimise pattern has and would prove to be

a tool to control the environmental hazards of
the blasting within safe limit and perform min-
1. Fragmentation in thinly bedded and fractured
ing with greater safety & productivity.
formation did not create problem of fragmenta-
tion as the rock had small natural size blocks
especially in Maliakhera mine.
2. In Mangrol-Tilakhera mines having hard, thickly
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
bedded and widely spaced joints, the probability
of coarse size fragmentation was high.
The author expresses his sincere thanks to
3. The blast design pattern discussed in the paper
the efforts made by CIMFR officials specially
was found effective to minimise the size of frag-
Dr. M.M. Singh & N.K. Bhagat for successfully
ments suitable for loading & crushing.
completing the investigation and full co-operation
4. The optimum fragmentation increased crushing
provided by the Management and Mining Officials
capacity from 700 ton/hr to 1100 ton/hr against a
of J.K. Cement Works, Nimbahera.
designed value of 800 ton/hr of compound impact
factor. The powder factor also increased up to
1012 ton per kg achieving enhanced specific
drilling of 0.04 m/m3 with the present design. REFERENCES
5. The magnitude of vibrations at and beyond
Adhikari G.R., Venkatesh H.S. Theresraj A.I., Roy S.,
300 m were observed to be safe using delay win-
Balachander R., Jain N.K. and Gupta R.N. 2005:
dow of 23 ms for double rows and 19 ms for An S&T report on Role of blast parameters on
triple rows with the Nonel system of blasting. ground vibration and correlation of vibration
The use of this system never generated flying level to blasting damage to surface structures,
fragments and excessive throw. MT/134/02.

820

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 820 10/3/2012 9:24:16 PM

 Andrews, A.B.: Design of blast. Emphasis on Blasting.
Ensign Bickfoed Co. (Simsbury, CN), Spring 1980,
pp.1,4.
Ash, R.L., The influence of Geological Discontinuities
on Rock Blasting, Ph.D Dissertation, University of
Minnesota, Minneapolis, 1973, 289p.
Bhandari, S., Burden and Spacing Relationship in the
Design of Blasting Pattern, Proc. 16th symp. on
Rock Mechanics, University of Minnesota, 1975a,
pp. 333343.
Cunningham, C.V.B. Fragmentation Estimations and the
Kuz-Ram Model-Four years on, Proc. Second Inter-
national Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting,
Keystone, Colorado, USA, August 1987, pp. 475487.
Cunningham, C.V.B. The Kuz-Ram Model for Predic-
tion of Fragmentation from Blasting, Proc. First
International Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by Blast-
ing, Lulea, Sweden, August 1983, pp. 439453.
Dally, J.W., Fourney, W.L. & Holloway, D.C., 1975. Influ-
ence of Containment of the Bore Hole Pressures on
Explosive Induced Fracture, Int. J. Rock Mech. Min.
Sci. & Geomech. Abstr. Volume 12, pp 512.
Dick Richard A., Fletcher Larry R. and DAndrea Den-
nis V. 1983: Information Circular 8925 on Explosive
and Blasting Procedures Mannual.
DGMS Technical Circular No. 7, 1997. Standards of safe
level of blast induced ground vibration for safety of
structures, Ministry of Labour, Government of India.
Duvall, W.L., Johnson, C.F. and Meyer, A.V.C and
Devine, J.F., 1963: Vibrations from instantaneous and
millisecond-delayed quarry blasts, RI 6151.
Duvall, W.L., Johnson, C.F. and Meyer, A.V.C., 1963:
Vibrations from blasting at lowa limestone quarries.
U.S. Bureau of Mines, RI 6270, 28 p.
Gupta, R.N. Pal Roy, P. and Singh, B., 1987. On a blast
induced vibration preditor for efficient blasting,
Proc. 22nd Int. Conf. on Safety in Mines: Beijing,
China:10151021.
Hagan, T.N. 1983. The influence of controllable blast
parameters on fragmentation and mining costs, Proc.
First International Symp. on Rock Fragmentation by
Blasting, Lulea, Sweden, pp. 3151.
Hinzen, K.G. 1988. Modelling of blast vibrations, Int.
Jounal Rock Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr.,
Vol.25, No. 6, pp. 439 445.
John W. Kopp and David E. Siskind, 1986. Effects of
millisecond-delay Intervals on vibration and airblast
from surface coal Mine Blasting, RI 9026.
821
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 821
Langefors, U. and Khilstrom, B. 1973. The modern tech-
nique of rock blasting. 2nd edn. New York Wiley. 405
pages.
Pal Roy P., Barman B.K., Singh R.B. and Dhar B.B.
1994: A report on Assessment of Ground Vibration
and Air Overpressure due to Blasting in Limestone
Mine of Rajashree Cement, India Rayon and Indus-
tries Ltd., and Advice for Suitable Measures to Con-
trol Them, GC/84/93.
Singh, M.M. 1991:Field investigations on effect of
structural discontinuities on rock blasting, Ph. D
Thesis, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 108p.
Singh, M.M. and Bhagat, N.K.2011. A suitable blast
design to minimise the magnitude of vibration with
the use of existing initiation devices keeping in view of
the scheduled production & productivity of the mine
a case study. Proc. of All India Seminar on Advances
in Mine Production and Safety August 2627, 2011,
CIMFR Dhanbad.
Singh, M.M., Sawmliana, C. Bhagat, N.K., Singh,
R.K., Mandal, S.K., Pal Roy P. and sinha, A.: A
CIMFR Investigation Report on Study and advice
on the blast parameters to optimise the charge per
delay to maintain the level of ground vibration and
noise within the safe limit as per DGMS circular con-
sidering the production schedule for the Maliakhera
and Karunda Limestone mines, CNP-2837/1011,
2011.
Singh, M.M., Bhagat, N.K., Sawmliana, C, Singh, R.K.,
Mandal, S.K., Pal Roy P. and sinha, A.: A CIMFR
Investigation Report on Study and advice on the
blast parameters to optimise the charge per delay
to maintain the level of ground vibration and noise
within the safe limit as per DGMS circular consider-
ing the production schedule for the Nimbehera-Ahir-
pura and Tilakhera limestone mines of JK Cement
Works, CNP-3080/201112, 2012.
Singh, D.P. and Sastry, V.R., 1986. Influence of struc-
tural discontinuities on rock fragmentation by blast-
ing, Proc. Int. Intense Dynamic loading and its effects:
Beijing, China:980984.
Wiss, J.F. and P. Linehan, W., 1978. Control of vibra-
tion and blast noise from surface coal mining (Con-
tract J0255022, Wiss, Jenney, Elstner and Associates,
Inc.) BuMines OFR 103(1)-(4)-79, 1978, V.1, 159 pp.;
V.2, 280 pp.; V. 3, 624 pp.; V.4, 48 pp.; NFIS PB 299
866/AS.
10/3/2012 9:24:16 PM
This page intentionally left blank
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Investigation of borehole aqua stemming blasting

Wang Yunmin, Liu Weizhou & Zhang Xiliang

Sinosteel Maanshan Institute of Mining Research Co., Ltd., China

Pengli
Maanshan Iron and Steel Co., Ltd., China

ABSTRACT: Rock fragmentation is the first concern in open pit, deep-hole blasting, because it is the
main factor influencing mining cost. Although fragmentation has been quite adequate in many mines due
to improvements in blasting technique and equipment, the fragmentation in the upper part of benches is
not satisfactory. This is one of the reasons that boulder-yield is high in many operations. High boulder-
yield will significantly affect costs of shoveling, transportation and coarse crushing. The technique of
borehole aqua stemming blasting introduced and investigated in this study can increase the utilization of
explosive energy on the upper section of bench by 20%, thus improving fragmentation significantly.

1 THE PROPAGATION OF BLASTING shockwaves move out into the surrounding rock,
SHOCK WAVE IN BOREHOLE WATER their wavefront energy will decay with time.
[1]
The dynamic characteristics of water are closely
related to the states of its molecules. The change 1.1 For spherical wave propagation
of pressure on shock wavefronts in water cause The shockwave falls in strength, at a rate deter-
changes in its other hydrodynamic parameters. mined using the third power of distance within 2R0
Figure 1 shows a charge structure of Aqua distance from the explosion center.
Stemming Blasting.
When the charge in the borehole is detonated, Pm ( r ) r 3 (1)
the high speed impact against the water column
above induces high speed shockwaves. Since the
R
r= (2)
R0

where
Pm is wavefront pressure in (MPa).
r is distance ratio in (dimensionless).
R is distance from explosion center in (m).
R0 is charge radius in (m).
For R = (25) R0,

Pm ( r ) r 2 (3)

And for R = ( 5240 ) R0,

Pm ( r ) r 1.13 (4)

1.2 For cylindrical wave propagation

The wavefront pressure falls in strength as distance
Figure 1. Charge structure diagram of aqua stemming
blasting in open pit mine.
increases, as shown in the following expression:
1dynamite; 2plastic bag; 3water; 4booster;
5detonating cord; 6detritus. Pm ( r ) r 0.56 (5)

823

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 823 10/3/2012 9:24:17 PM

 when the rock breaking range for the water col-
umn is above 0.6 times of the maximum range for
explosive breaking. The following tests in situ dem-
onstrate this assumption is reasonable. The nota-
tions for these are as follows.

K P0 K Pmin
= (8)
a2 ( 0 6a ) 2

Piw
Figure 2. Pm/P0 decreases in value with the increase Pmin = (9)
of r. 1 + hw

20C p
We know from the theory of fluid dynamics that K= (10)
the shock waves propagate at the speed of sound 0 C p eD
if it is under weak impact, while its wavefront
pressure remains almost constant within a short
2 0C p
distance. K = (11)
However, this is not true when shock waves from 0 C p wC w
the explosion propagate along the borehole water
column. In this circumstance, wavefront energy
where
decays with distance.
P0 is the blasting pressure.
Based on the theory that wavefront pressure
Piw is the initial wavefront pressure of aqua stem-
in straight piped water decays with distance, an
ming in (Kbar).
empirical relationship between the wavefront pres-
a is the available rock breaking distance for explo-
sure and the distance is shown below:
sives in (m).
K is the transmission coefficient from explosives to
P0
Pm (r ) = 0.5
(6) rock (dimensionless).
r K is the transmission coefficient from water to
1+ rock mass(dimensionless).
r
0
0c p is the acoustic impedance of rock in (kg/m2 s).
w c w is the acoustic impedance of water in (kg/m2 s).
eD is the acoustic impedance of explosives in
r0 = 5d (7) (kg/m2 s).
hw is the reasonable aqua-stemming height
where in (m).
r0 is the equivalent distance in (mm),
d is the hole diameter in (mm) (d = 200 mm in later Then we get the formula as follows.
listings).
P0 is initial pressure in (MPa).
( )
2
25 C p e D Piw
Using the above formula, Pm decays quickly hw = 1 (12)
with distance in the near region. Then, it decays in 9 C p( C )p
w w 0
cylindrical and even plane wave attenuation laws.
The diagram of the relation between Pm/P0 and r
[2]
is as follows. Melvin A. Cook and someone else tested the
initial wavefront pressure that generated different
explosives blasted in water with water tank. The
2 THE REASONABLE AQUA-STEMMING achievement is listed in Table 1. The Piw is referred
HEIGHT AND EXTRA AVAILABLE to in this table.
ENERGY DETERMINATION Approximately, w = 1 g / cm
c 3, C w = 3000 m /s.
For Gushan mine:
The shock wavefront pressure of the water
column in the borehole gradually decreases. We Iron ore: 0 = 3.
3 44 g / cm3, C p = 3500 m /s
use the height of the water column above charge
as the reasonable aqua-stemming height (hw) Weathered diorite 0 = 2.5
2 5 g / cm 3, p = 3000 /s

824

CH104_Paper 506.indd 824 10/4/2012 3:20:23 PM

 Table 1. Initial wavefront pressure of different explosives that blast with perfect wave.

Blast number Density, Diameter, Explosive velocity,

Explosive of time g/cm3 cm Km/s Piw, Kbar

RDX 4 1.21 2.53 6.48 105

1 1.18 3.77 6.75 89
1 1.21 4.40 6.67 84
3 1.18 5.05 6.74 108
1 1.10 6.30 6.40 94
1 1.13 7.62 6.62 97
RDX (80%) and 1 1.32 2.53 5.79 85
salt (20%)
1 1.30 4.40 6.20 87
1 1.28 5.00 6.20 92
TNT 2 0.86 3.80 4.50 51
4 0.98 5.05 4.66 52
2 0.84 7.62 4.46 52
1 0.97 16.10 4.88 60
2 0.99 25.30 5.01 64
HBX-1 1 1.75 5.00 7.16 116
2 1.68 5.00 7.80 140
Pentolite 5 1.65 5.00 7.50 134
TNT (50%) and 2 1.53 10.00 6.88 166
Tetryl (50%) 3 1.20 5.00 6.24 79

The reasonable aqua-stemming heights are Lh W

t

2

calculated as follows: EW = PW f (t ) dt (14)

0.650C p 0
Iron mine, hw = 4.7 m
Weathered diorite, hw = 6.7 m Then
First of all, sufficient powder granular stem- 2
ming height is available. The aqua-stemming col- EW h P
= = W W2 (15)
umn can higher if stemming is strong enough. E e 0.65h ePe
However, if it is too long, its ability to breaking
rocks is limited. Assuming that the stress-waves where
from the detonation of the explosive and from is the energy propagating into rock through the
the water shock have the same effects, the ratio of water stemming (dimensionless).
the rock energy spread by the length of water hw P W is the average initial pressure of water stemming
and by the detonation wave of the explosive can in (MPa),
be calculated. he is the charge height in (m).
Supposing L is the perimeter of holes cross-
section, then f(t) is the decreasing function which p0 KC p (16)
can be determined by aqua blasting tests. So the
total wave energy that spreads from dynamite to pw KC p w (17)
rock mass is,
1
Lh e p = D 1.336 10 4 ( N / m 2 )
p0 f (t ) dt
t

2
Ee = (13) 1+ K
0.650C p 0

hw
p
( + r ) p iw
1 hw
[3]
0.65 is the ratio of the remaining energy after P w =
hw 1 + iw r dr = 2 r l
hw
depletion in the overbreak region and losing 35% 0
energy. Because the pressure in the borehole water (18)
is relatively low, the overbreak region is negligible.
The total energy transmitted into the rock from the For Gushan mine, he = 7 m, hw = 5 m, rock
water stemming is as follows. density is 3 g/cm3, rock longitudinal wave velocity

825

CH104_Paper 506.indd 825 10/3/2012 9:27:53 PM

 is 4500 m/s, density of explosive is 1.42 g/cm3,
explosion velocity ofexplosive is 6500 m/s, water
wave velocity is 2000 m/s, it can be calculated that
= 23%.
3 CONCLUSION
1. Borehole Aqua Stemming Blasting increases
scope of explosive energy in the upper section
of bench effectively, and also improves fragmen-
tation at upper bench significantly.
2. The explosive energy spreads to the upper
bench rock through the borehole aqua stem-
ming causes the initial pressure of upper bench
borehole wall to decrease gradually from down
to up, helping reduce the possibility of slung
shot in the upper bench.
826
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 826
3. The application of this technique is important
because the aqua stemming length could ensure
blasting impact after blocking at the upper
bench.
REFERENCES
[1] Snay, H.G., and H.H. Rosenbaum. April 1952.
Shockwave Parameters in Fresh Water for Pressures
up to 95 Kilobars. NAVORD Report 2383. White Oac.
Maryland: U.S. Naval Ordnance Laboratory
[2] Melvin A. Cook. 1974. The Science of Indus-trial
Explosives. Utah. Graphic Service & Supply, Inc.
[3] Xahykaeb A.H. 1974. Physical Process of Blasting.
Soviet Union: the Soviet Union Mineral Resources
Press.
10/3/2012 9:24:27 PM
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

A scientific perspective of blasting in hot holes and reactive ground

S.St.J. Tose
AEL Mining Services, South Africa

ABSTRACT: The use of explosives to break rock is an intrinsically hazardous process. These hazards
have been studied over the years and modern mining methods have evolved to minimise the inherent risks
of blasting under most conditions. This presentation has been developed to assist in the selection and safe
use of explosives and initiating systems in situations where a specific additional hazard may exist. These
hazards are either due to the possible unwanted reaction between an explosive and the rock being blasted,
or where the rock, such as coal, is on fire and burning. In such situations without the clear understanding
of the risk these unwanted reactions may result in premature detonations with potentially fatal results.
A DVD has also been developed to aid with the mitigation of the risks of using explosives and initiating
systems in such situations.

1 INTRODUCTION Then moving on the x-axis we see now the rock is

1.1 Blastingscience or art?
Blasting is often considered to be just a science, we
put designs together according to a set of formulae
and these formulae lead to a blast design. We then
go out there on the bench, drill, apply our created
design and blast. But often its also considered to
be an art just to understand the rock structure,
behavior and on-bench conditions themselves to
get the actual blast result we require safely.
1.2 Reactive rock vs. Burning ground
How do we adjust these scientific blast design rules
when we encounter an unusual situation such as
when there is a reaction between the rock and the
explosives or where the rock strata is on fire and
burning?
To understand these unusual processes of reac-
tivity vs. temperature and help to manage them, we
can simplify and express it into a schematic with
four quadrants, see figure 1.
We plot increasing temperature across the x-axis
and on the y-axis an increasing reactivity between
the ground and the explosives, so the normal situa-
tion of the ground is non-reactive and it really only
responds to an ambient temperature of the rock
itself.
As we move up the reactivity scale we see it is the
composition of the rock itself that is going to react
with the chemical components of the explosives
and give us a different and undesirable effect. In
fact this could lead to a situation that is detrimen-
tal to the safety of the operators around us.
getting hot, often this is caused by burning ground.
There is a possibility of open fires in the rock and
now we going to have to manage the explosives in
an entirely different way.
Unfortunately in the fourth quadrant we get
both the reactive ground with high temperature,
obviously its the most dangerous situation to
operate and load explosives in.
In this paper we are going to look at this more
closely and examine the possible solutions to these
types of issues.
2 AMBIENT GROUND TEMPERATURE
The gold mining operations in the Free State Gold
Mines, South Africa are operating somewhere
around about 1000 to 2500 m below the surface
with a virgin rock temperature around 30 to 40 C,
see table 1. As we go to increasing depth to recover
gold, below 3500 m, such as the Western Deep Lev-
els then we encounter rock temperatures of 55 C+.
Interestingly because of the igneous nature of plat-
inum ore bodies the rock temperature of 55 C are
achieved around 1500 m.
The management and control of the working air
temperatures as a result of these rock temperatures,
in such deep level gold mines and platinum mines,
are much more serious than in shallow mines such
as coal.
If we look at the surface mining operations,
typically the rock temperature are around 25 C or
less, in fact our biggest problem are the air temper-
atures we operate in, because these temperatures

827

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 827 10/3/2012 9:24:28 PM

 Table 1. Ambient ground temperature.
Depth below surface 1000 m 1500 m
Bushveld igneous complex 43 to 48 50 to 55
Orange free state 30 35
Klerksdorp 31
East/West rand 34
West wits (Western deeps) 29
can get beyond 40 C+. In terms of underground
the control of temperatures are usually aligned to
the humidity with wet bulb of 30 oC+.
Obviously in these types of hostile environments
our explosive products and initiating systems have
been well designed to operate safely in these tem-
perature ranges.
In fact the biggest safety problem is with our
people and not the explosive and initiating sys-
tems. We need to manage and observe possible
heat stroke elements both underground and on
surface. Additional hazards of the sun, with sun
stroke and sun burn also exist for our surface
operators. So in terms of non-reactive ground and
ambient temperatures our primary concern is the
safety and environmental management of people
and equipment.
3 REACTIVE GROUND
If we review figure 1 once again, we see as we
approach the reactive side of the schematic we are
now getting a situation where the rock itself will
react to the chemical components of the explosive
mixture. When it reacts to the explosive mixture,
events will happen.
The first thing is to understand this is not a
unique situation. As a company we are operat-
ing outside of Southern Africa where typically we
dont have situations where a rock contains more
Figure 1. Reactive rock vs. Burning ground.
828
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 828
2000 m 2500 m 3000 m 3500 m
40 45 50 55
37 46 48
37 39 46
34 42 45 48
than 1% sulphides. As soon as you get into Africa
and beyond the copper sulphides and the massive
iron ore bodies mean we need to start considering
and managing the potential reaction of the rock
to the explosives. This situation is typically found
in many types of rock particularly the pyrite type
rock and the black shale rocks that are typical of
some of the South East Asia areas.
What happens is the rock reacts to the explosive,
we get a chemical reaction and this reaction can
generate extreme heat because its an exothermic
reaction. As its uncontrolled process this can rap-
idly cause a temperature spike and lead to a pos-
sible premature detonation.
Theres a lot of science and chemistry behind
this and is well understood. For the layman it is
far easier to look at the actual end result. When we
have got a reactive ground situation, the signs are
the explosives bubbling out of the top of the blast
hole, foaming, fumes coming off and if you leave it
and dont get it under control you ultimately could
get to an explosion, figure 2.
Figure 2. Reactive ground sample in the lab.
10/3/2012 9:24:28 PM
 We have a well-established in-house testing facil-
ity where we take samples of the rocks and grind
them down to the powder. These samples are then
subjected to a controlled situation and interfaced
with a computer.
Typical results coming out the computer analy-
sis are a number of graphs. If we compare a non-
reactive sample, figure 3, in other words theres no
reaction with the explosive mix to the rock sample,
what we see, figure 4, with a reactive sample is a
rapid rise in temperature and this can lead to poten-
tial detonation of the explosive product itself.
Fortunately we have got safe solutions to these
problems, urea based explosives.
The safety key is to identify reactive ground,
choose the right explosive solution for the problem
and then use your detonators normally in a safe
manner and get your desired result.
Figure 3. Non-reactive ground sample.
Figure 4. Graphical output identifying reactive
ground.
829
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 829
4 BURNING GROUND
Here the ground is not reacting with the explosives
but rather we have got a burning fire underground.
The explosives are subjected to an open heat
source and/or extreme fluctuations to temperature.
What we often see with these burning fires is that
its a coal based problem associated often with the
organic content of shales or mudstones.
We must understand what we can do or cant do
in terms of blast design and explosive loading in
these situations. If you look across the world as a
whole we are not unique in this problem of burn-
ing fires: Africa, Australia with its coal reserves,
South East Asia and a broad brand across Cen-
tral Europe and Canada suffer the risk in terms of
fires and potential fires.
Out of interest in South African Market at the
moment it is estimated 30% of the coal field is on fire.
Now obviously we cant afford to let the fires burn
because of the great economic value losses. So the key
here is to look at ways and means of how we kill the
fire and recover the remaining coal but at the same
time we blast safely in these rock environments.
4.1 Where do these coal fires come from?
Well typically they are associated with old mine
workings. What happened in South Africa is that
they operated originally with an underground bord
and pillar methodology, with a switch later to a
surface operation.
The old workings, in time, collapse and allow for
an egress of oxygen and water. The air and water
enter into the workings through cracks, fissures
and other openings and start reacting with the coal
and metals, (acid) resulting in fire. Its self-propa-
gating because obviously weve got coal, which is a
fuel source and as it burns the pillars fail and the
ground collapses on top of it.
This also leaves us another additional safety
concern over the economic loss of the coal, the
creation of sinkholes on surface.
4.2 Blast design and on bench charging
operations
One of the major controls is to stop the inflow of
air and water into the mine workings. The cladding
of a highwall, with sand, closes the old workings.
This effectively restricts the oxygen and smothers
the fire.
Once youve stopped the fire we still got a poten-
tial for heat in the blast zone due to the possibility
of drilled holes intersecting the old workings and
further opportunity for ingress of water and air.
These can be at least managed through cooling and
controlled to a certain degree that now allows us,
10/3/2012 9:24:28 PM
 as explosive operators, to come in and work more
safely under a set of guidelines.
Obviously the next step is to blast quickly, as the
broken ore closes the remaining voids, rids the oxy-
gen and smoothers the fire.
Once youve done all of this you then have to
load the coal out, you are still creating a possibility
of a rush of air back into the workings and it can
rapidly catch fire again.
The important thing from explosives suppli-
ers point of view is good planning: a minimum
number of people on bench, who and what equip-
ment is going to be on the bench to tackle this spe-
cial blasting type.
The next thing is to understand how hot is the
hot hole and then how we will manage that hole in
terms of our products and explosive loading proc-
ess. Obviously the primary step is to cool these
drilled holes, pumping water and cooling agents
onto the problem.
Our recent investigations to improve the existing
best practices and to try to resolve this problem
follow a fatality in 2009. We had to revisit the issues
to understand on what the current rules were based
and how to improve them to prevent any further
fatalities. Sadly what happened in the fatality was
that the explosive charging crew had seen some
fumes coming from a blast hole. They made an
on bench decision to abandon the blast hole and
so they demarcated it as abandoned, for unknown
reasons the blaster decided to go back to inspect
the blast hole. An unplanned detonation occurred,
it killed him. Fortunately his six colleagues who
were on the bench at the same time were knocked
over and only suffered minor injuries.
Figure 5. Analysis of risk factors.
830
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 830
The key here is that the combination of explo-
sives and burning coal has the potential to kill. We
need to understand what could have prevented that
person going back and re-examining the hole and
to ensure that explosives are only detonated in a
controlled and planned manner.
4.3 Risk analysis
The first step was to revisit the rules, which stated
that a hot hole blast was determined at 40 C, a
blast needed to be fired at 60 C, and a blast greater
than 80 C was a no go. (Figure 5.)
We really needed to understand where these
control figures come from;
What happens at 39 or 38 or 37 C? and is it to
be classed as hot or a normal blast?
So it became evident that we needed some sort
of window around that decision making process.
In other words what was a suitable trigger point
and temperature needed to ring alarm bells?
Am I in a hot hole situation or normal blasting
situation?
So thats the first thing get under our belt was
to understand 40 C wasnt cast in concrete, what
we needed was a method in the blast design proc-
ess to say when do I trigger the determination of
a hot blast?
The 80 C was a little easier to understand if you
considered the pentolite booster. Pentolite is manu-
factured around 80 C in a liquid or semi-liquid state.
So you can imagine that top upper number is really
based around the explosive products themselves.
The next thing we looked at was the tempera-
ture at which our detonators operate safely. The
10/3/2012 9:24:29 PM
 maximum of 90 C fitted the discussion earlier
regarding the virgin rock temperature slides. Det-
onators operate comfortably in a stable environ-
ment of 40 to 60 C. (Mid-point!)
So this became a key in the scenario of dealing
with safely operating in burning groundremoval
of all the detonators from the blast holes them-
selves and the design equation.
So we now understand the rules in a sense of no
detonators in holes above 40 C. The next weak
link in the explosive detonation process was to
move the booster away from the potential heat
source. Rather than toe priming, the best position
for the booster was mid to the top (collar) of the
hole. The explosive mixture would insulate the
booster from the heat source and open the time
window to allow controlled charging of the explo-
sive. The next thing was the need from customers to
look at possible alternatives to the PETN booster;
one such alternative was RDX boosters and cords.
This allowed us to shift the temperature differen-
tial, instead of possibly losing boosters around 80
to 85 C, they could effectively move to an opera-
tional range of 100 to 150 C.
The key was to remember we are we not going to
move that 40 C safety mark, all we doing is creat-
ing a bigger differential between a lower tempera-
ture and higher temperature which allows us to
more time to work safely and complete the explo-
sive charging process.
Additionally, the size of the blast was limited to
the amount of explosives that could be reasonably
delivered by the Mobile Manufacturing equip-
ment available during a single shift. (No more than
8 hours)
The next thing is that nature provides us with
some early warnings. Initially we see the water
vapour start evaporating out of the explosives.
(100 C) Somewhere around 200 to 250 C the
smoke changes from white to grey to brown nitrous
type fumes as the more volatile explosive products
breakdown.
Now in a single blast hole situation this is great,
its very easy to observe but what we found of course
is that there is lots of smoke and it is very difficult
to identify holes changing in terms of temperature
and responding to temperature below the ground.
So what we had to do is to say what is happening to
our explosives mixture under a heating scenario.
During testing at our range facilities with inter-
national based test standards, we cooked the explo-
sives off with a direct heat source. We determined
that our explosives were detonating at +200 C
with a detonator involved. The moment we took
out the detonator of the explosive equation we
looking at going beyond 200 C and in fact some
of our newer explosive products now go up with
280 in this type of test environment for 8 hours.
831
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 831
These tests enabled us to better understand our
products and assist our customers to build the
charging procedures at the mine themselves.
Early in the beginning of 2011 we had a meth-
odology to dealing with hot holes. Interestingly in
just a short six months since the last matrix weve
refined the situation and the key here is really the
identification. (Figure 6.)
The first to note here is we want to use the ambi-
ent rock temperature; we can monitor the holes
over a period of time and determine the varia-
tions over time. The variation tells us it is normal
or just because of the rise and fall temperature or
is it because the rock itself is getting hot and then
using it that gives guide for a hot hole or extreme
hot hole procedure. Some of the other things that
came out from the work were a need to measure the
holes. Using a thermo couple we measure each 5 m
of hole depth and then log those temperatures.
The key was control, we needed to log each hole
and introduced methods such as white marker
boards placed next to each hole. This allowed you
to record the burden information but more impor-
tantly the temperature.
You can imagine when you have 50 to 100 holes
you are charging, it becomes very difficult in that
fume filled environment to start analysing the white
boards or consistently reviewing the clipboard
or temperatures. Any rapid changes could not be
properly tracked actively on bench. There was a
need to be innovative and put some form of moni-
tor into the hole to allow us to continuously moni-
tor the holes temperature over a period of time.
A hot hole monitor has been developed, a sim-
ple battery operated device which gives you a light
indication as well as a sound alarm based on 60
and 80 C. A green light indicates all is well. The
device starts flashing at 60 C with a pulsing alarm
and at 80 C a continuous siren and red light to
warn you to head off the bench and do something
about the blast. Using this device allows us to con-
tinuously monitor the blast itself. (Figure 7.)
Using our risk matrix we could now see that we
can add an extra block which allowed us a better
control of the blast in other words we now knew
what was happening in the blast hole while the
people on the bench are charging explosives into
the holes.
The next thing was to really understand how we
cool the holes down, with water, cooling agents
and/or foam because obviously we dont want to be
charging in a rapidly changing heat environment.
The methodology called for the initiating sys-
tems only to be loaded just prior to the blast being
initiated.
We removed the detonator out the hole and
unlike a normal blast weve connected the whole
blast together and the whole blast area remains
10/3/2012 9:24:30 PM
 Figure 6. Hot hole methodology matrix.
Figure 7. Hot hole monitor.
closed and ready to blast with minimal notice.
If anything changes rapidly you can pull off the
blast, sound the warnings, check with the guards,
square it up and take the blast.
5 CONCLUSION
The key to understanding our matrix, for both
our customers and ourselves, is to determine what
operational situation we are dealing with:
832
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 832
A non-reactive situation, in which case it is a
normal conventional blast design with an art of
a spectacular finish.
Otherwise we moving into reactive ground, we
have solutions in using appropriate and suitable
explosives, which allow the use of detonators.
In burning ground, we need to adopt the correct
mining method, remove the detonators out of
the situation. Move the booster away from the
heat source and charge with continuous in hole
temperature monitoring.
REFERENCES
AEL Mining Services
Product Safety Data Sheets
Risk Analysis
Research & Development.
Australian Explosives Industry And Safety Group Inc.
Code of Practice
Elevated Temperature and Reactive Ground.
Coaltech Research Association
Spontaneous Combustion, The Dos and Donts, pre-
vention and control of spontaneous combustion at
South African Surface coal mines.
Huw Phillips, Sezer Uludag, Kelello Chabedi, vs.
University of Witwatersrand.
Prevention and Control of Spontaneous Combustion,
Best Practice Guidelines for Surface Coal Mines in
South Africa.
Various authors and references.
10/3/2012 9:24:30 PM
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Experimental research on the mechanism of reinforcing soft clay

ground by blasting

Z.Y. Zhang, Y.S. Ye, H.L. Meng, N.H. Yang & Z.Y. Deng
China Academy of Railway Sciences, Beijing, China

J.K. Li
Shenzhen Society of Engineering Blasting, Shenzhen, China

ABSTRACT: Reinforcement of soft clay ground by blasting method is a novel technique to treat soft
clay. Its in-depth and careful research will be of great theoretical and practical significance. In this paper,
model tests are used to research the drainage consolidation law of reinforcing saturated soft clay ground
by blasting method. As a result, both the characteristics of change in the strength of saturated soft clay
under blast loading and zone characteristics are obtained and the law of change in pore water pressure
and consolidation settlement under blast loading is summed up. Test results show blasting has accelerated
the drainage consolidation of saturated soft clay and the strength of soil mass is increased in the continu-
ous drainage consolidation, thereby reinforcing the soft clay ground.

1 PREFACE soft clay ground on the site. To guarantee con-

sistency of the soil sample used in each test, the
Reinforcement of soft clay ground using blast soil sample was remolded by combining vacuum
power is a novel technique, and its basic practice is preloading with counter-force frame superim-
as follows (Meng 2008, Deng 2006): posed loading. The muck with high water content
(100%) is consolidated into a soil sample with
1. A sand layer is laid on the ground, to be treated
lower water content (80%) through accelerated
as a horizontal drainage passageway.
drainage under vacuum preloading, which was
2. In the ground, a plastic drainage board or
stabilized by drainage consolidation and super-
sand wick is installed as a vertical drainage
imposed loading. As a result, the devices neces-
passageway.
sary for the test include four parts, namely, a blast
3. Earth is filled into the ground as a cover load
tank, vacuum loading device, a counter-force
before blasting.
frame loading device, and drainage system, as
4. Blasting is done once or several times by select-
shown in Figure 1.
ing blasting parameters.
5. Civil engineering tests, including surface settle-
ment and ground strength, are made.
6. Blasting is completed.
The method is now still in the exploratory stage,
because the mechanism of consolidating soft clay
ground by blast power is not clear yet, and many
of its laws await further study (Yang et al. 2004). In
this paper, model tests are used to make an experi-
mental investigation of the consolidation of soft
clay ground by blasting, and some valuable conclu-
sions are derived.

2 INTRODUCTION OF THE MODEL

TESTS

2.1 Test devices

The test methods and procedures are essentially
the same as those adopted in the treatment of Figure 1. Profile sketch of blasting device.

833

CH106_Paper 169.indd 833 10/4/2012 12:32:53 PM

 1. The cylindrical blast tank was built by pouring
reinforced concrete. It had an inner diameter
of 2.0 m, wall thickness of 30 cm, net height of
2.4 m and bottom thickness of 20 cm. The side
wall of the tank was rigid, to ensure deforma-
tion occurring to the soil mass was a physical
change, instead of lateral deformation.
2. The vacuum loading device adopted a jet vacuum
pump for air extraction and loading. The vacuum
pump was connected to the extraction opening at
the bottom of the blast tank. The muck in the
tank was sealed with a plastic film for the upper
surface and the vertical drainage body linked up
the upper and lower lateral sand layers so that
vacuum could be transferred to the upper surface
of the muck to maintain a uniform vacuum.
3. The counter-force frame loading device was com-
posed of three parts, namely, the gas-bag, the
cover plate and the counter-force frame. Pressure
was exerted over the soil mass with the counter- Figure 2. Sketch of sand well layout.
force frame, which was equivalent to piling up load
on the soft clay ground. The gas-bag was inflated
with an air pump, and the loading strength was Table 1. Blasting parameters of test.
controlled accurately as the bag was fitted with a
Serial no. 1 2 3 4
precision pressure meter. The cover plate, made
of two layers of imported plywood, had a thick- Thickness of 1.4 1.7 1.3 1.7
ness of 4 cm with great resistance to deformation. muck (m)
The counter-force frame was anchored to the Length of detonating 1.1 1.4 1.0 1.4
wall of the blast tank with screw-threaded steel cord (m)
of 30 mm and a steel sheet 25 mm thick. Number of 1 1.5 2 3
4. The lateral drainage body was fitted on the detonating cord
upper and lower surfaces of the muck with Charge 15.3 28.3 27.0 55.6
built-in vertical drainage body, which jointly concentration (g)
formed a link-up drainage system. The lateral Specific charge (g/m3) 3.48 5.30 6.61 10.42
drainage body was a medium-coarse sand layer Cover load (kPa) 40 40 40 40
20 cm thick, whereas the vertical drainage body
took the form of a sand drain with a diameter
of 5 cm, square layout and plane spacing of In the blasting transient, the change in pore water
50 cm, as shown in Figure 2. pressure is dynamic, while after blasting, the change
in pore water pressure is an approximately static
2.2 Test contents and methods process. As a result, two sets of systems (dynamic
and static) were chosen to test pore water pressure.
To show the action strength of blasting load upon The KY-2 piezoresistive pore water pressure sensor
saturated soft clay, an acceleration sensor was was used. The UBOX-1 vibration recorder was used
embedded around the charge to test the accel- for the collection of dynamic water pressure signals.
eration of saturated soft clay triggered by blast- The DTC-2010A, a multi-channel test instrument,
ing load. The acceleration sensor was embedded was used for the collection of static data.
on the horizontal plane, where the center of the Consolidation settlement at different hours
charge was located. To ensure coupling of the sen- in the treatment of ground was observed and
sor with the clay, the acceleration sensor was coun- obtained by noting the settlement mark embedded
terweighted such that the sensor would have the on the surface of the soil mass.
same density as the soil mass.
Change in the strength of soil mass before and
2.3 Test program
after blasting was observed by an in-situ soil test,
which covered two subtests: a vane shear test and a In the test, an ordinary detonating cord served as a
static cone penetration test. linear charge. A #8 electric detonator was exploded
Change in pore water pressure in the course of from the top. Four tests were carried out, and
treating soft clay ground by blasting was observed. major blasting parameters are shown in Table 1.

834

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 834 10/3/2012 9:24:31 PM

 3 TEST RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

3.1 Characteristics of change in saturated soft

clay under blasting load
After the blasting of the explosive in the soft clay,
the soil mass in different areas from the charge
exhibited different changes in their characteristics.
For the soil mass around the blast-hole, the inter-
nal pore space was compressed, and an explosive
cavity developed due to the explosion shock wave
and radial extrusion of the detonation gas. Shown
in Figure 3 is a cavity with an average diameter of
about 15 cm, developed in the muck by one and a
half detonating cords.
The soft clay in the area beyond the cavity was
damaged structurally, and liquid characteristics
were revealed. Shown in Figure 4(i) is the curve
of acceleration determined about 40 cm from the
charge by one and a half detonating cords, which
is quite similar to Figure 4(ii) and (iii), determined
in water, and in mud with water content of 200%.
This indicates that soft soil exhibits fluid charac-
teristics in the blasting transient. The acceleration
caused by the soil mass was related to the charge
concentration. The greater the charge concentra-
tion, the greater the acceleration generated in the
soil mass at the same location. The in-situ test
results showed that the strength of the soft soil
in the area after blasting significantly decreased,
indicating the structure of the soft soil in the area
had suffered great damage. However, with the dis-
charge of pore water, the strength of soft soil was
regained, and in fact surpassed the original value.
This area was named the thixotropy damage area.
The strength of the soft soil in a given scope
beyond the thixotropy damage area was also some-
what reduced due to the effect of the seismic waves,

Figure 4. Acceleration curves; (i) in soft soil, (ii) in

water, (iii) in mud and (iv) in the vibration area.

but not to the extent observed in the thixotropy

damage area. The curve of acceleration determined
in the area is shown in Figure 4(iv), and indicates
that elastic vibration occurred in soft soil under the
action of blast seismic waves.
Based on the above analysis, the blast effect in
saturated soft soil was divided into three areas as
shown in Figure 5, namely, the cavity area, the thix-
otropy damage area, and vibration area. The cav-
ity area was the result of the high temperature and
pressure from explosion, and the diameter of the
cavity was proportional to the charge concentra-
tion. The charge diameter and the blasting cavity
would be retracted later, under pressure, by about
Figure 3. Cavity of soft soil after blasting. 20 times. The damage area was the major action

835

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 835 10/3/2012 9:24:31 PM


Figure 5. Different action area of blasting load.
Figure 6. The curve of pore water pressure at blasting
transient.
scope under impact disturbance and the relation-
ship between the radius of damage area and charge
concentration is expressed by the formula:
R 0 123 q (1)
In this equation, R is the radius of the thixotropy
damage area, in m; q is the linear charge density, in
g/m. The vibration area is under the influence of
seismic waves over a large area.
3.2 Law of change in pore water pressure
under blasting load
Figure 6 shows a typical curve of dynamic water
pressure at the blasting transient. It is evident that
at the blasting transient, the pore water pressure
rises abruptly, about twice or thrice of the pres-
sure before blasting. As blasting load is a transient
dynamic load, the pore water pressure will drop
rapidly after the disappearance of blasting load,
and the whole process is finished in only tens of
836
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 836
milliseconds. After the pore water pressure has
dropped, the value before blasting is not regained.
Instead, it has increased considerably compared
to the original value, and will remain so for some
time.
Figure 7 shows the change in the excess pore
water pressure exerted by soil mass after the blast-
ing load. It is evident that soil mass will produce
excess pore water pressure after blasting, and the
nearer to the charge, the greater the excess pore
water pressure becomes. The excess pore water
pressure will be dissipated gradually with the pas-
sage of time, and eventually fall to zero. The whole
dissipation process is divided into two phases: first,
a rapid dissipation phase, which progresses more
rapidly when excess pore water pressure is greater
than 10 kPa and lasts for about 100~120 hours.
Second, a slow dissipation phase, which slows
down gradually when excess pore water pres-
sure is less than 10 kPa, and takes up 2/3 of the
whole process. The relationship between the excess
pore water pressure at the blasting transient and
the charge concentration and distance is expressed
as follows:
P 83 3 q /L (2)
In this equation, P is the excess hydrostatic pore
water pressure of the blasting transient, in kPa.
q is the linear charge density, in g/m; L is the dis-
tance between measurement spot and charge, in m.
3.3 Law of change in consolidation settlement
under blasting load
Figure 8 shows the time curve of consolidation set-
tlement before and after blasting. It is clear that
soil mass reached equilibrium under the cover load
of 40 kPa and then exploded before resettlement
occurred. This indicates that under the same cover
load, blasting may give rise to a secondary settle-
Figure 7. The curve of excess hydrostatic pore water
pressuretime.
10/3/2012 9:24:31 PM
 ment of soil mass with significant consolidation
settlement. Corresponding to the dissipation law
of excess pore water pressure, the settlement of soil
mass after blasting is also divided into two phases:
in the first 5~8 days, settlement occurs rapidly with
high consolidation settlement (the rapid settlement
phase), and then settlement becomes slow, with a
gradual decrease in consolidation settlement (slow
settlement phase), which lasts longer. After a sin-
gle charge is detonated, the nearer the soil is to the
charge, the greater is the consolidation settlement
of the soft soil.

Figure 8. The time curve of consolidation settlement.

3.4 Law of change in the strength of soft clay
ground under blasting load
Penetration resistance ps at different times before
and after blasting was measured at different places
from the source of blasting. The curve of penetra-
tion resistance with time and soil depth is shown in
Figure 9(i) and (ii).
These figures show that at the area near the
source of blasting, the strength of soil mass at the
blasting transient dropped sharply as the static
cone penetration resistance approached zero. With
the passage of time, the penetration resistance rose
more significantly than before the blasting, dur-
ing the eleven and twenty-five days after blasting.
In the area far from the source of blasting, the
strength of soil mass at the blasting transient is not
significantly affected, as no great change has taken
place in the static cone penetration resistance.
With the lapse of time, the penetration resistance
also rose more significantly than before blasting,
during the eleven and twenty-five days after blast-
ing. In short, the bearing capacity of soil mass was
enhanced gradually with the increase in consolida-
tion time after blasting.

4 CONCLUSION

In this paper, model tests were used with particular

emphasis given to the investigation of the drainage
consolidation law of soft soil under blasting load,
and the following conclusions are drawn:
1. As strong action is imposed on soft soil at
the blasting transient, greater acceleration
occurs in soil mass particles. Under a power-
ful blasting load, the structure of soft soil suf-
fers some damages, and exhibits significantly
reduced strength. In the light of the wave
property and destruction characteristics of
soil mass, the blast effect in saturated soft soil
Figure 9. Curve of penetration resistance as function can be divided into three areas, namely, cavity
of time and depth, at two distances from the blast source; area, thixotropy damage area and vibration
(i) near hole (25 cm), and (ii) far hole (75 cm). area.

837

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 837 10/3/2012 9:24:33 PM

 2. Under the blasting load, saturated soft soil
will produce higher excess pore water pressure
instantly. Then, soil mass decreases sharply
pore water discharge, and excess pore water
pressure will dissipate rapidly, forming a fast
drainage phase, which will last for a short time.
The discharge speed and amount of pore water
will decrease with the reduction of excess pore
water pressure, and excess pore water pressure
will dissipate slowly, forming a slow drainage
phase, which will last longer.
3. Under the same cover load, blasting may give
rise to secondary settlement of soil mass with
high consolidation settlement and significant
blast effect. Based on different settlement
speeds, two phases can be observed: first, the
rapid settlement phase with high settlement of
soil mass within 5~8 days after blasting, and
second, the slow settlement phase with a longer
time of about 20 days.
4. Because of the thixotropy of saturated soft soil,
drainage consolidation occurs in soil mass con-
tinuously under the cover load after blasting,
and the strength of soft soil will be improved,
thereby reinforcing soft clay ground.
838
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 838
REFERENCES
Deng, Z. 2006. Experimental Study on the Mechanism
of Dynamic Consolidation by Blasting Ramming in
Soft Clay Ground. Doctoral Dissertations, University
of Science and Technology, Beijing, pp. 45.
Dowding C.H, Hryciw R.A. 1986. Laboratory Study
of Blast Densification of Saturated Sand. Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering, 122(2), pp. 187199.
Jone M. Bolton, Deanna S. Durnford,, W.A. Charlie.
1994. One-Dimensional Shock and Quasi-Static
Liquefaction of Silt and Sand. Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering, 120(10).
Meng, H. 2008. Experimental Study on Reinforcing Soft
Clay Ground by the Blasting Dynamic Consolidation
Method. Post-Doctorate Report, China Academy of
Railway Sciences, Beijing, pp. 12.
Yang, N., Zhang, Z. Cai, D & Yang, B. 2004. Effect of
Superimposed Load Pressure upon Reinforcement of
Deep Soft Ground by Blasting Method. Proceedings
of the Eighth China Engineering Blasting Workshop
on Exchange of Academic Experiences, Beijing,
September 1st, pp. 10.
10/3/2012 9:24:33 PM
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Closed accurate delay blasting on the structure of the influence

spectrum analysis

J. Yang, S.B. Li & J. Liu

State Key Laboratory of Explosion Science and Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China

W.X. Gao
The College of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing, China

ABSTRACT: According to precise delay blasting was used in the foundation excavation. The non-
electric detonator and electronic detonator were used in the blasting, the vibration which using electronic
detonator area is smaller than the electronic detonator area; in the second blasting, there is only 20 m
between blasting area and structure, the precise delay electronic detonator and hole-by-hole blasting were
used, near the building set a row pre-splitting holes, Vibration monitoring results show that the trend of
vibration signals to the high frequency part scattered which can reduce the harmful to the building. The
blasting vibration response spectrum was analyzed.

1 INTRODUCTION 200 m and a width of 40 m. The surface weathered

Blasting safety has become a prominent problem,
especially in cases where large numbers of rocks
are blasted close to other buildings. The traditional
shallow-hole blasting not only fails to fit
construction requirements, it also seriously affects
the project construction. The harmful effects of
blasting can be more carefully controlled using
large, deep-hole blasting.
Engineers and researchers have made extensive
research effort to resist, minimize or cancel
blasting vibration. The millisecond delay blasting
technique is used to reduce blasting vibration.
Since the development of the electronic detonator,
accurate delay blasting techniques have become
possible. Blasting has become a more refined
process, and it is also possible to exercise more
control over blasting vibration. According to the
Foundation of Excavation Engineerings processes,
precise delay blasting technology in deep-hole
blasting was used in a complex environment, and
the effect of blasting vibration on construction
structure is analyzed in this paper.
rock was excavated using machinery, and blasting
was used in the second area, with an average depth
of 78 m. The eastern side of the slope shows rock
mass integrity, which many use for blasting, and
has an average depth of 18 m. The project belongs
to the Yan-Shan Mountains, mainly composed of
gneiss and consisting of hilly areas. Geological data
show strata distribution for 2 m as above strong
weathering, 25 m for moderate weakening of rock
due to weathering, 5 m for weak, weathered rock.
Foundation excavations are located on the south
side of Tang-Quan River, North Street, 160 m
to the west of Bu-Yun Bridge. 15 m to the east,
there are residential buildings. The layout is shown
in Figure 1. Because of the complex surrounding
environment, the building must take strict measures
when the undertaking blasting excavation projects.
It must be ensured that other buildings are not
harmed, and that residents are quite safe.

2 PRECISE DELAY DEEP-HOLE

BLASTING

2.1 Engineering survey

The Foundation of Excavation Engineering is
located on the west side of Tang-Quan rivers north
shore in Chi-Cheng County. It has a length of Figure 1. Foundation surrounding.

839

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 839 10/3/2012 9:24:33 PM

 2.2 Blasting scheme 3. Blast-hole pattern parameters: resistance line,
W = 2.53.5 m. Hole spacing, a = 2.53.0 m.
The excavation blasting program was selected
Row spacing, b = 22.5 m. Borehole inclination
in order to differentiate slicing and explosion
angle = 75.
zones from west to east, because of the complex
4. Stemming length: stemming length control in
Foundation excavation environment. Of special
(0.81.2) W; When layered charging was used
concern were residential areas only 15 m on the
in the blast-hole, the inner stemming of the
eastern side of the blasting area. Blasting activities
blast-hole was 1.5 2.0 m, and the upper part was
near the houses must be carefully monitored. They
3.54.0 m.
use precise delay blasting techniques, and blasting
5. Charge calculation: According to boundary con-
vibration effect is under strict control. The blasting
ditions of deep-hole blasting charge calculation
scheme was as follows:
formula:
1. Deep-hole blasting was used. The stemming
length and charge were strictly controlled, and Q = kqHab (1)
the range of flying rocks was at maintained
within10 m of the blasting distance. where, k is the increased charge coefficient (the
2. A digital electronic detonator was used, and front row is 1, after each row from 1.11.2).
precise delay control blasting hole by hole was q is the unit explosive consumption, taken as
achieved. When the hole was deeper than 10 m, 0.35 kg/m3. h is the depth of excavation, in m.
multi segment delay and maximum period of Different main blast-hole charges were calcu-
charge control were used. In expanding the lated, as shown in Table 1.
scale of blasting, strict control was exercised 6. Pre-splitting blasting parameters: blast-hole
on blasting vibration to ensure the safety of spacing a = 0.91.2 m. Line charge = 200 g/m.
adjacent buildings.
3. Topographical and geological features of the
area informed blast design decisions. Millisecond 2.4 Blasting delay time
delay blasting was chosen, and reasonable
The delay time was chosen based on the
charging structure was selected for both blast-
environmental conditions of the area, and on
holes. The bottom-hole charge was moderately
research results from similar engineering projects.
increased. Both the charge and the stemming
In the double blasting, different delay times were
were stratified. Improvement of the blasting
designed for each. The first explosion zone was
effect, possibly in the form of blasting vibrations
in deep-hole in the eastern area (Fig. 2). For
and flying rock, was strictly controlled.
comparison purposes, the non-electric detonator
4. Pre-splitting blasting technology was used, in
and electric detonator scheme are combined.
which a pre-crack is formed between the exca-
For the non-electric detonator zone: blast-hole delay
vation area and retention area. This serves not
was 25 ms, and row delay was 2550 ms, with hole
only the purpose of shock absorption, but also
by hole blasting. In the electronic detonator zone:
reduces over-excavation, thereby protecting the
blast-hole delay was 4 ms, the row delay was 20 ms
stability of high, steep slopes.
at intervals of 5 holes in same segment of the back
row. Total delay time in the common detonation
2.3 Deep-hole blasting parameters
zone was set to 370 ms. After 130 ms, the electronic
1. Blast-hole diameter: = 90 mm. detonator initiation zone began continuous time
2. Drilling depth: H = 419 m. setting for 300 ms. Blast-hole distance was 2.0 m.

Table 1. Deep hole blasting parameters.

Blast Per
hole depth Blast-hole space Row space blast-hole charge Stemming
h/m a/m b/m Q/kg length/m

5 2.5 2.0 7
6 2.5 2.0 10 3.5
8 2.5 2.0 15 4.0
10 2.5 2.0 18 2.03.5 (Interval charging)
12 2.8 2.2 25 2.03.5 (Interval charging)
16 3.0 2.5 40 2.04.0 (Interval charging)
18 3.0 2.5 48 2.04.0 (3 interval charging)

840

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 840 10/3/2012 9:24:34 PM

 Figure 2. Basting area.
Figure 3. First blasting delay time scheme.
Figure 4. Second blasting delay time scheme.
Row distance was 2.5 m. Hole depth was 49 m.
Total charge was 2600 kg.
The electronic detonator was used in the sec-
ond blasting excavation area. Hole location and
delay time are shown in Figure 4. Blast-hole
depth < 10 m, using continuous charging structure.
Blast-hole depth 10 m, using interval charge, in
2nd3rd periods of delayed detonation. Design of
delay time: With the continuous charge, there were
5 ms between blast-holes. The hole was divided
into 2 sections of interval charge, with a 5 ms delay
between the two interval charges, 10 ms delay in
between blast-hole. When the hole depth was more
than 15 m, the hole was divided into 3 sections,
which set 4 ms delay between one to the other,
and the blast-hole delay was 12 ms. Row delay was
841
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 841
between 3060 ms. 3 split blast-holes at one group
that at 3 ms delay. Total blast-hole number was
123, the total delay time is 690 ms, and total charge
was 3600 kg.
3 BLASTING VIBRATION MONITORING
AND ANALYSIS
3.1 Signal analysis
Typical waveforms were analyzed in the two
blastings. Figure 5 shows that the seismic peak
of the regional electronic detonator had about
70% to the non-electronic detonator. Figure 5b
and c show the dominant frequency, which mainly
focused on the 2040 Hz range. The amplitude
of the regional electronic detonator was about
80% of non-electronic detonator regional. From
Figure 6, the second blasting vibration wave peak
value clearly tends to disperse at around 0.3 s.
The blasting vibration wave reached the first peak
and then gradually decayed. At 0.85 s, a sym-
metric waveform appeared, the maximum vibra-
tion speed being more than 14 cm/s. In Figure 6b
amplitude-frequency relation can be seen. The
dominant frequency was in the 1030 Hz range,
which did not cause structural damage because
of resonance higher than the buildings inherent
frequency.
Figure 5a and Figure 6a help to visually contrast
waveform energy. The waveform instantaneous
energy was calculated by HHT transformation,
as Figures 7 and 8 show. From Figure 7, the
instantaneous maximum energy at the sampling
point was about 400. Figure 7 and Figure 5a
(of vibration velocity) are thus consistent at the
maximum moment. The non-electronic detonators
primary energy appeared within the 300600 range.
The electronic detonators primary energy was
centralized at the sampling point, and was within
the range of 7001000. The instantaneous energy
of the electronic detonator was significantly smaller
than that of the non-electronic detonator.
The instantaneous energy can be divided into
two sections of the second blasting, based on the
10/3/2012 9:24:34 PM
 Figure 5. Waveform and amplitude spectrum of the monitoring point 4 in the first blasting.

Figure 6. Waveform and amplitude spectrum of the monitoring point 5 in the second blasting.

5th monitoring point in Figure 8. Figure 6a of the

Figure 7. Instantaneous energy of the monitoring
point 4 in the first blasting.
Figure 8. Instantaneous energy of the monitoring
point 5 in the second blasting.
blasting vibration wave propagation changed reg-
ularity, the instantaneous maximum energy at the
sampling point was in the 400800 range, and the
graph represents an acute change. The transmit-
ted waveform caused by precise time delay and the
staggered waveform have a relationship.
In Figure 9a, the waveform is divided into
three intervals. Before the second region, the
maximum peak is basically the same, which shows
symmetry. Peaks in the third region, compared to
the former, also show symmetry. As can be seen,
the wave propagation effect of the precise time
delay used plays a certain role. In Figure 9b, it
can be seen that the frequency concentration
region is also divided into three parts, but the
advantages of frequency concentrated in the
2040 Hz range. This frequency range is far
greater than the natural vibration frequency of
the building. The frequency distribution ranges
from 0200 Hz, and a larger frequency range is
produced by the electronic detonator. In Figure
9c, it can be seen, that the maximum value of the
instantaneous energy appeared in sampling point
800, at 800 ms, where the speed reaches its the
maximum. The instantaneous energy change is
also divided into three parts. The characteristics
of these changes are consistent with waveform,
amplitude and frequency changes.

842

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 842 10/3/2012 9:24:35 PM

 Figure 9. Waveform, amplitude spectrum and Instantaneous energy of the monitoring point 7 in the second blasting.

Figure 10. The first blasting of 4 measurement points response spectrum.

Figure 11. The second blasting of 5 measurement points response spectrum.

Figure 12. The second blasting of 7 measurement points response spectrum.

3.2 Response spectrum analysis

The damping ratio of structure vibration is = 0.05,
used Mat lab calculate response spectrum accord-
ing to Figures 5, 6 and 9 speed signal. Due to the
vibration of speed and energy related, the system
can reflect the viscous damping force response,
therefore, selection of velocity response spectrum
and the standard response spectrum analysis.
Figure 10 shows that the standard response
spectrum curve, the peak in the early emergence
of double peak, then again appeared peak, which
has the same change trend of velocity response
spectrum curve.
Figures 11 and 12 show response spectrum
curves, and the second blasting used the electronic
detonator. Due to a larger number of segments, the
standard response spectrum curves appear to have
more sudden peaks, and peak change is small. The
standard velocity response spectrum and the input
acceleration peak depend mainly on the structure
itself. It reflects the structure of the acceleration
signal, and is for selected magnification, for its

843

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 843 10/3/2012 9:24:35 PM

 different structures (with different vibration
frequency), and their relationship to seismic wave
amplification effects. The measurement point 7 is
further than the point 5 from the blasting are. As
can be seen from the velocity response spectrum,
as distance increases, velocity response spectrum
peaks reduce. Blasting vibration intensity reduced
with the blasting seismic wave propagation. The
building near the explosion was not destroyed,
but did experience from blasting but damaging
phenomenon (structures of the self vibration
frequency is lower). far intensity can greatly
reduced.
4 CONCLUSIONS
Foundation excavation blasting practices with
the precise time delay shows that blasting vibra-
tion intensity can be greatly reduced. Through a
combination of pre-splitting blasting, vibration
reducing effect is more obvious. Through the opti-
mization of delay time, the blasting vibration of
electronic detonators have a high frequency with
lower waveform peaks. The blasting vibration can
be controlled with precise delay time electronic
detonators. This also improves the safety of build-
ing and rock fragmentation.
844
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 844
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work is supported by Chinese National Natu-
ral Science Foundation (51074028).
REFERENCES
Bleuzen Y, Jauffret G, Humbert D. Technological
improvements on explosives for underground working
operations. Explosives and Blasting techniques.
Balkema, 2000:187193.
Cunningham C V B. The effected of timing precision on
control of blasting effects. Explosives and Blasting
Technique. Balkema, 2000:123127.
Ding Gang-de, Wang Wei-ce, Chen Xiao-bo. Analysis of
blasting vibration response of short delay blasting.
Blasting, 1997, 14(3):2429. (In Chinese).
Lou Jian-wu, Long Yuan, Fang Xiang, et al. Study
on blasting vibration damage based on response
spectrum. Explosion and Shock Waves. 2003,
23(1):4146. (in Chinese).
Mine Site Technologies Pty Limited. Remote blast
initiation. 2001 MSTPL. 2001:17.
Orica Co. I-Kon digital detonator energy controls. The
Orica Group, 2001.
10/3/2012 9:24:36 PM
 Rock Fragmentation by Blasting Singh & Sinha (Eds)
2013 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-62143-4

Safe blasting practice near pump house structures: A case study

P.K. Satpathy & Pradeep Kumar

BIOM, Bacheli Complex, NMDC Ltd., India

ABSTRACT: Production blasts with 250 mm drill diameter were carried out at 1164 mRL at 150 m
distance from the sensitive structures. The sensitive structures include old shallow-buried water tank and
a surface structure viz., pump house, at 1152 mRL. The brick and mortar constructed water tank, 18 m
diameter and 6 m deep, is located in hard rock hill slope and supplies water to both mining complex
and crushing plant. The paper firstly deals with magnitudes of vibration monitored for different blast
geometries at different distances within this deposit. Thereafter, considering the magnitudes of vibration
monitored for different blast design and initiation pattern evolved a compatible and feasible blasting
sequence and blast design pattern for safe excavation of ore at 1164 mRL. The blasting sequence and the
blast designs adopted in this deposit did not cause damage to both pump house (above surface) and water
tank, the sub-surface structure.

1 INTRODUCTION between inner and outer wall and maintain the

Large diameter drill holes (250 mm) and wider
blast geometry are implemented to achieve the tar-
geted production and productivity from the open-
cast mine. Cost-effective operation, sometimes,
leading to longer depth of blastholes (1114 m)
and wider blast geometry (5 6 m) poses a threat
to sustainable survivability of structures located
around the mine. The unacceptable consequences
of blasting viz., ground vibration and air overpres-
sure, are presently universally accepted as the per-
tinent parameters to cause blast-induced damage
to structures. For blasting operation and safety of
dwellings around the mine, various countries have
enforced legislation to limit magnitude of vibration
for different types of structures. However, for mas-
sive concrete or steel structures or for buried struc-
tures vis--vis pipelines, such conservative limits
would serve no useful purpose and the limits would
vary with site conditions. The dynamic behavior of
structure and crack propagation in these structures
would depend upon the magnitudes of strain devel-
oped in both in-plane and out-of-plane directions.
Dynamic Soil-Structure Interaction (SSI) and the
physical mechanism of load transfer to structure
and its subsequent release is very important. The
nature of interaction would vary with characteris-
tics of wave propagated in soil, interaction between
soil and buried structure and the gap between soil
and buried structure. Furthermore, mathemati-
cally it is well established that for any fluid filled
cylinder, the hoop stress developed on the inner
wall is always higher than that developed on the
outer cylinder wall. So, the thrust exerted due to
blasting may compensate the differential stress
stability of the buried structure. Excess of blast-
induced stresses, if developed, will get transmitted
either circumferentially along the wall of tank or
get released from top opened surface in the form of
water spillage (Getchell, et al, 1984; Getzler, et al,
1968). However, if the time-dependent stress mag-
nitude is very high, cracks may get initiated on the
walls of cylinder to cause leakage. Various authors
have evaluated the impact of blasting on buried or
shallow-buried structuresandhave communicated
that the safe limit is very site specific (Baron, et al,
1966; Gill, 1967; Rosenhaim, 2005). Rosenhaim,
2005 during his investigation have communicated
a vibration magnitude of 247.1 mm/s as safe limit
for buried pipelines. Authors have also observed
that stability of any structure increases with the
characteristics of shape or protective measures
adopted on top surface (Ghaboussi et al, 1984).
Proper cushioning ordoom shaped of top surface
increases the stability of any buried structure.
Considering the prevailing geological and geo-
technical conditions prevailing in deposit no. 5 with
respect to the filter house structures (pump house and
underground water tank), attempt was made for safe
excavation of higher grade ore (Fe content > 65%)
for sustainable utilization of low grade ore present
in other deposits within the mine. The excava-
tion was carried out at 1164 mRL and the filter
house was located at 1152 mRL at 150 m distance
from the blasting site. The plan and cross-sectional
view of the site with respect to filter house location
are shown in Figures 1 & 2 respectively. Considering
the importance of blast design parameters and ini-
tiation pattern on magnitude of vibration, excava-
tion work in this area was planned (Singh et al, 2003;

845

CH108_Paper 081.indd 845 10/4/2012 3:29:42 PM


Figure 1. Plan showing location of mine and filter
house.
Figure 2. Cross section of the deposit with respect to
water tank.
Sun et al, 2001; Rudenko, 2002; Mandal, 2006). The
paper, here, depending upon the magnitudes of
vibration monitored at different distances for dif-
ferent blast designs have evaluated safe sequence of
excavation and blast design pattern for excavation
of high grade ore without causing any damage to
the sensitive structures. Lastly, for safe excavation of
ore below 1152 mRL and maintain stability of water
tank and pump house, the paper have recommended
a reinforcement plan around the filter tank.
2 ABOUT THE AREA
The Bailadila Iron Ore Mine of M/s NMDC Ltd
with a production target of 8.2 Mt ROM and 2.2
Mt waste is situated in South Baster in Dantewada
District of Chattisgarh. The lenticular deposit
is distributed in the Eastern and Western ridges
of Bailadila Iron Ore Series and has been classi-
fied into three subgroups viz., Bhansimetapelites,
Bachelimetasilicickastic, East ridgeshales/slates,
Loa congolomerates and shales and Kailash Nagar
Iron formation. For easier mining operation, the
deposit is further divided into three operating
zones viz., deposit nos. 5, 10 and 11A and thereafter
846
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 846
again divided into sub-blocks, the details of which
are given in Table 1. The lumpy steel grey hema-
tite and blue grey hematite within deposit no. 5 are
excavated by drill and blast method with bench
height 12 m. The geo-technical properties of the
area under study are given in Table 2. Dumpers,
85t capacity, were used for transportation of ore.
Blasting is carried out by using 250 mm diameter
drill holes and loaded with SME and initiated with
NONEL system of initiation. Staggered pattern of
drilling, 6 m spacing and 5 m burden was practiced
within this deposit.
3 IMPORTANCE OF THE WORK
The allowable cut-off grade of ore processed for
final product should contain 45% of Fe in Hematite
and 35% in silicious blue dust. To increase life of
the mine and have maximum utilization of low
grade ore, the deposit of Central Block (CB) in
deposit no. 5 with high grade iron content (more
than 65%) is blended with ROM of low grade of
other blocks for economic operation of mineral
processing plant. Out of the total present proven
reserve i.e., 7.2 mt, about 7% of total reserve of
high grade is found near the filter house location.
But, the sensitive and important structures viz.,
water tank, 18 m diameter and 6 m deep, and the
pump house located at 1152 mRL and 150 m dis-
tance from the blasting site posed a threat for safe
excavation in this area. Report of leakage from the
water tank during earlier blasts blocked the recov-
ery of high grade ore in this area and urged for
implementation of ultra-safe excavation pattern.
4 EXPERIMENTAL BLASTS
The deposit near the filter house was earlier exca-
vated by drill and blast method with staggered pat-
tern blast geometry, 5 m burden and 6 m spacing.
Review of the existing pattern revealed that the
orientation of bench face vis--vis throw direc-
tion was opposite to the location of filter house
structures. The staggered drilling blast pattern with
14 m hole depth were loaded with 300 kg explo-
sive concentrated at the bottom of blast holes.
NONEL system of initiation with total charge
varying between 9000 to 10050 kg was regularly
practiced at the site. The schematic firing pattern
practiced is shown in Figure 3. The implemented
firing pattern and blast geometry revealed the pos-
sibility of maximum vibration towards the direc-
tion of pump house. Furthermore, use of DTH
system of initiation and concentrated charge at the
bottom with high stemming column (89 m) possi-
bly have resulted into maximum borehole pressure
10/3/2012 9:24:36 PM
 Table 1. Location and dip direction of the deposits.

Location
Name of
deposit Latitude Longitude Regional strike Sub-blocks Dip direction

5 1841 to 1842 8111 to 811230 N37E Four 55 towards E

10 1841 40 to 1843 15 8113 15 to 8113 45 N-S Two Towards east
11A 1840 10 to 1841 33 8113 20 to 811340 N-S Two Towards east

Table 2. Geo-technical properties of deposit no. 5.

Density Compressive strength Tensile strength

Types of ore [gm/cm3] [kg/cm2] [kg/cm2] Poisson ratio

Steel gray hematite (Fe-69%) 4.50 1418.35 6.76 0.37

Blue gray hematite (Fe-68%) 4.37 1496.53 21.82 0.20
Banded hematite quartzite (Fe-45%) 3.45 4092 26.90 0.20
Shale (Fe-35%) near filter house 2.94 342.61 4.68 0.13

Figure 3. Schematic diagram of firing pattern practiced Figure 4. Vibration monitoring locations.
before investigation.

at bottom of the blastholes resulting into transmis-
sion of maximum blast-induced energy towards the
pump house structures. The repeated high magni-
tude blast-induced impacts might have weakened
the brick-mortar cohesive force within the shallow-
buried structure (Water tank) to cause minor leak-
age of water from the reservoir. Soon after curing
the inner wall with cement flushing, drilling and
blasting operation in this area was temporarily
suspended until a comprehensive safe methodol-
ogy of drill and blast method was evolved for safe
excavation in this zone.
Considering the importance of the deposit at
1164 mRL in deposit no. 5, experimental trials
with different blast geometry and initiation pat-
tern were conducted and vibration was monitored
at various distances and at other sensitive loca-
tions within the mine boundary viz., underground
tunnel for ore transportation, crusher plant, sub-
station etc., thephotographs of which are shown
in Figure 4. During these trials depth of holes
varied between 11 and 14 m with number of holes
between 13 and 95. Explosive weight per hole and
total weight of explosive per round during these
trials varied between 201 kg and 398 kg and 2608
and 33619 kg respectively. Maximum of 29.5 mm/s
vibration magnitude was monitored at 115 m from
the blast is shown in Table 3 (Mandal et al, 2011).

847

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 847 10/3/2012 9:24:36 PM

 Table 3. Blast induced ground vibration and air overpressure measured at different distances.

B. no. 1 2 3 4 5

Location of blast RL 1164 CB RL 1068 CB RL 1164 CB RL 1044 CB RL 1188 CB

Explosive charge 201 354 201 398 269
per delay [kg]
Total explosives [kg] 2608 33620 3811 6364 7276
Distance [m] 124 1495 115 1268 748
PPV [mm/s] 16.6 1.08 29.5 <0.5 0.33
Dominant peak 12 3 11 13
frequency [Hz]
Air over pressure/noise 131.7 131.7 131.7 117.2
[dB(L)]

Figure 6. Excavation sequence near the filter house

Figure 5. FFT analysis of blast wave at 115 m structures.
distance.

Fast Fourier Analyses of blast waves was also car-
ried out to evaluate frequency of vibration. FFT
analysis of maximum vibration monitored during
the trials is shown in Figure 5. Characteristics of
vibration data monitored during the experimental
trials revealed that multi-deck loading system, total
charge per round and initiation pattern directly
influenced the attenuation characteristics and the
vibration parameters viz., acceleration, duration
of vibration and peak energy. The findings of the
study were also in tune with the outcomes of other
researchers investigated in this field (Yang, et al,
1994; Mandal, 2008; Ramulu et al, 2002; Roy et al,
2007). Considering the blast design parameters
that influences magnitude of vibration, plan was
made for excavation of ore at 1164 mRL in deposit
no. 5 i.e., near pump house structures.
In this area, planning was made to firstly change
the face configuration by altering the throw direc-
tion i.e., either parallel to or at an oblique direction
to the alignment of filter house structures. This
wascarried out by making a cut in small sections
until the boundary of the deposit. The dimension
of the cut was 40 m 30 m. Excavation of this
cut was safely carried out by restricting number
of holes per round and modifying the initiation
pattern. Since, vibration is the resultant impact
of explosive detonated within blastholes and the
magnitude varies with the time duration lapsed
between detonation of explosive and its escape
through free face, blast geometry was reduced to
3 m burden and 3.5 m spacing. Explosive per hole,
about 201 kg distributed in three decks, resulted
into excellent result. Magnitude of vibration moni-
tored was 16.6 mm/s at 124 m distance from the
blast site. For development of this trench, number
of holes per round was restricted to 11 in two rows.
The drilling and firing pattern for excavation of
the cut/trench is shown in Figure 6. The initiation
pattern adopted in this area clearly indicates that
the throw direction was at an obtuse angle to the
axis of pump house structures i.e., minimum vibra-
tion near the structures.
Soon after development of the free face, pro-
duction blasts at 1164 mRL in deposit no. 5 was
carried out. Production blasts were carried out
against the free face developed by the cut/trench.
In production blasts also, care was taken to achieve

848

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 848 10/3/2012 9:24:37 PM

 easy release of gaseous energy and thereby have
minimum vibration impact on the surroundings.
To reduce the concentrated impact of explosive on
detonation, explosive loaded within blastholes for
these blasts was also well distributed in three decks.
With blast geometry of 3.5 m burden and 4 m
spacing for 14 m depth of blastholes, the initiation
pattern was so modified that the throw direction is
almost towards the pump house. Number of holes
for these lasts was restricted to 11. To avoid coop-
eration of blast waves impact on the surroundings,
no two blastholes vis--vis decks were allowed to
get detonated within 15 ms (Spathis, 1999). The
detailed drilling, charging and firing pattern is
Figure 8. Reinforcement plan for safety of water tank.
shown in Figure 7. The initiation pattern for the
production blasts took sufficient care to have each
hole detonated against the free face developed by
the earlier detonated blastholes. Maximum magni- In addition to the above precautionary measures, a
tude of vibration monitored with this pattern was trench should be made to absorb the blast-induced
well within 20 mm/s measured near the water res- shock energy (Gelfand et al, 2001; Zhuang et al,
ervoir and pump house structures. 2003). Dimension of the trench should be 8 m
However, for mining at 1152 mRL or below, deep and 56 m wide at about 1015 m away from
reinforcement of the water tank was very essential. the well. The reinforcement pattern for protection
Gap between rock-structure, if any, should be nul- of deep well is shown in Figure 8. In addition to
lified by consolidation of strata surrounding the the reinforcement plan, blasting activity may sus-
underground tank. The area should be reinforced tain ifblasthole diameter and depth of holes are
by placing 8 m fully grouted vertical rock bolts. restricted to 160 mm and 68 m respectively.
Rock bolting should be placed in two rows in stag-
gered pattern with a burden of 1.5 m. After placing
grouted bolts, the area should be cement grouted. 5 CONCLUSION
Grouting should be carried out through holes, equal
to depth of well, drilled between the rock bolts. Optimum burden and proper distribution of explo-
sive within blastholes coupled with in-hole delays
reduced magnitude of vibration and increased
the safety of water tank. Delay timing of 25 ms
between holes in same row and 67 ms between rows
achieved better rock movement for each consecu-
tive hole against the free face developed by earlier
fired holes. Duration of vibration and impact on
structure was also reduced by restricting number
of holes per round. The initiation pattern, shown
in Figures 6 & 7, resulted into maximum vibration
in the direction away from the filter house struc-
tures. However, for working at 1152 mRL or below,
the vulnerable structures should be reinforced as
per the plan shown in Figure 8. Diameter of blast-
holes should also be reduced to 160 mm.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Authors are thankful to the management of

NMDC for its support for writing and presentation
of this paper at 10th International Symposium on
Rock Fragmentation By Blasting to be held dur-
ing November 2429, 2012 at New Delhi. Authors
are also thankful to organizing committee to accept
Figure 7. Charging and firing pattern near filter house. the paper for its inclusion in the symposium.

849

FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 849 10/3/2012 9:24:37 PM

 REFERENCES
Baron, M.L., Christian, C.E. & Skidan, O. 1966.
Particle-in-Cell Method in Shock Propagation Prob-
lems. Journal of Engineering Mechanics, ASCE,
Vol. 92, No. EM6, pp. 205228.
Gelfand, B.E., Silnikov, M.V., Mikhailin, A.I. & Orlov,
A.V., 2001. Attenuation of Blast Overpressures from
Liquid in an Elastic Shell. Combustion, Explosion, and
Shock Waves, Vol. 37, No. 5, pp. 607612.
Getchell, J.V., Kiger, S.A., Slawson, T.R. & Hyde, D.W.
1984. Vulnerability of Shallow-Buried Flat-Roof
Structures. Rept SL-80-7, WES, 19801984.
Getzler, Z., Kormonik, A. & Mazurik, A. 1968. Model
Study on Arching above Buried Structures. J. Soil
Mech. Found. Div., ASCE, v94, SM5, pp.11231141.
Ghaboussi, J., Millavec, W.A. & Isenberg, J. 1984. R/C
Structures Under Impulsive Loading. J. Struct. Engg.,
ASCE, v110, n3, pp. 505521.
Gill, H.L. 1967. Active Arching of Sand During Dynamic
Loading, US Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory,
report R541.
Mandal, S.K., Sawmliana, C., Singh, M.M., Singh, R.K.,
Bhagat, N.K. & Roy, P.P. 2011. Safe blast pattern with
the use of SME to contain blast induced ground
vibration and noise within safe limit at BIOM, Bacheli
Complex, NMDC Ltd. CIMFR Report of Investiga-
tion, CNP/2809/20112012, March, 2011.
Mandal, S.K., Singh, M.M. & Bhagat, N.K. 2006.
Magnitude of Vibration vis--vis Charge per Delay
and Total Charge. The Institution of Engineers (India),
MN Journal, Vol. 86, February, pp. 3238.
Mandal, S.K., Singh, M.M., Bhagat, N.K. & Dasgupta, S.
2008. Impact of single-hole and multi-hole blasting
on vibration parameters. Journal of Mines, Metals &
Fuels, Vol. 56, Nos. 7 & 8, JulyAugust, pp. 122129.
Ramulu, M., Chakraborty, A.K., Raina, A.K., Reddy,
A.H. & Jethwa, J.L. 2002. Influence of burden on the
intensity of ground vibrations in a limestone quarry.
The seventh Int. Symposiumon Rock Fragmentation by
Blasting, FRABBLAST 7, China, pp. 617624.
850
FRAGBLA_Book_02.indb 850
Rosenhaim, V.L. 2005. Response of a residential structure
and buried pipelines to construction blasting in basalt
on the west side of Albuquerque-NM. (Unplished
Thesis)Department of Mineral engineering, New Mex-
ico Institute of Mining and Technology, Socorro, New
Mexico.
Roy, M.P., Singh, P.K., Singh, G. & Monjezi, M. 2007.
Influence of initiation mode of explosives in open-
cast blasting on ground vibration, Mining Technology,
Vol. 116, No. 1, pp. 16.
Rudenko, D. 2002. An analytical approach for diagnos-
ing and solving blasting complaints. The Journal of
Explosives Engineering, Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 3641.
Singh P.K., Roy M.P., Singh R.K. & Sirveiya A.K. 2003.
Impact of blast design and initiation sequence on
blast vibration. Proceedings of National Seminar on
Explosives and Blasting, DGMS, Dhanbad, India,
pp. 118126.
Spathis, A.T. 1999. On the energy efficiency of blasting. The
4th International Symposium on Rock Fragmentation
by Blasting, Johannesburg, 58 July 1999, pp. 8190.
Sun, C., Later, D.W. & Chen, G. 2001. Analysis of the
effect of borehole size on explosive energy loss in rock
blasting. J. of Rock Fragmentation for Blasting, Vol. 5,
No. 4, pp. 235246.
Yang, R.L., Rocque, P., Katsabanis, P. & Bawden, W.F.
1994. Measurement and analysis of near-field blast
vibration and damage. Geotechnical and Geological
Engineering, Vol. 12, pp. 169182.
Zhuang, S., Ravichandran, G. & Grady, D.E. 2003. An
experimental investigation of shock wave propagation
in periodically layered composites. J. Mech. and Phys.
Vol. 51, pp. 245265.
10/3/2012 9:24:37 PM
 Fragblast 10
Pradeep K. Singh
Amalendu Sinha
Editors

Rock Fragmentation by Blasting contains the papers presented at the 10th

International Symposium on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting (New Delhi, India,
26-29 November 2012), and represents the most advanced forum on blasting
science and technology. The contributions cover all major recent advancements in
blasting and fragmentation, from realistic treatment of the target rock; modelling,
measurement and prediction of blast results; control of blast-induced damage,
to special blast designs applicable to civil construction and demolition projects.
The latest developments on environmental issues associated with blasting
operations such as vibrations, flyrock, and dust are also included.

Rock Fragmentation by Blasting provides the state-of-the-art in explosives

and blasting engineering, and will be a valuable source of information for
researchers and practitioners involved in these areas.

Pradeep K. Singh
Amalendu Sinha
Editors

Fragblast symposium DEF SPINE.indd 1 05-10-2012 15:03:39