Chapter 4

Aqueous Reactions
and Solution
Stoichiometry
Aqueous
Reactions
Solutions:
Homogeneous
mixtures of two
or more pure
substances.
The solvent is
present in
greatest
abundance.
All other
substances are Aqueous
called solutes. Reactions
Examples
Dissolution of NaCl in water
NaCl (s)+ H2O (l) Na+(aq) + Cl- (aq)

Aqueous
Reactions
Types of Solutions

Gases

SOLUTION Liquids

Solids

Aqueous
Reactions
Gas Solution

Unreactive gases can mix in all

proportions to give a gaseous
solution. Gases are said to be
miscible (e.g air).

Aqueous
Reactions
Liquid Solution

Liquid solution are obtained by

dissolving a gas, liquid, or solid
in some liquid.
e.g. CO2(g) in water, ethanol in
water, sea water)

Aqueous
Reactions
Solid Solution

Au - Ag alloy, Hg- Ag alloy are

examples of solid solutions.

Aqueous
Reactions
Dissociation
When an ionic
substance
dissolves in
water, the solvent
pulls the
individual ions
from the crystal
and solvates
them.
This process is
called Aqueous
Reactions

dissociation.
Electrolytes

Electrolytes are
Substances that
dissociate into ions
when dissolved in
water.
A nonelectrolyte
may dissolve in
water, but it does
not dissociate into
ions when it does Reactions
Aqueous

so.
Electrolytes and
Nonelectrolytes

Soluble ionic
compounds
tend to be
electrolytes.

Aqueous
Reactions
Electrolytes and
Nonelectrolytes

Molecular compounds tend to

be nonelectrolytes, except for
acids and bases.

Aqueous
Reactions
 Electrolytes
A strong electrolyte dissociates
completely when dissolved in water.
A weak electrolyte only dissociates
partially when dissolved in water.

Aqueous
Reactions
Strong Electrolytes
Are
Strong acids

Aqueous
Reactions
Strong Electrolytes
Are
Strong acids
Strong bases

Aqueous
Reactions
Strong Electrolytes
Are
Strong acids
Strong bases
Soluble ionic salts

Aqueous
Reactions
 Precipitation Reactions

When one mixes ions that

form insoluble compounds
(as could be predicted by
the solubility guidelines), a
precipitate is formed.

Aqueous
Reactions
Metathesis (Exchange)
Reactions
Metathesis are exchage reactions

AgNO3 (aq) + KCl (aq) AgCl (s) + KNO3 (aq)

Aqueous
Reactions
Molecular Equation

The molecular equation lists the

reactants and products in their
molecular form.
AgNO3 (aq) + KCl (aq) AgCl (s) + KNO3 (aq)

Aqueous
Reactions
 Ionic Equation
In the ionic equation all strong
electrolytes are dissociated into their
ions.
This more accurately reflects the species
that are found in the reaction mixture.

Ag+ (aq) + NO3- (aq) + K+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

AgCl (s) + K+ (aq) + NO3- (aq)

Aqueous
Reactions
Net Ionic Equation
To form the net ionic equation, cross out
anything that does not change from the
left side of the equation to the right.

Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq) + K+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

AgCl (s) + K+(aq) + NO3-(aq)

Aqueous
Reactions
Net Ionic Equation
To form the net ionic equation, cross out
anything that does not change from the
left side of the equation to the right.
The only things left in the equation are
those things that change (i.e., react)
during the course of the reaction.

Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) AgCl (s)

Aqueous
Reactions
 Net Ionic Equation
To form the net ionic equation, cross out
anything that does not change from the
left side of the equation to the right.
The only things left in the equation are
those things that change (i.e., react)
during the course of the reaction.
Those things that didnt change (and were
deleted from the net ionic equation) are
called spectator ions.
Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq) + K+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
AgCl (s) + K+(aq) + NO3-(aq) Aqueous
Reactions
 Writing Net Ionic
Equations
1. Write a balanced molecular
equation.
2. Dissociate all strong
electrolytes.
3. Cross out anything that
remains unchanged from the
left side to the right side of the
equation.
4. Write the net ionic equation Reactions
Aqueous

with the species that remain.

Writing Net Ionic
Equations

Aqueous
Reactions
Aqueous
Reactions
 Acids

Cause litmus indicator dye to turn red

Taste sour
Dissolve active metals to produce H2
React with bases to produce water and
salt

Aqueous
Reactions
Acids:

Substances that
increase the
concentration of
H+ when dissolved
in water
(Arrhenius).
Proton donors
(BrnstedLowry).
Aqueous
Reactions
Acids

There are only

seven strong
acids:
Hydrochloric (HCl)
Hydrobromic (HBr)
Hydroiodic (HI)
Nitric (HNO3)
Sulfuric (H2SO4)
Chloric (HClO3)
Aqueous
Perchloric (HClO4) Reactions
 Bases

Cause litmus indicator dye to turn

blue
Tastes bitter
Feels slippery on skin
Reacts with acids to form water
and salt

Aqueous
Reactions
Bases:

Substances that increase

the concentration of OH
when dissolved in water
(Arrhenius).
Proton acceptors
(BrnstedLowry).

Aqueous
Reactions
Bases

The strong
bases are the
soluble salts of
hydroxide ion:
Alkali metals
Calcium
Strontium
Barium

Aqueous
Reactions
Acid-Base Reactions

In an acid-base
reaction, the
acid donates a
proton (H+) to
the base.

Aqueous
Reactions
 Neutralization Reactions
Generally, when solutions of an acid and a
base are combined, the products are a salt
and water.
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

Aqueous
Reactions
 Neutralization Reactions
When a strong acid reacts with a strong
base, the net ionic equation is

HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) + Na+ (aq) + OH-(aq)

Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) + H2O (l)

Aqueous
Reactions
 Neutralization Reactions
When a strong acid reacts with a strong
base, the net ionic equation is

HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) + Na+ (aq) + OH-(aq)

Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) + H2O (l)

H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) + Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) + H2O (l) Aqueous
Reactions
Neutralization Reactions

Observe the
reaction
between Milk of
Magnesia,
Mg(OH)2, and
HCl.

Aqueous
Reactions
Gas-Forming Reactions

These reactions do not give the

product expected.
The expected product decomposes
to give a gaseous product (CO2 or
SO2).
CaCO3 (s) + HCl (aq) CaCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
NaHCO3 (aq) + HBr (aq) NaBr (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
SrSO3 (s) + 2 HI (aq) SrI2 (aq) + SO2 (g) + H2O (l)

Aqueous
Reactions
Gas-Forming Reactions

This reaction gives the predicted

product, but you had better carry it
out in the hood since a nasty gas
(H2S) is formed as a product of this
reaction:
Na2S (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) Na2SO4 (aq) + H2S (g)

Aqueous
Reactions
Oxidation-Reduction
Reactions
An oxidation
occurs when an
atom or ion
loses electrons.
A reduction
occurs when an
atom or ion
gains electrons.
Aqueous
Reactions
Oxidation-Reduction
Reactions

One cannot
occur without
the other.

Aqueous
Reactions
Oxidation Numbers

To determine if an oxidation-
reduction reaction has
occurred, we assign an
oxidation number to each
element in a neutral compound
or charged entity.

Aqueous
Reactions
Oxidation Numbers

Elements in their elemental

form have an oxidation number
of 0.
The oxidation number of a
monatomic ion is the same as
its charge.

Aqueous
Reactions
Oxidation Numbers
Nonmetals tend to have
negative oxidation numbers,
Oxygen has an oxidation number
of 2, except in the peroxide ion in
which it has an oxidation number
of 1.
Hydrogen is 1 when bonded to a
metal, +1 when bonded to a
nonmetal.
Aqueous
Reactions
 Oxidation Numbers
Nonmetals tend to have
negative oxidation numbers.
Halogens have in general an
oxidation number of 1

Aqueous
Reactions
Oxidation Numbers

The sum of the oxidation

numbers in a neutral compound
is 0.
The sum of the oxidation
numbers in a polyatomic ion is
the charge on the ion.

Aqueous
Reactions
 Examples

What is the oxidation state of

Mo in MoO42-?
What is the oxidation state of S
in SO32-?

Aqueous
Reactions
 Examples

What is the oxidation state of

Mn and C in the following
reactions?
MnO4- + H+ -> Mn2+ + H2O
H2C2O4 + O2 -> CO2 + H2O

Aqueous
Reactions
MnO4- + H+ -> Mn2+ + H2O
the oxidation of Mn goes from +7 to +2. Thus, Mn
is reduced. In the following reaction
(unbalanced)
H2C2O4 + O2 -> CO2 + H2O
the element C is oxidized, because its oxidation
state changes from +3 to +4 in the

Aqueous
Reactions
Displacement Reactions

In displacement
reactions, ions
oxidize an
element.
The ions, then,
are reduced.

Aqueous
Reactions
 Displacement Reactions

In this reaction,
silver ions oxidize
copper metal.

Cu (s) + 2 Ag+ (aq) Cu2+ (aq) + 2 Ag (s)

Aqueous
Reactions
 Displacement Reactions

The reverse reaction,

however, does not
occur.

Cu2+ (aq) + 2 Ag (sx

) Cu (s) + 2 Ag+
(aq)
Aqueous
Reactions
Activity Series

Aqueous
Reactions
Molarity
Molarity is one way to measure the
concentration of a solution.

moles of solute
Molarity (M) =
volume of solution in liters

Aqueous
Reactions
Ways of Expressing
Concentration in solution
We can express the concentration of a solute
in solution by
Mass percentage:
Mass % of solute =
mass of the solute in solution x 100
total mass of solution

Aqueous
Reactions
Dilute Solution
In a dilute solution, we express the concentration of a
solute in the solution in part per million (ppm)
ppm of a solute =
mass of the solute in the solution x 106
total mass of solution

Aqueous
Reactions
Example
A solution whose solute concentration is
1 ppm contains 1 g of solute in each million
(106) grams of solution or 1 mg of solute per 1
kg of solution.
If the density of the solution is 1g/ml, then 1
ppm = 1mg solute per liter of solution.

Aqueous
Reactions
Very dilute solution
In a very dilute solution, we express the
concentration of a solute in the solution in
part per million (ppb)
ppb of component =
mass of component in solution x 109
total mass of solution
A concentration of 1ppb represents 1 g of
solute per billion (109) gram of solution, or
1 g of solute per kilogram of solution

Aqueous
Reactions
Mole Fraction, Molarity, and
Molality
Mole fraction of a component in the solution:
X = moles of the solute
total moles of all components

Aqueous
Reactions
 Example

What is the mole fraction of

each component in a solution in
which 3.57 g of sodium chloride,
NaCl, is dissolved in 25.0 g of
water?

Aqueous
Reactions
Mixing a Solution

Aqueous
Reactions
Dilution

Aqueous
Reactions
 Example

A chemist starts with 50.0 mL

of a 0.40 M NaCl solution and
dilutes it to 1000 mL.
What is the concentration of
NaCl in the new solution?

Aqueous
Reactions
 Example 2

A chemist wants to make

500. mL of 0.050 M HCl by
diluting a 6.0 M HCl solution.
How much of that solution
should be used?

Aqueous
Reactions
 Solution
(Ccon) (Vcon) = (Cdil) (Vdil)
(0.40 M) (50.0 mL) = (Cdil) (1000. mL)
Cdil = 0.020 M

Aqueous
Reactions
Titration
The analytical
technique in
which one can
calculate the
concentration
of a solute in
a solution.

Aqueous
Reactions
Titration

Aqueous
Reactions
 Example

100.00 mL of a wastewater is
titrated with 0.1106 M NaOH.
Equivalence is reached after
addition of 9.62 mL of the
sodium hydroxide solution.
What is the pH of the original
wastewater sample?
Aqueous
Reactions
H+ + OH- H2O

C1V1 = C 2V2

(CH+) (100 mL) = (0.1106 M)(9.62 mL)

CH+ = 0.01064 M
pH = - log [H+] = - log (0.01064 M)
pH = 2.97

Aqueous
Reactions
EXAMPLE of Titration of
Diprotic Acid:
Titration reveals that 11.6 mL of
3.0 M sulfuric acid are required
to neutralize 25.00 mL of NaOH
solution. What is the molarity of
the NaOH solution?

Aqueous
Reactions
Solution:

H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) 2H2O(l) + Na2SO4(aq)

= 2.8 M NaOH

Aqueous
Reactions
Example of Titration of
Polyprotic Acid
A 20.00 mL sample of an
unknown H3PO4 solution is
titrated with a 0.100 M NaOH
solution. The equivalence point
is reached when 18.45 mL of
NaOH solution is added. What
is the concentration of the
original H3PO4 solution?
Aqueous
Reactions
Solution
H3PO4 (aq) + 3 NaOH (aq) 3 H2O (l) + Na3PO4 (aq)

n(H+)=n(OH-)
3M1V1 = M2V2
3* MH3PO4 *20 mL = 1*0.100 M*18.45 mL)

MH3PO4 = 0.03075 M H3PO4

Aqueous
Reactions