Launching the moon rockel BY KURT H, DEBUS NASA Launch Operations Center LC-39 complex of launch facilities for advanced Saturn C-5 marks major advance over past operations with combination of automatic checkout in industrial-like environment, movement of ready vehicles to multipad complex, and remote control of launch itself Uuwlave FACILITIES Now ef Satu G5 tow eevintee Satur With the announcement by President, Kennedy in May 1961 of a national objective to place an American on the moon and return him to earth during this decade, the United States, Iaunched what is perhaps the most ambitious peacetime scientific program, in its history—the Manned Lunar Landing Program (MLLP). Prob- ems formidable indeed present them- selves along the path to this objective, but NASA is confident these problems can be solved and the President's schedule met. nto being wil Pep mak the event lusated above 2 rely Management responsibility for the ‘Manned Lunar Landing Program has been established within NASA Head- quarters in the Office of Manned Space Flight (OMSF), headed by D. Brainerd Holmes. ‘The Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC), Huntsville, Ala, directed by Wernher von Braun, was assigned the task of developing the moon rocket, now designated Sat- urn C-5, or Advanced Saturn. The Manned Spacecraft Center (MSC), di- rected by Robert Gilruth, was estab- lished at Houston, Texas, and assigned Astronautice and acroepace engineeringthe task of developing the spaceeraft, now designated Apollo. The Launch ‘Operations Center (LOG), located at the Atlantic Missile Range and di rected by the author, has been as- signed the task of developing facilities for and conducting the launch of the ‘moon rocket. Both MSFO and MSC maintain field-operation organizations at Cape Canaveral which LOC supports. In the conduct of Iaunch operations, the Taunch team will be composed of as- signed members from each of the Cen- ters and their contractors. The launch teams for the spacecraft and launch vehicle will function with tech- nical responsibility to their parent centers, with over-all operational re- sponsibility to the LOC Director. Spacecraft mission control will rest with MSC. Since the problems related to launch operations are LOC’s responsibility, the scope of this article will be limited to concepts, techniques, and facilities for the launch of the ‘Saturn-Apollo space vehicle. It is readily apparent that the great inerease in size of the Saturn C-5 launch vehicle, as com- pared to its predecessor, the Saturn -1, will generate many unique prob- lems. ‘These will require exceptional progress in such areas as automatic checkout, propellant storage and trans- fer, sound attenuation, blast protec tion, and facility construction, not to ‘mention unusual commitments in man- power, logisties, and financing. ‘The nature of the mission, moreover, requires a very high order of reli- ability and safety in launch operations. ‘The prospects that the MLLP will de- velop into an expanded effort extend- ing into the exploration of our solar system, and perhaps beyond, requires that plans for high-launeh-rate capa Dility be made, And it is most de: able that any launch facility be cap- able of accommodating the various space-vehicle configurations that doubtless will be developed in the future. With these facts and thoughts in mind, let us turn to the means being developed by LOC to meet its responsi- bilities in the MLLP. It will be help- ful to begin by reviewing the Saturn launch vehicles and existing Saturn launch facilities. ‘With the advent of the Saturn class of launch vehicles, launch and ground- support facilities and equipment moved to a new level of significance, owing chiefly to their inereased com- plexity. At the same time, the inter- relationship of space vehicle and ground equipment demanded the most detailed serutiny for adequacy and effectiveness. In point of fact, the objectives of the Manned Lunar Land- March 1903 ing Program led to a critical evalua tion of former rocket launch concepts to insure the MLLP objectives will be achieved with maximum effectiveness and minimum cost. As will be seen, this critical appraisal led to the de~ velopment of a new approach for launching the Saturn C-5, as compared with methods employed for Saturn C-1. ‘As proper background, we should look at the entire range of vehicles involved in the Manned Lunar Land- ing Program and the facilities now in being for Saturn C-1 and planned for C-1B. We will then he in position to discuss the factors leading to the adop- tion of the more advanced concept to be employed in launching the C-5 and to deseribe the actual launch complex, designated Launch Complex 39, now under design and in the very early phases of construetion, Early Saturn Development. An order for the Army Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA) to plan development. of a elustered-engine booster to carry lange vehicles into space was issued by the Advanced Research Projects Ageney (ARPA) of the Department of Defense on Aug. 15, 1958. The project, then called Juno-V, was re- named Saturn on Feb. 3, 1959. ‘A short time after the development program was initiated, ARPA decided that the new vehicle should be de- veloped to flight configuration, and ABMA started system studies for a complete vehiele. ‘The early concept of this vehicle, providing for a first stage with eight H-1 engines and a Titan upper stage, was called Saturn B. During this period, NASA was formed and was assigned responsibil- ity for conducting the nation’s peace- fal exploration of space. In October 1059, a joint NASA-DOD committee reviewed proposals for Saturn upper stages and recommended that designs utilize the high-energy propellant com- nation, liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen. This resulted in the evolu- tion of the present-day Saturn C con- figuration ‘Saturn C-1, Block I. A prototype Saturn first-stage reached its test stand at the Marshall Space Flight Center in February 1960, a year and a half after the start of the projeet. ‘The initial static test was conducted some two months later. ‘The first Saturn C-1, Block I vehicle (SA-1) reached Cape Canaveral on Aug. 15, 1961, and was successfully Taunched on Oct. 27, 1961, little more than three years after an order for its development was issued. Saturn C-1, Block I carries dummy S-IV and S-V upper stages that are filled with water ballast for R&D aunchings to test first-stage engine operation and reliability, structural integrity, and aerodynamic stability. ‘An additional objective was achieved with SA-2, launched on April 25, 1962, and SA-3, launched on Nov. 16, 1962, when the’ water in the upper stages was explosively released high above the Atlantic Ocean for a meteorologi- eal research mission called “Project High Water. ‘The Saturn C-1, Block I vehicle, in- cluding its dummy S-IV and S-V upper stages, stands 163 ft high—approxi- mately the height of an 18-story build- ing. ‘The S-I clustered-engine first- stage is 82 ft high and has a diameter of approximately 21 1/2 ft. It carries 750,000 Ib of liquid oxygen and RP-1, and develops a liftoff thrust slightly over 1,800,000 Ib. In the first two launches at Cape Canaveral, the pro- pellant tanks of the S-I stage carried 650,000 Ib of propellants. ‘The SA-3 ‘was the first vehicle in which the SI stage carried a maximum propellant load. Saturn C-1, Block I, Following the Saturn C-1, Block T series will come the Saturn C-1, Block II eonfig- uration, a two-stage vehicle designed for earth-orbit missions. It consists of the S-I stage, S-IV stage, instru- ‘ment unit, and payload, ‘The S-IV stage will earry 100,000 Ib of propellants and will have six RLI0-A3 liquid hydrogen-liquid oxy en engines, with the eapability of de- veloping a total of 90,000 Ib of thrust. ‘The S-IV stage will be 41 ft long: and measure 18 ft in diam. Some major modifieations will be incorporated into the S-I first stage of Block II vehicles, The propellant oad of liquid oxygen and RP-1 will be raised from 750,000 to 850,000 Ib and the thrust will be uprated to a full 1,500,000 Ib at lito. ‘The rigidity of the vehicle will be substantially increased by structural changes, and its aerodynamic stability improved by the addition of eight fins at the base of the S-I stage. In addi- tion, the fins will support the vehicle and serve az holddown connections. ‘The Saturn C-1, Block II vehicle be capable of injecting a 20,000-Ib payload into low earth orbit. SA-5 through SA-10 will be launched for qualification of the launch vehicle. In addition to vehicle qualification, these launches will also be used for develop- ment of the Apollo spacecraft system. After SA-10 the C-I will be opera tional and manrated. Saturn C-1B. The next generation of the Saturn C-1 has beon designated Saturn C-1B. A two-stage vehicle able to inject 30,000-1b payload into orbit, it will permit orbital testing of the heavier Apollo spacecraft required for the lunar mission and performance of supereireular reentry experiments. Its S-I stage will be the same 1,500,- a000-Ib-thrust launch vehicle that will have been qualified during the Saturn, C-1, Block II series. The second stage will be a S-IVB, 59 ft long and 22 ft in diam, with a single 5-2 200,000-Ib-thrast engine. Tt will be considerably more powerful and versatile than the S-IV second stage of the Saturn C-1, Block II series. The S-IVB will carry 230,000 Ib of propel- lants, as compared to the 100,000 Ib carried by the S-IV. It will have atti- tude control and restart capability in orbital and lunar flights, Later, as a third stage in Saturn C-5, it will serve to boost the Apollo spacceraft into a translunar trajectory. A three-stage version of the Saturn C-1B could provide a logistics system for supplying men after they have established a station on the moon, and could also provide a vehicle for inter- planetary and deep space missions. Tt Is expected that the Saturn C-1B will be a very useful vehicle in the years ahead, fulfilling launch requirements for many space projects not yet. pro- grammed. Saturn C-5, Lunar travel has al- ways been a basic objective of the Saturn program. In planning the de- velopment of the program many studies were made of various con- figurations of the Saturn vehicle. ‘The vehicles considered by these studies were designated in the order of their C-1, C-2, C2, C-4, and C-5. The rapid advancements in technology that have taken place within the last few years, together with the definition of the mission assigned by the MLLP, have enabled NASA to overstep the €-2, C8, and C-4 vehicle configurations and move from the C-1 directly to the development of the C-5. Also, the earth-orbit rendezvous technique was replaced by the lunar-orbit one as the ‘UR H,veBUs has bean Director of the NASA Laorek. ons Cater sie i eaiehed in Iu 862.4 member abe cermin stent {eam that cams tothe US" ater Wors War ‘or Dea ta pBiticiatd In ore fan eso sar 38 eetonment te ‘sth Ioneber many Cee Santer. a first method of using the C-5 to carry out the assigned mission. On ‘its launching pad the three stages of O-5 will tower some 280 ft above the launch pedestal. With the Apollo spacecraft in place, it will be approximately 360 ft tall. When fueled, the Saturn—Apollo space ve- hicle will weigh 3000 tons, Its S-IC. first stage will be 188 ft long and 33. ft in diam. Its five F-1 engines will generate a thrust of 7,500,000 Ib at sea level. The S-II second stage, also 33, ft in diam, will be 82 ft long. ‘The thrust of its five J-2 engines will be 41,000,000 Ib. ‘The third stage will be the S-IVB, ‘The C-5 will be capable of injecting a payload of over 200,000 1b into low orbit and of boosting 90,000 Ib to es- cape velocity. It will consequently have the capability of launching men and equipment for a soft landing on ‘the moon, putting large circumlunar and lunar orbits, serving in a lunar logistics system, injecting into orbit a large manned space sta- tion, carrying aloft nuclear reactor- ight test hardware, into large payloads trajectories, Evolution of the ©5 has required yhat parallel advancement be made in the development of launch facilities, and introduced problems of similar complexity in them. ‘The first Saturn Iaunch facility was Launch Complex 34, Launch Complex 34. The first Saturn C-1 was launched on its initial R&D flight from Launch Complex 34. In the center of its pad is the launch. pedestal, a reinforeed concrete plat form 42 ft sq and 27 ft tall with a 25-ft-diam hole in its center to channel engine exhaust gases onto a two-way deflector below. The pedestal is also used as a base upon which to mount. vehicle support and holddown arms and ground-support equipment, such as electrical, pneumatic, and propel- ant-loading ‘umbilieals." A flame de- flector channels the exhaust gases pro- duced by the engines of the S-I stage 50 as not to build up excessive hack- pressure on the tail of the vehicle and to minimize damage to the launch facilities. LC-84’s 240-f¢ umbilical tower stands alongside the launch pedestal. Primarily it supports umbilical swing arms which carry the service lines (electrical, pneumatic, propellant, and environmental control) for vehicle servicing during prelaunch prepar tions and launch. An automatic ground control station (AGCS) is lo- cated partly in the base of the umbili cal tower and partly below the pad surface under the tower base. This area houses the equipment and serves interplanetary as terminal and distribution point for measuring and checkout equip- ‘ment, electrical power, control cir- cuitry for propellant and high-pres- sure gas systems, pneumatic control equipment, and piping systems con- necting the vehicle and its ground-sup- port equipment. Included is a gener- ator room which provides AC and DC power. A cable tunnel under the pad connects the AGCS room to the eable- way extending to the launch control center, LC-54's service structure, a 2800-ton tower 810 ft high, gives access to the space vehicle for assembly, servic- ing, and checkout, and provides hurri- ‘cane protection for it during the pre- Taunch period on the Iaunch pedestal. Erected on rails, it is moved 600 ft away from the space vehicle before launch, Four 100-hp motors power the structure's four carriages and pro- pel it to and away from the launch pedestal. The structure anchors in steel piers by hydraulically operated ‘wedges when it is on the launch pad, This anchoring system allows it to withstand hurricane winds. An iden- tical anchor system is also provided at its launch-park position. RP-1 fuel is provided to the C-1 vehicle first stage from two above- ground tanks providing a total storage capacity of 58,000 gal. The fuel is pumped into the vehicle through an Bin, Hine at a rate of 2000 gpm. Normally, RP-1 loading: is completed in about 40 min. A. 125,000-gal_vacuum-jacketed liq- uid hydrogen storage tank, with re- ated distribution and control equip- ‘ment, is now under construction for use on C-1, Block IT and subsequent ve~ hicles. Hydrogen-fuel transfer will be made at a rate up to 2000 gpm by pressurizing the tanks to 45 psige with aseous hydrogen. Fuel will be transferred from the storage tank to the vehicle stage through a 6-in, vacuum-jacketed line. Included in the transfer system is a sub-cooler unit which uses boilof of liquid hydrogen in the cooler to reduce the temperature of the propellant ap- proximately 2 F to about —427 P. Vented hydrogen is disposed of by burning under carefully controlled con- ‘The liquid oxygen (lox) system includes two storage tanks. The main container, with a 125,000-gal eapacity, is an above-ground sphere with out- side diameter of 43 ft. The inner tank is surrounded by 4 ft of Perlite, a mineral insulating powder, to limit the evaporation loss due to heat ab- sorption to less than half of 1% per day. An 8.in. line is used to fill the S.I stage, with lox being pumped at, rates up to 2500 gpm. A Gin. line Astronautice and aerospace enginceringuused to fill the S-IV stage; with lox being pumped at rates up to 1000 gpm. A 19,000-gal-capacity tank re- plenishes the liquid oxygen that boils off. Liquid oxygen from this tank is transferred to the launch vehicle through a separate vacuum-jacketed line, by pressure generated by gaseous oxyger ‘A high-pressure gas storage area contains storage vessels for 480 cu {tof nitrogen and 600 cu ft of helium at a pressure of 6000 psig. The gases are fed to the Automatic Ground Con- trol Station, where they are regu- lated and distributed at 6000 psig to the vehicle and ground-support equip- ment. ‘A water system installed on the pad and throughout the service struc~ ture serves as a safety measure and for fire protection. There is also a firefighting water deluge system used to flood the pad area and to wash away spilled fuels. ‘The blockhouse, which houses the Launch Control Center (LCC), is very similar in construction to those built ‘at the Cape for the Titan and Atlas Taunch complexes. It is a circular, domed building of reinforeed concrete, providing 9500 sq ft of protected floor space for equipment and launch crew. From it can be controlled all prelaunch and launch activities. ‘The Tauneh control center uses analog sig- nals for data display. These sig- nals can be transmitted only a rela- tively short distance without ampli- fication, making it necessary to lo- cate the LCC relatively close to the launch pad. The blockhouse on Com- plex 34 is approximately 1000 ft from the launch pad. It must therefore be of sufficiently rugged construction to provide protection for its occupants in the event of a catastrophe on the pad. Launch Complex $7. Less than a mile up the coast from LC-84, another and larger complex, Launch Com- plex 37, is scheduled to launch its first Saturn vehicle shortly after the middle of the year. Covering over 120 acres, Launch Complex 37 has ‘two launch pads, against LC-84’s one, ‘and consequently it will have a greater Taunch-rate capacity; for operations ‘ean begin on the “ready” pad while post-launch refurbishing is completed fon the other. The second pad also allows the complex to continue op- rations, even though one pad might be severely damaged by a serious Iaunch mishap. Both pads are served by a single service structure and a single Inunch control center, and both draw propellants and high-pressure ‘gases from the same sources. Con- struction on one pad is now complete, and the installation of ground sup- March 1968 port equipment for launch operations is underway. ‘The Iaunch pedestals used on the two pads of LC-87 are similar to the one used on LC-84, Fabricated of steel, they are 47 ft square and 35 ft tall, with a 33-ftdiam hole in the center to channel the engine exhaust ‘gases onto the deflector below. To- gether with their flame deflectors, they are equipped and utilized very much like LO-84’s. ‘The umbilical towers, 268 ft high, fare so designed that as much as 52 ft of structure could be added should ‘the additional height be required. Bach is equipped to function in the same way as LC-84’s umbilical tower. Likewise, the checkout ground sta- tion is similar to LC-34's, "The launch service structure is 300 ft high. It is designed so that 30 {ft of structure can be added if needed. With its derrick mast on top, the structure rises 875 ft above the Cape Canaveral terrain. The derrick can Tift 60 tons; and therefore it can lift all stages and spacecraft in turn ‘for erection on the pedestal. ‘The structure moves between the Jauneh pads on rails, with forty-eight B4ft-diam wheels carrying its 3500 tons at variable speeds up to 40 fpm. After movement, the weight of the structure is transferred from the wheels to steel piers by means of hydraulic jacks, and the structure is anchored to the piers. To transfer the weight from the piers to the wheels the procedure is reversed. The structure is equipped with a clam-shell “silo,” designed to completely enclose the vehicle on the pedestal for hurri- eane protection. Adjustable work platforms give access to all parts of the vehicle during launch preparation. ‘The propellant systems distribut- ing RP-1, liquid oxygen, and liquid hydrogen’ on LC-87 utilize storage tanks and ¥ distribution lines to serve both pads of the complex. Capaci- ties and methods of operation of the propellant systems on LC-87 are much like those of LC-34. Complex 87 is being equipped with a central high-pressure gas system to supply gaseous nitrogen and helium both to it and LC-34. Nitrogen will be stored in liquid form in a 35,000- gal insulated tank. ‘The gaseous trogen storage battery is supplied from the liquid nitrogen storage tank by means of vaporizers. The gaseous- helium storage battery is charged by compressors from supplies of helium brought in at lower pressures. ‘The launch control center is very similar to that built to serve LC-34. Tis size has been increased somewhat to provide more space for equipment and operating personnel. Its function, however, remains basically the same ‘as that of its predecessors Launch Concept for the Moon Rocket. Although Launch Complexes ‘34 and 87 represent a new generation of Inunch sites, they differ from their predecessors mainly in the fact that larger fixed facilities were required for the size of the C-1 vehicles. The basic operational philosophy for the previous “fixed concept” of R&D Taunch operations was still retained. ‘The space vehicle is erected, prepared, and checked out on the pad-—a process. taking months of pad time. ‘When the requirements of the ‘Manned Lunar Landing Program be- gan to crystallize, it became clear that the launch-operations area faced fa new challenge. Major factors dic- tating the need for a new approach included the greatly increased size and complexity of the C-5 vehicle, ‘a need for unprecedented reliability, and the value of flexibility in handling varying launch rates and in having a fast re-cyele time. In planning for the C-5, consideration was given to the selection of both “mobile” and “fixed” facility concepts. ‘The bile” concept received close attention because of the economies in real estate and manpower it appeared to offer in addition to its flexibility and gen- eral utility. ‘The “mobile” concept of launch op- erations employs four basic features— vertical assembly and checkout of the space vehicle on its launcher in an industrial-like environment, transfer of the assembled and checked-out space vehicle on its launcher to the pad, automatic checkout, and remote con- ‘trol of actual launch operations from a distant launch-control center. ‘These features have in fact been adopted for the Iaunch complex that will handle Saturn C-5—Launch Com- plex 39. Each represents a significant departure from previous operations with very large rockets. ‘Vertical assembly facilities, really ‘one building (VAB), for the C-5 will allow four space vehicles to undergo detailed and time-consuming assembly and checkout operations at the same time. The personnel who conduct as- sembly and checkout will be concen- trated in the building. When the space vehicle leaves the VAB it will be fully checked out and ready for installation on the launch pad and the operations to follow. Pad time will be reduced to a mini ‘the Iauncher to the launch pad, in a 1 position, a specially designed erawler-transporter will be used. Shown on page 27, it will be a self- contained unit that can lift and main- tain the vehicle earrier and its load as5 = 3 z siin a level position as it carries them to the pad. ‘Automatic checkout techniques are virtually essential to the successful accomplishment of the objectives of the new launch concept. Not only has the complexity of the vehicle greatly inereased, but also at the same time a need for high firing rates results in lest time available at the pad for checkout. Automatic check- out significantly cuts the time needed in checkout procedures. Moreover, its reliability ean be enhanced by the ju- dicious blending of automatic and ‘manual techniques. "The present technique of prepar- _ Fase care ea i eg %, g 8 care ing a space vehicle for launch sees the systems engineers test and cali- brate the components, subsystems, and. systems separately, disconnecting and isolating each as much as required, from all other systems. Then, a process of gradual test integration is followed until the total configura. tion is ready for launch. Every time ‘a major component is replaced or a vital connection broken, time consum- ing but necessary revalidating proc- ‘esses are repeated. Tn eontrast, the LC-39 concept will see the use of automatic checkout in- volving computers. It will be possi- ble to check out components and sys- tems continuously with the planned equipment, However, instead of tech- nnieians breaking into the systems, ac~ ‘cess to all important functions and data measuring will be provided by design in the vehicle. For example, there are several tests that require the operation of the pro- pellant-tank-pressure sensing switches, Which interlock the subsystems to be tested. Since it is not practical to pressurize these tanks for each test, the C-5 design will incorporate “test” manifolding to provide test pressures that will independently activate the pressure-sensing switches, simulating their in-flight operation. The checks will be performed by computers in which the tests are programmed. In this way manual-checkout operations ean be reduced by several orders of ‘magnitude. ‘To gain access to all the various points of interest and derive valid data, subsystems and components must be isolated, not by manual separation, but by suitable separation devices that will later “fly along,” yet be subject to manipulation during checkout. In other words, each system or compo- nent to be checked must be separated or isolated, stimuli addressed to it, land the response measured and com- pared with a set of standards of al- Towable tolerances. If the measured response exceeds tolerances prescribed for the component, an indication is riven as to the problem area. This will require some more valves, re- lays, pressure taps, wiring systems, ‘and high- or low-pressure piping sys- tems, to name only a few of the addi- tionally required components. All of these must be considered in the over- all vehicle design, but they will re- duce the human’ error in checkout as well as the actual checkout time, and will prolong component lifetime. In LC-29, information generated in analog form in the vehicle during pre- Tauneh checkout and countdown will bbe converted to digital form for trans- jon to the Inunch control center, located approximately 17,000 ft from the pad, Here digital data may be reconverted to analog form for dis play or fed directly into a computer. Final verification of the entire ve- hhicle and Inunch-complex system will be performed from the LCC, as would the actual launch. “Automatic checkout ean also be used via RF command link to check out a stage in orbit, with specialists on the ground verifying either component ‘or system operation and, in the event: of a failure, diagnosing malfunction and activating any redundant system that would enable the vehicle to con- tinue its mission. 6For example, after the S-IVB stage has placed the Apollo spacecraft in earth orbit, the complete spacecraft system may well be reverified before the engine of the S-IVB is re-ignited and starts the spacecraft on its way to the moon. It is conceivable, too, that an astronaut could replace or perform repairs on a defective part in space, should this be required. By providing for digital-data trans- mission, checkout of the vehicle on the pad can be performed from the LCC, which is a part of the VAB, thus isolating the more hazardous pad operations while utilizing the same ‘equipment employed during checkout. In summary, then, the Launch Com- plex 39 “mobile” concept provides— 1, Automatic checkout of the space vehicle, including its subsystems and components, through assembly, pre- flight preparation, and launch, 2. The preparation of stages and entire launch vehicles in the indus- trial-type environment of a properly equipped building. 8. Moving the vehicle from its as- sembly and checkout area to its launch pad with all umbilical connections in place, and using the same equipment, to conduct countdown and launch as was used for the checkout of the assembled vehicle, thus retaining va- lidity of tests. 4. Reducing to the shortest time possible the pad operations of connect jing the vehicle to the launch pad, installation of ordnance and auxiliary equipment, countdown, and launeh. ‘The mobile concept also provides ‘multiple launch pads within the over- all complex, with the capability of simultaneous preparation for more than one launch operation. For in- stance, where there must be a cer- tainty of launching a vehicle within 4 specified period of time (astronomi- eal Iaunch window), a backup vehicle may be installed and fully checked out at a launch site adjacent to the ‘one where the operation is scheduled. In the event of failure to launch the scheduled vehicle on time, countdown can be started on the backup ve- hele and its launch accomplished with a minimum of delay. Furthermore, the vehicle that missed its astronomi- eal window can be returned to the Vertical Assembly Building, thus free- ing the pad for the launch of another vehiele. Under the new concept, space ve- hicles will no longer oceupy launch pads for long periods of time. Cur- rently, a space vehicle of the Saturn type in normal operations ties up LC-34 for three months—two months for assembly, preparation, checkout, and launch and one month for pad rehabilitation. On LC-39, the space eo vehicle that experiences severe dif at the pad can be transported fully assembled (without fuel) back to the Vertical Assembly Building for corrections and replaced on the Taunch pad by a space vehicle instru- mented for another mission within a period of a week or s It is expected that considerable sav- ings will be effected in personnel re- quirements by use of the mobile rather than the fixed concept of launch op- erations ‘An added advantage of the mobile concept is the fact that the space vehicle can ride out an alert or hur- ricane in the VAB while remaining in launch readiness. It is expected that in the years ahead the facilities developed on the basis of the mobile concept of launch operations will lend themselves to the accommodation of new launch vehicles that undoubtedly will be developed. This flexibility will, of course, be lim- ited by facility design capacity and dimensions. But within these limita- tions only relatively minor modifica tions should be required. For these several reasons, then, it was decided to adopt the mobile con- cept of launch operations for the ad- vanced Saturn C-5. 1C-39—Concepts To Reality. How will these concepts specifically appear in LC-392 To answer this question, ‘we should look at LC-89 in the light of its expected launch operations. And, since the development of the concepts just described are integrated into both the launch vehicle and the launch facilities, their joint function- ing ean perhaps best be understood by following a normal sequence of Iaunch operations through the com- plex. Stage Arrival at Cape Canaveral. It is now expected that all stages shipped to the Launch Operations Center will have been thoroughly tested at the various contractors’ plants and static-test sites; that each stage received will be “operationally” ready to enter normal launch prep- arations; that water transportation will he used for all stages; and that the spacecraft —command module, service module, and lunar-excursion ‘module —will he transported by air. ‘The spacecraft modules will be transported to the spacecraft opera- tions building, located in the Merritt Ar Ts MoBiLe anwine row, {te Touch veil moe ashen onthe wl be eauppe with eplsve ices a fe, a sIsland Industrial Area, where they will be made ready for mating to the launch vehicle. Water transporation will termi- nate at a mooring slip at the end of the canal, adjacent to the VAB. Since all stages are shipped horizontally fon transporters, they can readily be towed from the vessel’s deck onto the pier, and then into the VAB. Before following the vehicle stages through the VAB, it will be helpful to review this important structure and the Launcher-Umbilieal Tower (LUT), Vertical Assembly Building (VAB). ‘The VAB will play a major role in C5 launch operations. It is desigmed with three major operating areas— high bay, low bay, and Launch Con- ‘trol Center (LCC). ‘The high-bay area houses the Launcher-Umbilical Tower (LUT), of which more will be said later, and pro- vides the facilities and services to assemble the complete launch vehicle in a protected and, where required, controlled environment, and to con- duet prelaunch preparations. ‘The low-hay area contains work stations, supporting utilities, and shop MOVEMENT To THE PA, strats inte sketch sean, wil ae Shown ithe aun Wiens Note th Jace toute ue ote camer ansporer {he Lavch Uc wer (LUD eve rg along mith the enomoss Stumpf and office space for those engaged in pre-assembly preparations of the C-5 upper stages (S-II and S-IVB) and the instrument unit. ‘The LCC houses all equipment re- quired to control the conduct of the actual launch. It will be used dur- ing prelaunch preparations and check- ‘out of the assembled vehicle while the vehicle is in the VAB. Selected equipment can also be used in the pre-assembly preparation of the SIC stage, as well as for stage checkout in the launch operations to follow. Located within the LCC will be the control and monitoring equipment of the automatic checkout and launch concept, The heart of this equipment will be the computer in which pro~ grammed test sequences will be stored. On test initiation, these digitized test commands will be transmitted via a ‘coaxial data link to a slaved computer in the LUT, There the commands will be decoded to provide stimuli to the GSE in the LUT and to vehicle ‘components, making them perform a specific function or series of funetions. ‘The results of these functions will be returned from the vehicle or @SE for evaluation by the computer against preprogrammed values. This evalu- ation will generate an automatic de- termination of “Go” or “No Go.” ‘A Digital Data Acquisition System (DDAS), incorporated within the Iaunch vehicle, will convert all analog. signals to digital form and transmit them by coaxial cable, through the electrical umbilical connections at the vehicle, to the LUT computer and the LCC computer. This system will greatly reduce “hard-wire” cireuitry and the various problems inherent in analog systems, such as ground-loops, noise pickup, and cable losses. ‘The digital data acquired by this system, besides being transmitted to the com- puters, ean also be converted and displayed on eathode-ray tubes or con- ventional potentiometer-type record Tn over-all size, the main build- ng will be approximately 674 ft long by 513 ft wide. A high-bay area, 524- {t tall, will house four vehicle-assem- bly bays, supporting shops, and en- gineering facilities. Bach assembly bay will serve a space vehicle erected on a LUT and provide work access by means of adjustable platforms de- signed to reach any part of the spaceEMEUE STAGES LLB ASEMRLED ad hci oo lg ory ling tof, th V8 ‘a ay OF EAB tech eis ened om cect ut taps on he LUT plato vehicle. Each high bay will have four elevators. The bays will be laid cout in pairs, with one bay on each side of a central transfer aisle, Each pair of bays will be served by a 250-ton overhead bridge crane with a 455-ft hhook height. ‘The transfer aisle will be served by a 175-ton bridge crane which will run the entire length of the transfer aisle as well as the length of the low-bay area, Flexibility. to service different Iaunch-vehicle con figurations, from the larger C-5's to the C-IB's, is thus possible in any of the hays. A low-bay area, 210-f¢ tall, will eon tain pairs of S-II and S-IVB stage- checkout stations, engineering shops, offices, and storage space. Each v hiele-checkout position will be equipped with telescoping work platforms ad. justable vertically to mate with ve- hiele or stage configurations. LCC, a three-story building, 874 by 152 ft in hase area, will be lo. cated adjacent to the high-bay Its first-floor will house offices, a cafe teria, and a dispensary. The second floor will have telemetry, measuring, and checkout systems for use dur- ing stage and vehicle checkouts in the VAB and at the pad, The third. floor will contain four firing rooms, each having control, monitoring, and data-display equipment required for vehicle checkout and launch. There will also be a computer room for each firing room, providing computer equipment to be used in the automatic checkout and launch systems. Launcher-Umbilieal Tower (LUT) The LUT for the C-5 vehicle will weigh about 10 1/2 million Ib. Obvi ously the LUT for a C-1B would be smaller. The LUT can be divided into four major elements—structure, umbilical service arms, firing acces- sories, and operations test and launch equipment. ‘The structure will consist of the launch platform and the umbilical tower. ‘The Inunch platform is to be a two-story steel structure, 25 ft high, 165 ft long, and 135 ft wide, with provisions at its base for mount ing and tie-down on the erawler-trans. porter or on support piers at the pad, the VAB and at the LUT as- sembly and maintenance area, The top deck of the launch plat- form will provide a base for the um. bilieal tower, the vehicle holddown and support arms, and the firing ac- cessories. Internally, the structure will have 24 compartments varying in size from 350 to 1600 sq ft. Housed in these compartments will be a com- puter, propellant servicing racks, elec trical’ power distribution system, and other equipment. ‘The umbilical tower, which extends Astronautics and aerorpace engincering380 ft above the deck of the LUT, will be mounted on one end of the launch platform. ‘The tower struc ture is mounted on a 60-ft-sq hase, and tapers to a 40-ft-sq structure at the 80-£t level, which then extends to the top. The distance from the near- est tower vertical column to the ver- tical centerline of the vehicle will be 60 ft, as established in order to provide ample clearance for the as- cending vehicle after launch. ‘The umbilical tower will support the umbilical service arms and the work and access platforms used at the pad. It will include systems and equipment very similar to LC-34’s. ‘A hammerchead crane located on top of the umbilical tower will have a hook height of 876 ft above the launch- platform deck. The crane will have fa traverse radius of 85 ft from the center of the tower with a 360-deg rotation capability. Two 600-fpm elevators will service 18 stops from the upper compartment level to the 40- level Umbilical service arms will pro- vide personnel acess and support lectrical cables, as well as propel- Jant and pneumatic lines from the umbilical tower to all stages of the vehicle. The arms provide a posi- tive means of retracting these lines from the vehicle at launch and give clearance for the space vehicle. ‘Mounted on the end of each of the arms, which will be 60 in. wide by 100 in. high and have a minimum length of 47 ft, will be quick-release housings that contain umbilical con- nections to the vehicle. Tho arms will be capable of either independent or interlocked operation by remote control from the LCC. Four dual-purpose support and hold- down arms, approximately 9 by 6 ft at the base and 12 ft high, anchor the vehicle to the launch platform. The firing accessories installed on and considered part of an operational LUT. include fuel fil and drain umbilical, electrical and pneumatic umbilicals, cable masts, pneumatic-valve panels, water-flush and firefighting — sys- tems, access platforms and ladders, and a boat-tail heater system. LUT operational test and launch equipment will include a ground power system, test sets, and a computer complex. Stage’ Preparation in VAB. The S.IC stage will be towed through the ow-bay area to the transfer aisle separating the high bays. There the SAC, which weighs about 150 tons, will be hoisted from its transporter and erected vertically on the launch support and holddown arms of the LUT. Components of the S-IC, such as fairings and fins, will then be in- stalled to complete’ stage assembly. March 1968, FUNCTIONAL DIAGRAM OF GSE FOR LAUNCH COMPLEX 38 bee euiegon co Pepe LAUNCHER UMBILICAL TOWEF IN HS G8 PAM he Lech Cnt Cet 00 fs a emt ee a bi the aneobled vile while te yb tin te Vereat Resmi Bulg VA). ‘Swed eaupment cn alto be ase'n tne pesseny preparation of te S10 a A wea ser stoge cechout ate look operations (fallow ocaad ‘hin th LC wil be the cota ae motrin equipment of ie auumaticchechout ant lawn conc. ‘The feat of is equipeent wll the compat which stores pranmed test eaunce, Ensteston nth the egepsent wl generate a sutmatic etermination at "oot Go In ane he derin of te flere round Spot Eaupmet (e688). ve bicleystan evened Tet and ontong satis wil cant of» conrlystams consle, Soneraytenecanol, Rf and meting seems coo may be subdivided into stage-oriented test and monitoring capability, ‘he toe, whereas spstemsarinted EGSE ae inerated th ‘he Conpatevehcle stem. Following complete version and acceptance of the ‘System aed it rout separ etupert a ey fr lurch, ike venice mi be prepeed for removal tot VAG. The Sa peprten wil cede te ssalain of extern ana, losing panels 36 text sil, oConnections will be made to the fir- ing accessories, checkout equipment, and utility services, and the adjust” able platforms positioned. In a manner similar to that for the S-IC, the S-II stage, the S-IVE stage, and the instrument unit will be transferred from their transport ers to track-mounted dollies for move. ment into the work stations of the low-bay area equipped for the pur- pose. All stages will undergo detailed preparation and checkout in the ver- tical position, being separately quali fied for assembly into the complete launch vehicle. Vehicle Assembly and Checkout in the VAB. The launeh-vehicle stages, the instrumentation unit, and the spacecraft, or other payload, will be so scheduled that each is ready for assembly in timely order. Assembly will be accomplished by moving these components (except for the S-IC, al- ready in place) from their preparation areas into the high bay area of the VAB. There, in sequence, they will be hoisted from their carriers, posi tioned over the LUT, lowered into position, and mated with the stage below. In the VAB preparation of the over- all vehicle for launch, there will be scribed previously. elude— These will PAD ARER OF LAUNCH COMPLEE 38 st wil ier fhe Abie ming. Tone? ho 0 ng Intaistion of. ied 1, Navigation and control checks of the entire vehicle. 2. Closed-loop RF checks of the en- tire vehicle. ‘These checks cannot be considered final, since the vehicle is at this time enclosed in a steel-frame building. The final verification and compatibility checks for the RF and tracking systems will be performed after the vehicle has reached its launch position. 8. Vehicle sequence tests for mal- funetion-detection and abort-sensing devices. 4. Environmental control calibra- tion for the instrument section of the vehicle, 5. Ordnanee checks, with simulators. 6. Simulation of the firing of live ordnance items. 7. Installation of ordnance items that can safely be installed in the VAB. 8, Tests with flight-type batteries. 9, Sequence testing of swing arms and all umbilical connections. 10. Sequence testing of the pro- pulsion systems. LL. Execution of the entire flight sequence with electrical sequential iso- Intion between stages. 12. Leakage tests of stage-interface connections, 13, Compatibility of command and telemetry systems the central instrumentation facility and with Atlantic Missile Range stati 14, Verifying the over-all system en ‘ote weil wb ‘he geet on be acon a ltt ml tawny he rans swe on the connecting the launch control center with the LUT and the vehicle. 15. Simulation of flight to verify readiness of the entire aystem before moving it from the Vertical Assembly Building. In general, the design of the Electrical Ground Support Equip- ment (EGSE) will be vehicle-sys- tems oriented. Test and monitoring stations will consist of a control-sys- tems console, power-systems console, RF and measuring systems console, clectrical network systems console, ete. However, in some particular eases the system orientation may be subdivided into stage-oriented test and monitor- ing capability, i., propulsion systems and propellant-utilization system. These systems are solely within the stage, whereas systems-oriented EGSE are integrated with the complete vel cle system Following complete verification and acceptance of the system and its ground-support equipment as ready for Inunch, the vehicle will be prepared for removal from the VAB. The final preparations will include the installa- tion of external hardware, including panels and heat shields. ‘The crawler-transporter will then be moved into position beneath the londed LUT, lift the LUT off its conerete sup- ports, and begin the journey to the Jaunch pa Crawler-Transporter. ‘The eraviler- transporter, 181 ft long and 114 ft ve ger the act ath Aatronautice and aerospace engineeringwide, will be powered by diesel gen- erators developing 4000 hp for motiva- tion, leveling, and steering system. Tt will incorporate a large platform and four tractor units as a completely self- contained vehicle. Lifting and leveling will be done with hydraulically operated cylinders. ‘These will permit changing the level of the load-bearing point of individual crawlers at approximately 2 fpm. The cylinders will have a 42-in. bore, with a 7-ft stroke, and will operate at a maximum pressure of 2000 psi. The leveling system will keep the LUT and C-5 vehicle vertical within +10 min of are while negotiating a 5-deg. grade with a 300-ft vertical transition ‘curve at each end. ‘The front and rear tractor units will be mechanically tied together, and each pair of crawlers will be actuated by means of a pair of single-acting hydraulic cylinders of 25-in. bore and 8000-psi pressure. ‘The pump eapabil ity permits an angular change in di rection of 10 deg in 1 min. ‘The crawler can be steered from either end. It will have a maximum sspeod of 1 mph on the level and 1 1/2 mph on a 5% grade when transport- ing a fully loaded LUT. Unloaded, the cerawler-transporter will have a maxi- ‘mum speed of 2 mph, Each of the tractor treads will span 7 £t 6 in, by 95 ft 8 in. from center to center of each bogie wheel. Each ‘tractor unit will measure 21 ft wide by 41 ft4 in. long. ‘This basic crawler will also be uused for the smaller LUT required for the C-1B launch vehicle, and for mov- ing the mobile arming tower. ‘The crawler way will be approxi- mately 150 ft wide, and will be ele- vated some 8 ft above sea level. It will have a crushed-stone surface, a soil-coment base, and a stabilized sub- base of approximately 20 ft below the existing grade. Approaching a launch site, the crawler-transporter will ne- gotiate a 5% grade to reach the Iaunch-pad level. Mobile Arming Tower. The open- frame arming tower will be 415 ft high and 180 by 180 ft at the base. Its top will be 80 ft square. ‘The tower will be equipped with elevators and en- closed clamshell-type work platforms ‘at appropriate vehicle levels; a 40-ton stiff-leg derrick will be mounted on its top deck. It is designed either to perform ite functions at its parked position or to he moved to the pad by the crawler-transporter for servicing the space vehicle there. Launch Pad Area. Each of three Iaunch pad areas presently planned for Launch Complex 89 will cover an es- sentially circular area approximately 000 ft in diam. ‘The separation be- March 1968 tween pads will be 8780 ft, and each pad will be located approximately one- half mile from the shore of the At- antic Ocean. ‘The separation dis- tance is dictated by safety consider tions. These stipulate that personnel, in adjacent pads, not be subjected to blast overpressure above 0.4 psi should ‘a vehicle explode during launch. The center portion of a pad will be elevated 42 ft to allow sufficient clearance for positioning a two-way flame deflector beneath the LUT after it is anchored for launch, as well as to provide term- inal room protection. ‘A number of facilities are associated with a launch pad. 1. A lox-storage tank of 880,000-gal capacity will be located approximately 1450 ft from each pad, supplying lox to fill and replenish’ vehicle tanks through a network of motor-driven pumps, valves, and transfer lines. Fill rates for S-IC, S-II, and S-IVB will be 10,000, 5000, and 1000 gpm re- spectively. Transfer pumps will be remotely operated and monitored from the launch control center during pro- pellant-loading operations. 2. Three RP-1 storage tanks with a total usable capacity of 235,000 gal will be located approximately 1350 4 from the launch pad, on the opposite side from the lox facility. Fuel trans- {fer will be accomplished by a 2000-epm pump, valves, and an Sin. transfer Tine. ‘Control and monitoring of pump. and valve operation will be provided from the launch control center. 3. A liquid-hydrogen storage tank of 650,000-gal_ capacity will provide fll and replenishment for the S-II and S.IVB stage tanks. The facility will be located approximately 1450 ft from the launch pad in the same general area as the RP-I facility. To accom- plish transfer, pressure of approxi- ‘mately 75 psig will be maintained in the storage tank during filling opera- tion. Using appropriate valves and a vacuum-jacketed transfer line, liquid hydrogen will be transferred to the S-II at 10,000 gpm, and to the S-IVB at 6000 gpm. A 20-inediam vent line from the storage tank, and an 18- in.-diam vent line from the $-II and S-IVB stages, via the LUT, are to be routed to a burn pond for hydrogen gas disposal. Storage-tank pressure buildup and valving operations will be controlled from the launch control center, 4, On the east aide of the pad hard- stand, underground, will be a gas- storage facility with banks of nitrogen and helium bottles. High-pressure gas from a converter-compressor fa- cility located far from the launch area will be received and stored for use dur- ing checkout and launch. ‘Transfer lines will be routed to the LUT inter- face connections for regulation and distribution to the stages. 5. The pad terminal-connection room, located underground on the west side of the pad hardstand area, will serve as a terminal and distribution point for propellant and high-pressure- gas systems and for piping systems connecting the vehicle and its ground- support equipment. Tt will provide terface connections between the LUT and the facilities and between the LUT and the launch control _ center. Equipment to simulate the vehicle and LUT functions will also be mounted in the pad terminal-conneetion room for checkout of the facilities if the LUT is not present. One end of a backup data link is to be located there, with the other end connected to the launch control center. The backup data link will allow propellant-transfer opera- tions and pad water and firefighting operations should the digital data link ‘become inoperative. ‘Moving to the Pad. After comple- tion of the assembly and checkout of the complete space vehicle, it will be lifted, still mounted on the LUT with ‘umbilical connections and firing acces- sories in place, by the crawler-trans- ported and moved down the crawler way to the launch pad. Because of the hazards involved, ordnance items of a sensitive nature or of large size will rot be installed when the vehicle is in the VAB. It is planned, therefore, that in operations where the mobile arming tower is not required at the Iauneh pad, that this ordnance will be installed by bringing the vehicle to the arming tower's park position for this service. ‘The vehicle will then proceed to the launch pad. Upon arrival at the launch pad, the crawler-transporter will lower the loaded LUT so that it can be anchored to the piers. The crawler-transporter will be disengaged and released for other tasks. Connections will then be made between the LUT and utilities, service units, and data links at the pad. Systems Verification. ‘The launch vehicle now undergoes a pre-count- down verifieation of its subsystems. ‘This will verify the new interfaces that. have been established between the LUT and the pad facility, as well as reaffirm subsystems integrity after tranafer of the vehicle from the VAB. On completion of these connection and checkout procedures, it will be as sumed that the launch control center is ready to command and control the entire Iaunch vehiele/launch complex system. Should serious interface mal- function oceur, the launch vehicle ean either be moved to and launched from another pad or returned to the VAB for safe storage until another pad be- comes available. aThere follows a sequence of tests making use of the computer complex of the Iaunch control center firing room and controlling, as a slave, the launcher computer system. This se- quence includes— 1, Propellant tank flight ullage pres- sure tests to verify the structural in tegrity of the vehicle. 2. Propellant-loading tests. 3. RF systems compatibility tests. 44. Simulated fight tests. 5. Environmental control system test. ‘These tests, utilizing the automatic test sequences, will include the range- support functions and personnel, and will give final verification of vehicle, personnel, and range readiness prior to launch, Then the pre-countdown prepari tions will be made. The preparations will inelude “no voltage” checks for ordnance items, loading RP-1 fuel into the S-IC stage, and loading: hypergolie propellants, as required. ‘The launch vehicle will then be ready for the Iaunch countdown. Launch operations will involve co- ordination of the people and equipment of the range to ensure compatibility with launch and mission functions. Range and worldwide tracking checks will be made; the ordnance system will be armed; propellants loaded; gas sys- tems pressurized; all systems veri- fied; and the space vehicle launched on its mission. NASA Merritt Island Launch Are ‘The Cape Canaveral Missile Test An- nex (CCMTA) was originally con- ceived as a R&D launch and test site for aerodynamic and ballistic missiles. Cape Canaveral’s 15,000 acres of real estate were adequate for the R&D programs of early aerodynamic mis- siles and the ballistic-missile program, but the Cape does not provide adequate areas for MLLP operations. For in- stance, the noise that the C-5's 7,500,- 000-Ib-thrust engines will generate, and the possible blast effect of an ex- plosion of the 6-million Ib of propel- lants it will carry at launch, dictate that its launch complex be consider- ably removed from both equipment and people. Studies showed that the explosive force of the 6-million Ib of C-5 propellants could have an effect equivalent to the explosion of 1-million Ibof TNT. Through the offices of the Army Corps of Engineers, NASA is there- fore purchasing 88,000 acres of land on Merritt Island to the west, and in the Atlantic Coast area to the north- west of CCMTA to accommodate the MLLP and future programs now ‘under consideration. Since a great deal of the newly acquired area is surrounded by waters 32 of the Indian and Banana rivers, and the Atlantic Ocean, access to it is very limited. Before development could start, ac- cess routes had to be constructed. A highway spanning the Indian and Ba- nana rivers, which will link the main land and Cape Canaveral with the new Merritt Island area, is now under con- struetion. A state road that runs northward through the Merritt Island area is be- ing widened and reinforced to carry heavy vehicles, and other access roads are under construction. Railroad serviee, a necessity in such a vast operation, is also being planned. Negotiations are underway to build a railway from the mainland eastward across the Indian River to Complex 39 ‘and the industrial area. ‘New canals have been dredged and existing waterway channels deepened and widened to provide barge access to the area, Plans are also underway to provide the necessary publie utilities, such as electrical power, water, and sewerage. ‘An industrial area, to be located on Merritt Island a few miles from Launch Complex 39, will be operated in support of space-vehicle assembly and launch operations. It will include an engineering and operations build- ing, spacecraft operations building, environmental test facility, pyro- technic test facility, central instru- mentation facility, and a central sup- ply and warehouse facility. Adminis- trative, engineering, and logistic sup- port of launch operations will be pro- vided from these facilities. Launching Future Space Rockets, After Saturn C-5, which will be our next Iaunch vehicle, the logical step should he a new class of booster, with a first-stage thrust between 20- and 40-million Ib. (It should be commen- surate with requirements for manned exploration of our nearer planetary neighbors, Mars and Venus.) The concept of integration of vehi- cle design with facilities design, prov- ing thus far to be successful in the C5 program, is almost certain to be continued into programs of the future. Likewise, the concept of automatic checkout will be continued, with a probability that dependence on com- puters will become even greater. Whether the concept of launch mo- bility, with a centralized support fa- cility’ serving multiple launch facili- ties, will he continued and expanded depends on the design of future vehi- cles. Weight poses a limitation. Hea- vier launch vehicles may make fixed Iauneh facilities more feasible. But the ‘economy of operation and the utility inherent in the mobile concept will make planners take a long and careful ook at every possibility hefore making such a decision. ‘Then, there are prospective develop- ments that may make launching very large vehicles possible with facilities not too unlike those for the C-5 pro- gram. One of these is the continuous RED effort being performed in many types of propulsion and fuels. In- creased use of liquid hydrogen could provide maximum specific impulse. Progress is being made in the develop- ‘ment of a nuclear reactor for space propulsion, and on electrothermal, lectrostatic, and electromagnetic pro- pulsion systems. ‘The ability to initiate many feasible space programs will depend entirely on the funds available. It appears un- likely that it will be economically po sible for the United States to support all proposed programs concurrently. ‘The state of the art, however, has reached a point where many signifieant steps can be undertaken. Many sci- entifie missions are being formulated that will serve to increase our knowl- ‘edge of the universe. Many “‘practi- eal” missions, such as those concern- ing communications and weather, are being planned. ‘Studies are underway for a manned space station. A capability of pro- viding logistics would enable the per- manent manning of such a station. Logisties for a permanent lunar sta- tion will also be feasible by the time ‘man makes his first lunar landing. Using booster vehicles of a more ad- vanced class than the C-5, it will be possible to establish regular logistic trips to the moon and to explore the nearer planets. Economic feasibility is the only problem. Here again, studies now underway are expected to offer eco- nomical approaches, for instance, to the lunar logisties problem. ‘There is no question of the feasi- bility of all these projects, nor that they will be undertaken sometime in the 1960's and 1970's. Careful long- range mission planning will determine what ean or should he done, and when. In this context, it is well to remem- ber that the Manned Lunar Landing Program, while very ambitious and difficult, is not an end all be itself, but a “hand rail” project that will guide us with each significant step further into space knowhow. And as we go, techniques will be mastered that can become the foundations for parallel and advanced projects. The NASA Launch Operations Center expects to continue to develop the knowledge, the means, and the operational procedures to carry out 8 assigned missions, in a space pro- gram beginning to hit its stride and sweep the horizon of the future. #8 Aatronautice and aerospace engineering