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JDS 2 (2009)

Articles

TAEHYUN KIM
ReadingZhuangzi EcoPhilosophically 1

SHAWN ARTHUR
EatingYourWaytoImmortality:EarlyDaoistSelfCultiv
ationDiets 32

LOUISKOMJATHY
MappingtheDaoistBody (2):TheTextofthe Neijingtu 64

VOLKEROLLES
LordLaosMountain:FromCelestialMasterDaoismto
ContemporaryDaoistPractice 109

WAN LIHO
DaoistNunsinTaiwan:ACaseStudyoftheDaodeyuan 137

Forum on Contemporary Practice

HARRISON MORETZ
TheDaoIsNotforSale 167

MICHAEL WINN
DaoistMethodsforDissolvingtheHeartMind 177

CHARLOTTE FURTH
ExploringDaoistWomensMeditation 185
YANGLIZHI, TODD STOLL, & CHEN MEI
Mt.WudangandDaoism 193

BRIAN L. KENNEDY& ELIZABETH NAIJIA GUO


TaiwaneseDaoistTempleParades andtheirMartialMotifs 197

News of the Field

Publications 213

Dissertations 217

ResearchProjects 218

Conferences 219

WebResources 226

Scienceon Qi 227

NotesonContributors 230
Reading Zhuangzi Eco-Philosophically

TAEHYUN KIM

Abstract
This paper examines the philosophy of the Zhuangzi from the perspective of
Westernecophilosophy.Theyaresimilarinthattheyarebothanthropocentricin
outlookandfoundedonadualismdefinedthroughhumancriteria.Thephiloso
phyoftheZhuangzibeginswiththetensionbetweenhumansandnature;itcriti
cizespeopleforthinkingofthemselvesasthecenteroftheuniverse.Thecritical
anthropologyofthetextcanbeinterpretedasantianthropocentrisminthecon
textofmodernecology.
IfindtheconceptofwanderingintheZhuangziawayofcreatingmulticen
tric landscape through Dao. By devotion to Dao as universal reality, the
Zhuangziinvalidateshumandualismandretrievesthemeaningandvalueofthe
individualinnature.Discussingtheproblemofsocialhierarchyanddiscrimina
tion,thetextprovidesacomprehensiveframeworktoapproachtherelationship
amongself,society,andnature.EcologyintheZhuangzithushasthreemainten
ets: 1) defending antianthropocentrism, 2) recovering the status of the myriad
thingsthroughandbynature,3)workingtowardsselfpurificationforharmony
withsocietyandnature.

Anthropocentrism
Etymologically, anthropocentrismcombines the Greek wordanthropos
(human) with centrism, the concept of seeing something as central. In
terms of meaning, there are three main definitions: (1) considering hu
manbeingsasthemostsignificantentityoftheuniverse;(2)interpreting
or regarding the world in terms of human values and experiences; and

1
2/JournalofDaoistStudies2(2009)

(3)assuminghumanstobethefinalendandaimoftheuniverse.1 Incon
temporary ecology, it is usually a synonym for humancenteredness;
some scholars also characterize it as human chauvinism, speciesism, or
anthropoparochialism.Insum,anthropocentrismisanideathatregards
humans as the most valuable beings in the world and judges all things
onlyfromthehumanperspective.
Puttinghumancenteredness intohegemoniccentrisms such as an
drocentrism, eurocentrism, and ethnocentrism, Val Plumwood, an
Ecofeminist, extracts the characteristics that are shared and patterned
amongthosecentrisms,andappliesthemtoanthropocentrism(2002,97
109;alsoPlumwood1993,ch.2;1999,ch3).
Shepointsoutthatallkindsofhegemoniccentrismsarefoundedon
thedualismwhichconsistsoftheOneasadominantcenterandOthers
as peripheries. Lacking ideological and physical forces which express
themselves in their own way, Others only depend on the fallacious im
agestheOnemakesandprojects.Thefallaciousimagesinturnproduce
the polarization which supports discontinuation, enlarges differences
between them and makes the differences disparate. Plumwood divides
theprocessproducingthepolarizationintotwophases:radicalexclusion
(or hyperseparation) and stereotyping (or homogenization). In the for
mer,theOnesegregatesOthersfromitself;inthelatter,itrendersdiffer
encesamongOthersmeaningless(2002,1003).
Plumwoodsubdividestheprocessofpolarizationinthreeways:1)
denial: the One negates the commonalities and relationship shared be
tweentheOneandOthers;2)backgrounding:bydenyingcommonalities,
Others are degraded from the original position; 3) incorporation or as
similation:bynotacknowledgingOthersassubjectshavingidentitiesof
theirown, the Onedefinesthem only in relation with itself. Instrumen
talism is a specified case of the assimilation, which is generated in the
senseofvalueandutility(2002,1046).
Accordingtothisanalysis,thedynamicsofanthropocentrismareas
follows. By privileging human characteristics like reason and morality
and rendering them justified grounds to govern other beings, humans
thoroughly separate themselves from nature and make themselves the
coreandapexoftheuniverse.Natureinturnisdemotedasacategoryof

1 http//www.mw.com/dictionary/anthropocentric ;Grey1998,10.
Kim,ReadingZhuangzi EcoPhilosophically/3

homogeneous beings without separate identities that only serve as in


strumentsforhumanswhodenytheirintrinsicvalue.
Thereasonto findecological insights in thephilosophy ofZhuang
Zhou , a thinker of the Warring States period (d. ca. 290 B.C.E.), is
thathedeniedthe inalterability and absoluteness ofallcriteriahumans
set up to create the polarization of One and Others and that he found
authorityforhiscritiquesinnatureasDao. How,then,cantheZhuangzi
beread ecophilosophically?

Dao and Heaven


The textZhuangzi, as ithasbeentransmittedtoday in 33chapters, goes
back only to the third century C.E. when the editor and commentator
Guo Xiang (d. 312) compiled it. Within this edition, most scholars
agree, the seven Inner Chapters are the most authentic and representa
tive of Zhuangzis thought (Graham 1986), although even there some
passages may be interpolations by later editors (Kim unpublished B;
Kanaya1997,30630).
Inthispartofthetext,thetermdao meanstwothings:theorigin
andfoundationoftheworld;andthetruthashighestwisdominthein
dividuals mind (Liu 1988, 10223). While most passages in the Inner
Chapters bear out the latter, the idea of Dao as the foundation of the
worldismainlypresentinoneparagraphinchapter6.2 Basedonthis,it
ispossible thatZhuangzi,unlikethecompilersoftheDaodejing,3 wasnot

2 See Graham 2001, 8687; Watson 1968, 8182; Mair 1994, 5556; HYSIS
16/6/29. HYSIS stands for HarvardYenching Sinological Index Series and
referstotheseries of concordancestoclassicaltexts published bythe Harvard
YenchingInstitute,Cambridge,Mass.z
3 ThereareseveralearlymanuscriptsoftheDaodejingortheLaozi,asitwas

then called. Comparing the Guodian and the Mawangdui Boshu edi
tionswithsegmentsquotedintheHanfeizi,Idonotsupportthesuggestionthat
thetextwascompletedbeforethemiddleoftheWarringStatesperiod.RatherI
assume that various versions coexisted until the end ofthe era.Iconclude that
highly refined metaphysics of Dao(asin chapter1)as wellasideas ofthegov
ernanceofthesage,appearedundertheinfluenceofotherDaoists,especiallythe
HuangLao school, after the middle of the Warring States period (Kim unpub
lished A). It alsoseemsto methattheDaodejingwe havetoday, which isquite
4/JournalofDaoistStudies2(2009)

interested in the true nature of reality but only in the mind. One may
alsosuggest thatpartsofchapter6were, asQian Muargues(1993, 52),
notactuallybyZhuangzihimself.Evenso,itisstillnecessarytoexplain
whyandhowtheideaofDaoasultimacywasincorporatedintoandas
sociatedwiththeInnerChapters.Inotherwords,howcanthethoughtof
Zhuangzi plausibly be matched with the idea of Dao? We may find an
explanationinthecontextof theancientChineseunderstandingandpur
suit of Dao as origin and truth. Zhuangzi being part of the intellectual
atmosphereofhistimebynecessitycametosharethemeaningofDaoas
originandtruthwiththeLaozi andtheschoolof HuangLao.4

closetotheBoshuLaozi,wascompletedbetweenthelateWarringStatesandthe
earlyHan.InthisIfollowQianMu,whothoughtsoevenbeforethediscoveryof
the latest manuscripts (1991, 2159). Ning (2005), moreover, examines how the
textswere incorporatedandexpandedatthistime.
3 UchiyamadefinesDaointheinnerchaptersofZhuangziastheprinciple

tobeinthingsandtomaketheindividualastheyare(1987,60).Hefocuseson
the individual relationship of Dao with all things. That is, his understanding of
Dao in ch. 6 is similar to the term myriad principles (wanli ) of the later
ChengZhuSchool of SongNeoConfucianism.Astheconcept ofthe myr
iad principles always assumesthe presence ofone underlying principle (yili
),theGreatUltimate(taiji),thismayberelatedtotheconceptofDaoinch.
6of theZhuangzi.
4 To understand the uniqueness of Zhuangzis thought, we must under

stand thethought of HuangLao school as well as those ofLaozi,Hui Shi, and


Xunzi.HuangLaothoughtwasahighlyinfluentialintellectualtrendinnorthern
China,spreadmainlythroughtheJixiaAcademyofQi,rightatthetime
of Zhuangzi and his followers. Some early Daoist texts were closely related to
thisschoolsintermsoftheireditinganddevelopment.(OntheJixiaAcademyas
foundational for Daoism at the time, see Chen 1991, 369384). The compilation
and expansionof the Daodejing and theZhuangziseemalso be associated with
theintellectualinfluenceoftheschool.InthecaseoftheZhuangzi,regardlessof
whether Zhuangzi actually knew of HuangLao thought, it is significant that
some disciples sought to compromise Zhuagnzis thought with that of Huang
Lao(asshownclearlyinparts oftheOuterandMiscellaneous Chaptersand,to
me,evenintheInnerChapters).Several sectionsof theInnerChaptersshowthat
Zhuangzisfollowersheldvariousviews,matchingintellectualcompetitionand
struggleatthetime.IsupposetheInnerChaptershavetwodifferentphilosophi
cal inclinations: logician and HuangLao (Kim unpublished B; C). The former,
Kim,ReadingZhuangzi EcoPhilosophically/5

Rather than usingthe term Dao, Zhuangzi frequently resortsto the


term Heaven(tian) toreferto the origin and foundationof allthings
comparable to Dao in the Laozi (Xu 2002, 32429).5 Heaven here has
three meanings: sky (tiangong ); myriad things and great nature
(tiandi );andspontaneity which is so of itself(tianran ), aterm
synonymouswithziran(Lee2006,180).
Initssecondmeaning,Heavenisnotonlyagenerictermforallbe
ings,butalsoconnotestheoriginoftheworldandthebaseforthecom
pletionofindividualbeings.HeavenhereisclosetotheuseofDaointhe
Laozi and in the HuangLao texts.6 Since Heaven is the great being, in

approving the prevalent theory that all things are one body, developed
Zhuangzisperspective of epistemology, language,and logic in the competition
with Gongsun Long, Hui Shi, and the Mohists. The latter are responsible for
ideasofhumanethics, theperfectbeingasidealman, thepoliticsof thesage, and
thecosmologyofqiintheInnerChapters.Whiletheideasofformeraremainly
concentrated in chapter 2, those of the latter are broader in theme and more
widely spread in various anecdotal fragments. Altogether, this shows that the
ZhuangziwasundersomeimpactofHuangLaoinfluenceduringitseditingand
development.
5 As Fukunaga points out, the compilers of the Outer Chapters tended to

subordinate Dao to Heaven (1966, 2:4). However, the Inner Chapters do not
show this explicitsubordination. Contraryto Fukunagas interpretation, Ithink
that the term for true reality in the Inner Chapters is not only Dao but also
Heaven(Fukunaga1966,1:34).AccordingtoHYSIS,theInnerChapterscontain
the term Heaven 46 times, compared to Dao, which appears 38 times (HYSIS,
27477;21320).ThisshowsthatZhuangzipaid attentiontoultimateissues.
6 TheformationofHuangLaoresultedfromthefusionofideasinancient

China matching the political intentiontoward building one empire. ByHuang


LaoImeanaphilosophybasedonthetheoryofDaoastheultimaterealityof the
universe that seeks to unify body, state, and nature into one system. This con
cretelydevelopedintothetheoryofqiwhichproposedcosmicenergyasthe
elementarysubstanceoftheuniverse,andthetheoryofresonance(ganying)
followingfromspeculationonqi.Thelatter,partofthevisionofcomplementary
dualism(yinyang),approachedthemovements andtransformations ofall
things,beings,andcommunitiesasbeingduetoasharedunderlyingsubstance,
whichcorresponds toHeaven as Dao (Kim2003).HuangLao thought had two
basicdimensionswithregardtorealizingthenaturalorderinthehumanworld.
One was to define and expand on Heavenly Dao (tiandao ) in establishing
social order and the governance of the sage kingas presented in the Huangdi
6/JournalofDaoistStudies2(2009)

order to show fundamental human contradiction and relativity,


Zhuangzi often compares it with heavenly infiniteness. Heaven implies
all beings and their creator, so that one can translate the term as
(mother)naturewhenplacingitinthecontextofcontemporaryWest
ernecology.Inthissenseitisquitedifferentfromtheconceptnatureas
onlysecularizedanddisenchanted.
The third meaning of Heaven, finally, clarifies the relationship be
tween the Heaven and spontaneity. Zhuangzi in this context tries to
cover theflowandmodeofbeingof HeavenorDaointhe world.
WecannowdrawanorganicrelationshipofthethreetermsDao,
Heaven,andspontaneityinadiagramshowinghowDaoisspontane
ouslyintheworldofbeingsandhowitexistsandmanifestsintheworld
ofspontaneity:

Dao asoriginandtruth

Heavenas nature spontaneity astheHeavens beingintheworld

Yetanotherimportanttermisthingsorbeings(wu)thatmakeup
theworldasindividuals.TheZhuangzidealswiththistermmostlyinthe
Outer and Miscellaneous Chapters. Here wu indicates three distinct
characteristicsofbeings.Forone,thingsorbeingsarematerialobjectsof
sense,language,andcognition;theyhaveexternalformsandnames.For
another, they exist in changeable conditions, are restricted in time and
space, and are dependent on mutual counterparts or opposites. And
third,theyoriginatefromDao(or Heaven);however,sinceDaoisknown

sijing,partoftheMawangduimanuscripts(seeRyden1997;Chen1995,
2945).Theotherwasconcernedwiththecultivationofthesagekinginhiseffort
to realize Dao in the world. That is, it was about cultivating body and spirit
(yangxing yangshen ), which emphasized knowing and embodying the
heavenlyprincipleinthehumanbody.Thisappearsmostclearlyin fourchapters
oftheGuanzi,i.e.,Neiye,Xinshu I& II,andBaixin.
TheformerpaidattentiontoidentifyingtheorderofDaointhepoliticalcommu
nity;thelatterfocusedonthehumanbodyasamicrocosmosasrealizedbythe
sageking.HuangLaothoughtonpoliticsasreferredtointhispapermainlyre
latesto theformer.
Kim,ReadingZhuangzi EcoPhilosophically/7

in the world as beings or things, the two are interdependent. 7 Dao


shouldnot transcend the worldcompletely because it always manifests
inbeingsand things.

Nature
TheZhuangziseesnatureinavarietyofways.Tobegin,natureistheen
titythatgivesbirthtoandbringsupallbeingsintheuniverse.Theylive
andblossominnature.Itisthe rootandbasisoftheperfectionofbeings,
butdoesnotaskanyrecompenseforbearingandnurturingthem.Thus
natureand/orHeaven isthemakerofthings(zaowuzhe)andthe
creatorand transformer(zaohuazhe),the one thatfashions and
transformsus(ch.6;Graham2001,88).
Beyond this,nature isalsothe genuinecriterion ofcognizance and
judgment. Only by entrusting oneself tonature can one overcome rela
tivityandobtainatruestandard.InthissenseasthetruecriterionofDao,
nature is called the true master (zhenzai ) or the true lord (zhenjun
) (ch.2).
Third,natureendowshumanbeingswithfate,literallythatwhich
isdecreed(ming).TheZhuangziusesthistermintwooppositedirec
tions:oneisthedecreegivenbyHeaventohumans;theotheristheor
dersthatissuefromhumans innermindtowardHeaven.Theformeris
thedecree of Heaven (tianming) than totheMandate ofHeaven in
thesenseofpublicdutyand politicallegitimationaswhichitiscentralto
the thought of Confucius and Mencius. The latter is ongoing or trans

7 Li Zehous statementmade in comparing NeoConfucian ethics with


Kantis relevant here: Clearly separating reason from recognition and nou
menon from phenomenon, Kant understood that practical reason is related to
absoluteimperativeandduty,notwithanykindofemotion,idea,cause,effect,
and timespace in the phenomenal world at all. Only when doing so, [he be
lieved],thestatusofnoumenonbeyondexperienceisthoroughlysecured.Com
paredwith this,thepracticalreasonofChinesephilosophyisassociatedwiththe
pursuitofthenoumenous inphenomena.Thatis,theChineseseektotranscend
theworldbyparticipatinginit,andtheirphilosophershavecontinuallyempha
sized phrases like Heaven and humanity becoming one, all things are one
body, substance and function share one root, and substance and function
haveno distancebetweenthem.See Li1985,236.
8/JournalofDaoistStudies2(2009)

forming fate (yunming ), a notion that emphasizes a persons inner


experienceintherelationshipwithnature.Thelifeofallbeingsiscondi
tioned by Heaven, and all beingsand especially humans should be
awareofandfollowtheorderof nature asitissues`hemind.8

Human Beings
The critical discourse on human beings in the Zhuangzi, when read in
modernecologicalterms,isaformofantianthropocentricanthropology.
It comes in two critiques: one of human reason, the other of the social
order as an extension of humancenteredness. The former is the intro
spectionoftheself,andthelatterofcommunitymattersashumansoci
etyandpolitics.

Human Reason
Westernphilosophers,asismadeclearinthedisputeoveranthropocen
trism in contemporary ecology, have tried to demonstrate that human
beings justifiably have the highest value and top status in the universe
becauseof their capacityforreason.Forexample,ImmanuelKantsaid:

Now, a human being really finds in himself a capacity by


which he distinguishes himself from all other things, even
from himself insofar as he is affected by objects, and that is
reason.(1996,99)

Asexamplifiedhere,Westernthinkers have seenreasonasauniquely


humancapacitywhichgivespeoplethe positionof dominatingall beings
andthings. The question of whetherplants and animals are subjects of
intrinsic(orinherent)valuewiththerighttoliveandblossomisaccord

8 UchiyamaunderstandsHeavenisadeterminantofexistenceandthestate
of all things in nature, including humans. At the same time, he points out the
differenceinthecharacterofHeavenasfoundintheAnalectsortheMengziand
theInnerChaptersoftheZhuangzi.WhileHeavenintheZhuangzicannotberec
ognized through reason, inthe Confucian works it can(1987, 5859).However,
Heaven in both traditions is fundamentally similar: ineffable, beyond human
reasonandlanguage,andasenseof reverencetoward greatbeing.
Kim,ReadingZhuangzi EcoPhilosophically/9

inglycloselylinkedwithwhethertheycanrationallythink.9 ThusWest
ernphilosophershaveinsistedthatreason is indisputableproof forhu
man dominion in the universe, proposing a focus on rationality in ex
plaining the value of being. The evaluation of reason in explaining the
valueofhumanbeingshasbeensoinfluentialthatevenDeepEcology,a
defenderofbiosphericalegalitarianismandoneofthemostradicaleco
logical movements in the West, emphasizes that human reason should
not be underestimated (Naess 1991, 16971). Although Deep Ecologists
do not think that rationality alonejustifies human superiority, they ap
prove the proposition that human reason has valuable meaning and
statusinnature (seeFrench1999,12745).
TheZhuangzi,onthecontrary,tendstosupport antirational thought
(Graham 1991, 17683). Two grounds for the distrust are given. First,
humancognitionandjudgmenttakerootintheinnermind,whichisfull
of desires and egooriented knowledge.10 Reasoning based on the mind
inevitably leads one to the fulfillment of desires or selfjustification,
whilehumancertaintyisboundwithinthelimitationofknowledgeand
experiences. Thus humans never reach absolute correctness by using
them.
Second, all conditions for cognition and judgment such asspecific
situations as well as object and subject are constantly exposed to the
changing reality of the world.Allcriteria undergochanges in time and
space, so any truth believed at one time may change into falsehood at
another.Anyreasonablejudgmentrestrictedintimeandspacecannever
be absolute. The conclusion is thus necessarily that on human reason
cannotbeanauthorityguaranteeingthesuperiorityofhumanbeings.

9 The term intrinsic value appears with various meanings in environ


mentalethics.AccordingtoJohnONeill,ithasthreemaindenotations:asyno
nymfornoninstrumentalvalue,thevalueanobjecthassolelyinvirtueofits
intrinsicproperties, anda synonymforobjectivevalue,i.e.,valuethatan object
possesses independently of the valuations of valuers (2003, 13132). Also, the
differenceinmeaningbetweeninherentvalueandintrinsicvalueisnotclear.A
cleardistinctionismadein Wetlesen 1999.
10 Formoreonthemeaningandimportanceofthemindasaphilosophical

subjectinancientChina,seeNivison1987,6:47778.
10/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

The critique and denial of human reason are further connected to


the deconstruction ofdualism,reducingthe relation between oppressor
andoppressed.Asdescribedinch.3:

When his apprentice had had hisfill of gazing at it he ranto


catch up withcarpenter Shi.Since Itook up theaxetoserve
you,sir,Ihaveneverseensuchnobletimber.Whyisitthatyou
didntdeigntolookatit,didntevenpauseasyouwalked?
Enough, dont mention it again. Thats goodfornothing
wood.Makeaboatfromitanditwillsink,makeacoffinandit
willrotatonce....Thiswoodiswretchedtimber,uselessfor
anything; thats why its been able togrowso old.When Car
penterShicamehome,thesacredoakappearedinadreamand
saidtohim.Withwhatdoyouproposetocompareme?Would
itbewiththefinegrainedwood? ...
Besides, you and I are boththings, what nonsense! That
oneofusshouldthinkitistheotherwhichisthething:andthe
goodfornothingmanwhoissoontodie,whatdoesheknow
ofthegoodfornothingtree? (Graham2001,73)11

According to this anecdote, humancentered judgments on other


creaturesresult in theneglectoftheirintrinsicvalueandjust serve asa
justification for instrumentalizing them. Carpenter Shis treatment of
treesisbasedonthedualismusefulversususeless(yong/wuyong/).
Instead of respecting thesacred oak asanentity with value in itself, he
stereotyped and homogenized it just as goodfornothing wood.12 The

11 Thisanecdoteisrelatedtoasimilaroneinch.20.SeeWatson1968,209

10; Mair1994,18588; HYSIS51/20/1.Theauthorstatesthathewouldbehalfway


between useful and useless, i.e., denies humancentered criteria. However, he
deepensthealternativeintakingapositionhalfwaybypointingoutthateventhe
alternative is set as another norm for humans to be followed; even the mean
(zhong )shouldstillbeinfinitelynegated.
12 Accordingto Joseph Needham,this passage can be readas a Daoist de

nialofgeneralteleology(1962,2:55). Needhamseemstounderstandthemean
ing of generalteleology asthe human assumptionas in the Christian faiththat
everythinghasitsgroundtocompleteitselffromGodandthatitscompletionis
onlyforhuman use.Teleologyusuallyimpliesthattheethicalrequirementsor
recommendations are directed entirely toward [some ideal of] the good con
Kim,ReadingZhuangzi EcoPhilosophically/11

anthropocentric judgment causes the denial of the characteristics and


valuesthetree;itcontainsinherentlythedenialofallthingsandbeings,
seeingthemonlyasentitiesafterarationalprocessofbackgrounding
and incorporation.13 All exclusions and discriminations accordingly
comefromthehumancertaintyofreason.Zhuangziscriticalanthropol
ogythusquestions humananalyticalframeworkbuiltonthetrustofrea
son. Hesoonexpandsthiscriticismtothe socialstructure.

Social Order
MurrayBookchin,thefounderofSocialEcology,arguesthathumande
spoilingof natureisanoutcomeofhumandominionoverotherhumans,
represented as the universal social pattern of hierarchy.14 The Zhuangzi,
too, supports the idea that the formation of a hierarchical society is
closelyrelatedtothecenteringofhumansintheuniverse.Asch.4says:

In the state of Lu there was a mutilated man, Toeless Nuncle


Hill,whowentploddingalongonhisheelstoseeConfucius.
Becauseyouwerentcareful,saidConfucius,youhave
longsincebroughtsuchamisfortuneuponyourself.Although
youvecometoseeme,itsalreadytoolate.
ItsonlybecauseIdidntknowmydutyandwasheedless
of my body that I lost the front of my feet,said Toeless.In
coming to you now, I am still possessed of something more
preciousthanmyfeetandthatswhyIamstrivingtopreserve
itwhole.ThereisnothingthatHeavendoesnotcover;thereis

ceived independently of those requirements or recommendations (Slote 1992,


2:1235). If one approachthe teleology in the environmental perspective, not as
theusageintheChristiantheology,thatalllivingthingsareinherentlytheirown
center of life regardless of human use or purpose, as Paul Taylor suggests, the
term virtue(de )isopentobeapprehensibleasDaoistteleologywhichcouldbe
represented as nature of Dao.It is because Daoin Daoismonly gives allthings
lives and orientations to fulfill, but never intervenes in their lives. For further
understanding of teleological center of life in environmental ethics, see Taylor
1986.
13 HereIdisagreewith Kanayawho emphasizesthatnatureinearlyDaoism

wasanideaasawhole,andthatearlyDaoistswerenotinterestedinnatureof
particulars(1997,85).
14 Hesays:Byhierarchy,Imeanthecultural,traditional,andpoliticalsys

temstowhichthetermsclassandstatemostappropriatelyrefer(1991,68).
12/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

nothing that earth does not support. I thought of you as


Heaven and earth, sir. How could I have expected that you
wouldtreatmelikethis? (Mair1994,45)

This anecdote presents two opposite settings: one is order as rites


andpunishments (li/xing/)defendedby Confucius; the other isthe
orderofHeavenandEarth(tiandi)aspresentedbyToeless.Mutila
tion as a punishment of course implies social structures and hierar
chiesespeciallysincesuchpenaltieswereinflictedonlyoncommoners
(shumin ) and not on the upper classes (daifu ) in the Warring
Statesperiod.15 Confuciussresponse isthus ajustification for themain
tenance ofvestedrightsinthesocial order.
TheZhuangzi, onthe otherhand,shows thatthe ideal social order
asbasedonritualpropriety intheConfuciansystemisactuallydistorted
to a hierarchy characterized by exclusion and discrimination. Toeless
defines the Confucian order as anthropocentric, finding its base in the
refutation of the natural order. Heaven and Earth neither exclude nor
discriminateagainstanybeing,butembraceandnurturetheallequally.
By comparing the social order with nature, he invalidates the human
hierarchicalstructureofdominionandsuggeststheegalitarianismofall
beingsinnature.
How, then, can onebreak through anthropocentrism? The answer
has todo with selfcultivationas aspecificmethod ofimmersion in na
ture.

Self-Cultivation
Asregardstheactualprocessofhowtogobeyondhumancenteredness
andturnbacktonature,theZhuangzi presentstwoways:openingapath
through politics and practicing selfcultivation of the inner mindtwo
waysthat,moreover,arenotincompatiblecontradictionbutpresentlev
elsof priority.

15The Liji (Book of Rites), compiled in the Western Han, says: The
practice of rites does not apply to commoners; the execution of punishments
doesnotapplytothenoble(ch. 1).
Kim,ReadingZhuangzi EcoPhilosophically/13

Limitation of Politics
TheZhuangziingeneraltendstodenypoliticsasawayofturningback
to nature, claiming that political activities are associated with egoistic
desires for fame and selfaggrandizement. It thus criticizes the human
motivationforpoliticalparticipationbutdoesnotdenytheessentialhu
man need to live together.16 In this, the text differs from HuangLao
documents,whichhaveamorepositiveoutlookonthequestionwhether
humanbeingsareabletoconstructasocialsystemanalogoustothehu
manthatmatchesthelawandreflectstheflowofDao.17
TheZhuangziismuchmoreprudent and negativeonthatpoint.It
notesrepeatedlythatallexternalizationthroughhumanlanguage,ideas,
or social structures necessarily brings about distortion. Its vision of the
idealpersonisaccordinglymoreindividualisticandinternallyfocused
in contrast to that of the Daodejing, where the sage is a political being.
But this does not imply that the text denies human communal life.18

16 Quoting a dialogue between Xiegong Zigao and Confucius


(Watson 1968, 5960; Graham 2001, 70; Mair 1994, 33; HYSIS, 10/4/40), hama
claims Zhuangzi admittedthat fealtyandserviceto a lordwere inevitable des
tiny.HedifferentiatesZhuangzispositionfrom theConfucianhierarchicalorder
andarguesthatwhatisimportantintheZhuangziistheacceptanceoftheinevi
tabilityinthemind.HeconcludesthatZhuangzineithersupportednorjustified
hierarchicalsegregationanddiscrimination (1978,33436).
17 The Huangdisijing,based onanideaof DaoLaw(daofa),explicates

thiskindofunderstanding.Forexample,abookofthesijing,Jingfasaysin
itsfirstsentence,DaobirthsLaw,anditmeans,onlyfromtheorderof
natureasDao,theorderofstateshouldbeestablished.Sincelawexactlyreflects
theprincipleofDao,tofollowandobeyaninstitutionalizedlawofstateissame
toparticipateinthecosmicprinciple;andinturntoenactlawistosanctifythe
human political community by thesacred principles. Thissanctification ofsoci
ety ispossible and perpetuated by and through the human Sage. The emphasis
on the Sage King rendered the HuangLao thought to hold a perspective, that
HeavenEarthManare one body (tianzhirenyiti).Inthis,thecore of
the doctrine is in the ascending power and status of humans, which became
equally matched with Heaven and Earthin the end. That is,the perspective of
the one body was an expression of awakening and ambition of human power
andcapacityoftheHuangLaoschool.
18 SimaQianhascontributedtotheunderstandingofZhuangziasa

politicalskeptic.Although hisperception ofZhuangzisthought emphasizes its


peculiaritywhencomparedtootherthinkersofthetime,itisstillopentoques
14/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

WhiletheZhuangziisconcernedwithtragichumanrealityandseeksso
lutions for overcoming it, recognizing the fundamental limitations of
externalization such as language and social systems, it keeps silent in
addressing political alternatives. The texts silence on the ideal commu
nity,moreover,iscontrastedindirectlyandnegativelyinseveralvisions
ofidealplacesandholypersons,suchasfarawayGuyiMountaininch.1.
Intermsofecologicalconcerns,itishardtoimagineZhuangziper
suading us tocompletely abandon the will to save the Earth in crisis.19
Truly if he consistently distrusted humans and thought of them as not
understandingthatanythingwaswrong,hewouldrecognizeneitherthe
problem of humans against nature nor the necessity of selfcultivation.
However, exposing his critical view of humans and society, Zhuangzi
invites people to selfcultivation in an ethical dimension.20 In this, his

tionhowmuchSimaspositionhelpedtheoverallunderstandingoftheZhuangzi.
ThereseemstobetwopossiblereasonswhySima stressedthereclusiveandanti
political tendencies in the Zhuangzi: First, placingthe Zhuangziwith other early
Daoist works associated with Laozi, Shen Buhai , and Han Feizi, he
neededto focusonZhuangzispoliticaluniquenessandoversimplifyitsposition.
Second, asGuan points out,SimaQianwantedtocriticizethe Confucianism of
histime byreferringtoZhuangzichaptersthatpresent challengestothe Confu
ciansocialorder(1961,322).ThechaptertitlesSimauses,too,reflecthisinclina
tiontoreadthetextintheperspectiveofpoliticalanarchism. However,theprob
lemofSimasintentionaldescriptioncannot beclearlyverified,sincewedonot
know ifhistextwasthesameasours.
19 Kirkland cautiously sees a possible transformative power of the ideal

person in the Zhuangzi, contrasting it with Yearleys interpretation of the


Zhuangziaspersuadingpeopletoabandonanywilltosavetheearth(2001,283
304). Similarly, comparing the thought of theZhuangzi with Confucianism and
Mohism,WangBoalso triesmilderthoughtexperiment:shouldonewhoknows
that a bucket of water cannot help the fire still assist his neighbor? Wang sug
geststhatZhuangzisideaismuchmoredispassionatethancomparablevisions
inConfucianismandMohism(2004,34).ImplyingthatZhuangziponderedand
soughttoovercomethedominantroleofhumanemotionswithoutreflectionin
judgmentanddetermination,IpartlyagreewithWang.
20 I agree here with Allisons critical analysis of relativistic interpretation

oftheZhuangzi(1989,11126).However,Idoubtthattherecanbeacleardistinc
tion between spiritual transformation with mystical and religious means in the
Zhuangzi (see Allinson1989,79).
Kim,ReadingZhuangzi EcoPhilosophically/15

skepticpositionseemstobeatherapeuticprescriptionforaharmonious
life withnature(Kjellberg1996).Therefore,hiscritiquesofhumans and
society go against the anthropocentric origin of human judgment and
morals,notagainsthumansassuch.ThusIbelievethatforZhuangzithe
ecologicalquesttosavetheearthisjustifiableinprinciple.

Cultivation of Mind
SinceZhuangzifindstheroot ofanthropocentrism in human ignorance
and inner desirerather than in the spread of the mechanistic view of
nature,theriseofcapitalism,andtheformationofahierarchicalsociety,
heseesthetruemethodtodissolvedesireandtoreturntonatureasself
cultivation.21
Despiteallrelativityandselfcontradictions,humanbeingsneedto
cultivatethemselvesandareabletoachievetransformation.Wherethen
canone findthe potentialtocultivate?Thetextsuggests:

OncewhenIwasonamissiontothestateofZhou,saidCon
fucius,Ihappenedtoseesomelittlepigssuckingattheirdead
mother. After a short while, they all abandoned her and ran
away hastily. It was because they no longer sensed her to be
their kind. What they loved about their mother was not her
physicalformbutthatwhichanimatedherform.(ch.4;Mair
1994,47)

Zhuangzi emphasizes that what makes humans move is not their


outershapeandthathumansalreadyacknowledgeitthroughaninher
entsensibility.Inthefollowing,heexplainsmoreclearlythatthekeyfac
toris virtue.

21ItwouldbefairtosuggestintheviewofSocialEcologyorEcofeminism
thattheZhuangzisimplyreducedtheproblemofthecontradictionofsocialsys
temtothatof thesubjectivemind.Howevertherewouldalsobeafundamentally
questionablepointasfollows:whetheritistrulypossibleorappropriatetosepa
ratehumanindividualselffromsocietyitselfinexplainingandanalyzingsocial
phenomenon.TheancientChinese,includingZhuangzi,whodidthinktherela
tionshipbetweenindividualselfandsocietynotasjustconflictedorincompati
blebutaspriorandnaturallyextended,wouldnotagreethemodernapproachto
understandinghumansandsociety.
16/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

What do you mean when you say his virtue takes no form?
Among level things, water at rest is the most perfect, and
therefore it can serve as a standard. It guards what is inside
and shows no movement outside. Virtue is the establishment
of perfect harmony. Though virtue takes no form,things can
notbreakawayfromit. (Watson1968,74)

He makes three points: the potential for selftransformation is dis


tinctly defined asvirtue; ithas no form;and itsperfection brings about
theharmony of allthings,includinghumansandsociety.
ThenotionofvirtueasformlesscloselyrelatestoZhuangziscritique
of externalizations like language, ethics, and social order as based on
humancentered reason. Externalizations without cultivation merely re
flectdesires,andwhatcomestoappearasvirtueisnecessarilydistorted.
Hiscontentionthattheperfectionofvirtuebringsaboutsocialharmony,
moreover,allowsustomatchZhuangzisthoughtwithanecologicalper
spective.Heaffirmsherethatthemyriadthingscanbeinharmony,and
thatpeoplecancommunicateandmakefriendswitheachotherwithout
external forms like language. This can be realized in a state of being at
peace with the decreed (anming ) as is made clear in the following
stories:

TherewasamanofLu,PrincelyNag,whohadbeenmutilated
byhavingoneofhisfeetcutoff,yetthosewhofollowedhimin
his wanderings were as numerous as the followers of Confu
cius.
Chang Ji inquired of Confucius, Princely Nag has had
oneofhisfeetcutoff,yetthosewhofollowhiminhiswander
ingsdivideuphalfthestateofLuwithyou,master.Heneither
teaches when standing nor discourses when sitting. Yet those
whogotohimemptycomebackfull.Istheretrulyadoctrine
without words, a formless mental accomplishment? What
kindofpersonishe?Sir,saidConfucius,heisasage.I
wouldleadthewholeoftheempiretofollowhim.(Mair1994,
4243)

MasterSi,MasterYu,MasterLi,MasterLaiwereallfourtalk
ingtogether.Whocanlookuponnonbeingashishead,onlife
ashisback,andondeathashisrump?theysaid.Whoknows
Kim,ReadingZhuangzi EcoPhilosophically/17

that life and death, existence and annihilation are all a single
body? I will be his friend! The four men looked at each other
andsmiled.Therewasnodisagreementintheirheartsandso
thefourofthembecamefriends. (Watson,8384)22

In the first, Zhuangzi admitsthatpeoplehope to follow WangTai


(PrincelyNag),asagewhohadhisfootamputated.Thissendstwomes
sages: even thosepunished and excluded from the social ordercan be
comesagesinvirtue,contrastinginherentgoodnesswiththeinjusticesof
manmadelaw,socialhierarchies,andhumanjudgment(seealsoch.2).
And itmakesclear that forZhuangzi allhumanbeingscanbe disciples
of thesage, whichmeansallpeoplehaveboth thepotential andthe in
herentwilltowardthecompletionof virtue.
The second story, too, sends two messages: in nature there is ulti
matelynodualismoflifeanddeath,existenceandannihilationasestab
lishedbyhumanbeings;andthroughthetransmission(tong)ofmind
wecantruly formfriendshipsand solidarity thuscreatingcommunity.
Thesestoriesthus presentanalternativevisionofhumanbeingsand
sociallife,asbasedonthepracticeofselfcultivation.Themethod,more
over, that the Zhuangzi extols to reach this goal is the cultivation of the
mindthroughforgettingand emptying.
Since all anthropocentrism ultimately comes from the mind, it is
essentialthatpeopleforgetandemptythemselvesofallcognition,judg
ment,andsocialpatternsassetupinahumancenteredway.Sittingin
oblivion (zuowang ), outlined in ch. 6, is a typical example of this
emptyingcultivation.Itclearlyshows how humanscandismantletheir
humancenteredness,beginningby clarifying that anthropocentrismbe
gins with accepting organbased sensory data, recognizing external
forms,and creatingknowledgeaboutthings.Theseinturnlead to formal
ethicsandahierarchicalsocialorder,matchingineverywaytheexpan
sionofhumandesires.Thusitisthathumanbeingsactagainst natureas
flow of Dao in the world. By articulating his methodology of zuowang,

22 Graham here translatesshu aswhichofus(2001,87).Thislimitsthe

boundary to make friends to only the four men themselves. Cheng Xuanying
reads the passage: If anyone who can know this [principle of nature]
exists,Iwillbehisfriend (Guo2006,258). Ipreferthisunderstanding.
18/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

Zhuangzi thus asks his followers to dissolve any momentum causing


humancenteredness.
Together with forgetting, moreover, Zhuangzi proposes an empty
ing of the mind. This is presented in the fasting of the mind (xinzhai
). According to this, human senses and the mind easily give in to
desires, then project established values, criteria, and systems into the
world. He accordingly insists that people stop using them, replacing
theirordinarywayofsensingandthinkingwithprimalbreath(qi).
Henotes that when theqiaspurified fluidhascometobetenuous,the
mindwillbeemptiedofknowledgegeneratedfromhumansandsociety.
Thenonecanperceiveandrespondto nature.23
Humans,whocometodissolvealldesiresbyforgettingandempty
ing, now agree to and follow the truth of nature without reluctance.24
Theapexindissolvinganthropocentrisminoneselfisexpressedas Ilost
myselfinch.2.Thesubjectofthissentence,theIisabeingofnature
whiletheobject,themyself,isfilledwithdesiresagainstnature.Theex
pressionpresentsthehigheststage in freeing ourselves from any desire
against nature.25 This reveals Zhuangzis ideal relationship between hu
mansand nature.

23 FukunagaarguesthatqiintheZhuangziiscloselypresent intwodimen

sions: as cosmology and selfcultivation (1978, 12728). In cosmology, it is the


fundamentalgroundofcreationandtheequalityofthings;incultivation,itisthe
ideal purifiedstate of emptiness. Cosmology and cultivation based onthe con
cept ofqi, moreover,formed thefoundation of Chinesesoteriological medicine.
AsregardstherelationshipofDaoandqiintheZhuangzi,Fukunagareserveshis
judgement andthinks it possibleto understand Dao as equaltoone qi(1978,
12930),whileLingassertsthatDaoispriorto qi (2004,9495).,
24 Mairalsopointsoutthecloseconnectionbetweenforgettingandwander

ing(1982,109,112). KanayaagreesthatparticipatingintheprincipleofNatureis
ultimatelyonthereligiousdimensionin theZhuangzi (1997,87).
25 Quoting and analyzing a paragraph in ch. 23, Mllgaard presents the

term inbetween and suggests: In the Zhuangzi the perfection of humanity


impliesthat human beings,through theinterplay ofskill[qiao;technical action]
and clumsiness [zhuo; the break with technical action], properly situate them
selvesinbetweenman(ren)andHeaven(tian),anditdoesnotimplyananimal
likeunitywiththeworld. ...TheZhuangzi doesnotsuggestthatwereturntothe
Kim,ReadingZhuangzi EcoPhilosophically/19

Free and Easy Wandering


Breaking through dependence on language, ethics, culture, and social
order,thepractitionercomestofacetheflowandongoingchangeofna
tureasbeingitself.TheZhuangziexpressesthisintermsofstayingrest
fullywiththatwhichisdecreed(seeLiu1988,14353).Thushumanbe
ingscome toconsidernature astheheart of existence.The Inner Chap
ters take up the question of the decreed several times. For one, they
speakofthatwhichisdecreedastheinevitable(budeyi),which
meansthereisnoneedforittobeadmittedandadoptedbutcreatesthe
perfectopportunitytoengageinfreeandeasywandering.26
Zhuangzi foundthat true freedom and liberation could not be at
tained through political requirements or the realization ofpersonal de
sires.Hispursuitofwanderingisaccordinglydifferentfromtheideaof
freedom from real and ideological hierarchies and suppression, as pro
posed in Social Ecology and Ecofeminism. Even if there was no clear
outwardforcetodominateothers,desiresastheultimatesourceofsuch
a mental tendency would have to be eliminated. Genuine freedom and

unmediatedspontaneitythatischaracteristicofanimal,todosowouldbetolose
ourhumanity(2007,59).
However, concerning this, I emphasize the truth of equalizing things that
humansshould not differentiatethemselves fromthe animals interms of order
or hierarchy of beingsa distinction that, according to the Zhuangzi, brings
about a distortion of reality. Obviously, the truth of equalization the Zhuangzi
proposedwasnottoannihilatetheinnatenature(xing)ofeachbeing.Rather,
therepudiationofthetruthaimedathumancenteredvaluationtothings.Along
the same logic to separate humans from other beings, one might not recognize
difference between Heaven and man, an idea present in the description of the
perfect being (zhenren ) in ch. 6 (see Graham 1991, 19599). However, this
raises two issues: the authenticity of the zhenren; and the difference between
Heaven/manandman/things. SeeKimunpublishedC.
26 hamaoutlinesninestatesofwanderingintheZhuangzi:1)astateofno

self,noachievement,andnoname,2)astateofdependenceupon nothing,3)a
stateofknowingtheprincipleof equalizingthingsandbeingpenetratedbyabso
lute knowledge,4)astateofforgetting,5)astateof being changeable in neces
saryprocessofnature,6)astateoffreeandspontaneousacts,7)astateofbeing
awakenedasthedecreedandtobecontrolledbyit,8)stateofbeingintheplace
oforigin,9) stateofthehighestleveloftheworld(1978, 425).
20/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

liberationfirstcomefromthemind;theyarenotprovidedbyoutercon
ditions.ThusforZhuangzi,stayingatpeaceinthedecreedisaprerequi
site for all freedom and liberation; only by attaining this state can hu
manswanderfreelyandeasilyinnature.Theycanthencoexist harmoni
ouslywithallbeings,intheirrelationshipwiththingscompletelygiving
up all humancenterednessandinstrumentalism.They havebeen trans
formedintobeingswhotrulyrespecttheintrinsicvalueofallbeings.As
thetextsays:

Thesageleansonthesunandmoon,tuckstheuniverseunder
hisarm,mergeshimselfwiththings,leavestheconfusionand
muddleasitis,andlooksonslavesasexalted.Ordinarymen
strain and struggle; the sage is stupid and blockish. He takes
part in ten thousand ages and achievessimplicity in oneness.
For him, all the ten thousand things are what they are, and
thustheyenfoldeachother. (Watson1968,47)

Far away on Guyi Mountain there dwells aspirit man whose


skinis like congealedsnow and who is gentle as a virgin.He
does not eat any of the five grains, but inhales the wind and
drinksthedew.Heridesontheclouds,drivesaflyingdragon,
and wanders beyond the four seas.Hisspirit is concentrated,
savingthingsfromcorruptionandbringingabountifulharvest
everyear.(Mair1994,67)

The ideal relationship is realized not by making nonhumans ones in


strumentsbutby recognizingthe world andallbeings asthey are. The
wanderingsagethusrespectsallthingsjustastheyare.Thisstatecanbe
defined asa multicentriclandscapethroughDao intheecologicalsense.
Theconcept ofmulticentrism firstappears in the work of theAn
thony Weston (2004, 26:2540).27 Hebeginsby separating thehumanbe

27Multicentrismchallengesandideallyovercomestheecophilisophicalpo
sitionofexpandingcircles(concentrism),whichisthestrategytoascertainiden
tification between humans andnature. The expansion of circles is only possible
by thesame quality fromoutside ofthe circle asthe quality of existence inside
thecircle.Thismeansthatwhetherselfandthingforinstancecanbecomeidenti
fiedismadepossibleonlyintheconditionthatappliestotheelementofidentifi
cationinsidethehuman.So,inthestrategyofidentification,theutmostdecisive
Kim,ReadingZhuangzi EcoPhilosophically/21

ing from the ruling center and assumes thatthehuman is not the only
moral being. He points out that the expansion of the human being is
based on a dualism that separates self and nonself, and demands that
one resisttheassimilationandmarginalizationaccompanyingdualism.
Beyond the dualism, to describe the present world, Weston bor
rowsWilliamJamessconceptofthemultiverse,whichmeansthatthere
arenumerousstructuresindifferentdimensionsandthattheworldcon
sistsofmultiplepowerfields,eachofwhichhavetheirowncenterinthe
networkofcomplicatedstructures.Thesestructuresformthemultiverse.
Takingthis intothe ethicalrealm, Weston demands thatone shouldre
specttherightsofallbeingsinthismultiverse.Developingamoralcon
siderationtowardsothers,oneshouldadoptanopenattitudesothateth
ics become inviting and welcoming. Acknowledging the existence of
othercenters,the moralsubjectfurthermoreisnotonlythehumanbeing
anylonger,butincludesalsononhumanbeings.Ethicsaccordinglyhave
to be constructed in cooperation with them and by taking their rights
andneedsintoaccount.
Despite their differences in explaining their views, Zhuangzi and
Weston have some significant similarities in their vision of decentering
humans by invalidating all dualisms and accepting the intrinsic moral
valueofallbeings.Theyhopetoeliminateanyandespeciallyhuman
imposedprojection, subordination, and hierarchies. Most importantly,
theyshareavisionoftheworldasamultiverseandsee allbeings as hav
ingtheirowncenterwhich mustnotbeviolatedbyothers.
Nevertheless, unlike Weston, the Zhuangzi clearly emphasizes the
Daoasuniversality.TheDaohasthefundamentalcharacteristicofbeing
anagentwhorealizesandcompletesthenatureofallbeingsandthings
withoutforcingorviolatingthem.Daoornatureinvalidatesallartificial
hierarchies and systems of domination so that all beings retrieve their
owncenter of existence.In this respect, Dao is theopencenterthatem
bracesandnurturesallthingsastheyare;itisneverthehegemoniccen
ter.ThroughDaoasthefoundationforthingstobethemselves,eachand
every being can actualize itself and realize its full potential without in

criterion is inthe end the human being himself(Weston2004, 2628).Thiscriti


cismofconcentrismbyWestonissimilarly to Zhuangzisrefutation ofConfucian
moralprojectionson societyandnature.
22/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

tervention orviolence. So,in Zhuangzis ecophilosophy, thetruecentric


landscapeispossibleonlythrough theDao.Despitehisfocusonthein
dividual as the main respectable subject,he still holds an ultimate con
cernfortheDao;thuspresentinganalternative formofDaoist ecology.

Deficiencies
Zhuangzis ecology can be considered deficient in the following three
points.
First,hedeniestheneedforpoliticalchangein society.Hispolitics
are affectedbytwo main factors:theanarchic tradition aspresentedby
recluses and the ideal tradition of the sage behind the scenes as pre
sentedbyConfucius.Atfirstglance,Zhuangziseemstodefendpolitical
skepticism resulting from anarchism; however, since he also acknowl
edges thepotentialexistence of thevirtuouscommunity, hemay not in
fact have given up the ideal of a perfect society completely. Rather, he
objectedtotherepresentationandjustificationofexternalmoralandpo
liticalstandards.
OnemayalsocriticizeZhuangziforhislackofshortterm,specific,
and practical prescriptions for ecological earthconstruction.28 On the
other hand, in order to revolutionize the world, Zhuangzi also de
mandedthatpeopleapprovehumanoriginatedlimitationsandreexam
ine themselves as political subjects. Instead of offering an immediate
practical ecology, he suggested the priority of selfpurification toward
naturethroughpotentiallypoliticallyoriented introspection.
Second, he shows no concern with the particularwhich is not to
saythathe was not interested in the individual.29 Indeed,mostpreQin

28 Activism for politicalandeconomicalchangeintherealworldisasignifi


cantinecology. Althoughoftenmisunderstood,DeepEcologistsalsosupportthe
justification of political and economical change. SeeNaess1991, 10429;13062.
RamachandraGuhaproposesameaningfulcritiqueonthepotentialinfluenceit
hasinthereallifeof peopleintheThirdWorld(1989,7183;alsoGuha1999,473
79).
29 Forexample,JoanneBirdwhistell suggestsfromanecofeministviewpoint

thatZhuangziseparatedwhatisheavenly(oruniversal)fromwhatishuman(or
local)andignoredthelatter(2001,2344).Shesays:TheconceptsofDaointhe
Kim,ReadingZhuangzi EcoPhilosophically/23

thinkers focused less on individuals or particular groupssuch as, for


instance,women orbarbariansbutmade universal issues such asDao
theirmain subject. However, Zhuangzi specifically claimsthatby trust
ingtheprincipleofDaoonecanovercomeallhumandivisionsanddis
tinctions.Inthisdeconstruction,thevalueandmeaningofallthingsare
restoredandraised back totheiroriginalstate.
In this sense, it is reasonable for Guo Xiang to understand
Zhuangzisphilosophyasoneofselfcreationandlonetransformation
(zisheng duhua ), emphasizing the independent existence of in
dividualbeingsandthingsintheworld.GuoXiang,ofcourse,wrotein
theageofMysteriousLearning(xuanxue)andthusrejectedtherole
of Heaven or Dao as origin and instead dissolved it into individual
things. In this point he was different from Zhuangzi. Yes, Guo Xiangs
restorationoftheparticularasasignificantaspectofZhuangzisthought
alsoimpliesthattheoriginaltextvaluedandrespected particularity.Par
ticularitypreservesuniquenessandvaluewithinandthroughoutuniver
sality, while universality manifests itself in thenatureof whichparticu
larity consists.
Third, Zhuangzi consistently denies human uniqueness, a point
highlyrelevantintermsofitsecologicalimplications.Alongverysimilar
lines, Murray Bookchin castigates Deep Ecology and its declaration of
biosphericalegalitarianism,sayingthatloweringhumanstatusimpliesa
refusal of responsibility to transfer our ecological situation to free na
turethelatterunderstoodasasynthesisoffirstandsecondnature.He
also notes that the realization of dialectical reason is the completion of
humanpotential as endowedbyand in natureas it evolveshistorically
(1995).
Zhuangzisstrongdenialofhumancapacityandresponsibilityinthe
universeappearsalreadyintheXunzi,aConfucianworkofthelate
Warring States period. He says that blinded by Heaven, Zhuangzi ig
nores humans (HYSIS 79/21/22), which shows that he penetrated
Zhuangzis thought.30 Influenced by Daoist thought, especially of the

Zhuangzi and Laozi often focus on and emphasize the universal (pattern of
change)whiledepreciatingparticular,individualexperiences(2001, 35).
30 Zhuangzi emphasizes Heaven while downgrading the independent

status of humans. In this, he differs fromthe HuangLao understanding of the


human role in society and the universe. Xunzis critical reference to Zhuangzi
24/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

HuangLao school, Xunzi tried to establish the ultimate justification of


Confucian values in close resonance with nature. Relating the rearing
and blooming of all beings and things to the presence and actions of a
responsiblesage,themakerofprinciplesofthesocialorder(li),Xunzi
hopedtoextend Confucianismintoamorecosmicdimension.31
BeginningwithhisworkandcontinuedfromHandynastyYizhuan
(Commentaries to the Book of Changes) well into the Neo
Confucianism of Zhu Xi (11301200) and Wang Yangming
(14721529),Confucianthinkerssuccessfullyproposedthecosmicsageas
auniquebeingsuperiortoallthings,apeacebringingleaderofhuman
ity,andonewhocouldcoordinatetherelationofhumanbeingsandna
ture.Thisvisionofbeingresponsibletowardnaturethroughthehuman
Dao (renzhidao ) might match the ecological approach known as
weakanthropocentrism.32
However,theepistemological,practical,andethicalpersuasiveness
ofweakanthropocentrismbeingsecuredintermsofinevitabilityandan
ethical concern with personal and social interests, it might also lead to

showsthathetouchedthecoreofthedisputeamongtheschools. Hisrecognition
of a Daoist group also appears in his critique of the Laozi.Inhis chapter,Dis
course on Heaven, he says: Laozi knew about shrinking back, but not about
stretching out (HYSIS64/17/51). Taking account thatthe earlytext ofthe Laozi
wasenlargedandeditedby HuangLao scholarsinXunzistime,itbecomesclear
that Xunzi differentiated between Laoziand theHuangLao. Some members of
the HuangLao school, as shown in the Huangdi sijing, tended to propose the
doctrine of revering yang (chongyang) by assimilatingbothConfucian and
LegaliststatecraftandjustifyingthemundertheauspicesofDaoistcosmology.
31 Despitethefundamentallimitthatitwasconcernedwithandraisedfor

humanuse,theecologicalvirtuethatXunzisthoughthasis toemphasizehuman
responsibilitytocareotherbeings.Itispresentedasfollows:Ifitistheseason
whenthegrassesandtreesareinthesplendoroftheirfloweringandsprouting
newleaves,axesandhalberdsarenotpermittedinthemountainforestsoasnot
toendtheirlivesprematurelyortointerrupttheirmaturity.He[asageking]
scrutinizesHeavenaboveandestablishesonEarthbelow;hefillsupandputsin
orderallthatisbetweenHeavenandEarth;andheaddshisworktothemyriad
things (Knoblock1990,2:105).
32 SeeKim,unpublishedD,onecologyfromConfuciustoWangYangming.

Also Ivanhoe1998,5976. Onweakanthropocentrism, see Norton1984;1995.


Kim,ReadingZhuangzi EcoPhilosophically/25

the justification of human chauvinism.33 Becaus it still holds a dualism


which creates binaries such as human over nature, male over female,
Western over nonWestern, and civilized over primitive, the weak an
thropocentrism possibly validates existing relationshipsand turns them
into a hierarchyofbeingsas rulingandruled orsuperiorandinferior.34
Anthropocentrism as justified by Xunzi relates to his confidence
thatonlyhumanshavemorality.UnlikeKant,Xunziclaimedmoralityas
a logical ground to differentiate human beings from nonhumans and
govern them.35 In addition, to him even beings other than human still
have to call upon the existence of a human sage for their perfect living
and maturation. This means that they fundamentally lack the ability or
powertogrowandblossomintheirway.Therefore,suchwaysofXunzi
or the HuangLao with its qualified humancenteredness, when con
frontedwithanirresolvableconflictbetweenhumansandnature,might
yetcometosupportaviewnodifferentfromanthropocentrism.
It is noteworthy that resonance theory or the doctrine of the re
sponsiblesageking doesnotappearasamajortopicintheInnerChapter

33 Some contributions to the volumes ConfucianismandEcology and Daoism


andEcologyapprovethecosmicresonancetheory,firstdevelopedbytheHuang
Lao school then taken over into Confucianism, as an environmentally friendly
idea.Thetheory,however,privilegestheresponsiblecosmicsageasthehighest
andnoblestbeingin contrast to anynonhumanbeings.
34 OnemayalsoapplyWestonscritiqueonthelogicofexpandingcirclesor

concentrism in thecriticalunderstandingofweakanthropocentrism (2004,2628).


In the context of ancient China, a case of the expanding circle appears in the
GreatLearningchapteroftheLiji.
35 ItisnoteworthytopayattentiontohowandwhyXunzistrovetoprivi

lege human status and justify social hierarchy: Fire and water possess vital
breath but have no life. Plants and trees possess life, but lack awareness. Birds
and beasts have awareness, but lack a sense of morality and justice. Humans
possessvitalbreath,life,andawareness,andaddtothemasenseofmoralityand
justice.Itisforthisreasonthattheyarethenoblestbeingsintheworld.Inphysi
calpowertheyarenotsogoodasanox,inswiftnesstheydonotequalthehorse;
yettheoxandhorsecanbeputtotheiruse.Whyisthat?Isayitisbecausehu
mansalonecanformsocietiesandanimalscannot.Whycanmanformsociety?I
say it is due to the division ofsociety into classes.How can socialdivisions be
translated into behavior? I say it is because of humans sense of morality and
justice. Thus, iftheirsense of morality andjusticeis usedto dividesociety into
classes,concordwillresult. (Knoblock1990,2:1034)
26/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

oftheZhuangzi,althoughsomepassages,forexampleinchapter7,show
thattheauthorswereundersomeinfluenceoftheprevalentintellectual
currentsatthattime.Hismainconcernwashowhumanscouldabdicate
their superiority, never how they could ascend to the central throne of
universe. What, then, is the authentic implication of Zhuangzis harsh
critiqueofhumanbeings,especiallysinceitneitherforcestheselectionof
another alternative nor arises from misanthropism. Instead, Zhuangzi
usesittothoroughlyaskhumanbeingstounderstandwhytheyshould
always be moderate in their interaction with nature and other beings.
Zhuangzismainconcern is an invitation ofnature givenby the infinite
negationofdualismfromhumanorigins.

Conclusion
The Zhuangzi has three teachings that are highly relevant to contempo
rary ecological issues. Revolving around his understanding of nature,
humanbeings,andselfcultivation,theyareasfollows.
Asregardsnature,Zhuangziaskshumanstoreexaminetheterm.In
the contemporary world, nature is strongly disenchanted and secular
ized, understood as things completely isolated from the human world
andasmereobjectstobetakenatwill.However,intheZhuangzi,nature
notonlyconsistsofthingsasallbeingsbutisalsotheoriginandthebase
of completion of all beingsincluding humansin the Dao. All beings
andtheirorigin arealwayscloselyassociated;forminganetworkofbe
ings in andthrough Dao, all things are equal andmutually linkedwith
eachother.Freeandeasywanderingthencomesfromthesuccessfulrela
tionship ofnature andthings; from theperspective of ecology, itcanbe
understoodasthe multicentriclandscapeempoweredbyDao.
As regards human beings, Zhuangzi raises the question of reason
inargumentandsuggestsathoroughselfreflectionandmodestyinthe
knowledgeofnature.Humanbeingsdenytheirrelationshiptoallbeings
and things in the world; theywithdrawfrom them andtry to occupya
positionofsovereignty overall.Theydoallthis, believinginthe absolute
accuracy of reasona faculty they alone possessand by realizing the
desires that arise in their minds. Zhuangzi warns against essential hu
man dogmatism and an anthropocentric worldview, thus collapsing all
Kim,ReadingZhuangzi EcoPhilosophically/27

hegemonicdualism.HereiswheretheZhuangzi emergesasacoretextof
antianthropocentrism.
As regards selfcultivation, Zhuangzi proposes the need to culti
vate the mind in the individual if anthropocentrism is to be overcome.
Awakeningtotheideaofhumanfinitenessinrelationtoinfinitenature,
forgetting conscious distinctions, and emptying oneself of desires are
necessaryactionsinthiscontext.Themomentonethuscomestopartici
pate in Dao,thehorizon ofwanderingthroughnature in liberation and
freedom opens. As the human self undergoes transformation, self
purification and refinement become the ground of creating a truly har
monious relationshipwithsocietyand nature.

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Eating Your Way to Immortality

Early Daoist Self-Cultivation Diets

SHAWN ARTHUR
Abstract

This paper examines health and bodyrelated claims made in the Lingbao
Wufuxu(The Prefacetothe FiveLingbao Talismans ofNuminous Treasure), an
earlymedievalDaoisttextthatcontainsseventyrecipesforattaininghealth,lon
gevity,andspiritualbenefit.Synthesizingthetextsmyriadclaimsandanalyzing
theirimplicitassumptions,Iworktodevelopanintegratedpictureofwhatwas
consideredcrucialfor a healthy body, what techniques were usedtoattainthis
ideal, and what goals were sought using these practices. I examine the texts
claimsaboutbecomingphysicallyandspirituallyhealthy,itsproposedstagesof
purificationandrefinement,andtherangeofindicatorsbywhichadherentscan
measure progress toward their ideal state. Not only does this study provide a
newinterpretationoftheWufuxusdietaryregimens,italsoillustrateshowChi
nese medical theories influenced the texts authors to present immortality as a
logical evolution of healthperfecting practices. This analysis leads to questions
of how the idea of perfecting ones health functions within the worldview and
ritualpracticesofearlyDaoists.

Daoists are well known for their emphasis on selfcultivation practices


aimed to attune them to the Dao and to achieve longevity. One signifi
cantpracticewhichhasreceivedrelativelylittleattentionisreligiousdie
taryasceticism.AswithotherDaoistpractices,dietaryregimesintegrate
a wide range of ideas such as cosmological correlation, medical theo
ries, andreligioussymbolism todevelop abeneficial andcomprehen
sive exercise that is expected to compliment other selfcultivation and
religiousritualpractices.

32
Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/33

Thisproject focuses ontheTaishanglingbaowufuxu


(Preface to the Five Most High Numinous Treasure Talismans),1 which
was written and edited from the second to the fifth centuries CE in the
Jiangnan region in southeastern China. The Wufuxus first juan
(scroll/chapter) includes instructions for specialized breathing practices
as wellas a description ofthe idealized lineage associated withthetext
anditstalismans fromitsemergenceduringthegenerationofthecosmos
through its various attributed owners including ancient mythological
figures, Masters of Esoterica (fangshi ), and famous immortals. The
textsthirdjuanincludesadetailedtransmissionritualforthefiveLing
bao talismans, which are presented (3.9b111b) and which are well
knownfortheirclaimedabilitytoprotecttheirwearerfromharmwhen
exploring wilderness areas in search of immortality elixir ingredients.2
Theformaltransmissionritual,firstpresentedinthisjuan(3.3a7b3),be
cametheritualmodeladoptedbyDaoistsfromthefifthcenturyforward
(Raz2004,8,15,36381).3
Situated between these sections, the middle juan of this text pro
vides an extensive and detailed example of Daoist dietary practices
manyofwhichareattributedtothefiguresdiscussedinearlierpartsof
the text. This section, whose contents is the subject of this essay, is a
technicalmanualofseventyrecipes(listedintheappendix)thatfocuses
on the attainment ofperfected health andphysical immortality through
theingestionofherbal andvegetalbasedprescriptions.4

1 DZ388;hereaftercitedasWufuxu.Thenumberingsysteminthisworkis

based on that found in Komjathys TitleIndextothe DaoistCanon (2002). For a


detaileddiscussionofthehistoryofthevariouseditionsofthistextanditsclose
relation to other early manuscripts such as the Lingbaojing and Lingbao
wufu ,seeRaz(2004,912,142150).
2 For example,seeWufuxu 3.8b79a10; Ge Hongs Baopuzi(Book of

theMasterWhoEmbracesSimplicity,DZ1185)11.3a18a2;trl.Ware1966,p.1796.
3 Foracomplete list ofthe contents ofthetexts first and thirdscrolls,see

Raz(2004,3137).
4 Although lacking an explicit explanatory statement, the context and

placementoftheserecipesalsoseemtoindicatethattheyfunctionaspreparatory
practices for participation in the later formal ritual which relies on the adept
havingattainedmanyofthegoalspresentedintherecipes,suchashavingones
energypurifiedandstrengthened,havingtheabilitytofast,beingincommunica
tionwiththegods,andhavingtheprotectionoftheJadeMaidens.
34/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

Techniques
TointroduceDaoistdiets,itmustberecognizedthatalloftheWufuxus
dietarypracticesandtheirexpectedbenefitsare predicatedonearlyChi
nese medical understandings of the physical body and the food it con
sumesinenergeticterms.Qi (organic,materialessentialenergy)isthe
fundamentalenergythatisfoundineverythingthroughoutthecosmos,
includingthehuman body,whichrequires qi tomaintainhealthandlife.
ThisideaisreflectedthroughouttheWufuxu,especiallyinitsmany
recipes that present benefiting and increasing qi as a basic self
cultivation achievement.5 For example, properly ingesting a compound
ofChinaRootfungus(fuling;Poriacocos),Rehmannia(dihuang;
Rehmanniaglutinosa Libosch),sesameseed(huma;Sesamumindicum),
andasparagus root(tianmendong;Asparaguscochinensis)powders
is thought to strengthen ones qi in just thirty days and to double it
withinonehundreddays necessary attainmentsbefore furtherrefine
mentcantakeplace(2.15a38;recipe20).
Oneresultofthisworldviewisanattempttoingestthemosteffica
ciousformsofqiin order tohave thebeststartingplace forproficiently
refiningandtransformingonesbodytoitsultimatepotential.Forexam
ple,thetextstates:Eatingthatwhichiscleanandpurebringslonglife,
andeatingthatwhichisuncleanandcorruptcausesoneslife(ming)
to be interrupted (2.23b2; recipe 28). Therefore, proper selection and
preparation of foods is crucial to Daoist selfcultivation. In fact, the
Wufuxuisfilledwithadmonitionstoingestonlyingredientsthatarehar
vestedandpreparedonparticulardaysassociatedwithoptimalqi condi
tionsandcorrespondences.
The Wufuxu contains seventythree different ingredients, the most
popularof which areSesameseeds,Asparagusroot,Rehmannia,China
rootfungus,Pinetreesap(songzhi;Pinus),Pokeroot(shanglu;
Phytolaccaacinosa),Locusttreeseeds(huaizi;Sophorajaponica),Wolf
berries(Gouqi;Lyciumchinense),andGinger(jiang;Zingiberoffici
nale).6 Eachingredienthasitsownmedicinalproperties,manyofwhich

5 Seerecipes1,2,7,12,14,20,25,27a,28,36,43,44,46.

The text contains fortyone plantbased active ingredients, as well as


6

twelvevarietiesofrice(mi),wheat(mai),andmillet(chishumi,shu
Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/35

arestatedexplicitlyinthetextandwhichcorrespondtootherearlyma
teriamedicainformation(seeArthur2006a,190213).
In addition to the ingredients innate qualities, the text stipulates
thatadeptsmusttakeintoconsiderationvariousimportantcosmological
correlationsespeciallydates,seasons,yinyangstates,andFivePhases
energies when collecting, preparing, and ingesting the various ingredi
ents.Forexample,ARecipeforLengtheningYearsandImprovingLife
Expectancydiscusses harvestingthechrysanthemumplant
(ju;Chrysanthemummorifolium),eachpartofwhichhasaspecialname
indicatingitskeyproperty, and says:

Duringthecourseofthethreespringmonths,onthejiayin
day in the middle of the day, gather transform life
leaves.Duringthecourseofthethreesummermonths,onthe
bingyindayinthemiddleoftheday,gatherthereplen
ishandrefillstalkDuringthethreeautumnmonthson
theyuyi dayintheafternoon,gatherthesunsessence
.Suns Essence isthe chrysanthemumsflower.Alwaysin
thewinterinthetenthmonthonthewuyindayatdawn,
gather the spirit essence These are the chrysanthe
mumsseeds In winter inthe eleventh ortwelfth month on
therenyindayatsunset,gatherlongevity.Longev
ityisthechrysanthemumsroots. (2.7a99a1;recipe12)7

In other words, tomaximize efficiency in attaining their goals, ad


eptsmustremain aware ofthemedicinal andqibasedpropertiesof the
ingredientstheyareingesting.Thisisdoneinpartbecausethesecharac
teristicscanchangedependinguponthetimestheplantsareharvested,
prepared,and ingested,but alsobecause thisrequires adeptstobecog
nizantoftheirownenergeticneedswhenchoosinganappropriatediet.

daomi ) thatarefermentedtoproducealcoholswiththeadditionofvegetal
active ingredients. Additionally, there are a few nonvegetal active ingredients
[mica(yunmu),deerantler(mijiao),mercury(shuiyin),andtin(xi
)],andmanynonvegetal,nonactiveingredientssuchaswater,honey,andthe
animalfatsusedforfryingin somerecipes.
7 See Arthur 2006, 605 and Raz 2004, 3612 for discussion of the Chinese

calendricalsystemanditsusageinthe Wufuxu.
36/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

Ideally, normal eatinghabitsalsoshouldbe abandoned in favor of


ingestingspecialelixirlikecompounds andcosmicqi,sincethesecontain
more specialized and rarified qi than normal foods. Accordingly, the
Wufuxu contains three basic types of selfcultivation dietary regimen,
eachrequiringadifferentlevelof commitment.
The first of these I label mildly ascetic because it involves eating
specialvegetalandherbal formulas as supplements to normalmeals or
slightly reduced food intake. Many of the Wufuxu diets proclaim that
practitionersshouldingestherbalmedicationsbefore(recipe16)orafter
(recipes 12, 14, 34) eating meals, or with any other foods they desire
(recipes 9, 21, 47, 66). For example, after harvesting and preparing the
orchid RedArrow(chijian ; Gastrodiaelata),thetextsays:

Asregardsthepropermethodofingestion,takea small spoon


ful after meals. This generally retards old age. After ten days
you will know its effectiveness. After thirty days your qi will
becomegreat.Onceyouhavetakenitforover100days,inad
ditiontotheabove,yourbodywillbecomelight,andyourears
and eyes will become astute and clear. After one year, teeth
andhairwillregrow. (2.9b22.10b3;recipe14)

Theleastdemandingofthetextsregimens,thisdiettypeseemsto
focusonimprovingoverallhealthandasanintroductiontomoresophis
ticated techniques. Similar to typical medical practices, the ingredients
used in these mildly ascetic recipes are expected to retain their efficacy
regardlessofany additionalfoods that areingested.
Second,many of theWufuxusrecipes advocate an ascetic diet in
volvingfoodreplacementtherapy.Thispracticeinvolvessmallamounts
ofspecial ingredients andherbalvegetalcompoundsbeingconsumed
intheformofpillsorcakesorherbinfusedalcohols withoutadditional
ordinary foodstuffs otherthan water.For example, ACommonRecipe
forIngestingandEatingNonGlutinousRice,followinga
string of similar recipes, implies that adepts should not eat additional
foodswhenitsays:
Take one dou(; a peck) of nonglutinous rice(gengmi),
three douofalcohol,andcombinethetwothings.Soak[therice]
until all the alcohol has dissipated; then stop and take it out.
Onlyeatalittleofit.Ifyouarethirsty,thendrinkwater.After
Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/37

thirty days this will be used up, and you can make more as
above.(2.35b46;recipe63)

Althoughonlytenrecipes8 statethatthemedicinalpreparationsare
tobe used in lieuofnormal foodconsumption during theregimen,the
tenorofthetextcombinedwiththefactthatmostrecipesadvocatethe
continuedingestionofamedicinalcompoundindicatesthatthisform
of asceticism is the expected dietary norm. Subsequently, this type of
asceticdiet functions onmultiple levels for Daoistadepts: as an impor
tant selfcultivation practice, as a basic fasting purification method for
ritual preparation, and as a useful survival technique when food was
scarceorwhentravellingaloneinthemountainsinsearchofspecialin
gredientsandspiritplants(excrescences, zhi ) forimmortalityelixirs.
For example, when discussing the benefits of ingesting Solomons
Seal (huangjing ; Polygonatum sibiricum), the Wufuxu claims, The
gods canbringaboutlongevityandcanextend[life],but[typical] people
donotsucceed.Eventhoughthegodsarebright,theyareeasiertoseeif
you eat this food (18b89; recipe 27a). Furthermore, people can ingest
smallspoonfulsofthespringharvestedrootoreggsizedportionsofthe
summerharvested root three times daily, and it will function as food
whenthereisnotenoughtoeat.Inunfortunateyears,thisherbcanhelp
theoldandyoungceaseeatinggrainsandcanfeedthem(22a45;recipe
28).
Whilethisregimenwouldbedemanding,thethirdandmostimpor
tant of the Wufuxus diets requires a strongly ascetic commitment to
extensivefastingpracticeswhichincludeavoidingdietarystaples,eat
ingnofoodatall,andingestingcosmicqithroughspecializedbreathing
andvisualizationpractices.TheWufuxucontainstenrecipesthatusethe
termbigu(lit.toavoidgrains)oritsequivalent.9 Theoriginalinten
tionofthetermbiguwaslikelyarigorousfastingregimenthatrequired
thepractitionertostopeatingthefivemaingraindietarystaplesofrice,

8 Recipes7,8,10,15,18a, 53, 59,60,61,64.


9 Severalothertermsexpressthesamebasicideaasbiguandareusedinter

changeablyintheliterature.Theyincludeduangu(tocutoffgrains),quegu
(to eliminate grains), xiuliang (to cease cereals), and jueli (to
abandonthestaples).SeeArthur2006,10511.Recipes7,8,9,15,20,27a,28,43,
65,66.
38/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

wheat,oats,millet,andbeans;however,notallusesofthetermindicate
strenuousortotalfasting.10
TheWufuxuusesthetermindifferentcontexts,typicallyinrecipes
whichprohibit ingesting any foods or whichclaimthat adepts will lose
their appetite naturally and will be able to live without normal food
stuffs.Forexample,APerfectedOnesRecipeforGrainAbstentionand
Eating Sesame claims that mixing steamed and
pounded sesame seeds with China Root fungus and honey will allow
adeptstoobtainstrengthandincreaseitveryquickly.Youwillbeable
toreplenish your vital essence(jing) andmarrow(sui ). Gradually
youwillnothunger.Ifyouthirst,thenjustdrinkwater(2.6a106b1,rec
ipe8).
The othermajorpractice associated with bigu isthemost asceticof
Daoistdietaryregimens:qiingestion(shiqi).Inthispractice,adepts
utilize variousbreathingandvisualization techniques toswallow theqi
ofthesun,moon,stars,andFivePhasesinordertonourishtheirbodies
and to enhance their connections to cosmic energies and deities. Qi
ingestionpractices, during whichthe adeptforgoes eatinganyphysical
food substances, are discussed throughout the Wufuxu as superior to
ingesting vegetal substances, which are thought merely to function as
healthrelated preparations which can acclimate the body to more seri
ous and subtle energy regimens. As such, shiqiregimens are necessary
forproperselfcultivation,ritualpurification,andformaltransmissionof
the Wufuxuanditstalismans.11
For example, in a recipe for the key selfcultivation practice of ex
pelling the Three Worms (sanchong ) with China Root Fungus and
poke root, an addendum states: Locust seeds are also good if you are
abletoingesttheirqi.Donotusethese[earlierstatedpreparation]tech
niquesifyoucanalsoingest theirqi.Theperfectedqiistheessenceofthe
Green Sprout(qingya)oftheFiveDirections.Daoistsingestthisfor

10 See Kohn 1993, 149; Arthur 2006, 94, 11417; Eskildsen 1998, 4344, 60;
Zhang2003,288.
11 Shiqi isonlymentionedinrecipes28,29,and44,butitplaysaprominent

role in other parts of the text (1.11b514b9; 1.18b826a8; 3.21a522a1). See also
Harper1998,3049; Huang1987;Jackowicz2006,6888;Raz2004,382397.
Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/39

twentyonedays and the Three Worms flee and leave (2.24b68;recipe


29).
Although not consistent throughout, the Wufuxu indicates that qi
ingestionisthemostefficaciouspracticeforachievingthehighestlevels
of immortality, such as when it states:Those who are able tocultivate
wuwei () and ingest qi and their own saliva will ascend (2.23a34,
recipe28).Asaresult,manyofthetextsselfcultivationorientedrecipes
promotetheadoptionofanasceticlifestylewhilereplacingnormalfood
intake with special vegetal and herbal preparations. The text indicates
thatitis throughthesustainedpracticeof theseregimensthatadeptscan
best attain their religious goals, such as health, physical and energetic
perfection,communicationwiththegods,andimmortality.

Perfecting Health
In spite of any hopes to the contrary, the Wufuxu clearly indicates that
achievingitsreligiousgoalsisnotasimpletask.Rather,thetextsrecipes
presentimmortalityastheculminationofagenerallylengthyandardu
ousprocessthatbuildingontheideaofacontinuumbetweenprevail
ingmedicaltheoriesandreligiousperspectivesbeginswithperfecting
oneshealththroughingestingthepropermedicinalsubstances.
Through a structuralist analysis (see LviStrauss 1966) involving
theconcurrentexaminationoftherecipesstructureandcontents,multi
ple patterns and details become evident within the texts presentation
and organization of information; and these discernable patterns, along
with frequent attributions to important figures in the texts lineaged
transmission, indicate the lengths to which the texts redactors went in
order to produce a cohesive, consistent, and unified text. Synthesizing
the texts myriad health and bodyrelated claims and analyzing their
implicitassumptions,theremainderofthisarticleillustratestheincorpo
rationofideasregardingwhatwasconsideredcrucialforahealthybody
andhowthisdirectlyrelatestotheperceivedstagesthatleadtoimmor
tality.
TheWufuxus recipes follow a uniform style andformatbeginning
with the recipes title and ingredient list, followed by discussion of
preparationandingestionmethods,andendingwithdeclarationsabout
expectedbenefitsthatwilloccurifanadeptproperlyadherestotherec
40/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

ipesdirections.Oneofthe mostconciseexamplesofthisformat,ARec
ipeforExtendingtheYearsandIncreasingLongevity ,states:

Placeripelocusttreeseedsinacowsintestine(niuchang ),
andputthisinadarkplacetodryforonehundreddays.After
that, swallow one piece with your meal in the morning and
evening. After ten days your body will lighten. After thirty
days your white hair will revert to black. After one hundred
daysyourfacewillbecomeradiant.After twohundreddays,a
gallopinghorsewillnotbeabletokeepupwithyou.(2.16a9
b2;recipe23)

Therecipesalsocontaindescriptionsofthevariouschangesthatare
expected to occur within the body from having ingested the recom
mended medicines. Also similar in style, organization, andcontent, the
recipesmanyproclamationsbeginwithhealingthebody asthefirstgoal
ofpractice;andthistypicallytakesplaceinthefirstfewyears.Afterthis,
thebodyitsthoughttogainextraordinaryabilities,andonlythencanit
becomeperfectedandspiritualizedastheadeptcomesintocontactwith
thecosmic andbody gods who give the adeptsbodyeven greater and
more miraculous powers. Finally, the adept is expected to become an
immortalandtoascendtotheheavenlyrealminasfewasfivehundred
days(recipe30),butitmaytakeasmanyasfiftythousanddays(recipe
17).Forexample,ThePerfectedOnesRecipeforFermentingAsparagus
Alcohol says:

Ifyouingestthismedicinefor threeyearsthehundreddiseases
will all healthemselves,andskindiseasesand worms willall
borethroughtheskinatthejointsandwillbeexpelled.Ingest
it for three [more] years and your balding head will regrow
hair.Ingestitfortenyearsandyouwillbeabletocontrolyour
destinyandthechaosofyourpreviouslife.Ingestitfortwenty
years and inthe winter you will not becold, and inthesum
mer you will not be hot. Ingest it for thirty years and an old
manofonehundredyearsofagewilllooklikeayoungmanof
fifteen.
Afteringestingitforfortyyears,youwillbeabletocom
municatewiththegods;andatthistime,therewillbeaspirit
maidentobringmedicineandtoencourageyou.Ifyouobtain
Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/41

it, ingest this spirit medicine. Three days later, you will shed
yourbodylikeacaterpillarshedsitsskinandattainimmortal
ity. Even if you have already obtained and ingested a spirit
elixir, obtaining this alcohol still will be beneficial and auspi
cious. (2.31a6b5; recipe49)

My analysis of the text indicates that purifying the body and per
fectingitshealthcanbedividedintofourmajorcategories,thefirstthree
ofwhicharecuringdisease,expellingtheThreeWorms,andeliminating
hunger all indicative of strengthening the physical bodys structure
andinternalfunctionalcomponents.Thefourthhealthcategoryinvolves
refining the external physical body and its components, especially
through attention to transforming the bodys abilities and outward ap
pearance.

Curing Disease
Tobegin thepath towardperfectionand immortality, adeptsmust first
attainhealthandridthebodyofdisease,whichhasphysiological,ener
getic,andparanormalorigins.Inall,morethanhalfoftheWufuxusreci
pesdirectlyrefertocuring illness inthebody including the twentyone
recipesmakingthegeneralclaimthattheyareabletocurethehundred
illnesses (baibing ; i.e., all illness) and the eight recipes claiming to
makethebodyhealthybynaturallybenefitingit(yi )andnourish
ing it (yang).12 In fact,health issuescomprise a largerproportion of
Wufuxusrecipesthan any otherconcern. This indicatesthat thehealth
ofthebodyisofparamountimportancetoattaininganymajorreligious
goals;andsubsequentlytherearetwobasicclassesofillnessthatneedto
becured:energeticissuesandailmentsofdailylife.
Clearlyindicatingthatthetextsredactorshadatleastbasicknowl
edgeofChinesemedicalideasanddiagnosticterminology,theidealpat
tern of qiflow is presented as balanced, strong, and smoothflowing
throughout the body. One central form of illness that is essential to
eliminateis waywardandpathogenic(xie)qiflow,which involvesqi

12 Recipes1,7,8,12,16,21,25,28,35,37,40,44,45,46,47,49,50,51,52,53,

57 for curing illness; and recipes 1, 2, 10, 17, 26, 27a, 35, 52 for benefiting and
nourishingthebody.
42/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

blockagesandexcessiveflow,especiallyduetotheeffectsoftheSixPer
niciousInfluences:excesscold,dampness,heat,wind,dryness,summer
heat(see Kaptchuck1983,14657;Despeux2001,126).Forexample,refer
ring to cakes made of a mixture of pine sap, China Root fungus, and
honey,thetextclaims:

Aftera hundred daysyour body will become light.Aftertwo


hundreddaysyouwillhavenomorecoldorheat.Afterthree
hundred days you will have no more windy head and blurry
eyes. After four hundred days you will have no more of the
fivetroubles(lao)ortheseveninjuries(shang).Afterfive
hundreddaysyouwillhavenomorecoldbelly,indigestion,or
concealedobstructionsof qi. (2.12b810;recipe17)

Supposing that previous exercises had rid the body of heteropathic qi


and had balanced and strengthened the internal body, another facet of
health in the Wufuxu involves refining the bodys other crucial internal
energy:jing .Oftentranslatedasvitalessence,jingisthesexualenergy
associated with the kidney and reproductivesystem, and seven recipes
focus on protecting and increasingjingbecause oncejing is exhausted,
deathoccurs.13
Thesecondtypeofdiseaseemergesfromtheproblemsofdailylife.
ThirteenWufuxurecipespurporttoalleviatejointpainsandrheumatism,
to counteract the five troubles and seven injuries associated with life
and work, and to deal with womens gynecological and birthrelated
problems.14 Infact,onerecipestitleexplicitlystatesthatthemedicineis
thoughttobeparticularlyusefulforlabororientedandwomenshealth
issues: The Recipe for Expelling the Three Worms; Killing the Con
cealed Corpses; Healing Black Facial [Disease]; Benefiting Wisdom and
Remembering;andCuringAlloftheFiveTroublesandSevenInjuriesof
MenandWomen,WivesBreastMilk,BearingOffspring,ExcessBelow
the Belt Illnesses,and Red and White Secretions

13 Recipes1,2,8,14a,17,27a,36.SeeUnschuld1985,1267.

14 Foralleviatingjointpains,seerecipes25,52,54.Forhealingthefivetrou

blesandseveninjuries,seerecipes15,17,40,43,54.Forgynecologicalissues,see
recipes:4,14,15,43,45.
Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/43

(2.10b102.11a7;
recipe15).15
The focus of curing common ailments and pregnant women indi
catesthatsomeoftheserecipeslikelyoriginatedamongsourcesoutside
the Lingbao Daoist school. The lineage associated with the compilation
of the Wufuxu was predominately comprised of male members of the
literaticlass meaning welleducated and welltodopatrons with time
andmoney topracticethe oftenasceticregiments found inthe Lingbao
corpus(Yamada2000).
Originally,theWufuxusrecipeswerepropagatedbyfangshi,whose
social roles included acting as wandering doctors and magic workers
throughout eastern and southern China. These fangshi are thought to
havesoldtheirrecipestoaristocrats,merchants,andfarmers,andpossi
blyusedrecipessuchasthoseinthe Wufuxu tocurethegeneralpopulace
(seeRaz2004,3849;Campany2002,6).Recipesfocusedoncuringissues
common to laborers and women indicate that they were culled and
adapted from extant recipes and medical treatment techniques being
propagatedby fangshi ratherthanoriginatingwithliteratiDaoists.

Expelling the Three Worms


The othermaincomponents of strengthening thephysicalbodysstruc
tureandfunctionalcomponentsinvolveintestinalissues.Previousstud
ies of the Wufuxu (such as Yamada 1989) have focused on the Three
Worms(sanchong)ascentraltothetext;however,onlyelevenreci
pesmention expelling the Three Worms and ConcealedCorpses (fushi
)fromthebody.16
Thesemalevolentcreaturesareunderstoodtobebothparasitesand
spiritual agents that live inpeoplesbodies,feedon decaying matter in
the intestines, and hastentheir deathby causingdiseases such asthose
emphasized throughout the text, by rendering food and medicine inef
fective, and by causing peoples destined lives (ming ) to be short

15 The names of these womens problems Excess Below the Belt Ill

nesses;andRedandWhiteSecretionsrefertovenerealdiseases,genitalinfec
tions,menstrualproblems,andotherissues.
16 Recipes15,16,17,18,22,27a,28,29,34,43,49.
44/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

ened.17 ThelaterhappenswhentheThreeWorms,actingasmoralagents,
emergefromtheirsleepinghostonthegengshendayjustbeforethe
newmoon(thefiftyseventhoftheChinesesexagesimalcalendricalcycle)
andreportthepersonstransgressionstotheheavenlyDirectorofDesti
nies(Siming)whothendecreasesthelengthofthepersonslifeby
theproperamountaccordingtotheinfraction.
One method for expelling the Three Worms involves fermenting
ChinaRootfungus,pokeroot,alcohol,wheatflour,andyeast,andthen
making largepills(dan) which are ingested thricedaily foronehun
dreddays.Therecipeexplains:

These three Corpses are born together with the person, and
theyoftendesiretocausethepersontodie.Whenthelastday
of the dark moon and the first day of the new moon arrives,
they will want to ascend to Heaven [in order to report] the
transgressions of commoners.When the lastday of the moon
arrives, you must grasp your heavenly soul (hun) and re
strain your earthlysoul (po) and then guard them through
the nights gengshen hour. Through this action, the Three
CorpseswillbeunabletorousetoactionTheThreeCorpses
generally desire the person to die;therefore,they want to at
tackandsnatchawaythatwhichisbeingdiscussed [i.e.,souls].

Generally,Daoists(Daoshi )arealsodoctors;howeverthey
knowhowtocultivatethebodywithrecipesbutdonotknow
that the Concealed Corpses that live in peoples abdomens
limitthe drugs powers andcausethe medicine to be ineffec
tive.18 This is all caused bythe Three WormsIf you are un
abletoexpungethem;however,youjustcheatyourself.Once
you expel them, then you will not again have hunger. Your

17 See Wufuxu2.24a; Arthur2006,1024; Campany2002,4952,166;2005,43


4;Yamada1989,10710; Kohn1993,149;Eskildsen1998;andForke190711,2.363.
Aninthcenturytext,theChusanshijiuchongbaoshengjing(The
Scripture on Expelling the Three Corpses and Nine Worms to Protect Life; DZ
871), provides one of the most comprehensive and detailed discussions of this
phenomenon.
18 ThiscriticalreferencetoDaoistsalsoindicatesthatDaoistsdidnotcreate

therecipe.
Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/45

heart/mind(xin)willbepeacefulandwithoutthoughts,and
youwillbeabletoobtainandfollowthelifeofaPerfectedPer
son(zhenren ). (2.24a3b3;recipe29)

According to the Wufuxu, progressing towards a healthy state re


quires that the Three Worms must be eliminated. Ridding the body of
these parasites, and keeping them from returning through ingesting
anthelmintic,parasiteremoving, medicineorperformingbigufastingis
also equated with the adept being able to retain a high level of moral
thought and action, thus introducing an important moral dimension to
Daoist selfcultivation. In addition to allowing the adept to live out
his/heroriginallifespan,killingtheThreeWormsisalsoacrucialstepto
calm ones heart/mind, to attempt advanced selfcultivation, and to get
ridofhungeralsoaweaknessofthebodythatcanbecuredbyfollow
ingthe Wufuxusregimens.

Physical Improvements
Inadditiontocuringdisease,refiningthebodysenergies,andexpelling
the Three Worms, the Wufuxus redactors included fortyfive different
claims that explain ways to improve the physical body and its psycho
logical attributes through further development of the bodys integrated
physical and energetic components. Interestingly, the aspects of the
physicalbodythataresubjecttoproposedimprovementscanbedirectly
correlatedtothemostapparentcharacteristicsofayoungperson,suchas
clear eyesight, acute hearing, strong bones and muscles, supple flesh,
blackhair,beinglight,beinginvigorated,andhavingallofonesteeth.In
other words, these Daoists were explicitly concerned with overcoming
themanifestationsofanagingbody.
The most common enhancements are to the adepts eyesight and
hearing with eleven and ten recipes respectively.19 Besides health
related benefits, eyesight and hearing also are important to Daoist reli
giouspracticessuchasbeingabletoreadatextduringanighttimeritual,
honing ones ability to see various spirit beings and excrescences, and

19 Recipes2,5,12,14,15,17,25,27,28,43,45foreyesightimprovement,and

recipes1,2,5,12,14,15,25,27,43,45forhearingimprovement.
46/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

beingabletolistentocommunicationfromspiritbeingsandgods.20 Ad
ditionally,wecaninterpretclaimsabouttheeyesandearsintermsofthe
FivePhasescorrelativetheoryusedthroughoutthetextinordertohigh
light another level of possible meaning for basic health improvements.
Accordingly, eyesight improvement is related to lessening anger and
increasing courage; while curing hearing loss can be related to kidney
issuessuchasincreasingjing,perfectingwisdom,andlesseninganxiety
(see Kohn 2006, 57). Thus, health of the physical body corresponds to
mentalhealthaswell.
The other major aspect of perfecting the physical body relates to
improving thebodys appearance. Analyzing the text indicates that ap
pearanceisoneofthemostimportantsignsofbeinghealthyandhaving
strong qi. In fact, of all of the Wufuxus specific healthrelated claims,
morearerelatedtorejuvenatingthecomplexion;makingtheskinlook
glossy, smooth, shiny, and youthful; and making the white hair of old
ageregrowandreturntoblack thantoanyotherissue.21
For example, one recipe which advocates eating small cakes made
of pine tree sap, China root fungus, alcohol, and honey addresses im
provements to the body and its appearance; and readers can easily de
ducethathealthandyouthfulnessarebutinitialstepsalongthelengthy
pathtowardsimmortality.The recipesays:

After six hundred days your facial complexion will be stabi


lized.Aftersevenhundreddays,youwillhavenomoreblack
facialskin.Aftereighthundreddaysnewblackhairwillgrow.
After nine hundred days burns and scars will be eradicated.
After athousand days both eyes will become clear.Aftertwo
thousand days the complexion will change. After three thou
sanddaysyouwillbeabletowalkwithoutleavingatrace.Af
terfourthousanddayseverymark[onthebody]willbeelimi
nated.After five thousand days nighttime will appear illumi
nated.

20 See Baopuzi 11.3a18a2;trl.Ware1966,p.1796.


21 Recipes 1, 2, 4, 12, 13, 15, 17, 20, 20a, 28, 36, 43, 45 for rejuvenating the

complexion;recipes2,4,5,12,14,17,23,27,28,35,45,48,49forregrowingblack
hair;andrecipes4,12,15,17,28,39,43,45,48,49,50forskinimprovements.
Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/47

Aftersixthousanddaysthemusclesandskinwillchange.
Afterseventhousanddaystheskinandpulseswillbeableto
beconcealed.Aftereightthousanddaysthejingandshenwill
bestrong.Afterninethousanddaystheyouthfulnessofachild
willbereached.Aftertenthousanddays[27+years]thebody
willbenaturallyhealthy.(2.12b10 13a6;recipe17)

Here,intheoverallprogresstowardsimmortality,thereisevidence
of some concepts of reversal but only to a rightfully healthy state. In
otherwords,toothloss,hairloss,wrinkles,andwhitehairareallsignsof
unnecessaryagingandbodilydecaywhichwilldisappearonceahealthy
state is regained. This seems to signify that the intended audience for
these recipes would have been the older generations, especially of the
aristocracy among which the text circulated, who would have the time
andabilitytoadoptasceticpractices.Agereversal,itwashoped,would
also give interested people additional time and an increased chance of
achievingtheirreligiousgoals.
Overall,theWufuxusproposedhealthimprovementscorrespondto
common ailments and limitations of the body as it grows older. Thus,
Daoisthealthdoesnotmerelyindicatealackofdisease.Thetextsredac
tors included many examples of aggressively seeking to combat prob
lems associated with old age and death on all fronts: from its outward
manifestations inbodily weakness anddegradation to internalstatesof
disease and energy imbalance. Indicating that the adept is progressing
towardimmortality,thisstateofperfectedhealthmustbesuccessfulfor
furthercultivationandrefinementtooccur.
48/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

Extraordinary Attainments
TheWufuxupresentstheadeptsnextstageofdevelopmentasanatural
extension of the continuum of medicallyoriented theories about the
body:ifthephysicalbodycanachieveahealthystateandretardtheag
ing process, then with sustained religious ascetic selfcultivation prac
tices, it should be able to completely transcend normal capabilities.
Theseadvancedattainmentsareexpectedtoincludeextremehealth,pro
tective characteristics, and extraordinary abilities.22 Based on the extent
to which Chinese medical and correlative theories can be applied, ex
traordinary abilities are presentedasthe likely, reasonable, andnatural
products of religious selfcultivation regimens as presented in the
Wufuxu. Forexample,thetextclaims:Thosewithacleannature(xing)
receive perfected qi. For those who are clean, longevity is their natural
(ziran )destiny(2.23b45).
Byextremehealth,Irefertotheextensionofearliermedicallybased
health attainments to levels beyond the scope of traditional medical
ideas.ItisherethatIargueidealreligiousexpectationsreplacemorelim
ited medical possibilities. For example, five recipes claim to be able to
radicallyimprovesightandhearing somuchsothatadeptswillbeable
to see things a thousand miles away, to see in the dark, to hear voices
that are ten thousand miles away, and to have clairvoyance (yuanzhi
sifang ;lit.farreachingknowledgeofthefourdirections; 2.3b6;
recipe2;seealsorecipes12,16,17,27a).Thisseemstorepresentameta
phoricalclaimtoanabilitytoseetheearthlyspiritsandcosmicgodsin
theirabodesandtoheartheircommunication.
Additionally, the text contends that strengthening ones qi should
continue until it is so concentrated that the body obtains one hundred
times normal strength, the storehouse organs never become exhausted,
andvariousbodilyparts(suchastheeyes,hands,andgallbladder)be
gin to radiate qi as light. Furthermore, continued selfcultivation is ex
pectedtoleadtothebodysprotectionfromallmannerofpossibleprob
lemssuchasdrowningwhileunderwaterandbeingphysicallyorspiri

22 I usetheterm extraordinary rather than supernatural becausethe an

cientChinesethoughtthatthegods,spirits,souls,andghostswereanaturalpart
ofthecosmos,notseparatefromorbeyondtherealworld.
Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/49

tually injured,poisoned, andattacked.Thebasic warding off ofthe Six


PerniciousInfluencesisextendedsothattheadeptbecomesimpervious
toanyextremeexternalconditionsuchasfire,extremecold,heteropathic
energies, and malevolent spirit beings. Other extraordinary abilities in
cludetravelingbyunconventionalmeanssuchasflyingorrunningfaster
thanahorse,consciouslyroamingaboutwithyourspiritwhiledream
ing, becoming invisible, communicating with the gods of the body and
cosmos,controlling spiritbeings,andbeingabletocontrolonesdestiny.
A Recipe for Lengthening Your Years and Extending Your Life
Expectancy offers a useful example of the texts range of
extraordinary benefits, which are expected to occur after the adept
achievesahealthystate.Thischrysanthemumbasedrecipestates:

Ifyouingestitforanentireyear,thehundredillnesseswillall
leave, your ears will become more astute, your eyes will see
clearly, your body will become lighter, and your qi will in
crease.Also,youwilladdtwoyearstoyourlife. Ifyouingestit
for two years, your face and complexion will be joyous and
smooth, your qi and strength will increase one hundredfold.
Any white hairs will return to black, and any lost teeth will
growagain.Also,youwilladdthreeyearstoyourlife.
If you ingest it for three years, when you walk in the
mountainsyouwillnotneedtoavoidsnakes,dragons,ghosts
and spirits. You will never encounter warriors or weapons.
Unlesstheyareflyingbirds,noonewilldaretoovertakeyou.
Also, you will add thirteen years to your life.If you ingest it
for four years, your name will be reported to the gods (shen
ming)aswellastheFivePhases.Also,youwilladdforty
yearstoyourlife.
Ifyouingestitforfiveyears,yourbodywillbringfortha
radiant light(guangming), your eyes will illuminate both
dayandnight,andtherewillberadianceinyourinnerparts,
bridges, intersections, and joints. Your body will be so light
that eventhough you do not havefeathers or wings, by mere
intention you will be able to travel by flying. Ingest it for six
years in order to increase your longevity by three hundred
years.
If you ingest itforseven years, the Dao in your shenwill
desireperfectionandyourlongevitywillincreasebyonethou
sand years. If you ingest it for eight years, your eyes will be
50/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

abletoseeforonethousandmiles(li ),yourearswillbeable
tohearfortenthousandli,andyourlongevitywillincreaseby
twothousandyears.
Ifyouingestitfornineyears,yourshenwillbeperfected
andwillbecomelikegoldenstone.Atdeathyouwillbeableto
come backto life. Your longevity will increase bythreethou
sand years. On your left will be the green dragon, on your
rightwillbethewhitetiger,andgoldwillbecomeyourchariot.
(2.8abrecipe12)

These abilities are presented as the culmination of extensive self


cultivationworkonthepartoftheadept,andarebasedontheearlyme
dieval worldview that humans could transcend normal limitations
through selfcultivation and magicoreligious practices, and that valor
izedpersonswhoattemptedthiswork.23 However,thesepowersarenot
meant to be a goal for the adept; they are merely indications that the
adepts inner spiritual cultivation is progressing and that the bodys
physical, mental, and spiritual components are being thoroughly trans
formed.However,theextraordinaryabilitiesandgreatlyincreasedqi are
integral to the adepts journey toward immortality because it is these
characteristicsthatseemtobenoticedbythecosmicdeities,whoeventu
allywillcontacttheadeptandleadtheadeptintothenextstageofculti
vation:spiritualizationorselfdivination.

Spiritualizing the Body


The Wufuxus penultimate stage of selfcultivation signifies that the
adepthasbeencleansedandpurified,hasadoptedalifeofquietude,and
has developed a tangible connection to the spirit realm that propels
him/hertowardevenmoreadvancedtransformationofthephysicaland
spiritualbodies.Shen,spiritenergy,ispartofthebodysinherenten
ergetic cosmic connection from birth, and six recipes claim to increase
and nourish the shen.24 It seems that adepts strive to store and purify
theirqi inordertoallowtheirshen tobecomemoreprominentandactive.

23 SeeRaz2005,117;theargumentthroughouttheBaopuzi; see Ware1966.


24 Recipes1,17,25,27a,37,46.
Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/51

Shen,a moresubtle manifestationofqi,isthenamplifiedandfurther


refined to takeon numinouscharacteristics indicating thatadepts are
attempting to spiritualize or divinize the physical body.25 One lotus
basedrecipe,forexample,integratescosmologicalcorrelationsandplant
partstoprepareamedicinalcompoundmeanttoenhancethe shen.

Everythingisfromthesameplant.Onthe7th dayofthe7th lu
nar month collect seven parts lotus flowers (ouhua ). On
the8th dayofthe8th lunarmonthcollecteightpartslotusroot
(ougen).Onthe9th dayofthe9th lunarmonthgathernine
parts lotusseeds(oushi).Mixthe plantstuffstogetherto
prepare them. When complete, ingest an inchsquare spatula
full.(2.16b79)
Ingest for one hundred days then stop. Your inner lord
(zhu ) will arrive and your inner being will be enhanced.
Yourqiwillgetstrongandwillnourishyourshen.Youwillnot
hunger and will expelthe one hundred illnesses. After along
timeofingesting,yourbodywillbecomelight.Youwillextend
youryears,notgrowold,andthenturnintoaspiritimmortal
(shenxian ). (2.17a89;recipe25)

The result of the completion of this final stage of preparation, then, is


consideredaperfectedbody,whichisphysicallysimilartoearlierstages
butisrepletewithasignificantlymoresubtlequalityofessentialenergy.
Atthispoint,Daoistsadeptsexpecttohaveanintimateconnection
with cosmic energies and direct knowledge of how to wholly embody
andsynchronizeearthlyandcosmicprinciples;thustheybegintomani
festcharacteristicsofspiritbeings.Thisadvancedlevelofspiritualization,
in turn, is expected to attract the attention of spirits guardians. For ex
ample,fiverecipesclaimthatingestingmedicinesofsesame,Solomons
seal,orasparagusroottincturewillattractSpiritMaidens(shenn),

25 There is no discussion of transmuting qi into jing and then into shen as

with later internal alchemy; however, the organization of the texts myriad
claimsindicatesthatpurifying,harmonizing,andstrengtheningonesqiandjing
isnecessarybeforetheadeptisabletomoreactivelycultivatetheir shen andalign
itwiththatofthegods.
52/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

JadeMaidens(yun),andthesixArmoredSpirits(jiashen )who
willserveandprotectthepurifiedadeptfromharm.26
Withthisdefensivespiritretinueinplace,itisanticipatedthatvari
ouscosmic deities such asTaiyi (; GreatUnity) will visit andcom
municatewiththeadept.27 Buildingontheimportanceofcommunicating
with various gods discussed throughout the full text, and its focus on
detailed and lengthy selfcultivation, the Wufuxu implies that the path
beyond health and longer life eventually requires some form of divine
interventiononbehalfofadepts.
Thefirststepinthisprocessistoattracttheattentionofthecosmic
deities, who are expected to recognize when an adept has sufficiently
purified him/herself. After contact has been established to verify the
adeptspreparationiscomplete,threerecipescontendthataspectsofthe
cosmic deities will descend from their celestial abodes to take up resi
dence in the adepts internal palaces the energy centers in the body
whichincludethevariousorgansaswellasthelowerdantian (;lit.
cinnabar/elixir field) just below the navel, the middle dantian at the
heartlevel,andthenineroomNiwanPalace()intheupperdantian
inthehead.28 Eventually,itishoped,thatthesegodswillinvitetheadept
to live in the heavenly realm as an immortal. For example a Solomons
Sealrecipeclaims:

Ingestandeatthisherboverthefourseasons,anddonotstop.
Itcanbringaboutanextensionofyouryearsifyouareableto
cast aside society and its customs and live a hermit life on a
famousmountain.Ifyouingestandeatthisherb,youcanlive
aslongasHeavenandEarth.Themultitudeofgodswillcon
vene together, and Taiyi will be expecting and will welcome
you.Youwillascendandbepromotedto[therankof]Officer
ofHeaven. (2.19a35;recipe27a)

26 Thejiashenareassociatedwiththesixcalendricaljiadates,whicharethe

first ofthe tenHeavenly Stems(tiangan),that occur during each sixtyday


cycle(seeArthur2009,forthcoming). Recipes2,8,27a,30,49.
27 Recipes10,15,17,27,27a,28,49.

28 Recipes 2, 25, 27a. According to the Wufuxus first chapter, the three

dantian are the corporeal offices of the Three Ones Heaven, Earth, and the
CrimsonChildwithinthebody(1.22b2b7;seeRaz2005,3523).
Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/53

Daoiststhoughtthatthecorporealdeitiesoriginallywerepresentin
peoples bodies but normal lifes stressors and extreme emotions had
sulliedthebodytosuchadegreethatthegodsweredrivenaway.Thus,
it takes a great deal of cultivation and purification to coax the various
body gods toreturntotheir rightfulplaces within thecomplex internal
landscape of the adepts body. For example, tasting the strong flavors,
smellingputridodors,hearingloudsounds,andseeingsexordefecation
all can negatively impact the adepts sensitive constitution and its rari
fiedsubtleenergies,andcanthusupsetthebodygods,causingthemto
flee from the adept. The Wufuxu says: As you practice consistently,
avoid foods like fresh fish,pork,scallions, and strong vegetables [as all
have strong smells and tastes]. Also avoid gazing upon mourners and
corpses,aswellasdogsandpigsintheprocessofgivingbirthor defecat
ing.Beverycareful!(2.2b103a1;recipe2).
The various manifestations of the cosmic deities that take up resi
dence in the adepts body signify the adepts complete transformation
frombasehumantothefullembodimentofthesacredmacrocosmicreal
ity.29 Oncethecorporealdeitieshavetakenupresidence,theadeptsmi
crocosmicbodyhasbecomeadirectcorrelatetothemacrocosmos.With
thisattainment,anotherabstractmysticalexperienceisthoughttooccur:
the capacity to leave the obscure and enter the profound (chuyao
ruming ;2.1a5;recipe1) toachieveunionwiththeDao.

Immortality
At this point in the adepts development, the final major goal of the
Wufuxusdietaryregimesismet:theadeptattainsextendedlifeandim
mortality.Justbehindcuringillness,extremelongevityisthemostcom
mon benefit promoted by the text. Nearly half of the texts recipes de
clarethatpractitionerscanattainvaryingdegreesoflongevityandeven
tually become an immortal being (xian ). Although numerous, the
claimsabout extremelongevity lackspecificity; thereareno fewerthan
thirtysix differentphrases employed in the textto denote life extended
beyondnormalexpectationsforexample,toobtainlonglife(),

29 ThisideaisnotuniquetotheearlymedievalDaoism;itoriginatedinthe

preQineraandbecomeprominentduringtheHandynasty(Raz2005,34041).
54/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

to livemany thousandsof years (), tohalt theprogressionof


years(),andtolengthenexistence()(2.1a22a10;recipe1).
For claritys sake, I have divided the texts ideas about this phe
nomenon into three categories: minor longevity, major longevity, and
immortality. Seven recipes purport to lead to minor longevity i.e., to
extend the adepts life by a few years, but less than an additional full
lifespan,ortoretardoldage().30 Forexample,AnotherRecipefor
RepellingOldAgedoesnotexplainwhatismeantbyitstitle
whenitsays:Beginningonthefirstsi dayofthetenthlunarmonth,
ingestlocustseedsoncedaily.Increasethedosebyone[eachday]until
youreachtendays.Again,returnandrepeatfromthebeginning.Todo
correctlyyoumustbegineatingthemonthefirstsi day(2.16b316b5;
recipe24).
Iclassifyexplicitclaimsofincreasinglifetoatleastdoubleanormal
personslifeexpectancyasmajorlongevity.Here,thebodysnaturallife
and death processes allegedly are transcended. For example, a recipe
that combines mica, curly cypress (juanbo ; Selaginella tamariscina),
waterplantain(zexie;Alismaorientalis),EdibleGreensFruit(xianshi
; Aramanthus),andpinetreesapclaimsthatingestingthiscompound
forsevenyears:Yourbodywilllivefortythreethousandyearsandwill
not die (2.14b515a2; recipe 19). Similarly, avoiding death (),
endlesslongevity(),andlivingaslongasHeavenandEarth
()areusedas synonymsfortheideaofimmortality.
It seems that the textsmanyclaims of extreme longevity are ideo
logically similar to those of immortality where the adept continues to
resideonearthorintheheavensforanextensiveperiodoftimeinapu
rified form of their original physical body. Whether or not these state
ments signify an absolute permanent existence (see Raz 2005, 110n176),
they certainly indicate a life that is far longer than the norm, and there
are thirteen recipes that couple the term immortality with claims of
dramatically increasingthe length ofthepractitioners life hence I ar
gue thatthey shouldbeconsidereda form of immortality.31 Inaddition
toachievinganelongatedlifespan,thetextalsomentionsfourexamples

30 Recipes1,12,14,16,24,25,27a.
31 Recipes1,2,5,12,13,17,19,25,26,27,27a,28,32,44,46,47,48.
Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/55

ofadeptstranscending(dushi)thephysicalworldandascendingto
reside intheHeaven of Great Clarity (Taiqing) where theymaybe
receivedby the godTaiyi andbe giventhe rank of Immortal Person or
OfficerofHeaven(tianfu ).32
TheWufuxu doesnotprovide aconcise explanation of what itsre
dactorsmeantbythetermimmortality,andanalystsarelimitedtoinfer
ring ideas from passages which contain the term, from the texts short
hagiographical accounts of immortals,33 and from the presentation of
immortality as theculminationof attaining sufficientpurity andrefine
ment through extensive selfcultivation and longterm maintenance of
asceticdietaryregimens.Thetextdoesnotincludeahierarchyofimmor
tal achievements as found in Ge Hongs Baopuzi, which differentiates
between celestial immortals, earthly immortals, and corpseliberated
immortals(2:9a;Ware1966,478).Yet,otherexamplesintheBaopuzido
not discuss this hierarchy because all immortals supposedly have at
tained the crucial benefit of longevity.34 These instances support the
Wufuxus implication that there is little significant difference between
forms of major longevity and immortality other than the adepts final
placeofresidence.

32 Recipes1,2,17,27a.TheideasoftheHeavenofGreatClarityandthegod

Taiyi first featured in the Shangqing school of the 4th century (Hu 1995, 1457;
Robinet2000,215).FordiscussionontheascenttoTaiyi,seeBokenkamp1990.
33 Recipes2,6,7,13,16,17,19,25,26,27,27a,28,30,32,36,49.Theseshort

accounts, of figures such as Master Red Pine in recipe 17, are similar to those
found in other narratives and major hagiographic collections: the Liexianzhuan
(;BiographiesofImmortals;Kaltenmark1953);theShenxianzhuan (;
Biographies of Spirit Immortals; Campany 2002); and chapter 82 of the Houhan
shu(;HistoryoftheLaterHan;Fangshuliezhuan;Traditionsof
theEsotericArts;Ngo1976andDeWoskin1983);also Raz2005,43n14).
34 SeeBaopuzi3.52;Ware1966,65;Campany2002,77,181,29294;Raz2005,

11012.
56/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

Conclusion
Althoughmissingmanynecessarydetailsforanallinclusive,contextual
understanding, the Wufuxu does provide a great deal of information
aboutthepathofearlymedievalDaoistselfcultivationandthemechan
icsofitsdietaryprocedures.Amalgamatingthetextsvariousclaimsand
analyzing their implicit and explicit suppositions, I have developed a
relativelycomprehensivetypology regarding theWufuxus expectations
forahealthybody,forlongevity,andforachievingitsspecificreligious
goals. This analysis leads to questions of how the idea of perfection
especially of ones health and ones energies functions within the
worldviewandritualpracticesofearlyDaoists.
The structure and organization of the majority of the texts entries
illustrateatimeconsumingstepbysteptransformationofallaspectsof
the adepts body. This process first requires balancing, purifying, and
refining the mundane aspects of the body. Demonstrating the holistic
nature of Daoist claims of perfection throughout the text, the bodys
physical, energetic, and spiritual components are interconnected and
related to prevalent medical and cosmological correlative theories. In
otherwords,adeptsbeginbybalancingandtransformingthebodysmi
crocosmbasedonperceivedpatterns,correlations,andideasabout qi.
Eventually, the text indicates that integrating characteristics of the
macrocosm,especiallyintheformoftheFivePhasesenergieswhichare
internalizedduringqiingestingpractices,willcosmicizeandspiritualize
thebodytosuchadegreethatlongevityandimmortalityaretheresult.
In fact, the texts extraordinary abilities and achievements, which indi
cateabeliefthatnormalhumanlimitationscanbetranscendedthrough
ascetic dietary and religious practices, are predicated on perfecting the
health,and inmanycasesthey alsocanbe directlycorrelated to funda
mentalconceptsofhealthaspresentedinthetext.
Interestingly,allofthetransformativeprocessesmentionedinthese
recipesareorientedtowardadeptsstrengtheningandharmonizingtheir
own internal physical, mental, and energetic processes and characteris
tics.Thetextonlydiscussesonecrucialexternalagentialinfluencethe
cosmicgods,whoareattractedtotheadeptbecauseofhis/hercontinued
internalselfcultivation.
Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/57

Onamorepracticallevel,theimprovementofhealthisparamount
intheWufuxus secondchapterbecause it allows theDaoists whoprac
tice itsdietary regimenstomore fully embodycentralreligious ideals
such as communication with the gods as they take part in the formal
talismantransmissionritualinthetextsthirdchapter.Furthermore,the
longlistsofbenefitsfoundinthetextsrecipesseemtobeintendedtobe
amapofkeyindicatorsthatadeptscouldfollowastheyprogressedfrom
anormallifetowardtheiridealstate.
Although the Wufuxu was compiled as a synthesis of longevity
ideas and practices from disparate groups (see Yamada 1989, 114; Raz
2004, 912), the coherence of themes and patterns within the text is a
strongindicationthatitsredactorsdiligentlyworkedtodevelopa coher
entandunifiedsetofpracticesofwhichingestingherbalconcoctionsfor
facilitating health, perfecting the body and its essential energies, devel
oping a connection with the divine realm, and achieving immortality
wasanintegralpart.

Appendix The Wufuxus Recipes


1.TheNuminousTreasureIngestionoftheEssenceoftheFiveWonderPlants.
2.1a22a10
2.TheRecipeoftheThreeHeavensoftheNuminousTreasure.
2.2b14a7
3.VariousLingbaoRecipesInvolvingSesame.
2.4a84b2
4.DivineMethodsofExtendingtheLifeExpectancyandIncreasingLongevity.
2.4b35a1
5.RecipeforSesameCakes.
2.5a25a10
6.SesamePaste.
2.5b15b5
7.APerfectedOnesAbstentionfromGrainRecipe.
2.5b66a2
8.APerfectedOnes MethodforGrainAbstentionandEatingSesame.
2.6a36b1
9.APerfectedOnesRecipeforLighteningOnesFoodIntakeandAvoiding
GrainsWithoutHunger.
2.6b26b5
10. ARecipeofIngestingFoodtoProvideExtraordinaryBenefittotheBody.
2.6b67a2
58/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

11.ARecipe toDifferentiatethe Ju (Chrysanthemum)andYi (100,000Petalled


Flower).
2.7a37a8
12.ARecipeforLengtheningYearsandImprovingLifeExpectancy.
2.7a99a1
13.ARecipeforApricotSeedCakes.
2.9a29b1
14.TheRecipeofaPerfectedPersonasReceivedbyYuoftheXia.
2.9b210b3
14a.NoTitle. 2.10b410b9
15. TheRecipeforExpellingtheThreeWorms,etc.

2.10b1011a7
16. TheRecipeforCausingPeopletoNotGrowOld,HaveaLongLife, etc.
2.11a811b9
17.APerfectedPersonsRecipeforLengtheningOnesLife,ExpellingtheThree
Corpses,ProlongingOnesYears,andTurningBackWhiteness.
2.11b1014a7
18.ARecipeofMasterRedPine.
2.14a814a9
18a. A RecipeforEnteringtheMountainsandNeverEatingAgainUntiltheEnd
ofOnesLife.
2.14a1014b4
19.TheFourSubstancesforImmortalityRecipeAsReceivedBytheYellowEm
perorfromHuangQing.
2.14b515a2
20.APerfectedPersonsFourIngredientMedicinalPowdertoEliminateGrains.
2.15a315a8
20a.NoTitle 2.15a915b7
21.AnotherRecipetoIngestFoodandtoHealIllness.
2.15b816a4
22. AnotherMethodtoExpeltheThreeWorms.
2.16a516a8
23.ARecipeforExtendingtheYearsandIncreasingLongevity.
2.16a916b2
24.AnotherRecipeforRepellingOldAge.
2.16b316b5

25. APerfectedOnesAdditionalLotusPowderstoRetardAging.
2.16b617b2
Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/59

26.ARecipetoArrestAging.
2.17b317b8
27.TheRecipeforIngestingandEatingMuskDeerAntler toGreatlyExtendthe
Years;andIfYouTakeMore,toMaketheEarsandEyesAstuteand
ClearandtheHairBlack.
2.17b918a4
27a.NoTitle. 2.18a520b3
(Thisportionseemstobethefirsthalfofthefollowingrecipe.)
28.ALingbaoRecipeforSolomonsSeal.
2.20b423b5
29.AnImmortalsMethodforExpellingtheThreeWormsandConcealed
Corpses.
2.23b624b8
30.LezichangsMethodforRefiningSesamePaste.
2.24b925a3
31.LezichangsMethodforIngestingSesame.
2.25a425a7
32. TheTalismanfor HidingtheLivingin theGreatMysteryoftheNuminous
Treasure.
2.25a825b8
33.MedicineforCorpseLiberation.
2.25b926a7
34.ARecipeforExpellingtheConcealedCorpsesandThreeWorms.
2.26a826a10
35.ASpiritImmortalsRecipefor CultivationandNourishing[Oneself].
2.26b126b6
36.ASpiritImmortalsMethodofFermentingAlcohol.
2.26b727a4
37.ARecipeforShu (Atractylodesmacrocephala)Alcohol.
2.27a527a9
38.ARecipeforSpiritAlcohol.
2.27a1027b3
39.ARecipeforSesameAlcohol.
2.27b427b7
40.ARecipefortheSpiritAlcoholofRehmannia.
2.27b828a4
41.ARecipeforPineSapAlcohol.
2.28a528a9
42.AnotherRecipe.
2.28a1028b2
43. ARecipeforPokeAlcohol.
60/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

2.28b328b10
44.ARecipefor WolfberryAlcohol.
2.29a129b2
45.ARecipeforFiveEggplant(Acanthopanax)Alcohol.
2.29b329b9
46.ARecipeforAsparagusRootLiquor.
2.29b1030a8
47.ARecipeforFriedAsparagusRoot.
2.30a930b7
48.ARecipeforIngestingandEatingtheNuminous.
2.30b831a5
49.APerfectedOnesRecipeforFermentingAsparagusRootAlcohol.
2.31a631b5
50.ARecipeforImmortalityAlcoholtoStrengthentheBody.
2.31b632a2
51.ARecipeforCuringtheHundredDiseaseswithSpiritAlcohol.
2.32a332a8
52.ALingbaoRecipeforIngestingandEatingRehmanniaandWolfberry.
2.32a932b10
53.ARecipeforAsparagusRoot.
2.33a133a7
54.ARecipefor Wolfberry Alcohol.
2.33a833b2
55.AFermentingMethod.
2.33b333b8
56.ARecipeforProducingSpiritAlcohol.
2.33b934a4
57.ARecipeforSpiritAlcohol.
2.34a534a8
58.ASpiritImmortalsMethodforDryingAlcohol.
2.34a934b3
59.ASpiritImmortalsRecipeforIngestingandEatingGreenMillet.
2.34b434b10
60.AnotherRecipe.
2.35a135a5
61.YetAnotherRecipe.
2.35a635a8
62.AMethodforDryingAlcohol.
2.35a935b3
63.ACommonRecipeforIngestingandEatingNonGlutinousRice.
Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/61

2.35b435b6
64.ARecipeforIngestingandEatingRicefromthePaddy.
2.35b735b10
65.ARecipeforCeasingGrains.
2.36a136a5
66.LezichangsRecipeforHoldingaJujubeNutinOnesMouth.
2.36a636b3

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MAPPING THE DAOIST BODY

PART TWO

THE TEXT OF THE NEIJING TU

LOUIS KOMJATHY

Abstract

PartOneofthepresentarticle,publishedinJDS1(2008),presented thehistorical
and terminological contours of the Neijingtu (Diagram of Internal Path
ways). As a late nineteenthcentury stelecommissioned by the Longmen monk
and court eunuchLiu Chengyin (Suyun,Pure Cloud; d. 1894), it is
currently housed inthe Baiyun guan (White Cloud Monastery; Beijing).
ThisinstallmentfocusesonthecontentofthediagramaswellastheDaoistculti
vationmethodsembeddedinitscontours.
Ifirstprovideathorough analysis ofthetextual and visualdimensions of
the Neijing tu, including a complete translation with the diagram divided into
threesections.ThearticlealsoclarifiessomeinfluencesonthisDaoistbodymap
anditscorrespondinginternalalchemysystem,specificallyindicatingapossible
connectionwiththeemergingWuLiu sublineageofLongmen.
This analysis is followed by a reconstruction of Daoistalchemicalpractice
asexpressedintheNeijingtu.Iemphasizethreemethods:praxisorientedappli
cationsofclassicalChinesemedicalviewsofthebody;visualizationswhichdraw
their inspiration from the Huangtingjingand find clear historical precedents in
Shangqing Daoism; and the alchemical technique known as the Waterwheel or
MicrocosmicOrbit.Thethreetechniquesformaninterconnectedsystem,wherein
the adepts overall psychosomatic health is maintained and strengthened, his
body is osmicized, and he awakens the mystical body, the bodybeyondthe
body or yangspirit, i.e., the culmination of alchemical transformation and the
preconditionforpostmortemtranscendence.
64
Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/65

Textual and Visual Contours


ThemajortextualcomponentsoftheNeijingtuaretwopoemswrittenin
regulated verse (lshi), or eight sevencharacter lines. They are lo
cated above and below the strand of trees on the lefthand side of the
diagram. Sincevarious lines from thesepoems are distributedthrough
out thediagram, attentiontothem is aprerequisite for further explora
tion. The most significant convergence between the lines of the poems
withthevisualcontentoccursinthefollowinglocations:theabdominal
region, where the ox is plowing the lower elixir field (poem 2, line 1,
abbr. 2.1); the heart region, where the Cowherd is stringing together
coins to form the Northern Dipper (2.2); and the head region, where
LaozisitsinmeditationabovetheBuddhistmonkwithupstretchedand
supportingarms(2.56).
Other more general descriptions are also found, including refer
encestothebodyasfields(tian)intheabdominal,heartandheadre
gions(1.1,2.1);thewhitepearlabovetheheadasthegrainofmilletthat
containstheworld(2.3);andtheheadregionortheRenandDuvessels
asthelocationwherethemysterybeyondmysteryisrealized(2.78).Fi
nally,thereareanumberofstreamsflowingintoandthroughthehead,
whichparallelthereferencetothespringintheUpperValley(1.6).Cer
tain sections of Neijing tu thus seem to have been executed as specific
illustrationsoftheselines.
ThepoemsthemselvesarefoundinthefifteenthcenturyLzuzhi
(Records of Patriarch L; DZ 1484). 1 They are attributed to L
Dongbin (Chunyang[PurifiedYang];b.798C.E.?),thesemi
legendary patriarch of various internal alchemy (neidan ) lineages.
NumerousneidantextshavebeenattributedtoLDongbinandhissup
posedteacherZhongliQuan,whichformthesocalledZhongL
textualtradition(seeBaldrianHussein1984,especially2331;Boltz
1987, 13943). L Dongbin is also recognized as a patriarch of both
QuanzhenandthesocalledNanzong(SouthernSchool).Theinclu
sion of thesepoems intheNeijingtupointsto its internal alchemycon

1 Numbers for works appearing in Daoist textual collections follow Kom

jathy 2002, with those for the Mingdynasty Daoist Canon (DZ) paralleling
Schipper and Verellen 2004. Other abbreviations include JH (Daozang jinghua),
JHL(Daozangjinghualu),JY(Daozangjiyao),andZW(Zangwaidaoshu).
66/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

text,thoughtheexactlineageoflateimperialneidaniscurrentlyunclear
and awaits further research. Does the Neijing tu embody a distinctive
synthesis,whichinsomerespectrepresentsanewneidanlineage?Ordid
itemergeasoneexpressionofaspecificlineageofinternalalchemy?As
discussed in the previous installment of the present article and below,
therearesomeclearandintriguingparallelswiththeemergingWuLiu
sublineageof Longmen and with the subsect of the WuLiu line
age called the Qianfeng lineage,2 which was established in early
twentiethcenturybyZhaoBichen(Shunyi[AttunedUnity];
18601942)andwhichcametooccupyacentralplaceinmodernDaoism.
In terms of the Neijing tu, the former, as an identifiable lineage, is
roughlycontemporaneous,whilethelatterisslightlylater.
Theupperpoemreads:

Iamproperlyandattentivelycultivatingmyownfield
Insidetherearenuminoussproutsthatlivefortenthousandyears.
Theflowersresembleyellowgold,theircolornotuncommon;
Theseedsarelikejadegrain,theirfruitsperfectlyround.
CultivationcompletelydependsontheearthoftheCentral Palace;
IrrigationnecessarilyreliesonthespringintheUpperValley.
ThepracticeiscompletedsuddenlyandIattainthegreatDao
IwandercarefreeoverlandandwaterasanimmortalofPenglai.
(Seealso DZ1484,4.16a)

Theemphasishereisonselfcultivationandalchemicaltransforma
tion. The central metaphor is agriculturaljust as the horticulturalist
must attentively tend his orher garden, sothe Daoist adeptmust focus
onspecificelixirfields(dantian )throughoutthebody.IntheNeijing
tu,thesefieldsareidentifiedbyname:themiddleelixirfieldjustbelow
the heart is Genmountain earth (gentu ),3 while the lower elixir

2 ThissublineagederivesitsnamefromtheMountQianfeng(Hebei),and

Zhao Bichen was directed to found it by his teacher Liaokong (Realized


Emptiness;fl.1895), who was aChan monk. Interestingly,Liaokong claimed to
have received direct instruction under Liu Huayang in 1799. SeeXingmingfajue
mingzhi,ZW872; Weishengsanzifajuejing;ZW873;Lu1970;Despeux1979.
3 The phrase Genmountain appears in the Neijingtunear the Cowherd

andreferstothetrigram designatingmountainaswellastohexagram52,
Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/67

field near the level of the navel is called the correct [standard] elixir
field(zhengdantian ).4 Liketilling,planting,andharvestingcrops,
the process of internal alchemy involves a cultivation cycle; one must
preparethe ground and develop the appropriatephysiological andcos
mologicalaspects,forwhichtheNeijingtuservesasamapoftheDaoist
internal landscape and as a visual aid for alchemicaltransformation. In
theabovepoem,thefruitsofDaoistcultivationareflowersthecolorof
yellowgoldandseedslikejadegrain,bothpoeticdescriptionsofspe
cific alchemical experiences. Planted as a seed in the lower elixir field,
and nourished through consistent attentiveness (yi ) and dedication
(zhi ),qiaccumulatesandexpands.Withyellowbeingassociatedwith
the Earth phase in Chinese correlative cosmology (see, e.g., Unschuld
1985; Major 1993), and as one of the esoteric names of the lower elixir
field is the Yellow Court (huangting ), the poem suggests that the
perfect qi (zhenqi ), the qi activated and circulated in internal al
chemypractice,becomes a strongerpresence in thebody. Thebody be
comesrarified.

Genmountain .InDaoistinternalalchemy,thetrigramsrepresentvarious
psychophysiological aspects of the human being and stages in self
transformation. The Genmountain trigram may, in turn, express the state of
stillness as well as practices that help nourish such a condition. In the present
case,thereferencetotheheartregionasthefieldofGenmountainearthsug
geststhatexcessemotionalandintellectualactivityhasbecomestilled.Anexam
ple of this type of Daoist exegesis on the Yijing may be found in Liu Yi
mings (Wuyuan [Awakening to the Origin]; 17341821) Zhouyi
chanzhen (True Explanation of the Yijing), collected in his Daoshushier
zhong (TwelveDaoistBooks).TheZhouyichanzhenappearsinZW245
and has been translated in Cleary 1986. In terms of the present discussion, see
especiallyCleary1986,1035,19497,and2079.
4 Itshouldbenotedthatthelocationsoftheupper,middle,andlowerelixir

fields change depending on the system of alchemy being employed. As in the


Neijingtu,themostfrequentlocationsareinthehead,solarplexus/heartregion,
andthelowerabdomen.See,forexample,theeleventhcenturyYunjiqiqian,DZ
1032,59.2a;alsoLi1991,70,80,139;MinandLi1994,70,110,125,272;Hu1995,
482,745,1141,1449,1675,1681.Insomecontemporaryformsofneidan,thethree
elixirfieldsarethehead,lowerabdomenandperineum,withthelatterreferred
toasHuiyin andassociatedwithvitalessence.Authorsfieldobservations.
68/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

This is one manifestation of the golden elixir (jindan ) men


tioned in the poem and in Liu Chengyins colophon. The earth of the
Central Palace most likely refers to the Scarlet Palace (jianggong),
the areajustbelow the heart. This interpretation receives substantiation
bytheplacementofthepoemintheNeijingtuinlinewiththeCowherd
(the heart region). Following the mapping of Daoist cultivation in the
Neijing tu, the Daoist practitioner must still the emotions and nourish
spirit, both associated with the Fire phase and thus with the heart. In
addition,thepoememphasizesthepracticeofswallowingtheJadeDew
(yuye;saliva),acentralcomponentofformingtheelixirofimmortal
ity (see Komjathy 2007, ch. 6). At the end of the poem, we also find an
allusiontochapteroneoftheZhuangzi (BookofMasterZhuang;DZ
670), entitled Xiaoyao you (Carefree Wandering); the Daoist
adept,likethegreatPengbird,wanderseffortlesslythroughthetroubles
of the world and maintains a more allencompassing perspective. Ac
cording to the author of the poem, dedication to such cultivation tech
niques will lead to attunement with the Dao and immortality, symbol
izedasentranceintotheeasternparadiseofPenglaiIsland.
Thesecondpoemagainorientsonetowardstheimportanceofcul
tivation. Through alchemical transformation,the Daoist adeptcomes to
encompass and be encompassed by the entire universe. The mutual
resonance between the human body and the cosmos, and the embodi
ment of the cosmos within and as the human body, becomes realized
(seeSchipper1978;1993;Kohn1991a).

Theironoxplowsthefieldwheregolden coinsaresown;
Engravingthestone,theyoungladholdsastringofcash.
Asinglegrainofmilletcontainstheentireworld;
Mountainsandstreamsaredecoctedinahalfsheng cauldron.
TheeyebrowsofwhiteheadedLaozihangdowntotheearth,
Andtheblueeyedforeignmonkholdsuptheheavens.
Orientyourselftowardsthemysteriousanditisrealized
Outsideofthismysterythereisnoothermystery.
(seealsoDZ1484,5.11a)
The first line emphasizes the practice of tending to the bodys fields.
Whilethisinvolveseffortandprolongedpractice,symbolizedbytheox
(cf. Needham et al. 1983, 100; Wang 199192, 151; Eichman 2000a, 351),
Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/69

theoutcomewillbegoldencoins.Basedontheillustrationsofthe Neijing
tuandtheplacementofthepoem,theprimarybodylocationbeingem
phasized is that of the lower elixir field. Again taking into account the
abovementioned associations of yellow and gold with the Earth phase
and with the lower elixir field, the sowing and gathering of golden
coinsindicatesanincreasedlevelofenergeticpresenceinthelowerab
dominalregion,theprimarystorehouseofqiinthebody.Liketheprevi
ous encounter with flowers of yellow gold, and like the discovery of
goldingeneral,thisfruitisarareandpreciousoccurrenceintheworld.
A grain ofmilletcontainsthe world alludestothefamous Yel
low Millet Dream (huangliangmeng) of L Dongbin. According
to one hagiography, found in the Yuandynasty (12601368) Zengxiang
liexian zhuan (Illustrated Biographies of Arrayed Immortals;
seeKohn1993,12632;cf.Chunyangshenhuaji,DZ305,1.3a5a),untilthe
ageofsixtyfourLDongbin,althoughpracticingDaoistcultivation,still
harboredpoliticalaspirations.Havingfailedtopasstheimperialexami
nation twice, one day L encounters Zhongli Quan, an accomplished
Daoistadept.ZhongliQuaninturninvitesLtoaninnforameal,dur
ingthepreparationofwhichLfallsasleep.Hethendreamsofanentire
officialcareer,beginningwithsuccessandfameandendingwithfailure,
humiliation, and despondency. When he awakens from this dream, the
milletisstillbeingcooked.Inevenlesstimethanittakestocookmillet,
Lexperiencesonepossiblelifeandthedissipationinvolvedinseeking
fame and reputation. He in turn becomes the disciple of Zhongli Quan
(who knew of the dream before L told him), and eventually commits
himself solely to Daoist cultivation, thus coming to represent the aspir
ingDaoistpractitioneringeneral.
Throughsuchdedication,mountainsandstreamsaredecoctedina
halfsheng cauldron.Oneengagesintheactualizationandrefinementof
internal presences and comes to reside in a larger matrix of being. The
entire universe is the context for ones cultivation and ones very exis
tencebecomescosmicized.Asillustratedinthecontoursofthe Neijingtu,
theadeptengaginginalchemicalpraxisdiscoversthatthebodycontains
streams, mountains, fields, forests, temples and constellations. Ones
body is the cosmos, and the cosmos is ones body. Although such con
ventionaldistinctionslikecosmosandself,orinternalandexter
nal,arepotentiallynecessaryatthebeginningofalchemicalpraxis,the
70/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

finaloutcomeofalchemicaltransformation,rarificationandperhapsself
divinization, results in the activation of the Daoist mystical body (see
Komjathy 2007), a body which is transpersonal and infused with the
Daosnuminosity. This involves orienting yourself towardsthemyste
rious.Thefinallinesofthepoem,withthefrequentrepetitionofmys
terious(xuan ),invokechapteroneoftheDaodejing (Scripture
ontheDaoandInnerPower):Mysteriousandagainmoremysterious
thegatewaytoallwonders.TheDaoistadeptmergeswiththetwofold
mysterywhichistheDao.Heorsheliterallyshiftsontologicalconditions,
abiding in a state of mystical pervasion with the Dao as a mystery be
yond mystery, as a mystery simultaneously present and absent in its
own mysteriousness. It is this presenceabsence that also circulates
throughtheadeptsownbodyasnuminouscurrents.Hereoneencoun
ters perhaps one of the most significant Daoist challenges to conven
tional understandings of human being: ones physiology literally is sa
cred. One embodies the Dao, and one may experience the Dao
through/in/as ones own psychosomatic and energetic being. The bifur
cation of transcendent divine and mundane material processes
breaksdowninthisDaoistvisionofself.
Beyondthetwo poems whichprovide a generaldescription ofthe
alchemical endeavor, the diagram as a whole can be seen to depict the
Daoist alchemical practice of reversal in combination with the Micro
cosmic Orbit method. Here I concentrate on the textual and visual as
pectsoftheNeijingtu,whileinthesubsequentsectionIprovideamore
systematic explanation of the practices in the context of Daoist internal
alchemypraxis.Theaspiringadeptmustsealhimselforherselfofffrom
varioussourcesofdissipation,includingsensoryandemotionaldistrac
tions.Heorshemustturninwardthroughmeditativepraxistorealizea
return to psychosomatic and cosmological integration. For male adepts
in particular, they must prevent dissipation of their core vitality, vital
essence (jing ), which occurs through sexual activity and resulting
seminalemission.Oneofthefoundationsofthealchemicalprocessisthe
retention, circulation and transformation of the body fluids (see Kom
jathy 2007). In the Neijing tu, this is depicted as movement of vital es
sence, the water of the body, being reversed and transferred upward.
Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/71

Beginningatthefirstpass,onenoticesaboyandagirlworkingatread
mill,representingyangandyinrespectively(see Fig. 2).
Thecaptionnexttothemreadsthemysteriousyinyangtread
mill.The longertextualcomponentexplains,
72/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

Repeatedly,constantly,[thetreadmill]ispeddledincycles;
Whenthemechanismrevolves,thewaterflowseastward.
Thewater,tenthousandfathomsdeep,isseenstraighttoitsbottom;
Asweetspringbubblesup,risingtothesummitofSouthern
Mountain.

By using the intent and sealing the lower gate, the perineum, the
adept reverses the flow of vital essence. Instead of moving outward in
the form of seminal emission for male adepts and menstrual blood for
female adepts, both primary forms of dissipation, the vital essence be
comes conserved, stored, circulated and transformed. Reference to the
eastward flow of the vital essence (jing) alsomakes sense when read
in relation to Weil (Tailbone Gate; the coccyx) as the first pass.5
Accordingtothe Zhuangzi,

Considering the waters ofthe world, none is greaterthan the


ocean. Ten thousand streams flow into itthere has never
beenatimewhentheyceased,buttheoceanisneverfull.The
waterleaksoutatWeiltherehasneverbeenatimewhenit
stopped, but the ocean is never empty. (17/42/68; cf. Watson
1968,176).

The occurrence of Weil in the Neijing tu also adds an additional


mythological component to its mapping of the Daoist body and the
Daoistinternallandscape.Justasthewatersoftheoceanareturnedinto
vaporattheWeilrock,sotoothebodyhasacorrespondingplaceinthe
coccyx, identified as the first point on the Governing vessel (GV1) in
contemporary Chinese medicine (see Ellis et al. 1989; Deadman et al.
2001). The lower section of the Neijing tu informs the viewer that the
Kanwaterflowsinreverse,thatis,thevitalessence,associatedwiththe

5 The Three Passes (sanguan) are usually identified as Tailbone Gate

(weil ; the coccyx), Narrow Ridge (jiaji ; midspine), and Jade Pillow
(yuzhen; occiput). See, for example, the thirteenthcentury Jindandachengji
,Xiuzhenshishu,DZ263,10.6b;thethirteenthcenturyDadanzhizhi
, DZ 244, 1.4a, 1.5a, 1.12a; and the seventeenthcentury Xingming guizhi,
ZW314,9.518.
Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/73

trigram Kanwater and the kidneys,6 is redirected upwards. In con


trasttothenormalflowofessenceoutwardasasourceofdissipation,
the Daoist adept, using his or her intent, guides vital essence and qi
through Weil and initiates the reversion (fan;huan) of vital es
sencetorepairthemarrowandbrain(seebelow).
WithregardtotheascentofthebubblingspringtoSouthernMoun
tain, Wang suggests that Southern Mountain should be the mountain
rangeofthesamenameinthesouthofXinjiang,whichisregardedasa
majorbranchofMountKunlun(Wang199192,150).Astheheadisfre
quently referred toas Mount Kunlun in Daoistcultivation,7 South
ernMountainsuggeststhemovementofthevitalessenceandqifromthe
lowerregionsofthebody(north)intotheupperregions(south),specifi
callyintotheheadarea.MountKunluninthewest,inadditiontoPeng
laiIslandintheeast,isaterrestrialparadiseandhometovariousimmor
tals (xian ). In chapter eleven of the Shanhai jing (Classic of
Mountains and Seas), amajor source ofChinesemythology whichcon
tains material from the third century B.C.E. to the second century C.E.,
Mount Kunlun is described as an epicenter of the universe, where the
heavensandtheearthareperfectlyharmonized(seeBirrell1999a,13941;
1999b,18385).ThisaspectofthemaphintsattheDaoistgoalofattain
ing immortality, realizing complete cosmological alignment, mystical

6 InDaoistneidanpraxis,theeighttrigrams(bagua),commonlyassoci
atedwiththeYijing (ClassicofChange),havevariouscorrespondences.The
trigramsareasfollows:(1)Qianheaven(qian ) ,(2)Kunearth(kun ) ,
(3) Lifire (li ) , (4) Kanwater (kan ) , (5) Duilake (dui ) , (6)
Zhenthunder(zhen ) ,(7)Sunwind(sun ) ,andGenmountain(gen )
. See the tenthcentury Chuandao ji , DZ 263, 14.11b; and thirteenth
centuryJindandachengji ,DZ263,10.12b.
7 OneoftheearliestusagesofKunlunasareferencetothehead,andthusto

the interiorization of paradise and immortality, appears in the thirdcentury


Huangting waijing jing , DZ 332, 1.1b, also 2.1b. See also the eighth
century Huangtingwaijingjingzhu, DZ 263, 58.7a; Jindandayaotu,
DZ 1068, 3a; Xingming guizhi, ZW 314, 9.318. For some classical references to
Kunlun in Daoism see Li 1991, 339;Min and Li 1994, 637;Hu 1995, 1164, 1176,
1381,1644.
74/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

pervasion and/or selfdivinization.8 In addition, the reference to the


springbubblingup(quanyong )maybeaninversionofYongquan
(BubblingSpring),locatedinthecenterofthesoleoffootandiden
tifiedasthefirstpointonthekidneymeridianincontemporaryChinese
medicine.9 This reading adds additional support for the connection of
Kanwater withvitalessence,asthekidneyshousevitalessence.
Abovethemysteriousyinyangtreadmill,therearetwofurnaces
withflamesflaringup,fourTaijidiagrams,andaploughboytendinghis
ox(seeFig.2).Basedontheirlocationinthediagram,thefurnacessym
bolizetheelixirfieldswherevitalessenceandqiarestored,transformed
andcirculated.10 AccordingtothecontoursoftheNeijingtu,theaspiring
Daoist adept must focus his or her intent on various locations in the
body,especiallyonWeil(TailboneGate;thecoccyx),Qihai(Ocean
ofQi;theabdomen),andMingmen(GateofLife;betweenthekid
neys) to increase the fire and circulate qi. As noted, agricultural meta
phors abound, and the ploughboy and ox suggest focused attention on
theprocessofalchemicaltransformation,especiallyontheconservation,
transformationandcirculationofvitalessenceandqi.

8 The meaning of xian(immortal or transcendent) varies according


tothespecificDaoistsubtraditionandhistoricalmoment.IntheNeijingtu,im
mortalitywouldseemtorefertolonglifeandalchemicaltransformation.Italso
seems to betaken as parallelto enlightenment or realization in Chan Bud
dhism.InthecaseoftheDaoisttradition,whetherornotbecomingaxianren
orzhenren meanspersonalcontinuationafterdeathisanopenquestion,and
onethatrequirescriticalreflectionandmoreindepthhistoricalresearch.
9 WithinDaoism,acleardepictionofYongquanaslocatedinthecenterof

thesolesofthefeetappearsintheXiuzhentu. SeeDespeux1994;2000.
10 In neidanlineages,adistinctionisoftenmadebetweenthestoveorfur

nace (lu) and cauldron or tripod (ding). E.g., the fourteenthcentury


Yuqingdanjue ,DZ240,2.16a;cf. Xiuzhen shishu,DZ263,10.2b.
Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/75

The four Taiji diagrams may be interpreted in a variety of ways.11


Underonereading,andtheonethatIwouldsuggestisprimary,thedia
grams symbolize the harmonization of the Five Phases through atten
tiveness on lower elixir field, the central storage location for qi. In this
case, the four diagrams would represent all of the phases (Wood [east,
azure, liver, ethereal soul], Fire [south, red, heart, spirit], Metal [west,
white,lungs,corporealsoul],andWater[north,black,kidneys,vitales
senceorwill])exceptthatoftheEarth,whichoftenoccupiesthecenter,
orstillness, in Daoistcultivation. Stillness,sometimesspoken ofas Per
fect Earth (zhentu ), unites all of the other phases.12 An alternative
reading,proposedbySchipper,suggeststhattheseTaijidiagramsrepre
sent the qi phases of the elixir field (Schipper 1978, 356).13 There is no
reason tobelievethat such interpretations aremutually exclusive;these
layersofmeaning,alongwithothersunmentionedhere,mayallbeem
beddedinthissectionoftheNeijingtu.Themostimportantthingtonote
isthecentralityofthelowerelixirfieldinthe Neijingtu,initsmappingof
theDaoistbody,andinitssystemofalchemicaltransformation.
Movingupthespinestillfurther,onearrivesattheflamesbetween
the vertebrae below of the second pass. This is Mingmen (Gate of
Life),whichisagainconnectedwithvitalessenceanditstransformation
into qi.14 Charted according to function in contemporary Chinese medi

11 Thehistoryofthestandard,modernTaijisymbol,andtheonesdepicted
intheNeijingtu(i.e.,acircledividedintointerconnectedwhite[yang]andblack
[yin]aspectsthatcontainadot[seed]ofthealternatecolors[yinyangaspects]),
is currently unclear. For some insights see the relevant entry on the Critical
TermspageoftheCenterforDaoistStudieswebsite(www.daoistcenter.org).Its
historicalusageinChinesecultureandamongDaoistsiscomplex.
12 There are avariety of extantdiagramscalledZhentutu(Diagram

ofPerfectEarth),whereinperfectearthisassociatedwiththeYellowCourtand
intent,orthinking(yi).See,e.g.,Zazhuzhixuanpian,DZ263,1.5a;
Xingmingguizhi,ZW314,9.523.Thelatterdiagramemphasizesstillingtheheart
center.
13 Unfortunately,Schipperdoesnotprovideadetailedexplanationofthese

qiphasesofthedantian.Suchtechnicalinformationmightaddadeeperunder
standingofDaoistcultivation.
14 ThetermappearsasearlyasthethirdcenturyHuangtingjing.SeeDZ331,

11b; DZ 332, 1.1a. According to the eighthcentury Huangting neijing jing zhu,
The Gate of Life is the lower elixir field (DZ 402, 3.19b). However, both the
76/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

cine, where it is identified as the fourth point on the Governing Vessel


(seeEllisetal.1989;Deadmanetal.2001),Mingmenasanenergeticloca
tioninthebodyhastheabilitytoregulatetheGoverningvessel,to tonify
thekidneys,tpnourishthespineandmarrow,andtostrengthenthefive
yinorbs (wuzang ). Ascending still higher, there are two captions:
cavityofthetwokidneystorehousesandmountainsandstreamsare
decoctedinahalfsheng cauldron(seeFigs.3, 4).
ComparingtheNeijingtustelewiththeQingdynastycoloredpaint
ing(seeFuetal.1999,200),thefirstcaption,whichreadscavityofthe
leftandrightkidneystorehousesinthepainting,shouldhavebeenen
graved atthe level of the WeavingMaiden (the kidney region).Itobvi
ouslyreferstothekidneysandtheircorrespondinglocationinthelower
sectionofthemap.Hereisonedirectconvergencebetweenthismapping
ofDaoistalchemicaltransformationandclassicalChinesemedicalviews:
the kidneys arethe storehouseofvital essence and thus the foundation
ofonescorevitality(seeHuangdineijingsuwen,chs.3,8,9,
10, 23; Ross 1985; Maciocia 1989, 67110; Unschuld 2003, 12444; also
Needhametal.1983,22;Wang199192,150;below).Thusonecanmake
theargumentthatthecentralityofMingmenandthekidneysinthissec
tion ofthe Neijingtuand in itscorresponding systemof selfcultivation
strengthens the adepts physical constitution and prepares the way for
more advanced training, specifically rarification through alchemical
transformation.
Ascendingthemountainpathstillfurther,therearetwoadditional
phrasesinlinewiththethirdtempleorhutinthespine:upperpassof
jadeperfectionandcavityofthenuminouspeak.Theselinesreferto
the upper pass known as Yuzhen (Jade Pillow). Passing through
thesevariouslocations,thevitalessenceandqieventuallyenterthehead.
AttentionisdrawntotheThreePassesastheyareareasthroughwhichit
isdifficultfortheqitopassandthustheintentisoftenusedtohelpopen
them.

Xiuzhen tu and Xingming guizhi (ZW 314, 9.518) clearly place Mingmen in the
kidneyregionalongthespine.
Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/77
78/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

Passing through thefinalpass,one arrives at themountainpeaks that,


fromaDaoistperspective,arethevariousenergeticlocationsinthehead
(see Fig. 4). While the upper section of Neijing tu contains a variety of
textualcomponentsthatcaneasilyleadtoconfusion,anattempttonego
tiatethemofferssignificantcontributions.Firstandforemost,onenotices
the graphiccomponentdepicting the Nine Peaks (jiufeng), someof
which are in the center of the head. Sometimes synonymous with the
Nine Palaces (jiugong), these peaks are associated with traditional
DaoistsubtleanatomyandphysiologyandareutilizedinDaoistmedita
tionmethods.15
The second most elevated peak, corresponding to Baihui
(Hundred Meetings; GV20), the crownpoint in contemporary Chinese
medicine, is identified as the Niwan Palace (niwan gong ),16 a
termthattransliteratesnirvanaandliterallymeansmudball.Thepoint
is also known as prefecture of rising yang (shengyang fu ),
showninthediagramasapearlorballoflightandrelatedtothelinea
grain of millet contains the world from the L Dongbin poem. All of
this, in combination with the phrase to prolong longevity and [attain]
immortalityandBuddhahood,suggeststhefinalgoalofDaoistinternal
alchemythecreationofanimmortalembryo(taixian ),alsoknown
astheyangspirit(yangshen )orbodybeyondthebody(shenwai
shen)(see Komjathy 2007). Itmay alsobe understood as nothing
morethanrecoveringtheseedoforiginalyang(yuanyang) thatwas
within the practitioner all along. The fact that the diagram equates im
mortality and Buddhahood may add support for the suggestion that it

15 SeetheYuandanshangjing ,DZ1345,2b8a;also Zazhujiejing,DZ

263,18.6ab.ThefourteenthcenturyJindandayaotu containsan
earlierDaoistmapofthebodyasamountainthatincludessomeofthenamesof
theNinePalaces.SeeDZ1068,3a;alsoNeedhametal.1983,105;Despeux1994,
41;Komjathy2007,chs.4and6.
16 IntheNeijingtu,niwanislocatedabovethehead,andseeminglyrefersto

Baihui as the location where the yangspirit exits the adepts body. However,
Niwanisoftenassociatedwiththeupperelixirfield.See,forexample,theJindan
dachengji,DZ263,10.3b.Forsomedepictionsoftheexitoftheyangspiritfrom
thecrownpointseeXingmingguizhi,ZW314,9.585,9.590;Huimingjing, ZW131,
5.881; Xingmingfajuemingzhi,ZW872,26.114,26.119,26.120.
Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/79

derives from the WuLiu sublineage of Longmen (below), as that


communityhasatexttitledXianfohezong (CommonLineageof
ImmortalsandBuddhas;ZW843).
80/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

Hereonealsonoticesthenuminousplatformofthicklymeshed
net,aphrasewhichalsooccursinthefourteenthcenturyJindaodayaotu
(DiagramofGreatEssentialsoftheGoldenElixir;DZ1068),a
diagramdepictingtheDaoistbodyasamountainandaclearprecursor
tothereceivedNeijingtu.Eichmansuggeststhatthisphrase(anditscor
respondinggraphicdepiction)impliestheultimategoalofalchemy,an
audience with representatives of the celestial hierarchy (2000a, 350).
Likehisorherterrestrialbureaucraticcounterpartinrelationtotheter
restrialemperor,theDaoistpractitionerseeksanaudiencewiththehigh
est realms of spirit beings, the gods and Perfected (zhenren ). This
section ofthediagram,then, invokeshigher levels ofalchemicalrefine
ment, ending (or beginning) in an energetic merging with the Dao. If
youorientyourselftowardsthemysterious,themysteriousmaybereal
ized(seealsoWang199192,14546).
In the upper section of the diagram there is an old man sitting in
meditation (see Fig. 4). He wears a robe with the stylized character for
longevity (shou ), and above him there is the following inscription:
The eyebrows of whiteheaded Laozi hang down to the earth. Below
him is a figure with upraised arms and the corresponding inscription:
Theblueeyedforeignmonkholdsuptheheavens.Bothoftheselines
comefromtheLDongbinpoems.Themoststraightforwardinterpreta
tion of the two figures identifies them as Laozi and Bodhidharma, re
spectively (see Rousselle 1933; Needham et al. 1983, 116). However,
Wang, in a fairly convincing art historical discussion, argues that the
iconographyoftheoldmanfiguresuggeststheImmortalOldManof the
Southern Polestar, the eighth spirit of the brain (Wang 199192, 146).
This interpretation may partially derive from the figures placement at
the energetic location corresponding to higher levels of consciousness,
eitherMingtang(HallofLight)and/orZuqiao(AncestralCav
ity).17 Wang also challenges the identification of the blueeyed monk as
Bodhidharma,arguinginsteadthatheshouldbeunderstoodasacombi

As mentioned, in certain forms of Daoist meditation, Mingtang is in


17

cluded as one of the Nine Palaces and identified as a mystical cranial location.
ReferencestoZuqiaoasanothermysticalcraniallocationatthecenterofthehead
appearsintheXingmingguizhi(ZW314)andthroughoutthepagesoftheXing
mingfajuemingzhi (ZW872).
Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/81

nationoftheLaughingBuddhaandtheelementmercuryand/orasMai
treya,thefutureBuddha(Wang199192,149).
Whileconvincingfromanarthistoricalperspectiveandaccounting
for certain iconographic features, this reading fails to provide an ade
quate explanation of the two figures interms of the larger Daoist tradi
tioningeneralandneidanlineagesassociatedwithLDongbinandlate
imperial Daoism in particular. Why would the person or community
whooriginallyenvisioned,commissionedandproducedsuchamapping
oftheDaoistbodyincludetheLaughingBuddhaand/orMaitreya?
If one follows a relatively straightforward reading that recognizes
the potential connection between the textual and visual contours of the
Neijingtu,then these figuresare Laoziand Bodhidharma. In thepoems
attributed to L Dongbin, Laozi is mentioned by name and the blue
eyed foreign monk (biyanhuseng ) is a standard name for Bo
dhidharma (a.k.a. Damo; see Xingyun 1989, 5848; also Ding 1939).
Inaddition,withregardtolatemedievalneidan lineages,onefindsthese
twofiguresassymbolicreferentsforalchemicalingredients:theoldman
symbolizes lead (qian), while themonkrepresentsmercury (hong)
(seealsoWang199192,147;Eichman2000a,351).Theyarereferredtoas
suchintheDanfangbaojianzhitu(DiagramofthePre
ciousMirroroftheElixirChamber),whichiscontainedinXiuzhenshishu
(Ten Works on Cultivating Perfection; DZ 263, 26.5b6a), an
anthologyoftheearlyfourteenthcentury.Heremercury(Bodhidharma)
issaidtocorrespondtothejadeyefluids(yuye),spiritwater(shen
shui ), the Maiden (chan ), white snow (baixue ), and the
azuredragon(qinglong),amongotherthings;lead(Laozi)issaidto
correspond tothe goldyefluids (jinye), Jade Pond (yuchi),the
Child (yinger), yellow sprouts (huangya), and the white tiger
(baihu),amongotherthings.Inotherneidandiscussionsoftheseal
chemicalsymbols/ingredients,leadmayrefertovitalessence(jing)or
originalspirit(yuanshen ),whilemercurymayrefertospirit(shen)
ororiginalqi(yuanqi ).18
Basedonthesecorrespondences,anumberofreadingsarepossible.
First, and most basic, the adept accumulates and gathers saliva, the ye

18 Cf.Ershisijue,DZ1158,1bandDanyangyulu ,DZ1057,

15b.Seealso Chuandaoji,DZ263,15.11a15a.
82/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

fluidsassociatedwithBodhidharma,inthemouth,theJadePondassoci
ated with Laozi. These fluids are then swallowed down to purify the
heartandeventuallycomminglewithoriginalqiinthelowerelixirfield.
Inthisrespect,onemayagainreflectuponthesymbolicmeaningofBo
dhidharma and Laozi as ones own physiology. Another possible read
ingisthatoriginalqi,associatedwithmercuryandthefigureofBodhid
harma, and original spirit, associated with lead and thefigureof Laozi,
becomecommingledintheadeptsupperelixirfield.
ReadingtheupperfigureintheNeijingtuasLaozialsomakessense
because Laozi is frequently recognized as the founder of the Daoist
tradition and as the high god Laojun (Lord Lao).19 In the lives of
specific Daoistsand Daoistcommunities,he alsocameto symbolizethe
culminationofDaoistcultivation.Hehimself,afterall,transformedinto
theuniverse:

Laozi transformed his form.Hisleft eye becamethesun, and


his right eye became the moon. His head became Mount
Kunlun. His beard became the planetsand constellations.His
bones became dragons; his flesh, wild animals; and his intes
tines,snakes.His belly became the ocean; hisfingers,the five
sacredmountains;andhishair,grassesandtrees.Hisheartbe
came the Flowery Canopy. Finally, his two kidneys were
unitedandbecamethetruefatherandmother.(Xiaodaolun
,T.3102,52.144b1315;cf.Yunjiqiqian,DZ1032,
10.7b8a;seeMaspero1981,340;Schipper1993,114;alsoKohn
1995,5455)20

Laoziisthesupremelylonglived,forheisthecosmosandthecos
mos is he. The Neijing tu suggests that Laozi represents the Daoist
adepts own possibilityeach persons eyes, the two circles in the dia
gram, are the sun and the moon, and each practitioners consciousness
contains thenuminouspresence whichLaozi embodied, at least from

19 ForarevisionisthistoricalanalysisoftheconstructionofLaoziasahis
toricalpersonageseeGraham1998(1986).Forstudiesofthesomeofthewaysin
whichhehasbeenrepresentedintheDaoisttraditionseeSeidel1969;Kohn1999.
20 HereLaozitakestheplaceoftheprimordialbeingPanGu (seeBirrell

1999;Kohn1993,16869;1995).
Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/83

certainemicperspectives.Accordingtothediagram,theessenceofthe
Dao and the Daoist tradition is literally contained in ones own brain.
Thehumanbeing,fromthisDaoistperspective,isacosmologicalbeing:
onesveryownbodycontainsmountains,temples,constellationsand the
locus for immortality and perfection. In some forms of Daoist religious
praxis, specifically visualization (cunxiang ) and inner observation
(neiguan ) forms of meditation during the early and late medieval
periods,theDaoistadeptturnsthelightofthesunandmoon(theeyes)
inward,thusilluminatingtheinternallandscapewhichishisorherown
body(seeKohn1989;Robinet1989a;alsobelow).Onecanalsoarguethat,
iftheNeijingtu originatesinaLongmencontext,thesignificanceofLaozi
findssubstantiationinthefactthatheisidentifiedasoneofthesocalled
Five Patriarchs (wuzu) of early Quanzhen and as one of the Three
Purities (sanqing ) in later Quanzhen. This, at the very least, may
help to explain the enduring power of the Neijing tu as a mapping of
Daoistexistentialandontologicalpossibility.
ThesignificanceofBodhidharmaisabitmoredifficulttodetermine.
One interpretation is that Bodhidharma, paralleling Laozis place in
manysectorsoftheDaoisttradition,representstheoriginandessenceof
Chan(Zen)Buddhism.Thatis,theChantradition,consideredasawhole,
identifieshim as the founder (Dumoulin 1988, 8594).21 Inaddition to
the abovementioned alchemical symbolism, the inclusion of Bodhid
harmamayhavebeenawayofgainingculturalcapital,suggestingthat
neidan practiceandChanmeditationledtothesamegoal.Ifthisreading
is convincing, the Neijing tu may also be suggesting the importance of
crosstradition cultivation practice. Here one thinks of Bodhidharmas
mythic nine years of meditation, or wallgazing (biguan ), as a
symbolofintensiveanddedicatedreligiouspraxis.22 Chaninspiredemp

21 Critical and revisionist historiography on the Chan tradition in general


andBodhidharmainparticular,parallelingsuchresearchonDaoismandLaozi,
questionsthehistoricityofBodhidharma.SeeBroughton1999;alsoFaure1993.
22 In this respect, ones interest is peaked by the presence of the four dia

grams on Chan practice (walking, standing, sitting, and lying down) that
areincludedintheXingmingguizhi,DZ314,9.554555.Inthechartonmeditation
practice, one is urged to engage in prolonged periods of seated meditation. In
addition,Liaokong(fl.1895),oneoftheteachersofZhaoBichen(founderof
theQianfenglineage), wasaChanmonkwhopracticedneidan.ZhaoBichenis,in
84/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

tinessmeditationbecomesrepresented asthe foundationfor alchemical


transformation,whichalsotakesplaceinaseatedmeditationpostureas
representedintheNeijingtu.Atthesametime,theremaybeapolemical
dimensiontheBuddhistisplacedbeneathandinsupportoftheDaoist.
It is alsoplausible to interpretthe blueeyed foreignmonk holding up
theheavens as an illustration ofthe Zygomatic arch(cheekbones),and
Laoziseyebrowshangingdowntoearthasthegazebecomingaware
ofinternalaspectsofDaoistsubtlephysiology.23 Again,alloftheselayers
maybeoccurringsimultaneouslyinthediagramsmappingoftheDaoist
bodyandDaoistreligiouspraxis.
Just to the left of the blueeyed foreign monk, there are two addi
tionaltextualcomponents,whichreadasfollows:

Fazang says: Violet eyes clarify the four great oceans; the
whitelightpervadesMountSumeru.
Cishi says: Between the eyebrows white light con
stantly emanates;this can liberateallsentient beingsfromthe
sufferingofceaselessreincarnation.

Here Fazang most likely refers to the historical Fazang (643


712), the third patriarch of Huayan Buddhism who systematized its
24

teaching, butpreliminary research indicatesthat none of these lines are


contained in Fazangs extant works. The figure could also be, as Wang

turn,identifiedasaneleventhgenerationmemberoftheWuLiusublineageof
Longmen.SeeXi2004,especially116.Takentogether,thismeansthattherewere
Daoist monks practicingChan meditation,and Chan monkspracticing Dao
ist internal alchemy in the Baiyun guan environs and nearby Buddhist sacred
sitesatatimeroughlycontemporaneouswiththecommissioningandengraving
oftheNeijingtu.The central importance of Bodhidharma and Chan again adds
support foraWuLiu connection, as Liu Huayang, the cofounder, wasaChan
monk.ForadditionalinsightsonDaoismandtheoverallreligioculturalcontext
ofBeijingduringthelateimperialandearlymodernperiodsseeGoossaert2007.
23 Interms ofWestern physiology, thefiguresalso could be interpretedas

thesphenoidboneandthepituitarygland,housedinthesellaturcicaportionof
the sphenoidbone.
24 With regardtoFazang, Rousselle (1933, 213) suggests that Fazang re

fers to Dharmagupta, but Wang points out that Dharmaguptas Chinese name
wasFami(Wang199192,148).
Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/85

suggests, an allusion to the name of Amitbha before his attainment of


Buddhahood (199192, 149). Cishi (themercifulone) isthename
ofMaitreya, thefuture Buddha. It isthisportion of the Neijingtuthat I
believeprovidessomeoftheclearestinternalevidentforaWuLiu
connection.TheWuLiubranchofinternalalchemy,generallyidentified
as a sublineage of Longmen, traces itself to Wu Shouyang
(Chongxu[InfusedEmptiness];15741644)andLiuHuayang
(Chuanlu [Transmitted Containment]; 17351799). Wu Shouyang
identified himself as an eighthgeneration Longmen adherent, and he
mayhavestudieddirectlyunderWangChangyue(Kunyang
[Paradisiacal Yang]; 16221680), the key figure in the late imperial sys
tematization of Longmen.25 Liu Huayang, a Chan monk who converted
from Confucianism, identified himself as the spiritual successor of Wu,
possibly having received mystical instruction from him in 1780.26 The
name WuLiu was first used in 1897 in the WuLiu xianzong
(Immortal Lineage of Wu and Liu),27 a compilation that was edited by
DengHuiji(fl.1897).Thatcollectionisthusroughlycontempora
neous with the Neijing tu. Perhaps most relevant for present purposes,
Liu Huayang continually cites the Huayan jing (Skt.: Avatamsaka
Stra; Flower Garland Sutra) throughout his writings. For example, in
theHuimingjing(Scripture on Wisdom and Lifedestiny), Liu ex
plainsthattheeightdiagramsillustratethecombinedteachingsofDaoist
internal alchemy and theHuayanjing (ZW 131, 5.878, 5.881). So, within
theemerging,lateimperialWuLiusublineageofLongmen,Fazangwas
a patriarch, and the Neijing tuin turn evidences some connection with
thatneidan system.
The content of the Fazang and Cishi couplets is intrinsically Bud
dhist, showing the degree to which Buddhist worldview wasan inte

25 For information on Wu Shouyangs life see his Tianxian zhengli zhilun

zengzhu (JHL 77; ZW 127) and Min Yides Wu Chongxu lshi


zhuan (JHL7).
26 ForinformationonLiuHuayangslife, see Huimingjing preface (ZW131).

27 The collection includes Wus Tianxian zhengli (ZW 843) and

Xianfohezong(ZW 843)as wellas LiusHuimingjing (ZW 131)


and Jinxianzhenglun(ZW 132). Apopular translation of the lattertwo
worksappearsinWong1998.
86/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

gralaspectofDaoistcultivationmodelsinthelateimperialperiod.28 The
textualandvisualcontoursoftheNeijingturepresentacomminglingof
the worldviews and goals of Buddhism and Daoism, perhaps most
clearly expressed inthe final goal of prolonging longevity and [attain
ing]immortalityandBuddhahoodatthehighestpointofthediagram.
Both quotations speak of expansions of consciousness, extraordinary
abilities, and liberation from suffering. That is, one encounters further
attempts to inspire the observer to cultivate more perfected ontological
conditions.
Inadditiontothemaincourseofqicirculationalongthespine,the
diagram depicts smaller circulation routes. Some streams flow down
from the upper mountains, while others move from the center of the
headtotheDescendingBridge(jiangqiao).Theformerrelatestothe
Jade Nectar (yujiang ), Sweet Dew (ganlu ) and Spirit Water
(shenshui) (see also Needham et al. 1983, 114; Eichman2000a,350).
Intheprocessofalchemicalrefinement,theperfectqi(zhenqi)rises
up the Governing Vessel through the Three Gates, where it combines
withtheSpiritWater,asymbolicnameforthesaliva,todescendbackto
thecentralregionsofthebody(Needhametal.1983,7778).Daoistculti
vationmethodsincreasetheproductionofsaliva,whichis,inturn,swal
lowedandmadetodescendtowardsthelowerelixirfield.Thisinvolves
dropping the tongue, represented in the Neijing tu as the Descending
Bridge,fromitsnormalpositionoftouchingtheupperpalateanddrink
ing the Jade Dew. The saliva then passes through the TwelveStoried
TowerandthePalaceoftheSweetSpringandColdPeak,bothnames
for thetrachea.29 The Jade Dewdescendsthrough the Scarlet Palace (ji
anggong)tocleansetheheart,beforeitsplashesandexpandsinthe
OceanofQi(qihai ).
Then,ofcourse,therearetheCowherd(niulang )andtheWeav
ingMaiden(zhin)(seeFig.3).TheCowherd,correspondingtothe
Western star of Altair in the Aquila constellation, is shown standing in
theheartregionholdingtheNorthernDipper(UrsaMajor).Nexttohim

28 There is a similar tendency in such Daoist texts as the Xingming guizhi


(ZW314), Huimingjing (ZW131),andXingmingfajuemingzhi (ZW872).
29 SeetheHuangtingjing,DZ332,1.1b;eighthcenturyHuangtingwaijingjing

zhu,DZ263,58.7a;andthirteenthcenturyJindandachengji,DZ263,10.4b.
Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/87

is the following line fromthe lower L Dongbinpoem: Engravingthe


stone,theyoungladholdsastringofcash.TheWeavingMaiden,corre
spondingtotheWesternstarofVegaintheLyraconstellation,sitsnear
the strand of trees working her loom. The textual component near her
reads, The Weaving Maiden transports and transfers. According to
earlyChinesemythology,theCowherdandWeavingMaidenarelovers
fated to meet only once a year. They are separated by the Sky River
(Milky Way), over which a magpie bridge is believed to form on their
annual meeting day (see Birrell 1999b, 16567; Schafer 1977; Sun and
Kistemaker 1997).30 The figures suggest the meeting of two things that
shouldbeunited,butwhichordinarilyremainseparated.Basedontheir
locations in the Neijing tu, and on one alchemicallysymbolic level, the
Cowherd represents the trigram Lifire , and is thus associated with
the heart orb and with spirit. The Weaving Maiden represents the tri
gramKanwater ,andisthusassociatedwiththekidneyorbandwith
vitalessence.Likethemagpiebridge,theDaoistpractitionermuststrive
tounitethesetwophysiologicalandenergeticaspects.Thisisfrequently
referred to as the dual cultivation of innate nature (xing), associated
withspiritandconsciousness,andlifedestiny(ming ),associatedwith
vital essence and physical vitality (see, e.g., Xingming guizhi, ZW 314;
Xingmingfajuemingzhi,ZW872).31 InthecontextofDaoistneidanpraxis,
the Kanwater and Lifire trigrams are frequently related to
LaterHeaven(houtian )conditions,whileKunearth andQian
heaven trigrams arerelated to Prior Heaven(xiantian)condi
tions. The aspiring Daoist adept is urgedtocompletetheprocess of in
version(diandao ):replacingtheyanglineinKanwithayinline
to create the pure or perfect yin condition of Kun, and replacing the

30 Ileaveopenthepossibilitythatthereisanactualastronomicalaspectto
this section of the Neijing tu, wherein the adept connects with and ingests the
astralqiofthesestars.Whetherornotthisisthecase,thediagramagainreveals
thepractitionerofalchemicaltransformationasacosmicizedbeing.
31 Note that the Xingming fajue mingzhi, a text from a late imperial neidan

contextsimilar tothe receivedNeijingtu,seemsto containa directreferenceto


thediagram.SeeZW872,26.67.However,undertheinterpretationoftheChan
BuddhistLiaokong,thetwofigurestakeonaBuddhisthue,becomingassociated
withaninconstantmindanddesire.Liaokongreversesthesymbolism,believing
thattheCowherdrelatestoqiandtheWeavingMaidentotheheart.
88/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

yinline in Li with a yangline to create the pure or perfect yang


conditionofQian(cf.Xiuzhentu).32
Like most esoteric alchemical symbolism, this process may be and
hasbeeninterpretedinavarietyofways.First,basedontheassociation
ofthekidneyswithvitalessenceandtheheartwithintent,theprocessof
inversionhere involves directing intenttowardtheMingmenarea. This
initiates an upward movement of vital essence (the yang line), which
includes the generation, transformation andcirculationofbodily fluids.
Someofthesefluidsthendescendintoandthroughtheheartregion(the
yinline),cleansingandpurifyingconsciousness,beforefinallybeingab
sorbed into the lower elixir field, the Ocean ofQi.This, inturn,creates
Qianheaven, associated with the upper elixir field and original spirit,
andKunearth,associatedwiththelowerelixir fieldandoriginalqi.Such
aninterpretationalsoaddsanadditionallayerofmeaningandpractice:
theLaterHeavenconditionofheart,characterizedbyemotionalandin
tellectual turbidity, is Lifire, while the Later Heaven condition of the
kidneys, characterized by depletion of vital essence, is Kanwater. The
Daoist adept transforms these ontological conditions into their original
and perfected correlates: by conserving and transforming vital essence,
originalqibecomesabundantinthelowerelixirfield;bystillingandpu
rifyingthemind,originalspiritbecomesconcentratedintheupperelixir
field.
Finally, as Schipper observes, the infant born out of the union of
theweaverandthecowherdstringspiecesofcashtogetherthatformthe
constellationoftheDipperthestaroffate,thuscreatinganewlifefor
thebody(Schipper1978,356).TheimageoftheCowherdandWeaving
MaidenthusremindstheviewerthatprolongedDaoistcultivationleads
toatransformedmodeofbeing,toadifferentontologicalcondition,con
firmingyetagainthatmyfateiswithinme,notwiththeheavens(wo
ming zai wo, bu zai tian ) (Baopuzi neipian ,
DZ1185,16.7a;Xishengjing ,DZ666,3.6a)(seeSchipper1978,365;
see also Kohn 1991b, 250). The Northern Dipper (beidou ) is often
identified in the Daoist tradition as the primary determinant and influ
enceononesfateorlifedestiny(ming )(seeMinandLi1994,369).

See,forexample,theeleventhcenturyYuqingneiliandanjue ,
32

DZ240,1.10b; Li1991,310.
Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/89

In the Neijing tu, this constellation is no longer located in the external


cosmos. It has become formed and issues from the Daoist adepts own
heartmind. Through dedication to cultivation and alchemical transfor
mation, the practitioner initiates a shift in ontological condition: from
ordinarybeing,separatedfromtheDaoanddestinedtodissipate,toPer
fected,merged with the Dao andtranscendingthe vicissitudes ofmun
daneidentity.Onecreatesandinhabitsadifferentcosmos,oratleastthe
cosmosascompletelyintegratedin,asandthroughonesownbeing.

Cultivational and Alchemical Contours


FromtheaboveanalysisofthetextualandvisualcontoursoftheNeijing
tu,wehaveseenthattheNeijingtu representsasophisticatedandmulti
layeredmappingoftheDaoistbodyandDaoistreligiouspraxis,specifi
callyalchemicaltransformationasundertakeninthelateimperialperiod
and more than likely in the emerging WuLiu neidan sublineage of
Longmen active in and around the environsof Baiyun guan duringthe
lateQing dynasty (16441911).Ascharted inthepresent study,theNei
jing tu provides illustrations for a wide variety of Daoist cultivation
methods. Three in particular stand out: praxisoriented applications of
classical Chinese medical views of the body; visualization methods
which draw their inspiration from the Huangting jing (Scripture
ontheYellowCourt;DZ331;332)andwhichfindclearhistoricalprece
dents in early Shangqing (Highest Clarity) Daoism; and the al
chemical technique known as the Waterwheel (heche) or Microcos
mic Orbit (xiao zhoutian ). These three techniques form an inter
connected system, wherein the adepts overall psychosomatic health is
maintainedandstrengthened,whereintheadeptsbodybecomescosmi
cized, and wherein the adept awakens the mystical body, the body
beyondthebody (shenwai shen ) or yangspirit (yangshen ),
that is the culmination of alchemical transformation and the precondi
tion for postmortem transcendence. Each of the techniques thus com
plementsandsupplementstheothers.
TheNeijingtucontains multiple layers of meaning, including vari
ous earlier Daoist visions of the body. Generally speaking, the founda
tional Daoist understanding of the human body in selfcultivation line
90/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

ages parallels that of classical Chinese medicine.33 The basic system in


corporatesyinyangandFivePhase(wuxing)cosmologies,withthe
FivePhasesconsistingofWood,Fire,Earth,Metal,andWater.Theseba
siccosmologies,reconciledintoaconsistentworldviewbyZouYan
(ca. 305240 BCE), underlie some of the earliest of the received medical
classics, the Huangdineijing (Yellow Thearchs Inner Classics)
(seeUnschuld1985;2003).Inthesetexts,theFivePhasesysteminvolves
specificcorrespondences,someofwhichincludedirection,season,color,
taste,grain,constellation,yinorb(zang /),emotion,senseorgan,and
sound (see, e.g., Suwen,ch. 5; Unschuld 2003, 99124). In addition to a
medical application of the nowcombined yinyangand Five Phasecos
mology,thesemedicaltextsprovidefoundationalinformationonqithe
ory,theoriesofdisease,andthemeridiansystem.
The Neijing tu, in turn, draws attention to the classical Chinese
medical view at the foundation of specific forms of Daoist cultivation,
includingvariouslineagesofinternalalchemy(seeRobinet1989b;1995;
PregadioandSkar2000;Komjathy2007).34 Oneobvioustextualstratain
thediagramthatechoestheHuangdineijing textsistheimportanceofthe
Du (Governing) and Ren (Conception) vessels, two of the Eight
Extraordinary Vessels (qijing bamai ), which are mentioned by
nameintheuppersectionofthe Neijingtu(seeFig.4).Hereisthe Neijing
tuastheDiagramofInternalPathways.Generallyspeaking,theGov
erningVesselisthecentralmeridianonthebackofthebody,whilethe

33 LiviaKohn identifiesthree major Daoist views of the body, correspond

ing to three distinct methods and intellectual traditions within Daoism: (1) the
bodyasanadministrativesystem,rootedintheworldviewoftheDaodejing,and
realizedinquietisticandmedicallyorientedmeditation;(2)thebodyastheresi
dence of spirits or gods and associated with Shangqing visualization practices;
and(3)thebodyasimmortaluniverse,avisiondevelopedundertheinfluenceof
Buddhist insight meditation (Chn.: guan ; Skt.: vipayan) (Kohn 1991a, 230).
ForadditionalinsightsonDaoistviewsofthebodyseeSchipper1978;1993;Lvi
1989;Andersen1995;Saso1997;Komjathy2007;forChineseviewsingeneralsee
alsoAmes1993; Kuriyama1999.ForrelevanttranslationsseeKohn1993,16188.
34 ThestudyofthecrosspollinationbetweenDaoismandChinesemedicine

isonlyjustbeginning,butseeUnschuld1985;Strickmann2002.Forsomeofthe
better theoretical discussions of Chinese medicine see Porkert 1974; Liu 1988;
Maciocia1989.
Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/91

ConceptionVesselisthecentralmeridianonthefront.35 Theformerbasi
cally begins at the coccyx, the Weil point or first of the Three Passes
mentionedabove,movesfromthebaseofthespineupthemiddleofthe
back, around the crownpoint, to the upper lip. The latter basically be
ginsattheperineum,movesupthecenterlineofthefrontofthebody,to
thelowerlip.36 ThesevesselsaremostclearlydepictedintheNeijingtu as
the two pairs of five bands near the front of the headthe Governing
Vesselcontainstheqiofthefiveyangorbs(gallbladder,smallintestine,
stomach, large intestine,bladder), while theConception Vesselcontains
the qi associated with the five yinorbs (liver, heart, spleen, lung, kid
ney).37
One also notices the presence of the five yinorbs, combined with
the gall bladder, in the textual material at the center of the Neijing tu.
While only the traditional iconography of the liver is illustratedthe
strandoftreescorresponding tothe Woodphase (seeFig. 3)themost
basiclayerofmeaningherereferstothehealthofeachorbandthusthe
healthofthe entire organism,38 with healthbeing thesmooth flow ofqi
throughoutthebody.Thus,wefindthefollowingpassageintheSuwen
whereQiBo answerstheYellowThearchsinquiriesabouttheorbs:

35 Eichman (2000a,351) confusesthe Governing Vessel with the Thrusting


Vessel.TheTrustingVessel,nottheGoverningVessel,istheonlymeridianthat
traversesthecenterofthebodyfromtoptobottom.InDaoistcultivation,diverg
ing here from Chinese medicine, this vessel ascends and descends through the
core of the body from Huiyin (Meeting of Yin; CV1), the perineum, to Baihui
(Hundred Meetings; GV20), the crownpoint. See, e.g., Xingming fajuemingzhi,
ZW872,26.94.PassagesfromtheHuangdineijing ontheThrustingVesselmaybe
foundinSuwenchapter 60 andLingshuchapters33,38and62,and65.Foraclas
sical discussion of the system of the Eight Extraordinary Vessels see Nanjing
chapters27and28.ModernoverviewsofthesystemmaybefoundinLarre1997
aswellasinMatsumotoandBirch1986.
36 For some classical references to the Governing Vessel and Conception

Vesselsee Suwen chapters41and60 andLingshu chapters10and65.


37 Although still developing,future research on Chinese views of embryo

genesis mayprovide additional insights intothe Daoist neidanemphasis on the


EightExtraordinaryVessels.IftheThrusting,Governing,andConceptionvessels
are the first meridians to develop, the Daoist adept would thus be accessing a
moreprimordialmomentinthedifferentiationofself.
38 RecallthefourTaijidiagramsmentionedabove.See Figure2.
92/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

QiBoreplied,Theheartistherootoflifeandtransformations
of spirit (shen)The lungs are the root of qi and the resi
denceofthecorporealsoul(po )Thekidneysaretherootof
quiescenceandstoringandtheresidenceofvitalessenceThe
liver is the root of extremes and the residence of the ethereal
soul (hun)The spleen and stomach, along with the large
intestine,small intestine, Triple Warmer,and the bladder, are
therootofstorageandtheresidenceofnutritive[qi](yingqi
).(DZ1018,9.15b18b;cf.18.8a9b)39

As expressed in the presence of the five yinorbs in the Neijing tu, the
Daoistadeptmustunderstandthespecificfunctionsofeachorbandthe
variousrelationshipsamongthem.40 Thehealthofeachorbandthehar
monization of their respective functions is a necessary precondition for
further alchemical work. If one takes the guidelines of the Suwen seri
ously,thisinvolvesasystemwhereindietetics,seasonalattunementand
cosmology are interwoven: one eatsdifferent types of foods and differ
ent flavors depending on ones constitutional tendencies, stage of life
andthedominantseasonalinfluence(see,e.g.,Suwen,chs.1and2).Itis
difficulttoknowifthisaspectofChinesemedicineandofDaoistcultiva
tion is embedded in the Neijing tu, but the diagram clearly orients the
adept towards the importance of the Five Phase system in general and
the five yinorbs in particular. One may say that this textual strata and
leveloftraining,rootedinaclassicalChinesemedicalview,underliesthe
moreobviousallusiontotheHuangtingjing,namely,theesotericnames
oftheorbsoccurringinthissectionofthe Neijingtu.
Beforemoving from this discussion ofpraxisbased applications of
classical Chinese medicine to the potential visualization practices ex
pressedinthediagram,afewadditionalpointsdeservereflection.Inthe
previoussectionontextualandvisualcontours,Ihaveemphasizedthat

39 In Chinese medicine, the Triple Warmer (sanjiao) is one of the six


yangorbs(liufu ).Itispairedwiththepericardium(xinbao ),whichwas
added to the five yinorbs (wuzang) in order to create parallelism. For an
attemptto chart itssignificance in Daoist alchemy in general andQuanzhen in
particularseeKomjathy2007,ch.4.
40 ForsomecontemporarydiscussionsseeMaciocia1989andRoss1994.
Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/93

the Neijingtu drawstheattentionoftheviewer,andoftheaspiringadept


utilizing it as an aid to his or her training, to specific locations in the
body. One must, of course, know the importance of such locations in
Daoistalchemicalpracticetoidentifytheminadiagramthatlacksflesh,
in a diagram of the subtle body and inner realms. The associations of
these points in Daoist alchemical praxis has already been partially dis
cussed above and receives clarification below, but it is also possible to
chart them according their medical function in contemporary Chinese
medicine. While potentially anachronistic in terms of the context in
which the diagram originated, these comments are meant to show that
there are clear psychosomatic effects and therapeutic benefits. Some of
therelevantcorporealregionsareasfollows:perineum(yinyangtread
mill; Huiyin [Meeting of Yin]; CV1), coccyx (lower temple/pass;
Weil[TailboneGate];GV1),lowerback(flamesinthespine;Mingmen
[GateofLife];GV4),midspine(middletemple/pass;Jiaji [lit.,
BesidetheSpine; Narrow Ridge]; GV6), occiput (upper temple/pass;
Yuzhen [JadePillow];BL9and/orNaohu [BrainDoor];GV17),
crownpoint(secondhighestpeak;Baihui[HundredMeetings];GV
20),upperlip(endofupperbands;Yinjiao [GumIntersection];GV
28),andlowerlip(endoflowerbands;Chengjiang [FluidRecepta
cle]; CV24) (see also Xingming guizhi, ZW 314, 9.518; Xingming fajue
mingzhi,ZW872,26.17).41 Asthislistindicates,allofthesepointsareon
theGoverningVessel(GV)andConceptionVessel(CV),whicharecon
sidered extra meridians in contemporary Chinese medicine, meaning
thatthey arenotpart of the standard twelvemeridians associated with
the yinorbs and yangorbs. One understanding of the socalled Eight
Extraordinary Vessels is that they store overflowqiandare empty or
inactiveinmostpeople(seeLarre1997; MatsumotoandBirch1986).
In addition to being reservoirs of qi, they are related to vital es
sence,onescorevitality,andprotectiveqi(weiqi ),theqithatpro
tectsonefromexteriorpathogenicinfluences.Theactivationoftheseme
ridians in Daoist alchemical praxis thus stabilizes ones overall health
and increasesonesresiliency to disease. These forms of Daoistcultiva
tion also increase the levels of qi in the body, which fill the Eight Ex

41 FormoreonthefunctionofthesevariouspointsincontemporaryChinese

medicineseeEllisetal.1989;Deadmanetal.2001.
94/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

traordinary Vessels. The ordinary person has twelve active meridians


and eight latent meridians; the Daoist alchemist has twenty active me
ridians, including those associated with psychic abilities. In addition,
although it is beyond the scope of the present study to provide a com
plete explanation, the above acupoints or energetic locations in the
body have specific functional/therapeutic associations in contemporary
Chinesemedicine.Takentogether,theyconnecttheGoverning,Concep
tion and Thrusting vessels; harmonize the entire orbmeridian system;
strengthenthekidneysandvitalessence;nourishthemarrow,spineand
brain; strengthen thedigestive system; andcalm theheart and spirit. In
short,by activating andconcentrating on these locations, Daoist adepts
strengthentheiroverallpsychosomaticwellnessandawakenlatentener
geticlayersoftheirbeing.
AsexpressedintheNeijingtu,Daoistreligiouspraxisalsoinvolves
visualizationmethods which draw their inspiration from theHuangting
jing(ScriptureontheYellowCourt;DZ331;332)andwhichfind
clear historical precedents in early Shangqing (Highest Clarity)
Daoism,specificallyvisualizingthefiveyinorbsintermsof wuxing color
andlightassociations.42 Asmentioned,anadditionallayeroftheNeijing
tustitleistheDiagramofInnerLuminosities;thatis,thediagrammay
be read/employed as an aid for visualizing/activating/lodging the inner
body gods (see Kroll 1996). Inthe textualcomponentnear theheartre
gion(seeFig.3),thevariousorbsareidentifiedaccordingtotheesoteric
namesof their specificspiritsas found in theHuangtingneijingjing(DZ
331,3a).Thissectionofthe Neijingtu readsasfollows:

Thespiritoftheheartis[called]ElixirOrigin,givenname
GuardingtheNumen.
Thespiritofthelungsis[called]BrilliantSplendor,givenname

42Robinet(1993)providesinformationontheplaceoftheHuangtingjingin
ShangqingDaoism(seealsoRobinet1984;2000).Schipper1975providesacritical
edition with an index, while Homann 1971 gives a preliminary analysis of the
Neijing jing. Partial translations appear in Kohn 1993; Kroll 1996. A complete
translation appears in Huang 1990. Michael Saso (1995) has also published a
translation,butthereaderisforewarnedthatmanyofthetranslatedpassages
bear little resemblance to the original text. For insights on earlier Shangqing
visualizationpracticesseeespeciallyRobinet1989a;1993, ch.2.
Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/95

EmptinessComplete.
Thespiritoftheliveris[called]DragonMist,givenname
ContainingIllumination.
Thespiritofthekidneysis[called]MysteriousObscurity,
givennameNourishingtheChild.
Thespiritofthespleenis[called]ContinuouslyExisting,given
nameEtherealSoulPavilion.
Thespiritofthegallbladderis[called]DragonGlory,given
nameMajesticIllumination.43

Comparing the two passages,theNeijingtuhas anumber of discrepan


cieswiththestandard,classicallist.Inadditiontotheuseofzi(per
sonal[name])insteadofzi (stylename),thediagramstextinverts
the first name for the lungs: the Huangting jing reading haohua
(SplendidBrilliance),andtheNeijingtureadinghuahao (Brilliant
Splendor). More significantly, the Neijingtu substitutes neng (able
to)forlong (dragon)inthenamesoftheliverandgallbladder,and
thefirstnamefortheliverspiritisincorrect.Inthediagram,itreadsnen
gyao (Capable Glory) instead of longyan (Dragon Mist),
thus reproducing the name for the spirit of the gall bladder from the
Huangtingjing.
Theassociationsoftheorbswithlightandspiritualpresencesparal
lel those documented in the Huangtingjingtexts, and the section of the
Huangting neijing jing in which the above esoteric names appear con
cludesasfollows:Thespiritsofthesixyangorbsandfiveyinorbsare
the vital essences of the body....By visualizing (cun ) them day and
night,44 youwillnaturallyattainlongevity(DZ331,3b;seealsoHuang
tingneijingfuzangliufubuxietu,DZ432).

43 I have put the orbs in their order of occurrence in the Huangtingneijing


jing even though the diagrams text does not follow a recognizable pattern. I
have also corrected the names in my translation in Figure 3. I leave open the
question of whether or not the efficacy ofthe technique isaffected by utilizing
incorrectnames.
44 Orbypreservingthemdayandnight.InthecontextofShangqingprac

tices,cun isusuallytranslatedtovisualize.However,Ileaveopenthepossi
bilitythatcun shouldbetakeninitsmorestandardsenseoftopreserve.Thatis,
the Huangtingjing may be more about stabilizing an abode for the various orb
96/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

Reading Daoistreligiouspraxis solely in terms of thediagram,the


most that one can reasonably say is the adept must know the esoteric
namesoftheorbsandtheirrelatedspirits,andheorshemustpracticean
inner observation (neiguan ) and/or visualization (cunxiang )
techniqueinwhichcolorsandnuminouspresencesarecentral.Hereone
must know the following wuxing correspondences: Wood liver (gall
bladder)azuredragoneast;Fire heart red vermilionbirdsouth;
Earthspleen yellowcenter;Metallungswhitetigerwest;
andWaterkidneysblacknorth Mysterious Warrior (snaketurtle).
Based on the above passage and the corresponding correlative cosmo
logical associations, the Daoist adept bringshis orher awareness tothe
heart,recallstheesotericnamesdanyuanandshouling,andvisualizesthe
heart as an orbof red light.Next,the adeptbringshis awareness tothe
lungs, recallsthe esotericnameshaohuaand xucheng,and visualizes the
lungs asan orbof white light.This is followedby the sameprocess for
theliver,kidneys,andspleen.Finally,theadeptbringshisawarenessto
the gall bladder, recalls the esoteric names longyao and weiming, and
visualizes the gall bladder as an orb of azure light.45 This proposed re
construction of the visualization technique is substantiated by the fol
lowingadditionalpassagefromthe Huangtingjing:

[The youth (tongzi ) of the lungs wears] white brocade


robes with sashes of yellow clouds[The youth of the heart
wears]flowingcinnabarbrocaderobeswithajadeshawl,gold
bellsandvermilionsashes[Theyouthoftheliverwears]az
urebrocaderobeswithaskirtofjadebells[Theyouthofthe
kidneys wears] black brocade, cloud robes with dancing
dragon banners[The youth ofthespleen wears] yellow bro
cade, jaderobes with a tigeremblemsash[The youth of the

spirits, about becoming aware of and observing these, than about imagining
somethingtobethecase.
45 Thegallbladderistheyangorbpairedwiththeliver,andthusassociated

withtheWoodphase.InthecontextoftheHuangtingjing,itisunclearwhythe
gallbladderissingledout.HereIwouldalsomentionthatdaninthenameof
theheartandxuaninthekidneyssuggestacinnabarredcolorintheformer
anddeepbluecolorinthelatter.
Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/97

gall bladder wears] ninecolored brocade robes with a green


flowerskirtandagoldbelt(DZ331,3b6a).46

Thatis,thewuxing colorassociationsarementionedinthesectionof
the Huangting jing that directly follows the passage listing the esoteric
namesof the orbspirits. If themiddle section oftheNeijingtuis an en
cryptedandabridgedreminderfortheDaoistadeptutilizingtheHuang
tingjing asavisualizationmanual,thenthetechniquebeingemployedis
even more complex than my outline suggests. The wuxing colors are
primary, but there are also secondary colors as well as anthropomor
phic images for the orb spirits.47 The adept encounters and becomes
inhabitedbybodygodswithveryspecificvisualappearances,including
robeswithcorrespondingcolorsandsymbols.48
ThepraxisorientedapplicationsofclassicalChinesemedicalviews
ofthebodyandthevisualizationofthefiveyinorbsbasedontheireso
tericnamesintheHuangtingjingandcorrespondingwuxingassociations
areintegratedintoacomprehensiveandinterconnectedsystemofDaoist
cultivation and alchemical transformation in the Neijing tu. In this re
spect,thediagramalsoclearlyillustratestheneidantechniqueknownas
theWaterwheel(heche)orMicrocosmicOrbitpractice(xiaozhoutian
;lit.,SmallerCelestialCycle).49 Generallyspeaking,thispractice

46 Thisisatentativetranslation,asthevariousreferencestojadeandclouds

may be to patterns in the clothes, colors of the clothes, or actual jade and
clouds.Ihaveattemptedtostayasclosetotheoriginalaspossible.
47 Interms ofcontinuities in Daoismin general andneidanlineages inpar

ticular,itisnoteworthythattheseesotericnamesoftheorbspiritsappearin,for
example, the Xiuzhen taiji hunyuan zhixuan tu , DZ 150, 7a
(seeBaryosherChemouny1996)andtheXingmingguizhi,ZW314,9.529.
48 Beyond this narrow and relatively conservative reading ofthe diagram,

onefindssimilarvisualizationmethodsintextswhichslightlypredateorwhich
are contemporaneous with the Neijing tu. See, e.g., the seventeenthcentury
Xingming guizhi, ZW 314, 9.516, 9.519; Xingming fajue mingzhi, ZW 872, 26.101,
26.119.Cf. Jindandachengji,DZ263,10.7a; Dadanzhizhi,DZ244,1.4b,2.1a, passim.
49 Wang(199192,152),followingNeedhametal.(1983,7280;11416),iden

tifiestheSmallerCelestialCycle(xiaozhoutian)withthecirculationofthe
perfectqibetweentheheart(theCowherd)andthekidneys(Needhamsreins;
the Weaving Maiden), while the Larger Celestial Cycle (dazhoutian) in
volvesthespinalcolumn.Incontrast,inmorecontemporarypracticestheMicro
98/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

involvescirculating qi upthe Governing Vessel anddown theConcep


tionVesselinacontinuouscycle.50 Thecentralityofthisalchemicaltech
niqueintheNeijingtuissubstantiatedbyvariousdiagrammaticcontours:
the Three Passes, including the importance of the perineum area (yin
yang treadmill); the twosets of fivebands, identifiedinthemap as the
Du(Governing)andRen(Conception)vessels;theheartregion,through
which the Sweet Dew and qi descend; andthe lowerelixir field, where
theperfectqibecomesstored.Inaddition,thecoloreddimensionsofthe
painting increase ones awareness of this aestheticpractical depiction
andthecorrespondingenergeticmovementthroughthebody.
As expressed in the Neijing tu and other late imperial Daoist
sources,51 theMicrocosmicOrbitpracticewasacentralcomponentoflate
imperial Daoistneidanpraxis. In one version ofthiscultivationmethod,
the Daoist practitioner uses the intent (yi ) to combine vital essence
withqiandcirculateituptheGoverningVesselanddowntheConcep

cosmicOrbitfocusesspecificallyontheGoverningandConceptionvessels,while
theMacrocosmicOrbitinvolvescirculatingqi throughalloftheEightExtraordi
naryVessels.See,e.g.,Xingmingfajuemingzhi,ZW872.
50 The history of the socalled Microcosmic Orbit technique is currently

known. There are clear historical precedents in SongJin neidanlineages, where


thepracticeisusuallyreferredtoastheWaterwheel(heche)andsometimes
astheCelestialCycle(zhoutian).However,asfarasmyreadinggoes,most
ofthosemethodsinvolvecirculatingvitalessenceandqiupthespine,thuscor
respondingtothepracticeofrevertingvitalessencetorestorethebrain(huan
jingbunao). That is, they do not utilize the Conception and Governing
vessels.See,e.g.,thetenthcenturyChuandaojiwhichhasachapterentitledHe
che (DZ 263, 15.19b23b). Some related diagrams may be found in the Dadan
zhizhi, DZ 244; Huangdi bashiyi nanjing zuantu jujie, DZ 1024, 4a. See also the
Xiuzhen tu and the thirteenthcentury diagram entitled the Yixue lei
(SectiononMedicalLearning),whichispreservedinthefifteenthcenturyShilin
guangji (Needhametal.1983,112).
51 See,e.g.,Xingmingguizhi,ZW314,9.51819;Huimingjing,ZW131,5.879

890; Xingmingfajuemingzhi, ZW 872, 26.28, 26.94. On these texts see Wilhelm


1962; Lu 1973; Despeux 1979; Needham et al. 1983, Wong 1998; Darga 1999. A
more thorough comparison between the Neijing tu and contemporaneous texts
mightclarifyitsrelationshiptosuchlateimperiallineagesasLongmenandWu
Liu.Itisalsonoteworthythatthesetextsarewidelycirculatedamongcontempo
raryQuanzhenmonastics.Authorsfieldobservations.
Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/99

tion Vessel in a continual cycle. The Neijing tu draws attention to this


particular cultivation method through the presence of not only the
abovementioned vessels but also the three temples or huts along the
spinalcolumn.ThesearetheThreePasses(sanguan )throughwhich
itisdifficultfortheqi topass.Thepasses,fromlowertomiddletoupper,
are as follows: Weil (Tailbone Gate; coccyx), Jiaji (Narrow
Ridge; literally, besidethespine; midspine), and Yuzhen (Jade
Pillow;occiput).IntheMicrocosmicOrbitpractice,particularattentionis
giventothesethreelocationsinordertoopenthevesselsandensurethe
efficacious movement of vital essence and qi through the body. In one
version of the practice, the adept uses the intent to consecutively open
Huiyin (perineum), Weil (coccyx), Mingmen (between kidneys), Jiaji
(midspine), Yuzhen (occiput), Baihui (crownpoint), Shenguan
(SpiritPass;thirdeye),andYinjiao (GumIntersection;cleftofupper
lip).
Next one uses the tongue to gather saliva and swallow it down
throughtheTwelvestoriedTowerandScarletPalace,beforeitjoinswith
theperfectqiinthelowerelixirfield.Eachofthesepositionsinturncor
responds to one of the twelve branches (dizhi), with the perineum
beingzi(north;midnight; wintersolstice) and thecrownpointbeing
wu (south; noon; summer solstice) (see Xingming fajue mingzhi, ZW
872, 26.17, 26.94). Recalling the two sets of five bands in the Neijingtu,
the Microcosmic Orbit practice leads to the activation and maintenance
of the other meridians and their related orbs. That is, circulating qi
through the Governing and Conception vessels harmonizes the entire
subtlebody.Theactivationofand/orencounterwiththissubtlebodyis
thus a central dimension of Daoist neidan praxis as documented in the
Neijing tu and as expressed in late imperial Daoism. In addition, if the
Daoist adept is also incorporating the abovementioned wuxing corre
spondencesandvisualizationtechniques,astheNeijingtuseemstoindi
cate,thenhisorherpracticeliterallyembodiesatransformedcondition,
atransformingprocess.Astraleffulgencesandvarioussubtlerealitiesare
introduced into, merged with, and circulated through his or her very
being.
100/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

Reorientations
Inthepreviousinstallmentofthepresentarticle,whichcoveredthehis
torical and terminological contours of the Neijing tu, I emphasized its
originsintheLongmenmonasticcommunityofBaiyunguanduringthe
late Qing dynasty (16441911). These historical details have now been
clarified based on internal textual evidence. The intermingling of Chan
BuddhistandDaoistneidan concerns,specificallythereferencetoFazang,
indicates a potential connection with the emerging WuLiu sublineage
ofLongmen.Inaddition,analysisofinfluentiallateimperialDaoisttexts,
includingworksthatwereroughlycontemporaneouswiththeNeijingtu
andthatalsocirculatedwithintheLongmenmonasticcommunity,indi
catesstrongparallels.Ofparticularnoteinthisrespectisthestrongem
phasis that Liu Huayang, one of the nominal founders of the WuLiu
lineage,placesontheHuayanjingandtheMicrocosmicOrbitpracticein
his Huimingjing.
From the discussion of the textual and visual contours, as well as
the cultivational and alchemical contours, it has become clear that the
NeijingturepresentsadetailedandmultilayeredmappingoftheDaoist
body and Daoist religious praxis. On the one hand, it parallels various
earlier neidan lineages and related diagrams of Daoist bodies. On the
otherhand,theNeijingtuseemstobeauniquesynthesis.Itexpressesa
vision of the Daoist body as actualized through alchemical praxis and
transformation. At the core of this vision is an emphasis on self
cultivation:thebodycontainsfieldstobetended,seedstobesown,and
graintobegathered.Thatgraincontainstheuniverse,auniversewhich
issimultaneouslycosmos,world,landscape,community,self.Itisauni
verseactualizedthroughneidanpraxis,whichaccordingtotheNeijingtu
involves the conservation and transformation of vital essence, produc
tion and ingestion of saliva, visualization of the inner orbs, and activa
tionoftheDaoistalchemicalormysticalbody(seeKomjathy2007).
Thisistheyangspiritorthebodybeyondthebodythatistheprecondi
tionforpostmortemsurvival.Itisamysticalbodybecauseonesbody
becomes cosmicized, rarified and possibly divinized. Ones very physi
ology becomesexperienced as the numinouspresence ofthe Daomade
manifestandembodied.Itisalsomysticalbecausetherearenonspatial
andsubtledimensionsthatrequireactualization.BasedontheNeijingtu,
Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/101

it is unclear ifthe ultimate goalof religiouspraxis expressed in itscon


tours is unification with and absorption into the Dao, enlightenment
conceived of as the emergenceofdivine radiance,or theformation of a
yangspiritthatwilltranscendthedeathofthephysicalbody.Placedin
thecontextofsimilarsystemsofinternalalchemy,especiallythoseofthe
late imperial period, it is perhaps the latter: a yangspirit which exits
throughthecrownpointuponthedeathofthephysicalbody,expressed
asthepearlofwhitelightabovetheheadinthe Neijingtu.
Toconclude,onemayrecallthewonderexpressedbyLiuChengyin
whenhefirstencounteredthisdiagraminthestudioofGaoSongshan.

Iexamined[thediagram]foralongtimeandrealizedthatmy
comprehensionwasgrowing.Ibegantorealizethatexhalation
andinhalationaswellasexpellingandingestingofthehuman
bodyarethewaxingandwaningaswellastheebbandflowof
the cosmos. If you can divine and gain insight into this, you
will haveprogressed morethan halfway on your inquiry into
thegreatWayoftheGoldenElixir.

AccordingtoLiu,Daoistsviewingthismapseetheirownpossibilityfor
psychosomatic transformation reflected in its lines and images, in its
mapping of the Daoist body and Daoist religious practice. Simultane
ously,themapisnottheterritory(seeSmith1993).Thepurposeofamap
istofamiliarizethetravelerwiththelandscape,andthemapismerelya
preliminarystageindevelopingadeeperawarenessofandrelationship
with a particular region, to develop the appropriate orientation. Until
one becomes so familiar with, so oriented towards, the landscape that
one may burn the map as kindling for a mountain fire, the map has
failed to serve its purpose. As a map of the Daoist body, theNeijingtu
urgesaspiringDaoistadeptstodedicatethemselvestoalchemicaltrans
formation,to religiouspraxis that willresult in the emergence ofnumi
nouspresencesandasubtlebody.ThisistheDaoistbodynotasmapbut
asactuality.

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Lord Laos Mountain

From Celestial Master Daoism to


Contemporary Daoist Practice*

VOLKER OLLES

Abstract

TheMountainofLordLao(Laojunshan)inXinjinDistrict,Sichuan
Province,has been identified asthe center ofaformer diocese of Celestial
Master Daoism (Tianshi dao ). Moreover, it remains a famous sanctuary
fortheworshipofLaozi.ThetempleonMt.Laojunistodayanactivereli
gious institution that belongs to the Dragon Gate (Longmen ) lineage of
CompletePerfection(Quanzhen)Daoism.InthelateQingdynastyandRe
publican times, the temple was closely connected with a popular religious
movement called the Teachings of the Liu School (Liumen jiao ), which
wasfoundedbytheConfucianscholarLiuYuan(17681856).Inthispaper,
severalaspectsofMt.Laojunspastandpresentwillbehighlighted.Specialem
phasiswillbeplacedontheLiumenmovementandtheimpactthatthiscommu
nitymadeontherecentdevelopmentofthesanctuary.Wewillseethatthecur
renthagiographiclegitimizationofMt.Laojun,whichholdsthatLordLaoonce
dwelledthereandengagedinsecludedselfcultivation,verylikelyhasbeenfab
ricatedbythepatriarchsoftheLiumenmovement.Thissacredsiteisanexcellent
exampleofaformerCelestialMastersdiocesethatstillfunctionsasaDaoistin
stitution in contemporary China, and the multifaceted Daoist traditions of Si
chuan arereflectedinitsmodernhistory.

*
IamgratefultotheanonymousreadersofJDSfortheirhelpfulcomments.
109
110/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

The wellknown Loushiming (Inscription on the Humble Cham


ber),traditionally attributedtotheTangpoet Liu Yuxi(772842),
beginsas follows:

The[significanceofa]mountaindoesnotconsistinitsheight.
If there are immortals [dwelling on it], [the mountain] is fa
mous.The[magnitudeofa]riverdoesnotlieinitsdepth.Ifit
hasadragon[residinginit],[theriver]isnuminous(ling ).1

According to these verses, it is not the outward appearance or


mightinessofalocalitythatconstitutesitsfame,butadistinctspiritualor
numinousquality.LiuYuxisdescriptionperfectlymatchesthecharacter
istics of a Daoist sacred site in Sichuan, which belongs to the earliest
sanctuariesofChinasnativereligion.
The district of Xinjin is located in the western part of the Sichuan
basin, thirtyseven kilometers southwest of the provincial capital
Chengdu . About two kilometers south of the district town, the
MountainofLordLao(Laojunshan)risesupamidstaridgeofhills,sur
rounded by fruitful farmland and several new settlements between the
riversMinjiangandNanhe.Mt.Laojun,aconeshapedhill,is
only617metershigh,butitfiguresprominentlyamongthehistoricsites
of Xinjin District and remains a famous sanctuary for the worship of
Lord Lao, the deified form of Laozi. Although the traditional temple
complex, hidden in acypressgrove onthesummit,received itspresent
shape only in the first half of the 20th century, the origins of thissacred
sitecanbetracedbacktotheverybeginningsoftheDaoistreligion.
Sacred space is mainly legitimized through hagiographical tradi
tions,inhistoricalaswellaspresenttimes.Thislegitimization,basedon
legends about immortals orother signs of spiritualpower,changesand
evolves in the course of history, constantly adapting to the successive
manifestationsofreligiousthoughtandpractice.InthecaseofMt.Lao
jun,thelocalityisfirmlyrootedinthesacredgeographyofearlyDaoism.
Numerous accounts in Daoist scripture connect it to the lives and mi
raculous deeds of pivotal figures of the tradition. Today, the temple

1 SeeGuwenguanzhi(Changsha:Yuelushushe,1988,reprint1992),

7.475.OnLiuYuxiseetheentrybyWolfgangKubininNienhauser1986,59293.
Olles,LordLaosMountain /111

housesamonasticcommunity of Daoists, and every yearmasses ofpil


grimsflocktothesanctuaryontheoccasionofmajorliturgicalfestivals.
The central deity, who currently bestows spiritual authority upon the
mountain,isLordLao,andconsequentlybothlocalityandtemplewere
namedaftertheGodoftheDao.
In what follows, I will provide basic information on Mt. Laojuns
roots in the canonical tradition of Daoism, its historical development,
andtemplebuildings.Thefocusthenshiftstoapopularreligiousmove
ment and the new interpretation of Mt. Laojuns sacrality by the patri
archsofthiscommunity.

Roots in Sacred Geography


The twentyfour dioceses (ershisizhi ) of early Celestial Master
Daoismappearasasystemofreligiousgeographyinvarioustextsofthe
Daoist canon. These localities, mainly situated in Sichuan, are not as
eminentasthefivesacredmountains(wuyue)orsomeofthegrotto
heavens and blissful lands (dongtian fudi ) within the sacred
space of Daoism.They were,however,religious administrative districts
ofanearlyDaoistmovementandassuchplayedanimportantroleinthe
foundingprocessofthisreligion.
According to Daoist scriptures, the dioceses were revealed by the
HighestLordLao(TaishangLaojun)andputunderthecontrol
ofthefirstCelestialMaster,ZhangDaoling(ca.34156).2 Thedio
cesesbrought thecelestialorderdown to earth, and thuscorrespondto
thetwentyfourenergybreaths(qi)ofheavenandarejoinedtothe
twentyeightlunarmansions(xiu)aswellasothersystemsofcorre
spondence.3 Mountains or hills, surrounded by farmland, were the cen
tersofthesedistricts,wherethemembersoftheearlyDaoistcommunity
gatheredforregularassembliesandritualactivities.

2 For an overview of the sacred places of Daoism see Hahn 2000. On the

dioceses in particular see the entry by Terry Kleeman (zhi, parish) in Pregadio
2008, 2:127476; Verellen 2003;Olles 2005a, 1429.A comprehensive monograph
onthetopicisWang1996.Forindepthstudiesofsingledioceses,whichcombine
textualresearchandfieldworkfindings,seeOlles2000;2005a;2005b.
3 On the geographical distribution of the dioceses and their cosmological

correspondencesseeVerellen2003,2028.
112/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

After this network of religious administration had lost its original


structureby,atthelatest,thethirdcenturyC.E.,thecosmologicalcorrela
tions ofthesystembecamepredominant, whereuponthe affiliation to a
givendiocesewasdeterminedbytheindividualsdateofbirth.Moreover,
the names of the old parishes also have function as celestial spheres,
listed in the registers (lu)of Daoistpriests.4 Thediocesesthusconsti
tutecosmologicalcategorieswithoutdirectrelationtoSichuanlocalities;
theyare,asKristoferSchipperputit,locatedinthestars(1993,66;cf.
Verellen2003,4546).
Yet,thecenters of the olddioceses, theirholymountains, were not
forgotten, and became locations for temples and monasteries. They re
tainedtheirauraassacredspace,andmanyofthemhaveremainedfocal
pointsofreligiousactivitythroughouthistory.Today,manyoftheformer
parishes can still be identified. Some are locations of Daoist temples,
whileothershavebecomeBuddhistsites,orincludesanctuariesofboth
religiousaffiliations(Olles2005a,3442).
The Daoist institutions are in all cases inhabited and managed by
clerics belonging to the Longmen (Dragon Gate) branch of the
Quanzhen (Complete Perfection) monastic order. The Longmen
lineage spread rapidly across Sichuan during the Kangxi reign
(16621722), andthemajorityofDaoisttemplesinthis regioncameunder
its management.5 Probably the most influential Longmen Daoist in Si
chuan at that time was Chen Qingjue (a.k.a. Yanxia [Misty
Cloud],Hansong[WintryPine];16061705),anativeofWuchang
inHubei,whoreceivedhisDaoisttrainingonMt.Wudang
.In1669,hearrivedinSichuantogetherwithfiveofhisbrethrenand

4 AtypicalexampleistheRegisteroftheEnergyBreathsoftheTwentyfour

Dioceses oftheMost High (Taishangershisizhiqilu), which is


recordedinacollectionofregistersforlayadepts:TaishangZhengyimengweifalu
yibu(DZ1209[worknumber1209oftheDaozang,ascata
loguedinSchipperandVerelleneds.(2004)]),13b17a.OnthiscollectionseeRen
1995,954(no.1199);Zhu1996,203(no.873);SchipperandVerellen2004,1:47576.
5 On the Longmen lineage in general see the entry by Monica Esposito in

Pregadio2008,1:70406;Esposito2000,62733.TheLongmenconquestofSichuan
is discussed in Qing 1996, 4:13348 (authored by Zeng Zhaonan ) and
Wang2000, 81,9396.
Olles,LordLaosMountain /113

eventuallybecamethepatriarchoftheBidong(JasperGrotto)sub
lineage, which became the dominant branch of Longmen in the area.6
Although written sources are scarce, we may presume that, during the
17th century, the old dioceses of Celestial Master Daoism also became a
partoftheLongmendomain.7
Mt. Laojun in Xinjin District is thus a representative example of a
formerCelestialMastersdiocesethatisstillinoperationasaDaoistin
stitution today. The sanctuary on top of the mountain, commonly re
ferredtoasLaojunmiao (TempleofLordLao)orLaozimiao
(Temple of Laozi), serves as residence for a community of Longmen
clerics and Daoist lay adherents. Mt. Laojun has been identified as the
center of the former diocese Chougeng (Chougeng zhi/hua /).8
Inhissurveyofsacredgeography,Dongtianfudiyuedumingshanji
(Records of GrottoHeavens, Blissful Lands, Peaks,
Marshes,and Famous Mountains, DZ599), thecourtDaoist Du Guang
ting(850933)gavethefollowingdescriptionoftheoldChougeng
Diocese:

Chougeng Diocese [belongs to] water among the five phases


and to the vernal equinox among the [twentyfour] energy

6 OnChenQingjue,seeMinandLi1994,603andtheentryonYiXinying

(authoredbyCatherineDespeux)inPregadio2008,2:116061.
7 The Longmen zhengzong Bidong tang shang zhipu

(Lineage Register from the Jasper Grotto Hall of the Orthodox Dragon Gate
School), which was compiled and supplemented in late Qing and Republican
times,containsalistoftempleswhoseabbotsbelongedtotheBidongsublineage.
Only one name,Mt.Heming (Hemingshan;Mount CraneCall) in Dayi
District, explicitly relatestothe location ofa diocese;seeQing1996, 4:137.
The document istoday kept in the main temple onMt.Qingcheng (Qingcheng
shan;MountGreen Citadel);see ibid, 4:135, n.1.Onthetwo mountains
see Pregadio2008,1:479(byJamesRobson),2:79899(byVincentGoossaert).
8 SeeWang1996,18691;Verellen2003,48;Olles2000;2005a.Thecharacter

genginthediocesesnameisalsoreadjing.Mychoicefollowstheestablished
localpronunciationofthenameandtheentryontherespectivecharacterinthe
Ciyuan (4 vols. Beijing: Shangwu yinshuguan, 19791983, reprint 1992),
3:230607. In Tang dynasty sources, the character zhi for diocese is often
replacedbyhuainordertoavoidthepersonalnameofEmperorGaozong
(r.650683),LiZhi.
114/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

nodes.Above[inthesky],itcorrespondstothelunarmansion
kui.People,[whoarebornon]renzi(49)andrenwu
(19)dates[accordingtothesexagesimalcycle],areaffiliated
to [this parish]. [The diocese is located in] Shu , ten li
south of the district town of Xinjin. The Yellow Emperor
(Huangdi)refinedcinnabaratthisplace.Atopthemoun
tain are a heavenly pond and a stone stele, and the cinnabar
furnaceispreservedthere.9

While Du Guangtings account ofChougeng Diocese is quite accu


rate, it is obvious that the CelestialMastersparishesalready were a set
ofhistoricreligioussitesinDustime,whichheintegratedintotheover
all network of Tang dynasty sacred geography (Verellen 2003, 2324;
Olles2005a,8284).
ThemostoutstandinghagiographicfeatureofChougengDioceseis
the legendary sojourn oftheYellowEmperor whoallegedly engaged in
alchemical selfcultivation on the mountain. The above description and
various other works in theDaozang established a firm link between the
parishandtheYellowEmperor,theclassicalsagerulerandculturalhero
whoeventuallyemergedasamodelDaoistadept.10
Later hagiographies in the Daoist canon state that Zhang Daoling
also visited Chougeng, where he practiced either meditative self
cultivation or scripture recitation, depending on the source.11 However,

9 Dongtianfudiyuedumingshanji(DZ 599),15a. Thistreatisewascompiled

in Chengdu; itspreface is dated 901.See Verellen 1989, 136; Ren 1995,431 (no.
594);Zhu1996,223(no.943);SchipperandVerellen2004,1:423(entrybyFlorian
C. Reiter). For a full analysis ofDaozangsources describing Chougeng Diocese,
seeOlles2005a,7487.
10 See Kohn 1998, 21724. For a summary of the Yellow Emperors Daoist

careerandfurtherreferences,seeOlles2005a,9598.Tomyknowledge,theearli
estaccountoftheYellowEmperorssojournatChougengDioceseistobefound
in the sixth century encyclopedia Wushang biyao (The Essence of the
Supreme Secrets, DZ 1138), 23.6a; cf. Olles 2005a, 7578. On Wushang biyao see
Ren1995,88891(no.1129);Zhu1996,349(no.1461);SchipperandVerellen2004,
1:11819(entrybyJohnLagerwey).
11 The Ming(13681644) workHantianshishijia(Lineage ofthe

HanCelestialMaster,DZ1463;2.3a)statesthatZhangpracticedmeditationthere.
The Yuan dynasty(12711368) collectionLishizhenxiantidaotongjian
Olles,LordLaosMountain /115

none of the Daozang texts make any mention of Lord Lao staying at
ChougengDiocese.Mt.Laojunscurrentappellationanditspresentspiri
tualauraaredoubtlessbasedonamuchlatertradition.
While the name Laojun shan for this locality appeared in written
sourcesaslateasintheQingdynasty(16441911),twootherappellations
ofLordLaosmountaincanbefoundinearlierhistoricalandgeographi
caltreatises.Thefirstofthese,Tiansheshan(Mt.CelestialAltar),
probably originated in the designation of a stellar constellation and
seemstorefertotheridgeofhillssouthofthedistricttownofXinjin,of
whichMt.Laojunformsapart.However,thenameTiansheshanisstill
usedassynonymforLaojunshaninpresentdays.Theotherappellation,
Mt. Chougeng , matches the name of the old diocese in the Dao
zangsources.Theexactmeaningofchougengisnotclear.Theword
seemingly designates a medicinal herb or a kind of rice. To my knowl
edge, the geographicalname Chougeng only occurs at this locality in
XinjinDistrictanddoesnotrelatetoanyotherplace. 12

Facets of History
DespitetherichhagiographicheritageofMt.Laojun,verylittleisknown
aboutits history.Whileexistingwrittensourcesandrelicsareinsufficient
for acomplete reconstruction of themountains historical development,
itispossibletogaininsightintoseveralstagesofdevelopment.
RelicsfromtheHandynasty(206B.C.E.220C.E.)havebeenfoundon
Mt. Laojun and in its close surroundings, but none of these remains
seems to have a direct connection to the Celestial Masters diocese. Yet,
the excavated relics attestto the sophisticatedcultureofthe area where
the Celestial Masters parishes were established. In a cliff tomb at the
easternfootofMt.Laojun,apictorialcarvingwasfound,showingCon
fucius visiting Laozi and seeking the latters instruction. Furthermore,

(ComprehensiveMirror ofPerfected Immortals Who Embodiedthe Dao


throughtheAges,DZ296;18.5a)reportsthatherecitedsacredscripturesthere,
unperturbedbyan apparition.Cf.Verellen2003,2931;Olles2005a,98102.
12 Thecharacterchou (Ciyuan,3:2310)meanscrowded,dense,orthick;

geng (Ciyuan, 3:2298 [jing ], 3:230607) stands for nonglutinous rice. On Mt.
LaojunsnamesandtheiroccurrenceinhistoricaltextsseeOlles2005a,6273.
116/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

twoHandynastyclifftombsarepreservedontheplotofthetempleand
currentlyserveassacredgrottos,containingdevotionalimages.13
ReliableinformationonthehistoryofthetempleonMt.Laojunap
pearsin an inscriptionon the iron templebell dated1796. Thebell was
stillinuseuntilrecentlyandisnowkeptinsidetherearhallofthesanc
tuary.Themaintextoftheinscriptionreadsasfollows:

On Mt. Celestial Altar (Tianshe shan) temple buildings were


erectedsincetheHanandTangdynasties.Sotheystood,lofty
and imposing, until they were utterlydestroyed inthe jiashen
year(1644)oftheMingdynasty.InQingtimes,inthe55th
year of the Qianlong era (1790), the District Magistrate,
Mr. Yang, proposed the rebuilding [of the temple], and [his
successorinoffice],Mr.Luo,followedsuit.LeiWanchun
fromWen[jiang]Districtcameandcastalargebell,but
itdidnotsound.Lateron,thegreatmeritoriousdeedwasac
complished.All benefactors inthe four directions added iron,
andthebellwascastanew.[Maytheirmerit]behandeddown
foreverand[continueinto]eternity.
FirstdayofthesecondmonthinthefirstyearoftheJiaqing
era(March9,1796).14

The information on the origins of the Laojun miao in this com


memorativetextisrathervague.ThementionoftheHandynasty,how
ever,isinperfectaccordwiththetraditionofChougengDiocese,which
marksthebeginningofMt.LaojunshistoryasaDaoistsacredsite.
It is also likely that the Daoist sanctuary on the mountain was re
built or enlarged during the Tang (618907). The imperial family re
garded Lord Lao as their ancestor, and Daoism enjoyed governmental
sponsorshiponagrandscale.15 ImperialDaoisttempleswereestablished
alloverthecountry.In731,sanctuariesinhonorofLordLaoweresetup

13 On these relicsseeOlles 2005a, 11521, 19196.Confuciusmeeting with

Laozi,inthelightofDaoistrevelations,isdiscussedinKohn1998,29195.Onthe
relationshipbetweenclifftombsandearlyDaoismseeWu2000,7984.
14 Cf. Yan 1990, 15. A full analysis of the inscription is presented in Olles

2005a,12229;fortheChinesetextsee2005a,260andtheAppendixbelow.
15 OnthisperiodofDaoisthistoryseeBarrett1996;Kohn1998,31128.
Olles,LordLaosMountain /117

on the five sacred mountains, and these temples were named Laojun
miao.16 So it ispossiblethat the sanctuary on Mt. Laojun wasmodeled
on these official religious institutions and received its present name in
theTangdynasty.However,thereisnoevidenceinwrittensourcesthat
couldprovethisassumption.
The present inhabitants of the temple claim that a miraculous ap
pearance of Laozi in 729tookplace inthesanctuary on Mt. Laojun,but
thiscouldnotbeverified.Inthe17th yearoftheKaiyuan reignpe
riod (713741), an image of Lord Lao suddenly appeared on a wooden
pillarinahallofaBuddhistnunneryinXinjinDistrict.Afteraclosein
vestigationhadbeencarriedoutbyvariousofficials,EmperorXuanzong
(r. 712756) was informed about the miracle, and the pillar with the di
vineimagewaseventuallyconveyedtothecapital,whereitwassetupin
apalacehallforworship.ThismanifestationofLordLao,whichdoubt
lessconstitutesa significant event in thereligioushistory of Xinjin Dis
trict,iswelldocumentedinDaoistcanonicalsourcesandofficialwritings.
YetnoneoftheseaccountsprovidesanyhintthattheBuddhistnunnery
was turned into a Daoist temple after the miracle or that Lord Laos
epiphanytookplaceatthelocationofancientChougengDiocese.Sothe
connectionbetweentheKaiyuaneventandMt.Laojunisbestconfinedto
therealmofrecentreligiousfiction.17
The destruction of the temple in the transition period between the
dynastiesMing and Qing is afactthatis alsorelatedinthe local gazet
teerofXinjinDistrictfromtheDaoguang era(18211850).Itisstated
there that the temple Laojun miao was devastated and burned to the
ground by the rebel Zhang Xianzhong (16061647), which hap
pened,asweknowfromthetemplebellinscription,in1644.Inthisyear,
ZhangXianzhongsetuphisownregimeinChengdu.Duringthisreign
of terror, the rebel troops under his command butchered large parts of
Sichuanspopulationandrejoicedinthedestructionofculturalandreli
gioussites.In1647,ZhangwasfinallykilledinabattleagainsttheMan

16 SeeJiuTangshu8,benji8,Xuanzong1(Ershisishi

.20 vols. Beijing:Zhonghuashuju,1997),10:69b.


17 Foradiscussionofthepillarmiracle,includingaGermantranslationof

therelevantstoryintheLaojunlishiyinghuatushuo(Illustrated
Account of Lord Laos Responses and Transformations through the Ages;
Chengdu:Erxian an ,1936)andreferences,seeOlles2005a,13039.
118/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

chu army. According to the gazetteer, the sanctuary on Mt. Laojun was
rebuiltbylocalsin1793.18 Tosumup,afterthetempleLaojunmiaohad
been completely destroyed in 1644, it underwent reconstruction in the
lastdecadeofthe18th century.Twogovernmentofficials,YangHuiyin
from Shandong and Luo Gong from Hunan , who
servedasDistrictMagistratesofXinjin,initiatedtherebuildingproject.19
Earlier reconstruction dates are mentioned in Chinese secondary
literatureandinformativematerialonMt.Laojun,butitisnotpossibleto
verifythesedates(Olles2005a,108).Giventherapiddevelopmentofthe
LongmenbranchofQuanzhenDaoismduringthe17th century,thetem
pleLaojunmiaomighthavebecomeaQuanzhenmonasteryafteritsre
construction. The extantsources,however, do notcontain any such evi
dence.20
InthelateQingdynastyandRepublicantimes(19121949),thesanc
tuary on Mt. Laojun was closely connected with a popular religious
movement called the Teachings of the Liu School (Liumen jiao),
which was founded by the Confucian scholar Liu Yuan (1768
1856).21 UndertheguidanceofLiuYuanandhisdescendants,thetemple

18 Daoguang Xinjin xianzhi (Gazetteer of Xinjin District from

theDaoguang era;Compiledby WangMenggeng etal. Edition Daoguang9


[1829]), 12.4a (siguan ); cf. Zhongguo difang zhi jicheng : Si
chuan fu xianzhi ji (Chengdu: BaShu shushe, 1992), 12:596a. On
ZhangXianzhongseetheentrybyTuLienchinHummel194344,1:3738.
19 OnthetwogentlemenseeOlles2005a,127.

20 ItshouldbenotedthatthetemplesallegedaffiliationtotheBidongsub

lineageoftheLongmenschool,whichhasbeenpurportedinarecentpublication
(LiandDing2006,26),mostlikelyisafabrication.LiandDingcitetheLongmen
zhengzong Bidong tang shang zhipu (see above, note 7), but this document (as
quotedinQing1996,4:13738)doesnotmentionthetempleonMt.Laojun.The
sameappliestotheQingyanggong (PalaceoftheGreyRam)inChengdu,
whichforalongtimewasledbyLongmenabbotswhodidnotbelongtotheBi
dongsublineage;seeQing1996,4:140.
21 TheLiumenmovement,itshistory,scriptures,anditsritualtraditionare

the topics of my ongoing research project. For providing me with important


sourcematerialsandvaluablefirsthandinformation,Iwouldliketoexpressmy
warmest thanks to the descendants of Liu Yuan in Chengdu, especially to Mr.
LiuBogu (b.1930),greatgrandsonoftheLiumenfounder.
Olles,LordLaosMountain /119

was repeatedly renovated, and rituals of the Liumen community were


conductedinashrinehallandtheadjacentcourtyardontheplotofLao
junmiao.TheLiufamilyssupportforthesanctuarybeganinthelate18th
century, and it is very likely that the above quoted bell inscription al
readyalludedtotheirbeneficentactivitiesthere.In1799,1821,and1835,
various temple buildings on Mt. Laojun were rebuilt or restored under
the auspices of Liu Yuan. It is not known whether the temple Laojun
miaofunctionedasQuanzhenmonasteryinthosedays.
However,beginninginthe1920s,Laojunmiaowasmanagedsolely
by the Liumen community, and also served as location for one of their
charitableinstitutions.22 Afterafirehaddestroyedmostofthebuildings
in 1923, the whole templecomplex was rebuilt by descendants of Liu
Yuanandmembersofthecommunity.TheLiumenmovementoccupied
andshapedMt.Laojununtilthemiddleofthe20th century,anditspatri
archs have left numerous inscriptions on the premises of Laojun miao.
We will see that the present hagiographic legitimization of Mt. Laojun,
whichholdsthatLordLaooncedwelledthereandengagedinsecluded
selfcultivation, is intrinsically tiedto Liu Yuanandhis teachings.After
the founding of the Peoples Republic of China (1949), the Liumen
movement was outlawed as a reactionary secret society, and, conse
quently,Mt.Laojunwasdeprivedofitsformerprotectors.
In 1961, the temple complex was declared a historic monument.
Nevertheless, all statues, two halls, and the mountain gate were de
stroyed during the Cultural Revolution (19661976). The sanctuary was
againdesignatedahistoricmonumentin1985andfinallyreopenedasa
religiousinstitutioninthefollowingyear.23 Undertheguidanceofabbess
Zhang Zhirong (b. 1954), a Quanzhen nun who was instated on
Mt.LaojuninDecember1988,thesanctuarywasrenovatedandextended.
Today,thetempleLaojunmiaoisanimportantDaoistsiteoftheareathat
is particularly renowned for its liturgical activities and festivals (see
Olles2005a,16466).

22 LiuBogu,September2007(personalcommunication).

23 ThesituationofMt.Laojunin1987isdescribedinHachiya1990,1:29798,

2:28891.Hachiya erroneouslyidentifieditasPinggangzhi (1:297).


120/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

The Temple Buildings


ThetraditionaltemplebuildingsonMt.Laojunwereconstructedduring
the Republican era, sponsored by adherents of the Liumen community.
Afterthedevastatingfirein1923,LiuXianjun(style:Zhongtao
;18711935),agrandsonofLiuYuanandthethirdpatriarchoftheLiu
men movement, initiated the reconstruction of the sanctuary and col
lected money for this purpose. Under the direction of two Liumen ad
herents, Dong Shaotang and Sun Xingwu , the complete
templecomplex was rebuilt between 1926 and 1944. The architectural
ensemblewasmodeledonthefamousDaoistsanctuaryQingyanggong
in Chengdu, whereas arrangement and size ofthe buildings were skill
fullyadjustedtothe shapeofMt.Laojun.24
Climbing the mountain, one first arrives at the Temple Protector
Hall (Lingzu lou ), which was reconstructed in the 1990s and
housesimagesofWangLingguan(NuminousOfficerWang)and
Zhao Gongming . Both serve as guardians of Daoist sanctuaries,
thelatterbeingworshippedasagodofwealthatthesametime.25
Onthenextleveluphill,theHallofChaosPrime(Hunyuandian
)containsastatueofLordLaoasHunyuanzushi(Ances
tralMasterofChaosPrime),aprecelestialmanifestationofthedeitywho
representstheDaoitself,theseedoforderinthemidstofchaos(Kohn
1998,183). The god is flankedby divinerepresentations of the sun and
themoon.Alevelplotoflandadjacenttothisbuildingisthelocationof
the Hall of the Barge of Compassion (Cihang dian ), which is
dedicatedtothebodhisattvaGuanyin(Avalokitevara).Nexttothis
tinyshrine,justbeneaththesummit,threecavernsopenintotheinterior
of the mountain. Two are Handynasty cliff tombs turned sanctuaries.
OneofthemisequippedwithanimageofGuanyin.However,themost
prominent grotto on the mountain is a natural cave that reportedly
servedasLordLaosretreat.

24 SeeYan1990,67;Olles2005a,162.OnthetempleQingyanggongseethe

entrybyLiviaKohninPregadio2008,2:80607.
25 ForanillustrateddescriptionofthemainbuildingsonMt.Laojunandan

analysisofthetemplespantheonseeOlles2005a,167236.
Olles,LordLaosMountain /121

ThemajortemplebuildingsaretobefoundonthesummitofLao
junshan.ThearchitecturalhighlightisthePavilionoftheEightTrigrams
(Baguating),whichhousesanimageofLordLaoridinghisgrey
ox. This monument comprises all basic elements of the traditional Chi
neseworldview.TheeighttrigramsoftheYijing(BookofChanges)
aredepictedonitssides,andthethreefundamentalpowers(sancai)
of the universe are symbolized in its ground plot: The circular body of
the pavilion represents Heaven, while its square enclosure stands for
Earth and its octagonal base for the eight trigrams and Humanity. The
mainbuildingofthetemple,in whichthedailyliturgiesareperformed,
issituatedbehindthepavilion.IntheHalloftheThreeClarities(Sanqing
dian ), the preeminent trinity of gods, who symbolize different
aspectsoftheDao,areworshippedtogetherwithagroupoftwelveGold
Immortals (jinxian ). In the back part of this hall, facing a walled
courtyardlinkingtheSanqingdiantotherearbuildingofthetemple,the
ShrineoftheSevenPerfected(Qizhendian)wasbuiltinhonorof
theeminentdisciplesofWangChongyang(11131170),thefoun
deroftheQuanzhenorder.TheHalloftheThreePrimes(Sanyuandian
), dedicated to the rulers of the Three Offices (Sanguan ) of
Heaven,Earth,andWaterandvariousothersaints,istherearhallofthe
templecomplex. Its upper story contains an image of Doumu, the
Dipper Mother, and is therefore called Doumu lou (Attic of the
DipperMother).
Besidethemain Hall of the ThreeClarities, amodestshrinehall is
situated,itsfrontopeningintoawalledcourtyard.Theoriginalnameof
thisbuilding is Rulinci(AncestralTemple of the Literati); other
currentappellationsareLiujiacitang(AncestralHalloftheLiu
Family)andGongdeci(ShrineofMeritandVirtue).Thearchitec
turaloutlineofthestructureisbasedonthetraditionalformofanances
tralhall(citang ),theopenaircourtyardallowingfamilymembersto
assemble in front of the shrine while ancestral offerings are performed.
Until the middle of the 20th century, the ancestral tablets of Liu Yuans
familywerekeptinsidethehall.Today,ancestraltabletsarestilllinedup
on wooden racks on both sides of the shrine room, but they represent
departed clerics and lay adherents of the present Quanzhen temple on
Mt. Laojun and not members of the Liu family. However, the descen
dantsofLiuYuanstillgatherinordertoworshiptheirancestorswiththe
122/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

appropriateliturgiesontheannualMiddlePrimeFestival(zhongyuanhui
)onthefifteenthdayoftheseventhlunarmonth.Formanyyears,
theycontinuedtoperformtheritesonMt.Laojun,withtheapprovalof
abbessZhangZhirong.Yet,duetothemanytouristsvisitingLaojunshan
andarecentconflictbetweentheLongmenclericsandtheLiufamily,the
descendantsofLiuYuanhavenowchosenamoreremotesanctuaryfor
theiractivities.26
InsidetheRulincitemple,anemptyshrinewithseveralinscriptions
isstillpreserved.Abovetheshrine,ahorizontalinscriptiononawooden
tablet reads as follows: Mingjiaochuiguang(TheTeachingof
Names [i.e. Confucianism] hands down its glory.). It is reported that
thisshrinecontainedasacredimageinformertimes,astatueofaQing
dynastyscholarwhohadadeeppersonalrelationshiptoMt.Laojun:Liu
Yuan,thefounderoftheLiumenmovement.

The Master of the Locust Tree Studio


LiuYuansancestorsoriginallycamefromHubeiProvinceandsettledin
SichuanbytheendoftheMingdynasty.27 TheLiufamily,whichtookup
residenceinShuangliuDistrictsouthwestofChengduatthebegin
ning ofthe Qing dynasty, wasrelativelypoorandbelongedto theclass
of lowlevel local intellectuals.The study of theBookofChanges was a
familytradition,anditisreportedthatLiuYuansfatherwasanexpertin
thisfield.
Liu Yuan wasborn in the 33rd year oftheQianlong era (1768), and
wasstyledZhitang .Fromhisearlyyouth,hereceivedacomprehen
sive educationbased on theclassicalscriptures of Confucianism.He at
tended the Confucian school of Shuangliu Districtandobtained the de
gree of a Graduate for Preeminence (bagong ) in 1789. In the year
1792, he received the degree of a Provincial Graduate (juren ). He
was admittedthree timesto thejinshi(Metropolitan Graduate)ex
amination,butfailedoneachoccasion.Afterthat,LiuYuantooknofur
ther interest in an officialcareer. Furthermore,Liu Yuanhad losthis fa

26 LiuBogu,March2007(personalcommunication).

27 FormoreonLiuYuanandhismovementseeMaandHan2004,2:100630;

Olles2005a,14063.
Olles,LordLaosMountain /123

therwhenhewasonlytwentytwoyearsold,whereuponhismotherhad
tomaintainthefamilybyweaving.Forthisreason,hewasnotwillingto
serveasofficialinotherprovincesandpreferredtosupporthisfamilyby
teachingataprivateschoolinhishomevillage.
At theageof 58, in the year 1826, Liu Yuan wasappointed District
Magistrate ofTianmen in Hubei,buthe declined onthepretext of
beinginmourningforhisparents.Atthattime,however,hismotherhad
been dead for fifteen years, and the true reason for his refusal was his
lackofinterestinanofficialcareer.Ontheotherhand,LiuYuanwasal
ready a wellknownpersonality in Sichuan wherehegathereddisciples
andspreadhisteachings.HewasthendesignatedasArchivistintheDi
rectorateofEducation(guozijiandianbu),whichinlateQing
times was an empty rank without official duties.After ashort stay in
thecapital, Liu Yuan asked for leave andreturned toSichuan wherehe
taught and lived in seclusion. He never served in an office throughout
his life, but had about a thousand students, more than a hundred of
whomobtainedacademicdegrees likejinshiorjuren.Liu Yuan fathered
eightsons,andhewasarespectedandprosperousmaninhislateryears.
Many people considered him as a great scholar and a master of high
moral standing, andhe was also venerated as asaint.Atthe end of the
fifth year of the Xianfeng era (1856), Liu Yuan passed away at the
ageof88,andhewasburiedinhis homevillageinShuangliuDistrict.
Ontheplot of the Liu familys dwelling in Shuangliustood an old
locusttree(Sophorajaponica),afterwhichthehousehadbeennamedLo
custTreeStudio(Huaixuan ).LiuYuanusedthesamenameforhis
houseinChengdu,wherehetookupresidencein1807,sincetherewere
three locust trees on its premises. The teachings of Liu Yuan and the
popularreligiousmovement,whichderivedfromtheformer,werethus
knownasHuaixuan dao(Way of the LocustTree Studio).Other
common appellations were Liumen (Liu School) and Liumen jiao
(TeachingsoftheLiuSchool).Itshouldbenotedthatcontemporaryde
scendantsofLiuYuanoftenpresenthisteachingsasaschoolofphiloso
phical thought that should only be referred to as Liu School (Liumen).
The name Huaixuan, on the other hand, became so important that it is
stillusedtodayasasynonymforLiuYuanhimself.
Those works among his numerous writings which were consistent
withtheConfucianorthodoxyhavebeenpublishedbyLiusdescendants
124/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

and students under the title Huaixuan quanshu (Collected


Works fromthe Locust TreeStudio).The first editionofHuaixuanquan
shuappearedin1905,followedbytwoeditionsinRepublicantimes.The
collectioncontainscommentariesonConfucianclassics(tenworks),his
torical treatises (two works), literary texts (two works), philosophical
studies (five works), and miscellaneous writings (three works). 28 At a
quick glance, these titlesseemto representpure Confucian scholarship,
butmanyworksinHuaixuanquanshucontainagooddealofDaoistand
Buddhist thought, especially from the realm of internal selfcultivation
andthenurturingoflife centralaspectsofLiuYuansteachingsandthe
practiceoftheLiumenmovement.
LiuYuansdoctrinewasbasedonthemergingofConfucian,Daoist,
and Buddhist concepts. The underlying idea of harmonizing the three
teachings (sanjiao heyi ) had become a dominant feature of
ChinesethoughtandreligionsincetheSongdynasty(9601279).Accord
ing to this theory, Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism are just one
singlepathtosalvationandspiritualselfrealization,andthethreeteach
ingsareperceivedasdifferentbranchesofasingletree.Theharmonizing
of the three teachings was generally pursued underthe aegis of Confu
cianism at least on the surface. This was also the case with Liu Yuan
who always presented himself as a Confucian. His teachings were
mainly influenced by the traditions of Confucianism and Daoism,
whereas Buddhist notions were of secondary importance. Compared to
theThreeinOneTeaching(Sanyijiao ),whichwasfoundedbyLin
Zhaoen (15171598) in the middle of the 16th century, there are
obvious similarities in terms of thought and selfdefinition. Yet, the or
ganizational structures of the Liumen community are quite different
fromtheThreeinOneTeaching,sincetheformerremainedaratherdif
fusedtraditionwithinthereligiouslandscape.29 Insteadofbuildingtheir
own temples, the Liumen community was based in temples which al
ready had a long history as Daoist or Buddhist sanctuaries as is the
casewiththetempleonMt.Laojun.

28 For a table of contents seeHuaixuanquanshu(10 vols. Chengdu: BaShu

shushe,2006), 1:8ab.Cf.Maand Han 2004, 2:101213;Olles2005a,147.


29 SeeDean1998;Seiwert2003,34364;MaandHan2004,2:541642.
Olles,LordLaosMountain /125

The religious practice of the Liumen movement was not the out
comeofadesperateattempttoimitatetheimperialstatecultortoinvent
newConfucianrituals.Individualselfcultivationandcollectiveliturgies
were completely derived from Daoist models. Today, a whole canon of
ritual scriptures and a system of selfcultivation, both rooted in the
Liumentradition,stillexist.
Theselfcultivation,atitslowerlevel,consistsoftechniquesofnur
turing life (yangsheng )not unlike those exercisesthat arecurrently
referred to as qigong. The system, named Jingyang gong (Exer
cisesofTranquilNurturing),hasfoursuccessivestepsandistransmitted
orally within an exclusive circle. These methods of selfcultivation,
rooted in Daoist internalalchemy (neidan), weredevelopedby Liu
Yuan himself after inspiring encounters with two Daoist hermits and
eightyearsofstudywithoneofthesemasters.30
LiuYuanmetYeyunLaoren (ElderoftheWildClouds),an
oldmansellingmedicinalherbs,inadifficultphaseofhislife.AfterYe
yunLaorenhaddisclosedtheessentialsofDaoistselfcultivationtohim,
whichLiuYuanfoundtobeinperfectaccordwithhisConfucianprinci
ples, he became the disciple of this mysterious old man. From around
1796 to 1804, Liu Yuan studied with the hermit, whose real name was
never revealed, and his health improved greatly. It is reported that the
retreat of Liu Yuan and his master in those days was Mt. Laojun (Yan
1996, 60). Since Liu still dwelled in Shuangliu at that time, it is indeed
possible that he frequently stayed on Mt. Laojun in neighboring Xinjin
District.Forthetimebeing,Iamnotawareofanysuchconfirmationin
Liuswritings,butthismaybeduetothesecretivemannerinwhichLiu
YuantreatsthesubjectofhisDaoiststudies.However,thesignificanceof
Mt. Laojun within the Liumen tradition confirms that the mountain
played an important role in Liu Yuans life. With regard to the current
hagiographiclegitimizationofMt.Laojun,aninterestingdetailhastobe
mentioned: According to legend, both Daoist masters of Liu Yuan, in
cludingYeyunLaoren,wereincarnationsofLordLao.31

Zixu shi zi
30 This is related in Liu Yuans autobiographical text

(Describing Myself for the Instruction of My Sons) inHuaixuanzazhu


4.59a61a; see Huaixuanquanshu,9:3473b74b; cf. Olles2005a,15457.
31 LiuBogu,March2007(personalcommunication).
126/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

Aritual canon based on Daoist liturgical texts was also edited by


LiuYuan.Thecollectioninfiftychapters(juan)bearsthetitleofFayan
huizuan (Collected Words of Ritual Methods). The rituals re
corded in this compilation cover the full range of religious services of
fered to the society of late imperial China. Special emphasis is put on
rites for ancestors and desolate souls.Major Daoist divinities are called
upon (ThreeClarities,Lord Lao, JadeEmperor,Three Offices,Northern
andSouthernDipperConstellationsetc.).Interestingly,severalmembers
of the Liu family were also included in the pantheon and given divine
titlesandstandardDaoistinvocations(gaowen).LiuYuanhimselfis
referredtoasQingyangShangdi(SupremeRulerofClearYang)
inthiscontext.TheritualscontainedinFayanhuizuandiffersignificantly
incontentsandcharacter.Wefindsophisticatedliturgies,lengthypurifi
cationrites, bureaucraticmemorials,andvisualizationssidebysidewith
harsh exorcism, anddivinationmethods.Eachchapter includes instruc
tions and texts for a classified ritual (keyi ), and these rituals are
combined to form the liturgical festivals of the Liumen community,
whichlastthreeorfourdays.AprefacebyLiuYuan,writtenin1821,and
an introduction by the Daoist Fan Daoheng , dated 1844, consti
tutetheopeningsectionofthiscompilation.32
TheFayanhuizuancanonverylikelyoriginatedfromtheQuanzhen
DaoistritualtraditionofSichuan.IntheQingdynasty,acomprehensive
collection of ritual texts was compiled by the Quanzhen Daoist Chen
Zhongyuan , a native of Sichuan. The huge compilation, titled
Guangcheng yizhi (Ritual Systematization of Master Guang
cheng),wasprintedin1911bythetempleErxianan(TwoImmor
talsConvent)inChengdu,andthetextsofthiscollectionarestillusedin
the ritual practice of Quanzhen temples in Sichuan today.33 We can be
surethatLiuYuandrewheavilyupontheworkofChenZhongyuanand

32 ThewholecanonandalatersupplementhavebeenreprintedinZangwai

daoshu (36 vols. Chengdu: BaShu shushe, 19921994); abbreviated


hereonasZW. See ZW946and947(30:456a789b). Foratableofcontentssee ibid,
463ab and Olles2005a,159. Thenumbersofthetitlesfollow Komjathy2002, 104.
33 SeeEsposito2000,641.GuangchengyizhiisincludedinZW421695(vols.

1315).Foralistoftitles, seeKomjathy2002,9298.OntheeditionsofGuangcheng
yizhi seeMin andLi1994,14647.
Olles,LordLaosMountain /127

his fellow Daoists, for this is statedby Fan Daoheng in his introduction
toFayanhuizuan (ZW 946,30:459ab).
It is beyond doubt that the liturgical aspect of the Liumen move
ment, just as its system of selfcultivation, is deeply rooted in Daoism.
Thisisalsothecasewiththeactualperformanceoftherituals.LiuYuan
figured as chief editor of Fayan huizuan, but neither he nor his descen
dants actually performed the rites described in their canon. This was,
andstillistoday,thedutyofaDaoistpriestwhoseprofessionisheredi
taryandwhoisfamiliarwiththeliturgiesinFayanhuizuan.LiuYuanand
thefollowingpatriarchsoftheLiumencommunityhadnocommandof
thenecessary ritualmethods (fa), and itseemsthat theymade no at
tempt to interfere in this domain of professional Daoist practice. Many
DaoistpriestsinSichuanwereaffiliatedwiththeLiumenmovementand
used the Fayanhuizuan scriptures in their ritual activities. These practi
tioners constituted an independent liturgical tradition of nonmonastic
Daoism in the area, which isstill extantand known under thename of
Fayantan (AltarofRitualWords).
Liu Yuan was well versed in the Confucian classics, but he also
studied a certain amount of Daoist and Buddhist scriptures that were
popular in his time. This is demonstrated by the Collection of Sacred
Scriptures and Litanies of Repentance(Jingchanjicheng ) which
was published for the first time in 1860 by Liu Yuans disciples.34 The
compilation includes nine Daoist and three Buddhist text clusters with
introductionsandcommentaries byLiuYuan(inonecasebyLiusfather).
Most of the scriptures have prefaces by various divinities, which were
receivedthroughspiritwriting.ThefinalpartoftheJingchanjichengcol
lectionisasupplement:theDaodejingwithacommentarybyL
Dongbin, reeditedbyLiuYuan.
UndertheleadershipofLiuBeiwen(style:Ziwei;1842
1914),thesixthsonofLiuYuan,theLiumencommunitydevelopedinto
aninfluentialreligiousmovement.Newadherentswereacceptedonper
sonal recommendation and a donation, which had to be in accordance
withtheincomeoftherespectiveperson.Therecruitswereadmittedto
thecommunitythroughaceremonyandhenceforthhadtoobeyasetof

34 ZW948,30:790a1059a(reprintoftheJingchanjichenged.,Chengdu,1916).
128/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

precepts. Philosophical and ethical teachings as well as the methods of


selfcultivationweretransmittedtotheadherents.
Every year, the Liumen community organized nine liturgical festi
vals(jiuhui)whichcorrespondedtoimportantdateswithinthereli
giouscalendaroftraditionalChina,e.g.thefestivalsoftheThreePrimes
(sanyuan).Thesemajorritualeventsmainlyfocusedontheworship
ofancestors(jianxian )andthesalvationofdesolatesouls(jiyou ).
ThemostimportantcenterofthecommunitywasthecloisterYanqingsi
inChengdu,whichwasoriginallyaBuddhistmonasterythathad
beenfoundedattheendoftheYuandynasty(14th century).Intheyears
after1850,thecloisterwasconvertedintoasanctuaryoftheThreeTeach
ingsandequippedwithDaoist,Buddhist,andConfucianstatuary,which
also included an image of Liu Yuan. Many temples in Sichuan were
managedbytheLiumencommunity,andmostofthesecentersalsocon
tained charitable institutions or schools of the movement. In late Qing
and Republican times, the Liumen movement was an influential com
munityinSichuan,andalsohadadherentsinotherprovinces.Until1949,
itwasnotconsideredasaheterodoxsectandsufferednopersecution.35
The commitment of the Liumen community was not confined to
their owncenters. Liu Yuan andhisdescendantssupportedmany sanc
tuaries, notably Daoist temples, with generous donations. It is hardly
possibletofindaDaoisttempleinChengduanditssurroundingswhere
the patriarchs and adherents of the Liumen movement left no inscrip
tions.ThepresentsplendorofthetempleQingyanggong,amonasteryof
Quanzhen Daoism, is mainly based on extensive renovations that were
fundedbyLiuYuanandhisdescendantsduringtheQingdynasty.36

35 In the late Qing, governmental repression of popular religious groups

was very widespread. The Liumen community, however, was not regarded as
heterodox,whichmaybeduetoitsConfuciancredo;seeSeiwert2003,479(n.47).
36 SeeLiandDing2006,8.TheanthologyChongkanDaozangjiyao

(Chengdu:Erxianan,1906)includesfourinscriptionsbyLiuYuanandone
textbyhissonLiuGuiwen(18371897);seeworknumbers299and300in
Komjathy2002,74.Atranslationofthesetextswillbepublishedsoon.
Olles,LordLaosMountain /129

Lord Laos Retreat in Sichuan


Mt. Laojun in Xinjin District reportedly served as refuge for Liu Yuan
andhisDaoistmaster,YeyunLaoren.IfwetakeintoaccountthatYeyun
Laorenwasconsideredasa manifestationofLordLao,itisquiteobvious
thatthepresenthagiographicfeaturesandthecurrentappellationofthe
mountainevolvedunderthepatronageofLiuYuanandhisdescendants.
In1799,apoem,consistingoftwelveverseswithsevencharactersto
a line, was engraved on a stone tablet. This inscription commemorated
therenovationofthetempleonMt.Laojunattheendofthe18th century.
The relic, though heavily damaged during the Cultural Revolution,
hasbeenpreservedinthemainhallofthetempleLaojunmiao.In1919,
120yearsafterthecreationoftheoriginalstele,thetextwascopiedand
supplementedwithashortcommentarybythefamouscalligrapherYan
Kai (style:Yongqi;18771927). Yan Kai wasan eminentmem
beroftheLiumencommunity.AfterstudyinglawandpoliticsinJapan,
heservedinvariousofficesoftheQingdynastyadministration.In1911,
hewasamongtheleadingmembersoftheAssociationfortheProtection
ofLocalRailways(Baolutongzhihui )whofoughtagainstthe
nationalizationofrailwaysinSichuanProvince.Hewasalsotheteacher
of the erudite Daoist Yi Xinying (18961976). 37 The inscription in Yan
Kais calligraphy was also carved on a stele, which is today kept in the
Hallof Chaos PrimeonMt. Laojun.Thepoem, tentatively renderedbe
low,wasapparentlyspokenbyLordLao:

Once[I]crossedtheHan[gu] Pass,ridingagreyox,
[then]hidawayinShu(Sichuan)toexploreTiansheshan(Mt.
CelestialAltar)anew.
Astonechamberwaschiseled,uptothethroneofGreatPeace;
thesmoke ofthe cinnabar furnace permeated theNineHeav
ens.
[Atthismountain],girdedbytheQiongRiver,theMinjiang
beingitslapel,
[I]reinedfivephoenixestowelcometheimmortalatthebridge.

37 ForfurtherinformationonYanKaiandanexampleofhiscalligraphysee

Wang1998,271.OnYiXinyingseeabove,note6.
130/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

The Penglai Island in the ocean; how could it resemble


thisplace?
Sacredscripturesandjadeledgers,Itransmittedthemto[Yin]
Xi.
Yet, in the first decade [of this dynasty, the temple] was rav
aged[byrebels];
autumnalwindblewthroughtheweeds,[chasing]chillywhite
clouds.
Now, [I] display the numinous [power] of the Dao to make
[thismountain]flourishagain,
and I am willing to hand down the holy scriptures one more
time.38

What has happened to the hagiographic legitimization of this


mountain? The spiritual heritage of the old Celestial Masters diocese,
which, according to various Daozang sources, linked the site to the Yel
lowEmperorandZhangDaoling,hasbeenreplaced orsupplemented
byanewlegend.Theabovequotedtextandnumerousotherinscriptions
inthe temple, which werecomposedby Liu Yuan andhis descendants,
presentthesacredsiteasLordLaosretreat.Whileitispossiblethatthis
legend already existed on a local lore level even before Liu Yuan, Lord
Laos central role in the hagiographic legitimization of Mt. Laojun was
emphasized and most effectively propagated by the patriarchs and ad
herentsoftheLiumenmovement.
TheclassicallegacyofLordLaoshagiographywasconnectedwith
thelocalityinXinjinDistrict,andthecontentofthetextevenimpliesthe
superiority of this site overthemythical island of Penglai.39 The Hangu
Pass and the grey ox are standard elements of the legends concerning
Lord Lao (Kohn 1998,xi). Mt. Laojun isclearly identifiedby its alterna
tive appellation Tianshe shan (Mt. Celestial Altar), the mention of two
rivers, and the allusion to the destruction of the temple in 1644. Lord
LaossecondencounterwithYinXi,theguardianoftheHanguPassand
firstrecipient oftheDaodejing, allegedly tookplace in Chengduduring
theWesternZhoudynasty(1046771B.C.E.).YinXifoundLordLao,who
hadbeenreborninthefamilyofanofficialsurnamedLi,withthehelp

38 Thetextoftheinscriptionisreproducedbelow;cf.Olles2005a,9395,104.
39 OnPenglaiseetheentrybyThomasE.SmithinPregadio2008,2:78890.
Olles,LordLaosMountain /131

ofagreyram.LordLaothenbestowedtherankofanaccomplishedim
mortalonhisdiscipleYinXi.Theallegedsiteoftheirencounteristoday
thelocationofthetempleQingyanggong(PalaceoftheGreyRam).40 On
thebasisof this traditional legend, themountain inXinjin was elevated
toLordLaosretreat,wheretheOldMasterdwelledinacavernanden
gagedinselfcultivation.Thenewgloryofthesanctuaryandthefurther
transmissionofLordLaosscriptures,bothalludedtointheinscription,
wererealizedundertheauspicesofLiuYuanandhiscommunity.
Furthermore,theinscriptionbearsamysterioussignatureattheend
of the poem: Jiangyuan Xingjia (Geomancer of Jiangyuan).41
Jiangyuan is a place name that already existed in the Han dynasty and
denotedalocalitynorthoftodaysXinjinDistrict.42 However,thestrange
nameisnotjustasobriquetoftheQingdynastyauthorofthepoem.Lo
callegendhasitthatJiangyuanXingjiaisnoneotherthanLordLao,and
thisisalsoconfirmedbyYanKaiscommentaryontheinscription.43 The
textwasinallprobabilityauthoredbyLiuYuan,anditmaywellbethe
productofaspiritwritingsession.
UndertheinfluenceoftheLiumenmovement,Mt.Laojunreceived
anewstatuswithinthesacredgeographyofSichuan,basedonregional
traditionssurroundingLordLao.Thecurrentappellationsofthemoun
tain and its temple certainly originated from the new definition of Mt.
Laojuns spiritual authority at that time. It remains an open question
whetheror notthe legend of Lord Laossojourn on themountain is di
rectlyrelatedtoLiuYuansDaoistmaster,YeyunLaoren.Therecognition
ofYeyunLaorenasanincarnationofLordLaowaspossiblytheworkof
Liu Yuans descendants or members of the Liumen community, who
soughttoglorifyLiusmasterretrospectively.
Today,LordLaoisstillomnipresentonthemountain.Imagesofthe
saintridinghisgreyoxaretobefoundinsidetheBaguating(Pavilionof
the Eight Trigrams) and enshrined in a cave. The Cavern of Lord Lao
(Laojundong), situatedbeneaththe summitand decorated with

40 SeeKohn1998,2021,26771;Olles2005a,9192.
41 Theterm xingjiaverylikelydenotesanexpertongeomancy(fengshui
orkanyuxue);seeQindingSikuquanshuzongmu109.11b
(Zibu 19, shushulei 2).
42 JiangyuanwasclosetotodaysShuangliuDistrict;seeTan1982,2:29,53.
43 LiuBogu,April2008(personalcommunication).
132/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

inscriptionsbyagrandsonofLiuYuan,isthespiritualheartofMt.Lao
jun. The walls of the natural cave have been lined with bricks, and a
shrinewithastatueofLordLaohasbeensetupinsidethischamber.A
stelewithaninscriptionbyLiuYuan,dated1854,hasbeenpreservedin
the grotto, but, due to the weathering of the stone, the main text is not
legible any more. Thissacredcavern wasembellished by Liu Yuan and
hiscommunityduringtheQingdynasty.Itisclearlystatedintheinscrip
tionsontheshrinethatLordLao,afterhisrestlessjourney,foundhisul
timateretreatthere.44
Lord Lao also plays a dominant role in the religious activities that
can be observed on Mt. Laojun today. The major festival of the temple
Laojun miao is Lord Laos birthday (Laojun shengdan ) on the
fifteenthday of the second lunarmonth.Every year,the festival iscele
bratedwithintheRitualPeriodofSpringPrayers(chunqifahui),
whichlastsoneweek.OnthedateofLordLaosbirthday,approximately
one hundred thousand pilgrims and visitors flock to the temple to pay
homagetotheOldMaster.Duringtheritualperiod,whichlastsfromthe
thirteenth tothe nineteenthday of themonth, various liturgiesarecon
ducted. Besides Lord Lao, the rituals address Numinous Officer Wang,
the Three Offices, Wenchang , Guandi , the Jade Emperor,
Guanyin,theDipperConstellations,andotherdeities.Theliturgicaltexts
used in these rituals are all included in the collection Guangcheng yizhi
(see Olles 2005a, 23746). The celebration of Lord Laos birthday within
this liturgical framework is unique to the temple Qingyang gong in
Chengdu and Mt. Laojun in Xinjin District.Atboth sites,therituals are
rootedintheliturgicaltraditionofQuanzhenDaoism.InthecaseofMt.
Laojun,however,thepreeminenceofLordLaointhereligiouslifeofthe
mountainhastobeascribedtothelastinginfluenceofLiuYuanandthe
Liumenmovement.

44 ForthesetextsseeWang1996,189;cf.Olles2005a,18991.Whilewriting

themonographonMt.Laojun,Iwasstillreluctanttorecognizethefullimpactof
theLiumencommunityonthissacredsite.
Olles,LordLaosMountain /133

Conclusion
The Quanzhen Daoists on Mt. Laojun continue the tradition of the old
CelestialMastersdioceseintheirownway.Yet,thecurrenthagiographic
legitimization of the locality and the traditional temple buildings were
shapedbythepatriarchsanderuditemembersoftheLiumencommunity.
AlthoughLiuYuanandhisdescendantssaw,andstillsee,themselvesas
Confucians, the Liumen movement significantly influenced the devel
opment ofmodern Daoism in theareaof Sichuan. While the Fayan tan
ritualtradition,whichevolvedunderthepatronageoftheLiufamily,is
in itself a part of nonmonastic Daoism, the Liumen movement as a
wholewascloselyconnectedwithinstitutionsofQuanzhenDaoism,e.g.
thetempleQingyanggong.TheLiumenmovementthusactivelypatron
ized Quanzhen Daoism and, at the same time, competed with this mo
nastic form of the religion. On the other hand, the Liumen community
certainly also substituted for traditional religious institutions unable to
resisthistoricalcircumstancessuchaswarandthegrowinginfluenceof
Westernculture.ThecommunitystakeoverofMt.Laojunmaybeseenas
onesuchexample.
Today, after the statecontrolled revival of religious life in the Peo
plesRepublicofChina,theLiumenmovementandsimilarcommunities
have been marginalized. The multifaceted and diffused nature of tradi
tionalChinesereligionconflictssharplywiththerigidWesternderived
MarxistLeninist definition of religion (Dean 1998, 10), that has been
adoptedbythepresentgovernment.However,sacredsiteslikeMt.Lao
jun and Qingyang gong benefited greatly from the patronage of the
Liumencommunity.InthecaseofMt.Laojun,aformerdioceseofCeles
tial Master Daoism continues to flourish as a Daoist institution in con
temporary China. Liu Yuan and his descendants spotted Lord Laos re
treat on this mountain and thus disclosed another manifestation of the
OldMaster,whoappearsthroughtheagesastheteacherofhumanity.
134/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

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Appendix
I:TheInscriptionontheTempleBell(1796)

II:TheLordLaoInscription(1799and1919)



Daoist Nuns in Taiwan

A Case Study of the Gaoxiong Daode yuan

WAN-LI HO

Abstract

TheGaoxiongDaodeyuan isthefirstandonlycommunityofceli
bate female Daoists in Taiwan. Established in 1960, it draws on practices from
both the Zhengyi (Orthodox Unity, i.e., Celestial Masters) and Quanzhen
(CompletePerfection)schools.Thearticlearguesthatwhilethemajorityof
Taiwan Daoists follow the Zhengyi tradition, the priestesses and nuns at the
Daode yuan have adopted Quanzhen practices to create their own unique reli
gious tradition. Their unique syncretism represents major modifications of the
Daoist tradition and serves as an example of the interaction among different
schoolsastheyadapttomodernreligiousandsocialneedswhilepreservingtra
ditionalroots.

The Zhengyi school in Taiwan is traditionally staffed by married male


practitioners.WhiletheyoccupyadominantpositioninDaoistpractice,
thereisanincreasingacceptanceofDaoistpriestessesandfemalepracti
tioners,asevidentintheprominentleadershipofwomeninpublicDao
istritual. Althoughthenumberoffullyordainedwomenisstillrelatively
small,theirroleinconductingnationwideritualshasbeenhighlyvisible,
suchasinceremoniestocleanseTaiwanoftheSARSepidemicin2003.
Their first andmost importantcenter is theGaoxiongDaode yuan
(hereaftercalledDaodeyuan). It is an interesting institution thatallows
the study ofvariousquestions:Howdiditcometohousethefirst (and
only)communityof Daoistnuns in Taiwan?What istheirmembers af
filiationintermsofZhengyiandQuanzhen?Howdidtheirpracticesand

137
138/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

worldview evolve in the interaction of these schools, especially since


theirfounderwasanadherentofZhengyiwhiletheirdominantlifestyle
follows Quanzhen? And how has the community managed to sustain
and distinguish itself over the last five decades? I hope to present the
materials Ihave gathered between 2002 and 2008 asacase study of the
adaptation of religious traditions and rituals to a changing social envi
ronment andtheevolutionoftheroleofwomeninDaoism.

Historical Context
Daoismisbothanindigenousreligionandamarkerofculturalidentity
for most Chinese. Since the 63rd Celestial Master, Zhang Enfu ,
arrivedinTaiwan in1949thenumberofDaoistfollowershasincreased
significantly. In 1951, Zhang founded the Taiwan Daoist Association
(Taiwan shengdaojiaohui );in 1964,Jiang Zhaozhou
founded the Chinese General Daoist Association (Zhonghua daojiao
zonghui ). About 70 to 80 percent of Taiwanese religious
practitioners consider themselves Daoist adherents. Taiwan had 12,970
registered temples in 2002: 8,954 Daoist and 2,279 Buddhist.1 Officially,
thereareover8,954Daoisttemples,buttheiractualnumberismuchlar
gerbecauseunofficialDaoisthallsrarelyregisterduetolandownership

1 Bythe end of 2002, Taiwan had 11,423temples: 78.4% Daoist and 20.0%

Buddhist.Thetotalnumberofregisteredbelieverswas1,068,550:858,005Daoist
and199,938Buddhist(StatisticalYearbookofInterior,RepublicofChina2002,Taipei:
Ministry of Interior in Taiwan, 2003). However, religious participants are more
nuermous than registered ones, which means that 70 to 80 percent of religious
practitioners in Taiwan follow Daoism.However,some claimthat 70to 80per
centbelieveinfolkreligion.BarbaraReedhasarguedthatpopularreligionand
Daoism strongly influenced each other, but Daoists drew a clear line between
themselves and what they considered excessive, immortal cults (Reed in
Sharma 1987, 169). In addition, any temple neither dedicated to Buddhism nor
Confucianism isconsidered Daoist. These nuances can affect religiousstatistics.
Recent publications estimate that Buddhism has flourished in recent years be
yond previous expectations, estimating that 90% of Taiwanese consider them
selves religious: 40% consider themselves Buddhist while 3.5% consider them
selvesChristian(includingProtestantsandCatholics).SeeShi 2003,28.
Ho,DaoistNunsinTaiwan/139

constraints. Scholars estimate that there are around 20,000 official and
unofficialDaoisttemples. 2
Since the Yuan Dynasty (12791368) the Zhengyi and Quanzhen
schools have been the key branches of Daoism. In Taiwan, Zhengyi is
mostpopular.ThisschoolwasfoundedinSichuanbyZhangDaoling
oftheEasternHan. The fourth generation Celestial Master, Zhang
Sheng,movedtheheadquartersfromSichuantoMt.Longhu
inJiangxi(Lu2006,102).Theschoolallowsmarriageandhasmainlylay
priests(DaoistAssociation2003,34).Theyusetalismansandamuletsin
their rituals, adopting the practice from the Talismans and Records
School (fulu pai ) (FischerSchreiber 1996, 1124). In contrast, the
Quanzhenschoolismonasticwithacelibateclergyandstrictdiscipline.
In addition to various cultivation methods, they use internal alchemy
(neidan )totransformintoimmortals.
Early Taiwanese Daoism followed the faith as found in Fujianand
Guangdong and passed down by the Zhengyi lineage of Mt. Longhu.
Quanzhen teachingswereprimarilytransmittedtoTaiwan afterthelib
eration of the crossstrait economy in 1987. It spread into Taiwan
through a conscious learning process rather than being transplanted
naturallythroughimmigration(Zheng2004,ii).Inparticular, the Nantou
cisheng gong began to transmit and emphasize Quanzhen
ritual practices in Taiwan after its members studied them in mainland
China.3
Daode yuan nuns not only visit Quanzhen temples often, but also
tend to practice internal alchemy. This is important for this article be
cause, while their practices of celibacy and internal alchemy derive di
rectly from Quanzhen, they also draw heavily upon the rituals of the
Zhengyischool.Whataccounts forthismeldingoftraditions?

2 Interview with Lee Fongmao,Professor ofAcademia Sinica,January 28,

2004.IamindebtedtoProfessorLiforhiscontinuousinspiration.
3 TheNantoucishenggongwasfoundedin1985. ItsleaderisHighPriestess

Huang Chongfa, originally calledHuang Bishuang. She began as apractitioner


oftheCihuisystem,whichemphasizedrelievingsufferingandinterveningafter
disasters through charitable service. Later her institution evolved into a
Quanzhen temple, adding practiced that focused inward and were based on
meditationandspiritualdevelopment(Ho2005).
140/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

The Overall Setting


Foundation
TheZhengyipriestGuoCangying(19231998)beganpreachingin
1955 and established the Daode yuan in 1960. In 1976, the institution
foundedtheTaiyi zhenlian zong(Great One LotusSchool).4
In 1988, he further established the Xiuzhen daoxue yuan
(Daoist Institute for Cultivating Perfection), a Daoist institute of higher
learning.5 Atthattime,oneofthefoundersoftheDaodeyuan,SunFan
bin, a Zhengyi ritual master, taught Zhengyi rituals to the nuns in the
Taiwaneselanguage.
The physicalDaodeyuancomplex follows naturesframework.Guo
Cangying said: The mountains associated with the trigram Xun are
hospitable to Daoist priestesses; those linked with the trigram Zhen
arehospitabletoDaoistpriests.6 Thelandof the templebelongstoXun
type mountains, so its priestesses are blessed. According to fengshui,
such mountainsare consideredfortunatebecausetheyresembleagolden
lion,apopularsymbolofpowerandprotectionagainstevil.
The compound occupies approximately 1,400 ping (50,400 sq. ft.)
andisadjacenttoGoldenLionLake,famousforitsbeautifulscenery.It
houses resident female renunciants and offers a place for lay practitio
nerstoworshiporstudy.Inaddition,thetemplebought30jia(29.1hec
tares) in Jiaxian in central Taiwan to establish a monastery for monks.
Accordingtofengshui,thisplaceisshapedlikeaturtle,asymboloflon
gevity,wisdom,andperseverance.Practitionershopethatitwillbecome
agreatDao hallforspiritualpractice (DaodeYuanAnnals1990,6).

4 The school considers itself an orthodox (zhengtong ) Daoist tradition.


OrthodoxdescribesthosesectsofDaoismwhichhavealwaysbeenacceptedas
part of the history, while still being separate from the Buddhist tradition. This
informationisfromWengTaiming,interviewedbyauthoronDecember18,2003.
5 Daodeyuanannalsrecord1988asthefirstyearofthisinstitution.Atthat

time,317peopleattended,however,only107studentsgraduatedin1989.Itstill
functionsasaDaoistinstituteoflearningtoday,mostly in southernTaiwan.
6 Xunhasthreelines:yin,yang,andyang,readfromthebottom.Itrepre

sentsthesoutheast.Zhenhasthelinesyang,yin,andyin.Itrepresentstheeast.
Ho,DaoistNunsinTaiwan/141

The principal gods worshiped at Daode yuan are the great Daoist
gods:theThreePureOnes,AncestorsoftheDao(SanqingDaozu
),theHighestAncestorLao(TaishangLaozu)andtheCeles
tial Worthy of the Great One who Saves from Suffering (Taiyi Jiuku
Tianzun).Thelatteristhemostpowerfulofall.Othergods
include the Lofty Thearch on High of the Mystic Vault, the Heavenly
Jade Emperor, Grand Thearchs of the Three Offices, Celestial Master
Zhang Daoling, Thearch on High of the Mystic Heaven (Zhenwu), Star
Lords of the Northern and Southern Dippers, Most Sage Prior Teacher,
TranscendentElderoftheSouthernPole,andothers more. Amongmany
companion deities who are worshipped at Daode yuan there are also
goddesses such as the Queen Mother of the West (Xiwang mu ),
the Dipper Mother (Doulao ), Holy Mother in Heaven (Tianshang
shengmu )andtheGoddessofMercy(Guanyin ).
TheDaode jing (BookoftheDaoandItsVirtue)servesasthe
primary religious text for the members of Daode yuan along with fre
quentlyreadcompaniontextssuchastheTaishang ganyingpian
(HighestBookofImpulseandResponse),theTaishangqingjing jing
(Highest Scripture of Clarity and Tranquility), the Taishang
daozujing (Highest Scripture of Ancestor Lao), the Yuhuang
xinyin miaojing(MarvelousMindSealScriptureoftheJade
Emperor), the Yinfu jing (Scripture of Secret Correspondences),
the Dingguanjing (Scripture of Concentration and Observation),
Taiyijiukuhushenmiaojing (MarvelousScriptureofthe
GreatOnetoSavefromSufferingandProtecttheBody),etc.

Leadership
TheleaderofthecommunityisWengTaiming.Shehasdevoted
herselftothisworksincegraduatingfromcollegein1974andespecially
afterher1976ordination.HermastersSunFanbinandthe64th Celestial
MasterZhangYuanxianbestowed uponher theSanwudugongjinglu
(ScripturalRegisteroftheThreeandFiveInspectorofMerits),
which empowers her to perform Daoist rituals. At first, she worked
closelywiththefounding masterGuoCangying;in1986,shebecamethe
Daode yuan leader; in 1987, she also advanced to master of the Great
OneLotusSchool. In 1995, she was granted theShangqingsandongwulei
jinglu (Five Thunder Scriptural Register of Highest
142/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

Clarity and the Three Caverns) at the Zhengyi headquarters on Mt.


Longhu. This is the highest accolade available for a Daoist priest or
priestess notof theZhang familylineage.7
WengTaiminginsistsonmaintainingpureDaoistritualpracticesin
her temple, not following any Buddhist models and using only Daoist
texts, a policy she inherited from Guo Cangying. This is important to
note because commonly those who identify with a belief in Daoism
worship their ancestors, pay respect to the gods at public temples, and
participatein Daoistritualsthataccompanycommunitycelebrations.8
Italsocontrastswithsomeothergroups.Thus,someDaoistsalsoattend
the Buddhist Compassion Belief Foundation (Ciji gongde hui
), or worship Guanyin. But they do not perceive a conflict in these
combined practices, since historically Chinese religionsConfucianism,
Daoism, and Mahayana Buddhismareneithermonotheisticnor exclu
sive. Some Daoisttemplesalsohold Buddhistinspired rites,9 but this is
notthecaseat theDaodeyuan.

7 TheTiantanyuge(PreciousRulesoftheJadeAltar)isaZhengyi

ritual scripture for transmitting sacred registers. According to its stipulations,


registersaredivided into five grades:initialtransmission of the Taishangsanwu
dugong jinglu confers ranks 6 and 7; next, transmission of the Zhengyimengwei
jinglu confers ranks 4 and 5; transmission of the Shangqing wulei
jinglu confers rank 3; succession of the Shangqing sanding wulei
jingluconferstherankofOrthodoxTwo;repeatedsuccessionoftheSandong da
dongjinglu conferstherankofOrthodoxOne.Thelatterisaranked
titleoftheCelestialMastersandnotusuallytransmittedoutsidethefamilyline
age.SeeSu 1978,3234
8 TherearetwokindsofDaoistritualsthataccompanycommunitycelebra

tions: vernacular and classical. These two can be observed at festivals and at
otheroccasionswhereritualspecialistsconductservices.SeeSchipper1985,21.
9 Forexample,liketheSongshancihuitang ,oneofthetenmost

importanttemplesinTaipeiaccordingtothecityadministration,theyhaveper
formed Reporting Repentances to the Supreme Ruler/Emperor (Lianghuangbao
can),anannualBuddhistritethatservestoaskthegodsforprotection
andsupportfor ones livingparentsas well asthe release ofsouls from purga
tory inrelation to deceasedparents (chaodu). They have done this because
manytemplemembersareBuddhistpractitioners(Ho2005).
Ho,DaoistNunsinTaiwan/143

Toclarifytheterminology,nunsarewomenwhoretreatfromsecu
larlifetoperformcontemplativepractices,ofteninvolvingvowsofpov
ertyandcelibacy.Priestessesinadditionareordainedformallyandoffi
ciate at rituals; they are considered of higher rank. The Daoist clergy
mainly consists ofordainedpriestsandpriestesses.Nuns maybeconsid
ered lowranking members of the clergy if they participate directly in
officiating at rituals; otherwise she is not considered clergy. 10 At the
Daodeyuan,believersaddressthepriestessesasdaozhangfashi
(OrdainedDaoistRitualMaster),andthenunsasfashi (RitualMas
ter). Weng has three priestesses and two nuns as her immediate assis
tants. One priestess, called Taiwu , has been ordainedby receiving
theZhengyiweimengjinglu; the others, TaiwenandTairen ,re
ceivedthe Sanwudugong jinglu.
In the Daode yuan community, all except three practitioners have
bachelorsdegrees.Thoughthosethreehavenotacquiredahigheredu
cation,theyhavehadoverthirtyyearsoflearningexperienceintheDao
ist Institute for Cultivating Perfection. 11 Most are older and were or
dained over thirty years ago; the one exception is a fortyyearold nun
who was ordained five years ago. None sought ordination to escape
tragedyorfailureinthelayworld.Their motivationistolearnandlisten
toDaoistteachings,ortohelpDaoismthriveinTaiwanesesociety.They
are devoted totheDaoandtheirdesiretohelpothers.
Thenunsandpriestessesweartheirhairpulledbackintoponytails
ofvaryinglengthsinsteadofkeepingitinatraditionalbunonthecrown
of the head. They all wear dark blue pants and white Chinese shirts
calledtangshan .Theirhairandclothesallowthemtoapproachtheir
work and daily activities with simplicity. During the rituals, they wear
traditional Daoist robes, usually yellow in color and covered with the
symbols of Three Pure Ones and yinyang. The leader of the ceremony
wearsmoredecoratedandmagnificentgarb.

10 Historically,threetermsreferredtofemaleDaoistpractitioners:women

Daoists(ndaoshi ),femalehats(nguan )duetotheirritualhead


dresses;and,morerecently,ladiesoftheDao(daogu ).Despeux 2000,384.
11 InTaiwantherearethreeDaoistinstitutes:Xiuzhendaoxueyuan,which

belongstothe Daode Yuan in Gaoxiong;Zhonghua daojiaoxueyuan which be


longstotheZhinangonginTaipei;andDaojiaoxueyuan.
144/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

Thepriestessesandnunsspendthreehoursindailymeditation.At
othertimesthey performdifferentkindsofworkdevotedtotheDaoand
inserviceof thespiritualneedsoflaypractitioners.Whentheytalkabout
theirdevotion,they typically saythattheirgreatestspiritual gain isthe
ability tohelppeoplebecome one with the Dao.They feel thatthey are
privilegedtobeabletointeractwiththeHighestAncestorDaothrough
theirdevotion.Oneofthenunssaysthatsheisfortunatetohavefounda
tranquilplacetodevoteherselftotheDao.Anothernunsaidthatevery
dayshelooksforwardtohelpingpeopletofindthecorrectpathinlife.12
WengTaiminghassetuprulesbywhicheverypriestessinthetem
plereceivesasmallsalary.AsTaiwupointsout,nopriestesswillaccept
any personal support from any lay sponsor, lest there be favoritism in
thecommunityoffollowers.Luckily,thefamiliesofpriestessesandnuns
areallverysupportive.Nomatterhowlongtheirdaughterhas practiced
the renunciation of worldly life, they continuously support her finan
cially,beingproudthatafamilymemberis dedicating herselftoDaoand
society (Dec.26,2004).
The priestesses and nuns also conduct rituals to reduce obstacles
and difficulties in the lives of the faithful. When people have crises in
theirlives,theytendtothinkthattheirfengshuiisnegative,andrequest
thatthepriestessescheckonit.However,thepriestessesseldompractice
fengshui rituals. Instead, they try to intervene by developing ways to
solvetheproblems,psychologicallyaswellasspiritually,andencourage
peopletocultivatethevirtueofDaoanddomoregooddeedsforothers.
Weng Taiming encourages her followers to love the Dao and ob
serve community regulations. She demands strict discipline among the
renunciants, but also shows them deep love. When I was interviewing
two of the priestesses, Taiwen remarked: Weng Taiming is a great
leader.Shewouldsaythatwearethemastersofourownselves.Sheen
courages us to follow the rules, observe our vows, cultivate ourselves
intellectually,andrespectourselvesandothers(July5,2003).

12 NunsTaiwenandYicheng,interviewonDecember23,2006.
Ho,DaoistNunsinTaiwan/145

Practitioners
Weng Taiming is much more lenient with lay followers. The basic re
quirement forthem is to attend a daylong Daoist study session on the
first day of the New Year. Priestesses and nuns pass along Daoist doc
trinessuchastheGreatWayoftheThreePureOnes(Sanqingdadao
), the Great Way of the Golden Elixir (Jindan dadao ),
and the Perfect Principle of the Great One (Taiyi zhenli ). Be
yond this, Weng Taiming also encourages communal learning through
weeklystudysessionsorganized.
The Daode Yuan Annals from 1988 through 2005 show that there
were2,588practitionerscommittedtofollowingDaoism.Ifweaddcon
verts from 1951 to 1987, there are more than 3,000 practitioners con
nectedtotheinstitution.13 Duringmyfieldwork,Isawbelieverscometo
thetemplefromdawnuntildusktoparticipateinrituals,receiveservices,
volunteer to dochores, andbring vegetablesformeals. Daode yuan fa
cilitiesareall neatand clean,and peoplearecarefultorespecteachother.
During seasonal feasts or academic conferences, all participants single
mindedlyfocusontheirwork.
OnceIspokewithWangYingmei,amiddleagedwomanfollower.
Shesaid: Coming to thetemple is likecominghome. Although I have
beentomanyotherBuddhistandDaoisttemples,Ifeelmostcomfortable
herebecauseIlikeWeng Taishiandeverypriestesshere(Dec. 19,2003).
Master Weng or Grand Master Weng of the Three Pure Ones and the
GreatOnearetitlespeopleusuallycalltheleader.Anotherbeliever,Mr.
HoQiugui,said: WhatIlikemostabout Master Wengisthatsheisvery
fairtoeverybeliever.Shewillalwaystreatapersonthesameregardless
of wealth orpoverty. Every week she gives usthe opportunity to learn
Daoistdoctrineandtextsandthenencouragesustowritedownourre
flections and remarks. From this training, I have accumulated a great
dealofDaoistknowledge(Dec.19,2003).Frommyconversationswith
theseandotherfollowers,itisclearthat theyfeelloveandrespectforthe
clergy of Daode yuan.The leadership of thepriestesses and the nuns is
palpable.
When asked about their leadership, the nuns and priestesses will
humblyclaimthattheydonotoccupyanyleadingrolesatall.Theysim

13 The Daode yuan keeps chronological records ofthe eventsofsuccessive

years.2,588isthenumberofconvertsbetween1988and2005.
146/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

ply say that they live under the tutelage of Highest Ancestor Dao and
followtheguidanceofWengTaiming.Anyleadershipservicetheyper
formisdoneaspartoftheirstudies.Ifthereisarealleaderamongthem,
itisWengTaiming,ofwhomthepriestesses,nuns,andlayfollowersall
speakhighly.
Wengearnsmeritasasourcebecausesheisauniqueexampleofa
Daoistpriestesswhodespiteheroverallmodelbehaviorisyetnotcom
pletely without fault. While she very seldom loses patience, she some
timesmakesminor mistakes.Forexample,sheonceansweredherphone
and also had an outside conversation while talking into the earpiece.
Whatsetsherapartisherexemplarybehavior,whichshepairswiththe
charisma of other renowned religious leaders. Dharma Master Sheng
Yenof theBuddhistfaithisanotherexampleof suchapowerfulreligious
figure,butshedoesnothavethesamestaturesincesheclingstothecon
servativenotion that infidelity isnot grounds for a womantodivorcea
man.14 Although not always in accord with her followers, they still ad
mireherforherenthusiasm.Inthesameway,Wenghasearnedthere
spectof allDaoists.
MyinterviewsshowthatMasterWengsetsanexampleforothersto
follow. She selflessly devotes herself to working for the benefit of the
nuns, priestesses, and lay followers. She treats everyone fairly and
equally.AttheDaodeyuan,laystatuscarriesnoweight.Oncepractitio
nerswalkthroughthetempledoors,alltitlesaredroppedandeveryone
ismerelyadiscipleoftheThreePureOnesandAncestorDao.Frommy
variedinterviews, I concludethatWengseriouslycaresforeveryone.She
sharesofferingsafterritualsasawayofsharingtheblessingoftheHigh
est AncestorDao.
Peopledescribeherasfullofmotherlylove.Sheconsidersthesafety
and welfare of those who come to the temple for work or conferences.
She teaches them how to cultivate their health and always insists that
theyeatwellsothattheydonothavetoworkonanemptystomach.Itis
not surprising that Daode yuan disciples have no trouble completing
their work for the Dao, given that Weng Taiming takes care to ensure
everyones wellbeing. After participating in a Daode yuan sponsored

14 Huang Chienyu Julia, Professor of National Tsing Hua University, per

sonalcommunicationwithauthor,September1,2008.
Ho,DaoistNunsinTaiwan/147

conferenceTheFirstInternationalScholarlySymposiumonDaoistCul
ture and the Transcendent Way in Gaoxiong (Nov. 1112, 2006)the
ZhengyipriestWuZutianpraisedthetempleanditsdisciples:Thedis
ciples oftheDaode yuanhavea strongpresence andproperdemeanor.
They treat everyone well. It is very rare to see this at Daoist temples
thesedays(personalcommunication,Nov.2006).

Creating Religious Identity


In mainland China, Quanzhen still retains four traditional rules: not
trimmingoneshair,wearingDaoistgarb,remainingcelibate,andbeing
vegetarian (Daoist Association 2003, 34). Weng Taimings Daode yuan
satisfies those conditions except for two: residents do not wear specific
Daoist garb or put their hair in a topknot. In an interview in 2003, she
said:InmainlandChina,iftheyhaveleftthefamily,orgoneintomo
nastic life, clerics will be called Quanzhen, while nonmonastic clerics
willbecalledZhengyi.Accordingtothisdefinition,wecanbecounted
asthefirstQuanzhengroupinTaiwan.
Somescholarshaveinsistedthattheabovedefinitionoversimplifies
thedistinctionbetweenQuanzhenandZhengyiinthattheremaybeis
suesotherthanmarriagethatdistinguishthem.15 Somehavegoneasfar
as to dispute Weng Taimings ability to claim adherence to the
Quanzhenschool.However, I suggestthat it is important for theschol
arly community to recognize these peoples selfperceptions, the reli
giousdesignationstheyhaveembracedandclaimed. Whilethescholarly
community may not recognize Weng Taimings official Quanzhen cre
dentials, I arguethat herclaimto theQuanzhen traditionrepresents an
identification with the practices and philosophies of Quanzhen. Rather
than debate the legitimacy of Weng Taimings claim, I argue that it is
more instructive to focus on what Quanzhen practices mean to Wengs
philosophy and the way in which she has claimed elements of that
schoolspracticetocreatetheuniqueidentityoftheDaodeyuan.
I further argue that that thesyncretic approach of theDaode yuan
constitutes a way of searching for a unique identity through self

15 ProfessorsXieConghuiandZhengZhiming,personalcommunicationat

theSixthReligionandSpiritualReformConference,Dec.1821,2003,Taipei.
148/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

definition;morethanthat,itisalsoawayofchallengingtraditionalDao
ism in Taiwan. Its syncretic approach means that the Daode yuan is
rooted in both Zhengyi and Quanzhen but is also distinct from both
school inseveral importantways.
ZhengyiinTaiwanisprimarilynonmonastic.Becauseoftheirsecu
lar lifestyles, the priests are commonly known as following the fire
dwelling path. The title fire dwelling was a phrase coined by Bud
dhistswhoclaimedthatthosewhoexistedinthesecularlifewouldsuf
fer like everyone else,thus living as if in a flame. However, Daoists do
not embrace this claim, saying that they willingly embrace the secular
life in order to create a professional class of religious men. In Taiwan,
Zhengyipriestsareoftendividedintotwoclasses,theblackheadand
red head. The black head priests generally specialize in the rituals of
supporting purification (zhai ) and offering rites (jiao ), which are
mainly fortheredemption of the dead. Redheadpriests arecommonly
calleduponforauspiciousoccasionssuchasfestivals,destinycorrecting
rituals,andotherhappyoccasions (Lee2003,13840).
TheDaodeyuanrelatesdeeplytoZhengyibecauseitsfounderwas
ofthatschoolandthetemplehascontinuouslyperformedZhengyirites.
However,manydifferencesbecomeclearwhencomparingitspriestesses
with other Zhengyi priests. First and foremost, while Zhengyi priests
attempt to form a class of professional religious men, the priestesses of
theDaodeyuanarethosewhohave leftthefamilyandentered monas
ticlife.Secondly,whiletheZhengyipriestsprimarilyfocusonfourstyles
of ritual (temple festivals, seasonalfeasts, rites ofpassage, anddestiny
correctingrituals),Daodeyuannunsandpriestessesonlyfocusontem
ple festivals, seasonal feasts, and destinycorrecting rituals (Lee 2003,
132).Inaddition,animportantmissionforthem istheperfectionofself
andtheyengagemoreinspiritualpraxisasabasisofadvanced internal
cultivation.
AkeyaspectofthemonasticcommunityatDaodeyuanisthevow
ofcelibacyjoinedbythepracticeofalchemicaltransformation(dandao
), which involves the use of meditation and the manipulation of the
lifeforce(qi )(Xie 2000,6869).Thepracticedividesinto mens(nandan
) and womens alchemy (ndan ). Although they have many
Ho,DaoistNunsinTaiwan/149

aspects in common,16 different techniques are involved: mens alchemy


focuses on retaining semen, known as subduing the white tiger (fu
baihu), while womens alchemy focuses stopping menstruation,
knownas beheading the red dragon (zhanchilong ).
Thedragon is the symbol of a womansperiod,andthusbehead
ing it means stopping the menstrual cycle permanently. The phrase
originated in the Tang dynasty while the technique involves training
themindthroughyinforce(Taiyinlianxing)andthusatrans
formation of the female body.17 The goal of womens alchemy is to ex
perience the ultimate Dao, which is free from genderdifferences (Yuan
1986, 6869). In addition, ceasing menstrual flow is believed to allow
womentoattaina newandhigherlevelofspiritualpower.18
In history, femalealchemistshavebeen less well known thanmale
practitioners. In the eyes of Yuan Dunzi, this is a pity since in Daoism
men and women are treated equally in both practice and theory. The
onlydifferenceisthatthebodyfreeingtechniqueworksfasterinwomen
than in men, allowing them to progress faster. While men may need
three years to complete the practice, women finish in one year (Yuan
1986,161). These ideasdonot imply a biasagainstmen;aspartof yin,
women aresimplymore tranquil andconcentrated,thustheycan reach
goalsthatrequirethesequalitiesmoreeasily.Becausethegoalofceasing

16 Bothtakeessence(jing),energy(qi),andspirit(shen)asoriginalmaterials.

Onndan,fourteenpoemsareattributedtotheQuanzhenmasterSunBuer.Ten
of them explain techniques that can be used by both men and women, while
partsofthreedescribetechniquesespeciallyforwomen.Thefourthpoem,enti
tled Decapitating the Red Dragon, speaks of techniques just for women. See
Yuan1986, 161.
17 Some people also feel that if stopping the period is the goal, then old

women can achieve it faster and easier than young women because the period
stopsnaturallyinoldage.TheadvantageofusingthetechniqueforDecapitating
theRedDragonisthatitenablesthelifeforcetogrowwhiletheoldwomenslife
forceiswithering.Therefore,oldwomenwhowanttopracticeneidantoachieve
thestate offreedom from ones body must first bring backtheperiod andthen
cutitoff.Femalepractitionersmustdothesepracticesbeforeturningfortynine
(Xie2000,64).
18 CatherineDespeuxexplainsthatstoppingmenstruationallowstheintro

ductionofanewblood,calledthewhitemarrowofthephoenix,whichdem
onstratesthepowerassignedtomenstrualblood(2000,406).
150/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

menstruation involves extensive and concentrated meditation, reaching


higherlevelsofinternalalchemyisthoughteasierforwomen (Xie2000,
64). Nonetheless,althoughwomensupposedly havephysicaladvantages
forthispractice,individualeffortisessential.Atthesametime,thismust
bedonewithsupervisionfromexperiencedpractitioners,ortherecanbe
risks (Zhan1990,127).
WengTaimingrepresentsauniquecase.In1974,sherenouncedher
worldlylifeandjoinedaDaoistmonastery.Aftereighteenyearsofprac
tice,at the ageof 40, she succeededin beheadingthereddragon.For
her, this was a manifestation of the effectiveness of Daoist techniques,
but not a goal in itself. Shehad read many texts on womens alchemy,
but only as a background reference. She feels that the reason why she
wassuccessfulinbeheading the dragonisthat herentireheartwasinthe
Daoandthatsheneverleftitforevenamoment.Shealwaystriedtobe
pure, natural, and in a state of nonaction. Rather than being controlled
by emotions and desires, she thought about benefiting all beings and
strovefortheirgood.
ConjoiningtheheartwiththeDao(daoxin )and dedicatingone
self to work and meritmaking, she emphasizes, can lead to wonderful
results.Wengfeelsthatafterbeheadingthereddragonshereceivedtwo
benefits:first,itwasconvenientbecauseherteacherhadpreviouslypro
hibiteddisciplesfromperformingrites whilemenstruatingas a gesture
ofrespect toward the gods. Second,herritual performanceand interac
tionwiththegodsgrewmorepowerful.Shealwayskepttheteachingin
mind: When things come, you handle them; when things leave, you
detachfromthem.And:Duringthefouractivitiesofwalking,staying,
sitting, and lying down, always maintain apure andmeditative heart.
In sum,her success in decapitatingthereddragon wasconsideredpart
ofagradualprocessofdevelopinginnervirtuesandoutermerits(Jan.6,
2003).
Daode yuan residents meditate individually for three hours in a
typical day. Their primary individual meditation technique is remain
ing tranquil (shoujing). Itbegins withbreathingexercisesto focus
meditativeenergy,followedby120recitationsofdeitiesnamestocalm
the emotions. Weng describes it as nonattachment to inside and out
side (bushouneibushouwai). Practitioners relinquish con
Ho,DaoistNunsinTaiwan/151

troloverthoughtsaboutselforoutsideactions,allowingthemtofollow
the processofnature.Theyenteremptinessand nothingness(xuwu),
a realm of both being and nonbeing (June 20, 2008). In addition to re
maining tranquil, residents also practice the cultivation of purity and
stillness(qingjingxiu ),gearedspecificallytoremovesexualdesire
and achieve a tranquil state of mind. When asked about the difference
betweenthetwo,Wengsaid:Iwillnottellyou[because]youhavenot
left home(chujia),indicating thatonly renunciantsshould know
thispractice.
Supplementing the meditation, residents also practice physical
exercises to bring back spring (huichun gong ) to keep fit and
nourish body and mind.19 They practice this for fifteen minutes indi
viduallyoringroups.
The nun Tairen feels that these practices have helped her achieve
harmonybetweenheavenandearth.Shesaysthatsuchafeelingislikea
cool stream washing over her body. Although this experience is very
temporary, it increasesher sense oftranquility andconcentration while
she completes tasks throughout her busy day (Dec. 21. 2006). Taiwu
similarly mentionsthatsherecitesthenamesoftheThreePureOnesand
oftheHeavenlyWorthy.Whenreciting,shesaysshefeelsverycalmand
her qi circulates smoothly, thus improving her health (Dec. 21, 2006).
Most nuns agree that when they have free time, they chant deities
namesintheirminds,whichincreasestheirsenseoftranquility.Nomat
terwhethertheyeverreachthelevelofbeheadingthereddragon,they
all say they mustreduce innerdesire and increase essence, energy, and
spirit to promotethenaturalrelaxationofbodyandmind.
PriestessTaiwenalsonotesthat,becausetheDaodeyuanislocated
inthecity,layfollowerscomeandgofrequently.Thistrafficinthetem
plesometimesforcesthenunstospendalotoftimeservingthelaityin
stead of meditating or focusing on internal work. She thinks it is very
importanttodothingstobenefitlayfollowerswhileinternalalchemyit
canbedoneslowly,stepbystep,daybyday (Dec.20,2006).

19 The first movement involves circling the ankle: 36 times counter

clockwise and 36 times clockwise. The second involves spreading ones hands
apart above the head in a circular motion. The third involves raising the arms
above the head and slowly lowering them, placing them on the dantian while
relaxingthebody.
152/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

The Daode yuan also has good relations with institutions in


mainlandChina, coordinatingacademicconferencesandcommunicating
with Quanzhen temples. Weng Taiming often travels there to observe
temples and their organization. Since 1991, she has visited China once
every two years and also attended special rituals. Each time she went
withgroupsoftwentytofortypeople.Forexample,in1998,shetook33
peopletoMaoshanandotherDaoisttemples(DaodeYuanAnnals 1998).
Her motivation for going to the mainland is that Daoism and its
organization originated there. Daoists go on pilgrimages to learn more
andgaindeeperunderstandingoftheworkdoneby theircolleaguesand
to appreciatedifferences. Although WenghasvisitedmanyDaoist tem
ples, she especially pays visits to grotto heavens and auspicious places
(dongtianfudi).Shefeelsthatthemosttouchingaspectofgoing
to China is thatmany ancient sites still exist with Daoist taking care of
them. While in China she especially wants to learn how to train and
support the younger generation. She observes that in China Quanzhen
clergyarecelibateandmorenumerous;theyarealsomoreeagertodis
cover young talent. She also admires the Chinese success in passing
downDaoistmusicforgenerationsandfeelsTaiwanmaynotbeableto
matchthemainlandinthatregard.
Inthemainland,Wengperformsrituals,discussesdoctrines,shares
her learning, and provides encouragement. For example, on November
10,2000,sheofficiatedataritualintheZhengyitempleonMt.Longhu,
performing an Altar Purification (jingtan ) and Pacing the Dipper
(bugang tadou ) in the main sanctuary. Her ritual was well re
ceived,andshegainedenormousrespect(DaodeYuanAnnals2000,2123).
Shealsosharesnewideaswithhermainlandcolleaguessuchasinviting
schoolchildrentojoinonedayworkshopsonDaoiststudiesatthetem
ple. As of 2005, the Daode yuan hadconducted three such workshops,
and each time over onehundredchildren attended. Onthe other hand,
Weng also invites mainland priests to Taiwan to perform rituals. The
Daode yuan has worked with several mainland temples to perform
peacerituals,forexampleatXiziBayinJulyof2004,toseekblessingfor
peace andcommunication.Theritual wascalledtheGreat RiteGround
of Universal Blessings for Praying to Heaven and Earth for National
Peace, Good Weather, and Peace across the Taiwan Straits. Sixtytwo
Ho,DaoistNunsinTaiwan/153

Daoist associations, including temples, cosponsored the event (see


Huang2004).
Given these observations, it becomes obvious that although some
contrastsremaintobothZhengyiandQuanzhenschools,thepriestesses
identify themselves with both. It is as Weng says: the Great One Lotus
school, which theDaode yuanbelongs to, respects andcooperates with
allestablishedDaoisttraditions.

Involvement in Society
ThoughtheDaodeyuanisamonasticcommunity,priestessesandnuns
do notlivean insulated life,but worktoward thespread of Daoism.In
contrast to medieval Daoism, which had rules that forbade interaction
with people of low character (Kohn 2003, 73, 8086), the Daode yuan
clergylikestoseeeveryonegainbenefitfromDaoistpractice.Inthisthey
followanageoldtradition.IntheTangDynasty,priestessHuangLing
wei traveled widely throughout the country and restored the shrine to
WeiHuacun(Kirkland1991,47.64).UndertheJinandYuan,Quanzhen
nuns like MuShoumiao, Li Miaoyuan, and DongMiaozhensought out
monasticwork,providingmedicalaidamongstlaypeopleandbeingac
tiveintempleconstruction(Chao2008,1389).Theireffortsresemblethe
workofTaiwannunstodaywhoworkhardforthebettermentofcoun
tryand community.

Education
Daode yuan residents are very active in Daoist eduation. One project
they work on involves public exhibitions that present Daoist artifacts
from ancienttomodernperiods, thereby exposing growing numbers of
people to Daoist history and learning. For example, they held the An
cienttoModernDaoistArtifactsExhibition(Daojiaogujinwenwubolan
hui)atthe DatongNew CenturyDepartmentStore
in Gaoxiong in November, 2002. It featured more than one thousand
items,includingDaoistritualinstruments,scriptures,historicalexplana
tions of Highest Ancestor Dao and even included a concert of Daoist
music. It was the biggest Daoist exhibition in Taiwan to date (Huang
2002 ).In2007,DaodeyuanhostedasimilareventattheGaoxiongCul
turalCenter(Lu2007).
154/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

For people who come to the temple to worship, theresidents wel


come them, and the temple provides free books to read and study. In
2007, italso beganhostingthreeconsecutivelecturesononeSundayeach
month. These 100minute lectures, given by professors, scholars, and
ritual masters, offer the opportunity for more people to learn Dao. The
priestesses, nuns, and lecturers are hoping that everyone can reach the
rootsofDao.WhenonesheartharmonizeswithDao,thenonecanper
ceivetheneedsofallbeingsand workeffectivelywithDaoistpractices.
SeriouslearnerscometotempletostudyDaosimonaregularbasis.
OnMondaysandWednesdaysresidentsteachcoursesthatpresentclas
sical Daoistrituals, dantian exercises, qipractice,meditation for enhanc
ing long life, andreadings in Daoist texts,doctrines,andrules. Lay fol
lowerscan sign up forclasses whenever thetopic suitstheirneeds. Be
sides studying Daoism,all are encouragedtopracticemorality, learn to
treatpeoplewithkindness,andfollow Dao and nature.
Also,manypublicgatheringsatthetemplefocusonenvironmental
education. The priestesses give lectures, using this opportunity to en
hanceenvironmentalawarenessandstresstherelationshipbetweenhu
man beings and nature. As the Daode jing says: Man models himself
after earth. Earth models itself after heaven. Heaven models itself after
Dao. And Dao models itself after nature (ch. 25; Chan 1963, 153).
Zhuangzisays:HeavenandearthwerebornatthesametimeIwasand
thetenthousandthingsareonewithme(ch.2;Watson2003,38).Inan
interviewwithWeng,shesaid:Ifweallfeelasoneinthisworld,how
would we be able to harm animals and nature? (May 15, 2007). The
Taishang ganying pian notes that one should not harm trees or animals
because they possess spirit and life. As matter of fact, the local Daoist
templeisanimportantsocialorganizationinTaiwan,activeineducation
andcharity.The Daodeyuanfulfillsitsresponsibilitytopubliceducation.
WhileDaoistmonasteriesareknownasdaoguan,Daoisttemplesgo
by many names, including abbey (guan ), temple (miao ), palace
(gong ), altar (tan ), shrine hall (ci ), pavilion (ge ), grotto (dong
), and more. Confucian and Buddhist temples are often known by
some of thesenamesas well (Yoshioka 1979, 229).However,theDaode
yuan does not call itself by of these names, as it isby design of its
foundera learning temple (yuan ) that promotes the study and
Ho,DaoistNunsinTaiwan/155

practiceoforthodoxDaoism.20 InadditiontotheDaodeyuan,GuoCang
yingset up another Daoist foundation of learning known as the Daoist
Institute forCultivating Perfection. Thematerialsthis institutioncovers
includeDaoistdoctrine,Zhengyiritualsandpractices,Quanzhenhistory
anddoctrine,andDaoistphilosophyandmartialarts.Coursesusually
oneyearinlengtharetaughtbyrespectedDaoistmastersanduniver
sity professors. After attending the classes, students often achieve a
greater sense oftranquility frombeing united with Dao.This facilitates
their participation in social projects that relieve suffering and allows
themto betterhelpothers,includingthelivingandthedead.

Philanthropic Activity
The philanthropic works performed by Daode yuan residents are done
through theCharity Organization of Dao and Virtue (Daodecishanhui
), set up in 1975. The organization has 2,000 members who
donate at least NT100 (US$3.30) eachmonth (DaodeYuan Annals2001).
Fivepeopleworktogetherasagroup,and212serveasexecutivemem
berstomakedecisionsandoverseetheoperationofthetemplesprojects.
From20032007,theTaiwaneseMinistryoftheInteriorlistedtheDaode
yuanasthetopreligiouscharityinGaoxiong(Lu2007). AsDespeuxand
KohnwriteinWomenandDaoism,ethosjoinsthegoalofimmortalityand
personal cultivation with a strong urge to develop compassion and do
goodinthesocietyaroundthem(2003,169).
Routinely, whenevertheCharity Organization hearsofpeople suf
feringfrompoverty,illness,ordisaster,themembervolunteerswillfirst
investigatethecaseandthendecidehowtorelievethesufferingbygiv
ingfinancial,material,and/orspiritualhelpasrequired.Forexample,in
TaiwanonSeptember21,1999,anearthquakemeasuring7.6ontheRich
ter Scale killedmore than 2,000people.The Daode yuan gavea total of
US$450,000tofamiliesofthedisastervictimsandprovidedcoffins,fruit
(used in memorial services in Taiwan), and food to many (Daode Yuan
Annals1999).Sincetheearthquake,Taiwanhassufferednumerousnatu
raldisasters,butfewotherorganizationshaveundertakenreliefefforts,
whereasDaodeyuanhasneverfailedtoorganizereliefcommitteesand
help for the victims. For example, many families were affected by the
Taozhi floods in 2001. The temple distributed US$175 to each family.

20 WengTaiming,emailcommunication,May15,2007.
156/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

SomeworkersaskedWengTaimingwhethertheyshouldgivemoneyto
families belonging to the aboriginal community, since they were Chris
tians;sherepliedaffirmatively,withoutanyhesitation.Afterthetsunami
in Indonesia in 2004, Weng Taiming immediately asked the Taiwen
priestess to lead the practitioners of Daode yuan to Indonesia to offer
money and assistance to victims of the natural disaster. The Taiwanese
volunteersgaveeveryfamilyaffectedbythetsunamiUS$116foratotal
donationofUS$13,000 (DaodeYuanAnnals 2004).
Eachyear,onemonthafterthefirstschoolsemesterstarts,theChar
ityOrganization divides into groups andtravels to 166 elementary and
middleschoolsinGaoxiongandothercountiestoinvestigatetheability
of parents to pay for their childrens academic tuition and lunch ex
penses. Usually, the temple gives each school the money to supply 15
lunchscholarshipsand13academicscholarshipspersemester.Eachyear
itdedicatesbetweenUS$200,000and$230,000tothisproject (Lu2007).
In these ways, Daode yuan has gained a reputation for charitable
work almost equal to that ofthe wellknown the Taiwan CihuiTemple
Organization.21 Although the Daode yuanshas considerably lessmem
bers than the Buddhist group, both share a reputation for charitable
workofthesame magnitudewithintheirrespectivereligiouscircles.The
employment of similar models of outreach by both organizations has
changed how female recluses, whether Buddhist or Daoist, are seen in
Taiwan. Themodernization of religiouspractices,moreover,hasplaced
female priestesses and nuns at the center of social mobilization and
communityactivism,openingnew sphere forwomentoactreligiously.

Response to Social Crises


TheDaodeyuanalsooffersspecificritualstorelievethesufferingthose
whohavediedinaccidentsornaturaldisastersaswellasofpeoplewho
arepsychologicallytroubled.Beyondtheirdedicatedfollowers,theyalso

21 Dharma Master Sheng Yen founded this foundation in 1966. In 1994, it

hadoverfourmillionmembers.In2002,itsworldwidemembershipoffivemil
lionincludednearlytwentypercentofTaiwanspopulation.By2005,itran190
branchesin38countries.Seethewebsite:www.tzuchi.org.tw.Accessed16August,
2000.SeealsoHuangandWeller1998,379.
Ho,DaoistNunsinTaiwan/157

reachouttopeoplewhosereligiondoesnotofferasimilarreligiousser
vicecometoDaodeyuantoaskforhelp.
Furthermore, contributions made by the temple have been praised
byitsmembersandrecognizedbythesocietyatlarge.Theleadershipof
thetempleinthepublicreactiontotheSARSvirusin2002illustratesits
growing social role. The SARS outbreak in Taiwan disrupted peoples
daily lifestyle and claimed 83 lives.22 In China, Hong Kong, Singapore,
andTaiwan,Daoistsperformedavarietyofritualstoboostpeoplesre
sistanceagainstthevirus.23 TheDaodeyuan,togetherwithvariousother
Daoist temples and organizations, set up altars to perform ritual bless
ingsforthosewhohaddiedoftheepidemicandtoprayforinfectedpa
tients. In May, 2003 the Daode yuan in cooperation with the Buddhist
Compassion Relief Foundation and theTaiwan Folk Village
coordinated a performance of a major Daoist rite to eradicate SARS in
ZhanghuaCity.
ChairedbyWengTaiming,theceremonywascalledtheGreatRite
for Eliminating Natural Disaster and Allowing the Good Forces of Yin
andYangtoHarmonizeDisease.24 ItwasdedicatedtoSARSvictims,in
fectedpatientsandtheirfamilies,aswellasformedicalofficialsfighting
the virus. More than 10,000 people attended.25 Different Daoist schools,
including the Zhengyi, Chanhe ,26 Quanzhen, and Great One Lotus
(representedbytheDaodeyuan)performed.
Thebasicgoalofthefourdifferentschoolswasthesame:dealwith
SARSreligiouslybycastingoffthepestilencedemons(quwen),and
allow the good forces of humanity to contain the disease (hewen ).
However,differentschools implementedmusic andritualdifferently to

22 Center for Disease Control and Prevention website, www.cdc.gov/ nci

dod/sars/ accessedFebruary11,2004.
23 http://www.hiangtongkeng.org/sars.htm accessed,February11,2004.
24 Two kinds of ritual are performed at Daoist temples. Head priests con

duct large communal services known as Great Rituals, while Small Rituals are
shorter, morespecific,and do notfunction ascommunal memorials. See Schip
per1974,312,322.TheGreatRitualsperformedattheDaodeyuanareaimedat
solvingproblemsonalargescale,involvingsociety,thecountryandtheworld.
25 HuangChongfa,interviewonMay16,2008.

26 TheChanheschoolissmallerthanZhengyiandQuanzhen;itshasoper

ated inTaiwansince1949 andperformsDaoistritualsusingQuanzhentexts.


158/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

achieve this effect. For example, Zhengyi priests burned ritual boats,27
while Quanzhen masters used fire to commemorate the names of the
victims and send the disease away. Great One Lotus representatives
commemorated thenames ofthe SARSvictimsby writing them on nu
minous tablets (lingwei ), then burned them in a fire to allow the
spirits to ascend to heaven and leave their good merits to their living
descendents (DaodeYuanDVD,2003).
IntheritualsagainstSARS,thepriestessesandnunssoughtbothto
protect the living and to memorialize those who lost their lives. Daoist
priests from the Zhengyi and Chanhe schools and priestesses from
QuanzhenandGreatOneLotusschools havethesamepowertoperform
rituals,regardlessofgender.Bothpriestsandpriestesseshavethepower
andauthoritytoperformtheseceremoniesinordertorespondtonatural
disasterandhumansuffering.Theritualceremonyillustratesthefusion
of Zhengyi and Quanzhen and the cooperation among different Daoist
schools.Throughritualsrelevanttobroadpublic concernsandproblems,
not simply personal enlightenment, these groups have expanded the
wayoftheDao tobeinvolvedactively insocialandsecularlife.

Interactions with Other Religions


HistoricallyDaoismhasbeen tolerant of other religions.WengTaiming
notesthateveryreligion,includingBuddhism,DaoismandChristianity,
is important since they share some of the same goals: they all wish to
cultivatemoralityandhelppeopletopursuehappinessinaharmonious
society.Thereforeshebelievesallreligionsshouldrespecteachother and
cooperate with one another forthebenefitofthe generalpublic (Daode
Yuan1997,ii).
To support education, the Daode yuan also publishes books on
moral teaching and academic work. They encourage young scholars to

27 Theybuiltaspecialritualboat[calledawangchuanorkingboatandin

Singaporecalledwenchuan orepidemicboat]thatrepresentedthediseasesand
disasters. It was believedthat diseasesand disasters were brought in byspirits
(wenshen).InTaiwan,aftertheritualstheyburnedtheboatbecausetheburning
helped the god carry away the bad qi of the epidemic. In Singapore, after the
rituals this boat was released and lighted ablaze in the sea. This signified the
sendingoffoftheSARSvirusoutofSingapore.
Ho,DaoistNunsinTaiwan/159

study philosophical and religious Daoism and promote communication


between Daoism and other religions. Starting in 1997, the temple has
sponsoredannual conferencesonReligionandSpiritualReform.Ithas
always been the primary organizer, while other organizations, such as
TaiwaneseBuddhistTemples,theNationalLibraryAssociation,andNa
tionalTsingHuaUniversityhaveservedascosponsors.Thepresenters
are usually studentsfromvarious graduate schools. Presentersnot only
receive scholarships, but also havethe opportunity to receive academic
criticismfromwellestablishedscholars.Aftertheymakerevisionsbased
on the suggestions, they can publish their work, usually part of their
MastersTheses,inthejournalZongjiaoyuxinlinggaigeyantaohuilunwen
ji(AnthologyofReligionandSpiritualRe
form).28 The Daode yuan requires that at each annual conference there
shouldbe onemorepresentation on Daoist studiesthan on otherrelig
ions,sinceBuddhisminTaiwanhasbeenflourishingandthereisanur
gentneedtoshowcaseyoungscholarsinDaoiststudies.Conductingan
nualconferenceshasbeenoneoftheDaodeyuansmostimportantpro
jects,andhasearnedthetempleanexcellentreputationamongacademic
institutes.29 By late 2008, eleven conferences had been held, resulting in
tenvolumesoftheabovementionedjournal.
Thepractitionersalsotravelwithpriestessesandnunstoparticipate
and learnmore about Daoism. In January 2004, I observed overtwenty
practitioners travel from southern Taiwan to Taipei to participate in a
threedayconference.Tomysurprise,Ifoundthatthepractitionersand
clergy all paid their own travel expenses, including room and board. I
wondered whythey were willing topay somuch for aconference.Mr.
HoQiuguisaid:ItisbecauseMasterWengsaidthiswasagoodoppor
tunitytolearnespeciallyinTaiwan,wheretherearecurrentlyveryfew
Daoistlearninginstitutes(Dec.29,2004). Insomesense, the Daodeyuan
seems to have a greater reputation for academic activity compared to
other Daoisttemples,as their annualConferenceon Religion andSpiri
tualReformdrawsonworkdonebyuniversityprofessorsandgraduate
students.

28 EachyeartheydistributeCDsand1,000printedcopiesfreeofcharge.

29 The observation comes from my field studies at the Sixth Religion and

SpiritualReformConference,December1821,2003,Taipei.
160/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

TheConferencehasevolvedincooperationwithBuddhisttemples,
which is a good way to foster mutual understanding. Additionally, the
Daode yuan always tries to provide support for Buddhist monasteries.
For example in 2002, when the Puxian Temple of Foguang shan
brought Buddharelics fromChina,members of the Daode yuan
tookpartinthewelcomingceremony.
This multifaith interaction is not limited to exchanges between
DaoismandBuddhism.TheWenzaoUrsulineCollegeofLanguages
, a Catholic college near the Daode yuan, often hosts Catholic
clergy from Western countries to learn about Chinese religion. Some
timesthey also engage incontacts with Daoists. In 2002,for example,a
group of Catholic sisters from various congregations visited the Daode
yuan.Theirvisitcoincidedwiththeplanningsessionforalargergather
ing, the 13th AsianMeeting of (Catholic) Religious Women,held on Oc
tober 13, 2003 in Taiwan. TheCatholicsistersstayed attheDaode yuan
forafewdaysinordertolearnaboutadifferentreligioustradition.The
visitwasmemorableforbothsides,notonlybecauseitwasthefirsttime
agroupofCatholicsistershadvisitedtheDaodeyuan,butalsobecause
oftheextraordinarykindnessandwarmwelcomegivenbyWengTaim
ing and her small community. The Catholic sisters were deeply im
pressedbytheirvisit,whichwasanunforgettableexperienceofgenuine
interreligiousdialogue.30
Itisthusclearthat,aboveandbeyonditscollaboration withdiffer
ent Daoist organizations and temples in social work and of rituals, the
Daodeyuanactivelyengagesininterreligiousdialogue,particularlywith
Buddhists and Catholics.It isvery supportive of otherreligious organi
zations.As,highpriestess(gaogong)HuangChongfa ofthe
Nantou cisheng gongsays: Among all the Daoist temples in Taiwan, I
have foundthe Daode yuanmost supportive as they havebeen known
toreferourtempletootherpeople(Dec. 22,2004).
Weng Taiming spends much of her time in prayer. She prays for
oneandahalfhoursinthemorning,andahalfhourtoonehouratnight.
I asked her what sheprays for. She saidthatsheprays that thehuman
heart will turn towards good, that society will be stable, that countries

30 Rev.AlbertPouletMathis,aCatholicpriestinTaipeiinvolvedininterre

ligiousdialogue,email communication,December23,2002.
Ho,DaoistNunsinTaiwan/161

will be peaceful, and also for harmony with nature, positive relations
betweenChinaandTaiwan,andworldpeace (Jan.6,2003).

Conclusion
The Daode yuan is a unique phenomenon in the Taiwanese religious
scene:unlikemostDaoistswhofollowtheZhengyischool,ithascreated
itsownmodeofpractice.Therearethreesourcesofitsspecificdevelop
mental trajectory. First (historically), the founder Guo Cangying estab
lishedatraditionoffemaleclergy,trustingthenunsabilityandseeking
to develop their leadership from. Second (spiritually), the priestesses
fullydevotethemselvestotheDaoaswellastomeditationandinternal
alchemy, which they see as a great reservoir of strength. Third (practi
cally), Weng Taimings leadership has become an essential force in the
community;herroleisnotlimitedtopersonaldevelopmentofthenuns,
but extends to caring for society and making connections between and
amongDaoistcommunitiesbytranslatingDaoismintomodernterms.
MosttempleleadersinTaiwanaremaleswhobelongtotheZheng
yi school, which traditionally allows them to marry and be non
vegetarian. By contrast, the leaders of the Daode yuan are priestesses
and nuns. Daode yuan, which is a celibate community, emphasizes the
internalalchemyideasoftheQuanzhenschoolwhilemaintaining their
practiceofZhengyirituals.TheirintegrationofelementsfromQuanzhen
school represents major modifications of Daoist tradition in Taiwan
whichhasbeenexclusivelyledbymenintheZhengyi school.Byinves
tigating the spiritual and physical practices of women recluses in a
changing social context, we can see how Daoist nuns have challenged
traditionalpracticesinTaiwan asmuchastheystill,intheirritualsand
ceremonies, adhere to Zhengyi practice. Overall, the nuns respect and
cooperate withestablished Daoisttraditions.
The material presented here introduces the first Daoist celibate
community inTaiwan. Inconclusion, theDaode yuan represents an ex
ampleoftheactivecombinationofZhengyiandQuanzhen.Zhengyihas
historically influenced it because the temples founder was a former
Zhengyimasterwhopassedtheritualsontohissuccessor.Quanzhenis
therootofits philosophyandpracticeofinternalcultivation.Thetemple
maintainsgoodrelationswithZhengyigroupsandQuanzhencommuni
162/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

tieson themainland. Becauseboth Zhengyi and Quanzhens influences


on the Daode yuan have deeply roots, the temple identifies itself with
bothschoolsandencouragespeopletorespecteachequally.
One could argue that with this combination the Daode yuan does
not follow traditional Daoist patterns. However, it is well known that
those schools often modify their practices and rituals according to the
locale of their temples. Localization is a common practice in Daoism:
Zhengyipriests inTaiwancommonly shapetheirlifestylesbasedonlocal
societyandtheir neighborhoods. While the priestswillingnesstomod
ifyritualsaccordingtolocalcustomsplacestheminanidealsituationto
perform rituals for clients who share their background, it also creates
differences in ritual in different regions of Taiwan (Lee 2003, 152154).
Similarly,inSingaporetheCityGodTemple(Chenghuang miao ),
one of the six largest Daoist temples, claims it follows the Quanzhen
school because it hosts Quanzhen rituals and has Quanzhen music.
However,atthetempleslargefestivals,Zhengyipriestsareofteninvited
to perform a number of rituals.31 Also, its clergy marry, unlike the re
nunciants ofQuanzhentemples inmainlandChina.All thisshows that
the Daodeyuanisnotuniqueinsyncretizingaspectsof theschools.
Anotherimportantaspectofthisstudyisthattheexperienceofthe
Daodeyuancanbeseenasrepresentingthetransitionfromtraditionto
modernity. The temple sponsors different rituals, community celebra
tions, and festivals that may serve traditional functions but often also
meetcontemporary needs. Beyond itsspiritual and ritual functions,the
Daode yuan has, moreover, constructed more social involvement, such
aseducationalprojectsforboth Daoistfollowersandthelargercommu
nity. Weng Taimings responses to charity, social crises, and inter
religious dialogue are always prompt, attentive, and effective. She em
bodiesthedesire of thecommunity to reachout inservice whilerepre
senting Daoism. As religious scholar and former Benedictine monk
WayneTeasdalesays,Themonasticlifeisnotarejectionoftheworld;it
is a decision to engage with this world from a different dimension
(2002).The Daodeyuanclearlyembodiesthisperspective.

31 Zhuang Guangdong, Secretary of the Daoist Federation Youth Group


(Singapore),interviewbyauthor,June72007.
Ho,DaoistNunsinTaiwan/163

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cisheng gong weili .
M.A.Thesis, ChineseCulturalUniversity,Taipei.
The Dao Is Not for Sale

HARRISON MORETZ
Ihaveapinebreezeforsale,wouldyouliketobuysome?
Forthirtythousandtaelsofgold,Ishallgiveyouonegourdfull.
LDongbin

In the sixties, Zen Buddhism became popular in the West. While some
students practiced authentically and attained real accomplishmentas
seeninthethrivingZencommunitiesthatcontinuetheirtraditionthere
also arose a popular (mis)understanding of Zen. Certain notions from
Zen had appeal for Westerners and casual interpretations worked their
way into the mainstream, as evidenced by a plethora of books entitled
TheZenof___(fillintheblank).
ThatwasZen;thisisDao. TheDaoisthenewZen.JustaswithZen,
manypeoplethinktheDaoiswhatevertheywantittobe. AlthoughZen
became amarketingdevice formany products,theausterenature of its
practice kept it somewhat insulated from brand commercialization.
Daoistpractices aremorediverseandmoresusceptibletoabuse.
Thereisasaying:Thoseoutsidethefieldjudgebyflashiness;those
inthefieldjudgeby skill/knowledge.Popular
ity comes from flash; depth comes from proper method and context.
Students get excited when offered secret teachings on esoteric knowl
edge,buttrueaccomplishmentdoesnotrelysolelyontechnique.Rather,
itreliesonthegreatercontextoftheDaoistteachingandthecharacterof
the practitioners awakening (wu ) and connection (tong ). The con
textandmanner,therefore,inwhichtheteachingisdeliveredcanhinder
or facilitate true penetration and awakening: these are not for salein
essence,theycannotbe purchased,bartered,oracquiredmaterially.

167
168/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

Cultivating Virtue
There aretwo importantcategoriesof Daoistcultivation. Theonemore
familiar to people in the West is inner cultivation (neigong ). It in
cludes both stillness and moving practices, such as meditation, internal
alchemy,lifenourishing,qigong,andinternalmartialarts.Innercultiva
tion has its counterpart in outer cultivation (waigong ), which in
cludesthecultivationofvirtueandtheaccumulationofmerit(gongde
), as well as doing good works (xingshan ). An essential part of
cultivation is doing things for the benefit of others both individuals
and community. Virtue (de )understood as a high level of personal
integrity, responsibility for self and society, honesty, decency, truthful
ness, as well as the classic Confucian ideals of filiality, loyalty, benevo
lence, righteousness, propriety, and wisdomis essential to cultivating
theDao. Asalreadythefourthcentury alchemist GeHong says:

Ifoneseekstobecomeanimmortalitisnecessarytobefirstof
allloyal,filial,harmonious,compliant,benevolent,andsincere.
If one does not engage in the cultivation of virtue but only
practicesmethods[fangshu ], oneneverrealizeslonglife.
Ifapersondesirestoattainearthlyimmortality,heorshe
mustperform300gooddeeds[shan ];iftheywishtobecome
a celestial immortal, they need 1,200 good deeds; if at 1,199,
they donot keep the middleand commit evenone bad deed,
theymustbeginthecountalloveragain.Thusgooddeedsare
[notmeasuredby]greatness;evildeeds[arenotmeasuredby]
smallness.
The character of a person determinesthe extent to which
his or her inner cultivation bears fruit. If one is sincere and
consistentandactsoutwardlyforthebenefitofall,theninner
cultivation will bear fruit. Thus, if one only practices internal
cultivation without pursuing outer cultivation, it is notpossi
bletoachievegenuineattainment. (Baopuzi 3.6)

Similarly,theseventhcenturyDajiaoyishu(PivotalMean
ingoftheDaoistTeaching) says:Daoandvirtuehaveonebodybuttwo
aspects;theyareonebutnotone,twobutnottwo(ch.1).Daoandvir
tue are inner and outer aspects: Dao is unmanifest and ineffable while
Moretz,TheDaoIsNotforSale /169

virtueisitsexpressionintheworldofphenomena.Daoistheunformed
source;virtue,itsfunctionintheworld,theexpressionoftheinnatepo
tencyofDao.
The Daode jing (Book of the Dao and Its Virtue) notes that
Dao producesvirtue nourishes (ch. 51). The Dao is what engenders
thetenthousandthings;virtue, itsthe outward expression. It isthepo
tencythatnourishesthem.AsanaspectofDao,itisthepotencythatal
lows function in the world. In people it is the reflection of Dao within
oneself. The Tang emperor Xuanzong expresses it even more forcefully
inhis introduction to theDaodejing: TheDaoas it is inmyself: that is
virtue .
What,then,aresomehumanqualitiesofvirtue?Theyarethequali
ties of the moral person, of someone of good character. One whose ac
tions are benevolent and public (gong ), engaged in the world for the
goodofothers.InChina,theunderstandingthatcultivationisanessen
tialandbasicpartofcultivationisreflectedintwocommonDaoistsay
ings:Therootoflonglifesolelyrequiresgoodnessas(its)foundation
;and:Virtueisthefoundationof[cultivating]Dao
.
Itisthecultivationof virtueinactionandmannerthatallowsoneto
returntothestateofharmonywiththeDao.Thisismadeclearagainin
the Daode jing: Constant [abiding in] virtue without error [results in]
returntotheundifferentiated(wuji ) (ch.28).
There are many reasons why people study and cultivate Daoist
methods:health,spiritualattainment,companionship,andfascination,to
name a few. Common questions from students include: Once I learn
these practices, can I sleep less and have more sex more often and
longer?WillthepracticeincreasemymartialabilitysoIamasuper
person?HowlongbeforeIcanteach?Allofthesequestionsarise
fromfaultycontext,i.e.,alackofunderstandingvirtue,dpoorcharacter
development.Practicingwithinthisfaultycontextonlyleadsonefurther
astray.
An important aspect of cultivating virtue is stillness. As the Daode
jing says: Through stillness, being without desire, the world rights it
self (ch.37).Stillnessisanessentialfoundationfor
any practice; its importance cannot be overstated. It does not matter
170/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

whatkindofpracticeinternalalchemy,ritual,qigong,taijiquanthey
allrequireafoundationofstillnesstobesafeandefficacious.
The foundation of inner cultivation is refining the self(lianji ).
Thismeanstocultivatetruestillness;toreachastatewithoutself.Itisin
the state of no things no self(wuwu wuwo ) that true attain
mentmay beaccomplished. If ones actions andmotivations are for the
benefit of oneself then, through cultivation, one only becomes more at
tachedtotheself.Obviously,onewillbeunabletocultivateandattaina
selflessstate.
Whilestillnessisdominantontheinside,ontheoutsideoneshould
showrespect.Thedualqualitiesofstillness(jing )andrespect(jing )
carry an important meaning in the context of cultivation. Respect is an
aspect ofoutercultivation, while stillness is fundamental toinnerprac
tice.Bothtogetherleadtotheeliminationofdesireaspartofanaturally
rectifying practice that allows thepractitionertobe in alignment, in ac
cord with the Dao. These dual qualities are both safeguards of proper
practiceandthemeansbywhichattainmentcanbeachieved.

Teaching the Dao


The greatest responsibility of teachers is to provide the true context of
theDao.Theyembodyittotheextentthattheyareablethroughauthen
ticteachingandpractice.Itistheintegrityoftheteacherthatallowsthe
properalignmentwiththeDaoandensuresthatwhatistaughtisappro
priateanddoesnotcauseharm.Asthesayinggoes:Whenaheterodox
person engages in an orthodox method, the orthodox method becomes
heterodox, .
The integrity of the teacher is as important as the outer content of
theteaching.Thisisnottosaythattheoutercontentisunimportant,but
that atruemethod withouta truepractitionerbecomes a falsemethod.
Theeasiestthingforastudenttolearnfromtheirteacheristheteachers
shortcomings.Thevirtue orpersonal integrityof the teacher is thecon
textforthesmalld dao beingtaught.Itispartofwhatmakesit thecul
tivationoftheDaoratherthanmerelythecultivationofmethod.
TomaintainthattheDaoisacommodityisafundamentalproblem.
There are those whohavebecome wealthy selling the Dao and those
who have left a swath of physiologically and emotionally injured stu
Moretz,TheDaoIsNotforSale /171

dents. From philandering taiji teachers to charlatan qigong masters,


teachershaveadevelopedamixedreputation.
From ancient times therehavebeenteachers who werecharlatans;
some with intention andpurposetodeceive, othersfoolingthemselves.
Andstudents, as wehave seen, seek teachers for a greatvariety of rea
sons:knowledge, techniques,status,power,belonging,health,andsoon.
Students selfish motivations limit their cultivation, but all kinds of
teaching for the sake of fame, profit, power, or sexual favors are evil
Dao(xiedao .)
Theeleventhcentury ZhongLchuandaoji (Zhonglis
TransmissionofDaotoL:ACollection)says:

Notawoken tothegreater Dao


WithintheDaoobtainingamethod
Withinamethodobtainingaskill

In other words, while people have not yet realized the Dao, they
settleforgettingconcretemethodsthatseemtobeararelationtoit;not
quitegettingthere,theypracticeaskillandyetthinkofthemselvesas
beingpartoftheDao.Learninga skillandthroughthe skilldevelopinga
methodisakindofaccomplishmentbutitisnotattainmentoftheDao.
Accomplishmentofapowerorskillisafarcryfromthetrueattainment
ofcultivation.Thisisagreattrapforstudentswhoseesomeaspectina
teacher that is developed and assume that because of this accomplish
ment,theteachersoverallcultivationishigh.
Often teachers of Daoist practices obtain a skill and teach even
though they are not yet versed in the method, or they attain a method
but are still far from attaining the greater Dao. To expect that every
teacherhasattainedgreatachievementisunrealistic;buttoaskthatthey
have the highest goal as their aim and the cultivation of virtue as their
foundation isnot only reasonablebut essential. There iscertainly acul
tural respect for teachers in China, yet it is paired with a pragmatic
viewpointthatislackingintheWest,whereweofteneitherundervalue
oridolizeourteachers.
Ateacherhasresponsibilityfortheoutcomeoftheirteaching.Ifthe
teachingharmsastudent,itisinparttheteachersfailing.Ifthestudent
usestheteachingtoharmorcheatothers,thisisalsotheteachersfailing.
Teacherswhointentionallyimpartfalseteachingsorteachprimarilyfor
172/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

material gain will find that their own cultivation becomes warped and
thattheybecomeareflectionofwhattheydo.
The onus, however, is not entirely on the teachers. Students often
expecttobuyinformation.Theyhavebeentrainedtoaccumulategoods
andinformationwithamindfullofdesiresandattachments.Oftenitis
thismindthatbringsthemtostudytheDao.Whentheteacherreinforces
this, it becomes more ingrained. Indeed, it is the responsibility of the
studentthattheiractionsreflectwellontheteacher,andtheresponsibil
ityoftheteachertorequiretheproperconductofthestudent.
It is the responsibility for those who cultivate the Dao, and espe
ciallythosewhoteach,toteachgenuinematerialand,moreimportantly,
tostrivethemselvestoembodytheteachingoftheDao.
Teachingshouldbeimpartedtothosewhoareatastagewherethey
areready forthe teaching andhavethe sufficientcomplementaryculti
vationofvirtue.Theinformationtaughtisthecoarsepartoftheteaching.
Theessenceoftruetransmissionisnotthroughwords.Themethodisthe
vehicle.Whenthevehicleisgenuinethenwhatitcarriescanbegenuine.

Dangers of Practice
TraditionallytheChinesehaveviewedqipracticeinanyformasdanger
ous and difficult. People in West, on the other hand, see it as easy and
safe.BothhereandinmodernChina,manyteachthesepracticesoutside
of the cultural context from which they grew. This traditional cultural
contextwasnotmaterialisticinthewaymodernsocietyisandcontained
within it a very strong foundation of morality. All understood that in
ordertogaintherespectofateacheronemustshowgoodqualities.
Oneaspectofmodernviewsoninnercultivationthatbespeaksthis
materialistic influence is the idea that qi is the primary thing that one
cultivates. This in itself is deviant (pian ). Obsession with material
goodsismaterialism;obsessionwithqi isapplyingthematerialistmodel
toqi.Theoveremphasisonqieasilyattractsstudentswithimpropermo
tivationsandleadstopracticeinduceddisorders.
Which brings me to the inherent dangers. People know one can
practice cultivation to become a spiritually elevated beinga sage, a
worthy,animmortal,oraBuddha(shengxianxianfo ).Mostpeo
pledonotknowthatonecanalsopracticecultivationtobecomeaghost,
Moretz,TheDaoIsNotforSale /173

ademon,anevilspirit,oramonster(yaomoguiguai ).Improper
motivation is the quickest way to invite, or become, a ghost or demon.
Sexual obsession, greed, and hunger for power or fame are all demons
thatprecludetrueattainment.ThosewhopursuetheselosetheDaoand
riskextraordinarilyseriousconsequences.
Notonlywillcultivatingmethodswithoutvirtuefailtoleadtotrue
accomplishment, it can be very dangerous. Unfortunately, because of
theirvarietyandemphasisonsubtleenergies,DaoistandpseudoDaoist
practices lendthemselvesmoreeasily toabuse thanBuddhist methods.It
is for this reason, in part, that virtue is so vital as the foundation for
propermotivationtheuprightcharacterrequiredtonotstrayintofalse
practicesortouseskillsdevelopedfrompracticeforselfishends.
Improper or inappropriate practice leads to reckless fire and the
entering of demons (zouhuo rumo ). Reckless fire refers to a
widerangeofsymptomsofqidisorder.Properfireispartofthenormal
physiologicalfunctionsofthebody:itwarms,transports,andtransforms
theqi,blood,and body fluids. Recklessfire is fire thathasan improper
source, is in the wrong place, or rises in inappropriate intensity, a fire
thatinjuresratherthannourishes.Symptomsincludeallmannerofdis
orders: irritability, insomnia,ticks, tremors,headaches, incessantsexual
desire,andsoforth.
Theenteringofdemonsliterallymeansdemonsenterthepractitio
nerorthepractitionerentersintothestateofbeingademon.Thisrefers
to practiceinduced mental disorders, most strongly manifest in people
withaprevioushistoryofmentalinstability.Theyhavetobeespecially
careful with what kind ofpractices they undertake, if any. Evenpeople
with no previous problems may suffer from obsession with qi or too
much intent in practice that can exacerbate preexisting patterns of dis
harmony ormay producenewones.
Having a virtuous character as a foundation is essential to avoid
improper motivation, which can lead to disastrous consequences for
ones physical and mental health. However, there are cases where oth
erwisevirtuousstudentsareattractedtoateacherwithcharisma,skill,or
power.Theseattributes,inandofthemselves,areinsufficientcriteriato
determinethe teachers levelofcultivationandabilitytoteach.
Anotherpotential pitfallisduocultivation,Daoistsexualpractice.It
hasatroubledhistory in China and was generally considered a hetero
174/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

doxmethodonethatwashardtomasterasaformoftruecultivation,
and which frequently caused serious problems. Sexual methods are
probably themost susceptibleto influenceby selfishmotives. It isvery
difficultforevenvirtuouspractitionerstoengageinthemwithoutfalling
preytopassionsand,asaresult,losingsightofthetruegoal.But,more
importantly,theyarephysicallydangerousandshouldundernocircum
stancesbeseenassafeandeasy.
Itisirresponsibletolightlyteachandpopularizethesetechniquesas
cultivating the Dao. In most cases they cultivate sexual obsession and
excessivesexualcraving. Inmostcasestheproduct of thesepractices
the medicineis useless for true transformation. The foundation of
Daoistpractice is stillness. Thecultivationof true essence, qi,andspirit
requiresstillness.YetthesetechniquesaretaughtintheWesttostudents
regardlessoftheirmoralcharacterortheirprevioustraining.
Not only are these methods often useless to true cultivation and a
great distraction from proper practice, but they also can cause serious
health difficulties. They can lead to great stagnation of qiand blood in
the lower abdomen in men, causing internal damage with such symp
tomsasthickgrayishbrownejaculate,enlargedprostate,testicularpain,
andheatandhernialikesymptoms.Inworsecases,theycanleadtoex
treme insomnia, chronic headaches, ticks and tremors, and even brain
tumorsanddeath. Often,they form partofapatternofsexualaddiction.
The public teaching of duocultivation in the West represents the
worst of the popularization and commoditization of Daoist methods.
Along with fortunetelling, fengshui, and external qi healing (which is
also dangerous without proper foundations), they are promoted the
most. Daoists traditionally were not allowed to practice fortunetelling
and fengshui for profit, yet these are among the most profitable enter
prisesforsocalledDaoistteachers.Thesepracticesareenticingandeasy
to market but usually bypass the true work of cultivation; moreover,
theycanbedangerous.Clearly,thecontextofvirtuehasbeenneglected
orsimplyneverunderstoodinthepopular Western dissemination.

Attainment
AcommonthemeinDaoisttextsisthatalthoughtherehavebeenmany
practitionersofDaoistinnercultivationover theages, only fewhavesuc
Moretz,TheDaoIsNotforSale /175

ceeded in reaching ahigh level of attainment. There is aconceit among


Westerners that whathasbeen difficult fordiligentpractitioners in his
tory can be accomplished easily today by going to a few workshops.
Over a long career of teaching, I have seen the truth of the following
maximborneout:Peoplearewillingdoanythingtogetbetteraslongas
theydonthavetochange(Weed1990,1)
Ratherthanchangingsomethinginoneselfthatisnotinaccordwith
cultivation, Western practitioners change the practice and its require
ments so that they can avoid changing themselves. They thereby rein
force their own patterns of disharmony and bypass the practices, proc
esses,andcontextdesignedtobringabouttransformation.
Today, as ever, true cultivation is not easy; real attainment is not
common.Thebasisofcultivationissimple,butfewfollowit.Ifyoustart
out on a journey and are off by a fraction of a degree at the beginning
youwillmissthegoalbyawidemargin.Itisonlybykeepingthemiddle
andbeingintheproperplaceor relationshipthatonereachesthegoal.
Aswehaveseen,cultivationandtransmissionrequirevirtueasthe
foundation ofmoralcharacter,conduct, andmotivation.Evenmore im
portantisthatitisessentialfortrueattainment.Ifyouactasthoughyou
areseparatefromtheDao,howcanyouobtainit?Ifoneisselfish,oneis
separatefromtheDao:nosecrethandposition,nospecialbreathing,no
mysterious meditation can lead there. Without cultivation of virtue,
withouttrueinnerspiritualnature,thepracticeshavemildhealthbene
fitsatbestandcan easilyinstigaterecklessfireandtheenteringofde
mons!

Conclusion
Therearemany methodsofqigongand nourishinglifesuitablefor virtu
ally anyone to practice. They start with commonsense regulation of
oneslifestyle.TrueDaoistpracticeissomethingmore.Thefoundationof
nourishinglifecoupledwithcultivationofvirtueformthefoundationon
whichDaoistcultivationmaybeaccomplished.
TheopportunitytocultivatetheDaoisineverymoment,inevery
thingwedo.Byincludingtheoutercultivationofvirtueasourcontext
and foundation for cultivation, our ability to cultivate and to facilitate
otherscultivationcan growand flourish in a significant way. This em
phasis on virtue is absolutely essential to avoidthedangers inherent in
176/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

teachingandcultivation,aswellastodevelopwhatisnecessaryforac
tualtransmissionandattainmentofDao.Itisbymodelingoneselfonthe
Daoanditsvirtuethatoneisabletocomemoreintoalignmentwithit.
The fundamental Daoist tenets of naturalness, appropriate action
andnonaction,andlivinginaccordwithnatureareaspotentaseverand
needed desperatelyintheworldtoday.Weareinauniquepositiontobe
transmittersandtranslatorsofthisauthentictradition,butonlyifweare
abletofirstembodyitourselves. Itisverysimple: TheDaoisnotforsale.
TheDaocannotbebought.

Bibliography
Lai,T.C. 1972. TheEightImmortals.HongKong:SwindonBooks

Hendricks,RobertG. 1989. LaoTzu, TeDaoJing. NewYork:Ballentine.


RenFarong.199.1 Daodejingshiyi .Xian: Santai chubanshe

Saso,Michael.1978. TeachingsofTaoistMasterChuang.NewHaven, Conn.: Yale


UniversityPress.
Weed,Don.1990. WhatYouThinkisWhatYouGet.Seattle:1445Publications.
Daoist Methods of Dissolving the
Heart-Mind
MICHAEL WINN
I smash up my limbs and body, drive out perception and intellect,
castoffform,doawaywithunderstanding,andmakemyselfidentical
withtheGreatThoroughfare. Zhuangzi 6

In the Daoist tradition, there are medical, martial, and spiritual ap


proachestodealingwithimbalancesarisingintheheartmind(xin).The
Chinese notion of heartmind is roughly equivalent to what new age
Westerners call the bodymind, implying an integrated continuum
between the two. This is opposed to purely psychological mainstream
Western notions of mind, ego or personality which tend to separate
thinking and feeling functions of mind from what are considered auto
nomicbodysensoryperceptions.
Broadlyspeaking,thesemethodshaveincommonthattheyinvolve
a process of dissolving resistance to change in the heartmind. This
commonalityofdissolvingismatchedbyagreatdivergenceastohow
farthedissolvingprocessgoes,andthedegreeofpersonalwillorsagely
intention that is cultivated in order to shape the qifield afterwards or
even while imbalances in the heartmind are being dissolved. I offer a
quicksurveyofsomeDaoistapproachestotheheartmindthathavebe
come popular in the West. These include standing and moving qigong
(subtle breath skill); neigong (inner mind skill) meditation techniques
suchastheInnerSmileandzuowang(sittingandforgetting);andneidan
gong(elixirskill)inneralchemymethods.
Whatdoesitmeantodissolvetheheartmind,andwhywouldDao
istsevenwanttodothat?Thesimplestansweristhattheheartmindhas
become rigid or dysfunctional in some way, and this obstructs the free
flow of qiwithin the individual. In themedicalmodel of dissolvingthe
stuck patterns using acupuncture, herbs, or massage, the qi can flow
177
178/JournalofDaoistStudies2(2009)

more easily, improving both mental and physical health. In the martial
model, repeated training of the heartmind using movement supports
the qi tobeexpressedmorepowerfullyinrelationtoothers.
Inthespiritualmodel,excessfixityoftheheartmindmayobstruct
theunfoldingofonesspiritualessenceormoralpower(de).Heartmind
rigidity prevents exchange of qi between the individual as microcosm
andthecollectivemacrocosmofNatureandHumanity.Zhuangziadvo
catesgettingridofthemindofeverydaylife(shengzhixin)inorderto
flyonthewingsoftheDao.Sodissolvingtheheartmindallowssponta
neous change to happen between the individual and the environment.
The dissolving process is a spiritual prerequisite to cultivating a wuwei
attitude of openness that promotes effortless change, a fundamental
valueofDaoists.
Inqigong(includingtaijiquanandotherinternalarts),bodymove
ment and breath lead the process. Moving qigong is the most comfort
ableforWesterners,asitsdynamicapproachsatisfiestheirneedtodo
somethingwiththeirmindatthesametimetheirbodilyenergiesarebe
ingproductivelydirected.Asateacher,Ihavefoundqigongmovement
andbreathingpracticestobethequickestandmosteffectivewaytotame
themonkeymind,i.e., anymindthatiseasilydistractedorfragmented.
People who claim they are unable to meditate find themselves moving
spontaneously into a space of tranquility and stillness after practicing
qigong.
Inmostmovingqigong there isno direct focus or intention to dis
solvetheheartmind,itjusthappensafterthemindachievesadeepen
trainment with body movement and regulated breathing. The resultant
benefitstobothphysicalhealthandpsychologicalhealthhavebeenwell
documentedinthousandsofscientificstudies.
Standing forms of qigong are more challenging, as the mind is
forcedtowaitinstillnessandgiveupitsimpatiencetophysicallymove,
whileitissimultaneouslychallengedbygravity.Whathappenseventu
ally is the qi within the vertically aligned body begins to create micro
movements between the poles of Heaven and Earth. This produces an
energetic detoxifying effectthat gradually intensifiesandbreaks up old
heartmindpatterns. Standingstill also allows theordinarymind toob
serveandreleasetensionwithinthelayersofthebodysvitalorganand
muscularskeletalstructure,whichinbusyeverydaylifeitwouldnotdo.
Winn,DissolvingtheHeartMind /179

Dissolvingwhilestanding has been a central focus of both Daoist


schoolsintheWest(Frantzis1992)andBuddhistschoolsofqigongsuch
asZhangzhuan.EventhisschoolincorporatesDaoistchanneltheory.At
higherlevelsofpractice,itgoesfarbeyondstandingemptyminded,us
ingtheverticalstancetoabsorbqifromtheearthintotheheels,whichis
thencirculated intheMicrocosmicOrbit.Thehistoricity ofthispractice
datesbacktoLaozi:TheSagebreathesthroughhisheels.Thestanding
methodofdissolvingisalsousefulinresolvingancestralissuesstoredin
thebonemarrowandblood.InChinesetheory,manyheartmindimbal
ances may in reality be ancestors seeking expression and completion.
(Winn2003)
Daoist meditation methods (neigong) often employ a more focused
intentionthan qigongtodissolvetheemotions,mentalprojections,judg
ments,andhabitualorforcedperceptionsoftheheartmind.Oneofthe
mostpopularandpowerfulmethodstotakerootintheWestistheInner
Smile,transmittedinthe20th centurybyOneCloud,aDaoisthermiton
Long White Mountain in northeast China, through Mantak Chia. The
Inner Smile is the meditative heartglue that binds together One
CloudsSevenFormulasforImmortality.Eachformulabeginsandends
withthespontaneouspracticeoftheInnerSmile.Itisthedefaultwuwei
practiceofuttersimplicity.
TheInnerSmileisbasedontheDaoistprinciplethattheveryden
sity and resistance of the ordinary heartmind provides an authentic
groundforimmortality. Thisisanotherwayofsayingthatwithinhuman
sufferingandresistancetochangeishiddenagiftthespiritualessence
ofitsownsalvation.TheInnerSmileisamethodforuncoveringthatgift.
TheoutersmilesuggeststheChinesenotionoffacethatoneshows
theworldtocontrolit.Thusthesmilingfaceoftheordinaryheartmind
tendstobereactivetoormanipulativeofpeopleandsituations.
The Inner Smile is a method of dissolving this false outer layer of
the heartmind and opening the spontaneous spiritual joy of the inner
heart(ling), perhaps besttranslatedassoul.Lingisfrequentlymentioned
in the Laozi text of the 5th century B.C.E. The Inner Smile dissolves the
conditional heartmind patterns so they do not interfere with the soul
expressingitswill.Inthisway,itallowsonesdestinytobemoreeffort
lessly completed. Inner Smile helps induceastate whereyou forget the
littleself, and gradually dissolvethedensephysical body into theqi
180/JournalofDaoistStudies2(2009)

field, where it functions as a more expanded energy body, the higher


vesselforexpressingthe ling.
InnerSmilingisasimpleandpracticalmethodofcultivatingDaoist
tong, defined as a state of unconditional openness and allpervading
greatspirit(dashen).Bysmilingtoandacceptingeveryaspectofselfun
conditionally, all polarized perceptions of self simply disappear. The
boundary between self and other gradually dissolves. A sense of
peace and unity spontaneously arises, by opening perception of the
deepernondualconsciousnessunderlyingall yinyang creativetension.
InnerSmilewasoriginallytaughtonlywithayinphase,systemati
cally focusing heartcentered unconditional acceptance on the brain,
spine,threeelixirfields(dantian),fivevitalorgans,theirqichannels,and
all other physical tissues (Chia 1985). One first allows a seed feeling of
acceptance to effortlessly penetrate as a gentle, loving and warm radi
anceintoonesbiology(theunderlyingjing).Theblood,bones,skin,and
spine are all infused with the Inner Smile until theybegintopulsate as
one.Thisradiantfeelingisthenspreadto the vitalorganspirits(jingshen),
whichinturncontrolthechannelsof qiflowandpsychology.
In my own teaching I began adding a yang phase, i.e., reversing
direction,andradiatingfromtheheartasmilingwavebeyondthebody
(Winn2003).ThisyangversionoftheInnerSmilesembraceseverything
outsidethebody,layerbylayer:onesaura,theroom,onesfamily,vil
lage, ones enemies, the country; the planets, moon, sun, stars, and the
blackness beyond. Smiling outwardly to ones community and natural
world offers a context for unconditionally accepting ones worldly des
tiny.Theadeptthen flipsthisperspective,reversing again the direction
oftheflowofacceptance,smilingthroughlayersoftheouterworldback
intothephysicalbody.Finallythissmilingwavedissolvesbackintothe
prenatalformlessseaof qi inthe dantian.
TheInnerSmileisasimplebasicpractice,easilylearnedbyanyone.
Whilesmilingitselfiseffortlessandnatural,theInnerSmiletakesalotof
practice for the heartmind to stay present at higher levels of cosmic qi
thatemergeoncetheheartmindisdissolvedintothelargerfieldof qi.
The historical origins of the Inner Smile are not clear, as it was
transmitted from a mountain lineage of wandering Daoist hermits. It
maybeanevolutionorvariationofsittinginforgetfulness(zuowang),
the Daoist practice of emptying or fasting the heartmind. Unlike the
Winn,DissolvingtheHeartMind /181

InnerSmile,whichemploysapositiveembracetodissolvefixedpercep
tion,zuowanginitiallyemploysanegativemethodinthesenseofreleas
ingwhatisunwanted.ThemaindifferenceistheInnerSmilestaysheart
centered,whereaszuowangdoesnotuseongoingheartfocus.Thephrase
fasting the heartmind was made famous by Zhuangzi in 2nd century
B.C.E.andlaterpopularizedbySimaChengzhensclassicZuowanglunin
the8thcentury(Kohn1987).Todaysittinginforgetfulnesssurvivesasa
staple of modern Chinese Daoist meditators and their acolytes in the
West(Rinaldini2008;Phillips2008).
Zuowangpracticehelpstheadepttosurrendertotheimpersonalqi
field of heaven and earth. But it does not necessarily integrate human
heartedness. Zuowang likely inspired Chan Buddhist sitting in empti
ness,whichcanfeelabitcold,toomentalorimpersonalforsomeWest
erners. Yet Daoist zuowang differs from Chan methods and their Japa
nese Zen Buddhist offspring in that attaining absolute emptiness is not
the goal. In zuowang the emphasis is more on process, on cultivating
spontaneity and openness to everchanging currents of the qifield. The
dissolvingoftheheartmindisachievedbyallowingeachthought,feel
ingorsensationtomanifestwithoutresistance,andthensurrenderitto
thelargerflowoftheqifieldtobecreativelytransformed.Eventuallyan
unperturbed yet engaged state of mind is achieved. So zuowang ulti
matelyshiftsfromreleaseofthenegativetoapositiveembraceofspon
taneityandwuwei.
Robinet astutely points out in her preface to Kohns translation of
theZuowang lunthattheprocessgoesbeyondqigong,whichgrantsonly
longevity.Zuowangisamethodofsalvation,andassuchisactuallypre
paratoryforhigheralchemypractice.Zuowangisadoubledissolving,
firstofthecontentsoftheheartmindandthenofthemindsmethodof
dissolvingitself. ShefirstquotesSimaChengzhen:

Zuowangmeanstoforgetthemyriadprojections,itconsistsin
cuttingoutalldelusionsandfirmlyfixatingonesmind.Once
the mind isfirmlyfixated,there is nothing beneath it but the
One, and nothing above it but emptiness. It will never stir,
evenwhenitisshaken.
At this stage, [Sima] adds, one is not yet delivered from
yinandyang,ratheronemusttakerecoursetogoldandcinna
182/JournalofDaoistStudies2(2009)

barto alchemyto finally become free by means of the


transformationofwings.Herewefindanaffirmationofthe
superiority of alchemy... overthe meditation and absenceof
thought, i.e., over the meditations informed by Bud
dhism.(Kohn 1987,14)

How can inner alchemy dissolve the fundamental yinyang force that
controls the heartmind, and reshape it? This brings us to our final
model of dissolving the heartmind using inner alchemy. That Daoists
hadasophisticatedmodelofthemindinthe6th centuryB.C.E beforethe
Daode jing was written has been well established by analysis of early
texts such as the Neiye (Inward Training) chapter of the Guanzi (Roth
1991, 1999). These early Daoists were well aware ofthe jing,qi,andshen
aspectsoftheheartmindemptyinganddissolvingintoeachother.This
is the fundamental basis for the model of alchemical dissolving of the
heartmindthatsurvivesintothe21st century.
Laterneidangonglineages,suchasOneCloudsSevenFormulasfor
Attaining Immortality, claimed the secret of dissolving the heartmind
was to accelerate transformation of the jing, qi, and shen by coupling
ever higher potencies of cosmic yinyang forces. The adept uses these
polaritiestocapturetheOriginalBreath(yuanqi)hiddenwithinthepost
natal or physical qifield. For this, a vessel or danis needed to hold the
highervibrationoftheprimordialyuanqi.Theordinaryheartmindsvi
bration is too slow and too polarized to hold such potent primal force.
Inthe inner alchemymodel,this is why theling, or innerheart es
sence,mustbecultivatedbytheadeptandimbuedintotheelixirordan.
In Western terms, this is roughly equivalent to saying the soul of the
Sage is the true intermediarybetweenHeaven and Humanity.Thesoul
orlingmustbeperfectlyattunedtohigherforcesaboveit,forceswhich
mustbesmoothlycommunicatedtotheordinaryheartmindperceptions
anddecisionmakingprocessbelowit.
BothChinesemedicineandneidantheorymapouttheseforcesbe
lowastheyinyangandfivephasesqiflow thatregulatetheheartmind.
Theyarethevitalorganorbsoftheheart,spleen,lungs,kidneys,and
liverandtheirpartnersthebowelspiritswhocomprisethetwelveoffi
cials. They behave much like real politicians and bureaucrats. Collec
tivelytheirjobistoregulatetheheartmind,yetparadoxicallytheyem
Winn,DissolvingtheHeartMind /183

body the verypatternsof resistance andcorruptionthat need tobe dis


solved when they block healthy change. But the heartmind lacks the
will to completely dissolve itself. Thus the deeper level of ling or soul
must first be accessed. This view of the soul is becoming increasingly
popularwithmodernDaoisthealersintheWest(Sha2006).
IntheDaoistalchemymodelthehumanabilitytoconcentrateqito
dissolveobstructivepatternsinitselfdoesntrequireperfectionorabso
luteemptinessofmindinordertobesuccessful.Dissolvingisaproc
ess,not an end goal or fixedstate.Theheartmindneeds enough integ
ritytoholdthecenterwhileabsorbinghighercosmicforces,evenifitis
notyetphysically,morallyorspirituallyperfected.Infactitmaybethe
veryflawsintheadeptsheartmindthatguidethealchemicalmethodof
internalrefiningthatismostsuccessful.
These imperfections and the suffering they cause may inspire the
adepttodiscovercompletelynewwaystoalchemicallyshapetheqifield.
Thismodelofflawedhumansbecomingimmortaliswelldepictedinthe
Chinese legends surrounding the Eight Immortals. The flaws are what
make each Sage a unique and loveable individual rather than spiritual
clones of some borrowed ideal of absolute perfection or emptiness that
maynotbeattainablenorevendesirablewhileinhumanform.
The alchemical model integrates the souls unconditional accep
tanceofitshumanimperfectionswiththeheartmindsabilitytoconcen
trate yinyang forces. In OneCloudssystem,this allows the dissolving
poweroftheInnerSmiletobecomethemostadvancedpractice.Whena
sage or immortal merges the essence of their concentrated heartmind
intotheheartoftheDao,itsignalstheyhavesurrenderedtoaprocessof
totalservice.TheynowsmileonbehalfoftheDao,radiatingafeelingof
unconditionalacceptancefromtheprimordialqifield.Thissmilingradi
ates aneutral force that lubricatesthe yinyang qiflowing in alldimen
sionsofHeaven,Earth,Humanity,andpersonalheartmind.
Thisisamergerofthesagespersonalheartmindwiththemindof
Dao.ItimpliesthathumanityshighestdestinyistoelevateHeavenand
Earth with its purity ofheart andthe uniquehumanability tofeelper
sonal love/acceptance of the myriad beings. For Westerners, the Inner
Smiles heartcenteredness and unconditional openness offers a bridge
betweenDaoismandChristianteachingsofunconditionallove. In this
light,dissolvingtheheartmindinallofthemodelsconsideredisnot
184/JournalofDaoistStudies2(2009)

meanttogetridoftheheartmind,buttoreplacetheoldpatternswitha
moreexpanded,allembracingmode.Thedissolvingprocessisdesigned
to make the heartmind pliable enough to respond to the qifield, thus
empowering it to serve the Dao of Humanity in its ceaseless creativity
andselfexploration.

Bibliography
Chia, Mantak. 1991. Taoist Ways of Transforming Stress intoVitality.Huntington,
NY:HealingTaoBooks.

Frantzis, Bruce.1993.OpeningtheEnergyGatesofYourBody.Berkeley:NorthAt
lanticBooks.

Kohn, Livia. 1987. SevenStepstotheTao:SimaChengzhensZuowanglun. St. Au


gustin:MonumentaSerica Monographs.

Phillips, Scott P. 2008. Portrait of an American Daoist: Charles Belyea/Liu


Ming. JournalofDaoistStudies 1:16176.
Rinaldini,Michael.2008.HowIBecameaDaoistPriest. JDS1:18187.

Roth, Harold D., 1991. Psychology and SelfCultivation in Early Taoistic


Thought, in HarvardJournalofAsiaticStudies,51:2:599650.

_____. 1999. Original Tao: Inward Training (Neiyeh) and the Foundations of Taoist
Mysticism. NewYork: ColumbiaUniversityPress.
Sha,ZhiGang.2006. SoulMindBodyMedicine. NewYork: NewWorldLibrary.

Winn,Michael.1999.WayoftheInnerSmile:TaoPathtoSelfAcceptanceandPeace.
www.HealingTaoUSA.com

_____.2003.InternalChiBreathingandBoneRooting.QigongFundamentals3
&4.HomeStudyCourse.www.healingtaousa.com/ckf3.html
Exploring Daoist Womens Meditation*
CHARLOTTE FURTH
OnNovember89,2008,aconferenceonFemaleMeditationTechniques
in Late Imperial and Modern China convened at UCLA. The Ndan
Symposium,as it wascommonlycalled,was small,with abouttwenty
people for most sessions, the large majority women. The original plan
was that it would be a text reading seminar. Then papers were added,
mostofthemcommentsonthetexts.
The gathering was organized by Elena Valussi, a graduate from
SOASinLondonwhosedissertationandcurrentresearchbothfocuson
ndan,andRobinR. Wang,professorofChinesephilosophyanddirector
ofAsianandPacificStudiesatLoyolaMarymountUniversity,whoalso
conducts fieldwork and has been interviewing Daoist nuns in China. I
knewthemostseniorscholar,LiviaKohn(expertonDaoism),aswellas
YaoPingandSuzanneCahill(scholarsofmedievalChinesewomen,in
cluding female religious personages). A couple of younger women
scholarswerenewtome:ShinyiChaofromRutgersUniversityatCam
den, who offered a paper on a Song era (Jin dynasty) abbess; and Sara
Neswald from McGill who now teaches at Mingchuan University in
Taipei and is working on a computerized linguistic analysis of older
ndantexts. The only male Daoistscholar was Liu Xun from Rutgers at
New Brunswick. He presented a translation of an early seventeenth
centurytextonmeditativetechniquesforhealinggynecologicalandob
stetricaldisorders,andasummaryandpassagetranslationoftwoMing
Qing novels (Yaohua zhuan and Chanzhen houshi ) that
satirized femalecultivationandsexualalchemy.
In addition, there were also some interesting outliers. Dominique
HertzerandIrmgardEnzingerareacademicswithPh.D.sfromtheUni

*
I would like to thank Liu Xun for carefully going over the draft of this
report.IamgratefulalsototheeditorsofJDSfortheirhelpfulcomments.
185
186/JournalofDaoistStudies2(2009)

versityofMunich,Germany,whoalsopracticeqigong.Theirmainwork
istobringAsianhealthpracticestothewiderpopulace,Dominique serv
ing as an acupuncturist and university lecturer while Irmgard teaches
Chineseathighschoolsandsharesqigongpractice.Therewerealsofour
practitioners who work in the health/qigong field and practice Daoist
sexual techniques. Besides Liu the two other men were Mr. Ng (Wu)
Kingsing, a leader of the Hong Kong Taoist Association and senior
memberofaDaoisttemplethere;andKellyClark,professorofphiloso
phy at Calvin College who is interested in philosophical exchange be
tweenChinaandtheU.S.Ngsorganizationhadcontributedfundingto
the gathering,asdidUCLAandLoyolaMarymountUniversity.
As a group, the members of the symposium provided fascinating
perspectives on contemporary practice in China and the West. Both
scholarsandpractitionershelpedanswerthequestionIcamewith:Why
arepeopleinterestedinDaoistmeditationpracticesforwomen?Reflect
ing on what we were doing, I decided that the informal, textcentered
formatactuallyunfoldedapossibleshapeforthelargerstoryof ndan.

The Origins of Ndan


TodayDaoismisregardedasChinasmajorindigenousreligioustradi
tionbothinsidePRCandamongscholarsofreligioushistory.Thereare
plentyofaspectsofitsproteancosmologythatsuggestattentiontogen
derandthefeminine:privilegingtheyinaspectsofnature(water,dark,
receptive modes); the generative symbolism that suffuses meditative
practices of internal alchemy (cultivating an immortal embryo, fetal
breathing);andastrandofsexualmysticism(cosmogenisisasalchemical
firing, imagined as coitus of the Yijingtrigrams Qian and Kun, Li and
Kan).EversinceearlymedievalDaoistsdevelopedasystemoftemples,
monasteries, and textual canon modeled after Buddhism, there have
beenDaoistholywomencalledimmortals,wholivedin andoutofmo
nasticinstitutionsdesignatedasnunneries.Someoftheirliveshavebeen
briefly recorded in hagiographic biographies and on ancient buried
grave tablets that archeologists have recovered. Neidan or internal al
chemya meditative discipline of bodily self cultivation that promises
health and longevity as well as immortalitywas well known among
Furth,ExploringDaoistWomensMeditation /187

both lay and clerical men, who left the only written records we have
aboutit.
Contrary to this, the 2000year textual record of Daoism offers
hardlyany recordofdistinctivefemalereligiousand meditativepractices
beforetheeighteenthcentury.AfewscatteredDaoistandliteratipracti
tionersofinternalalchemy(e.g.,CaoHengandFuShan inthe
seventeenth and Min Yide in the nineteenth centuries) included
instructionsforwomenintheircollectedwritings.Butthemainbodyof
ndantextscomesfromtwoanthologiescompiledbyFuJinquan
and He Longxiang at a variety of temple sites in Sichuan and
publishedin1813and1906respectively.Hescollectionderivesfromthe
earlier one,butisby nomeans identical, and includes textsthat areas
cribed to earlier women practitioners such Cao Wenyi of the
NorthernSong or Sun Buer of the Jin.Oneofthetextsclaims to
comefromahistoricalfigure,aholywomanresidentofMt.Emei.Both
FuandHesaythattheycollectedandpublishedtheiranthologiesatthe
behestoftheirmothersandotherfemalekinwhocravedguidance.Their
prefaces evoke a picture of proper, sexsegregated upperclass house
holds where Daoistpiety waspracticed athome, andwhere temple go
ingandotherformsofpublicworshipwereoutofboundsforwomen.
However, the majority of texts in these two collections appear to
have been the product of spiritwriting sances. Spiritwriting was a
wellknownpopularpracticeinmanypartsofChinaintheQingperiod.
Sances were group affairs, with texts written on sandby amedium in
trance andcopiedby one ormoreparticipants.Manyndantextsshow
tracesofthisprocess:theybeginbyinvokingalineageofgoddessesand
immortal women presumed to be speaking through the medium. Sara
NeswaldsaysherlinguisticresearchshowstracesofSichuandialectsin
someofthem.Spiritwritingistypicallytheproductofreligiousenthusi
asm, and itbypassesestablishedreligioushierarchies.Wedonot know
anything about the groups who presumably originated the ndantexts,
including the genderofparticipantsor whomanaged interpretations of
theaffair.Wecannotevenbesurethatproperliteratiwivesandmothers
neverconductedorparticipatedinsuchsances.
What isclear is that the scholarlymales whocollectedandprinted
these texts were ambivalent about perpetuating an understanding of
188/JournalofDaoistStudies2(2009)

ndan piety as the product of spiritwriting communities, even though


HeLongxiangmadeaconsciousdecisiontoincludemanytransmitted
textsinhiscompendium.Weareleftwithaproblemfamiliartothehis
tory of women in premodern China: how to read sources by or about
women which reached public audiences only through the filter of the
interestedmaleswhointerpretedandrecordedthem.Ndantextsinthe
twocollectionsarerichinmoraladmonitionsconcerningfemaleconduct
thatwouldsatisfyeventhemostconservativeConfuciangentlemen.The
impulseseemingly maleto bring ndan into the world of textual
learningbecomesthefirstproblemintheinterpretationofthendan tra
dition.
Most explanations, necessarily hypothetical, try to connect the
ndan emergence with larger social and cultural trends of High Qing
societyandpolitics.Onecanpointtothespreadofliteracyandbookcul
ture among women, fostered by inexpensive printing. One can suggest
thatlargereconomictrendswereincreasingthepowerofmarkets,travel
andtrade,andlevelingsocialdistinctions;andthatthesereachedwomen
aswell,allowingthemmorevisibilityinsocialproduction,extendingto
more public expressions of religious observance, such as philanthropy,
temple going andpilgrimage.Allthese thingsmightprompt some elite
men in the thriving lay Daoist world of neidan to try and guide female
piety along lines that minimized threats of disruptioneither to the
Confucian social order or to the reputation of Daoist practitioners as
sharinginthatorder.Someofthismaybebetterunderstoodaswelearn
moreabout lateimperialpopularreligion.

The Modern Era


What we do know is that ndan texts published in the nineteenth and
early twentieth centuries became a resource for RepublicanEra Daoist
modernizers who were looking for ways to make Daoism relevant and
attractive to Chinas new women of the May Fourth era. Here began
thedelicatedoctrinalbalancingactbetweenrespectingtheoriginaltexts
whichemphasizedfemalebodilydifferenceinanestablishedgenderhi
erarchy privileging males and reaching for creative readings of Daoist
cosmologyaffirmingmalefemaleequality,whilesupportingmoremate
rialist and physiologically oriented understandings of the body itself.
Furth,ExploringDaoistWomensMeditation /189

ChenYingning ,theleaderofaShanghaibasedDaoistfellowship
influential in the 1920s and 1930s, had many female disciples and fol
lowed this path. In sum, by the end of the Republican Era in the mid
twentieth century the ndantextshadbecome a sort of canonsources
ofanewtraditionof modernDaoismforwomen.
That thisnewtraditionhasresonance today was illustratedduring
oursymposiummostvividly byqigong teachers IrmgardEnzinger and
Fay McGrew who had come to learn from the academics. Both women
hadstudiedqigonginthePRC,IrmgardbeingafollowerofLiuYafei
, a famous master who travels the world holding workshops on
qigong for women (nzi qigong ). Female participants had a
threequarterhourpracticesessionwithIrmgardusingLiussequenceof
movesandlatersawavideoofherperformance.
It turnsoutthat Liu isconnected with thebeginnings ofqigong in
thePRCinthe1950s, beingthedaughterof LiuGuizhen who first
introducedthemethodstocommunistpartyleadersin1947.Duringthe
Cultural Revolution theparty renounced itsearly sponsorship, andMr.
Liu suffered persecution. Today, perhaps as a consequence, Liu Yafei,
whoalsohasaChineseM.D.,insiststhatherqigongisforfemalehealth
onlyandperfectlyscientificandrational.Similarly,FayMcGrewinSan
Diego, who started out as amartialarts champion and took up qigong
onlyinherforties,reportsthatthelanguageusedbyherPRCinstructors
wascarefullyneutral,avoidingallreferencestomeditationandspiritual
ity.
TheseinterpretationsclearlyreflecttheongoingtensionsinthePRC
between religion and science, and the commitment of the TCM estab
lishmenttoaligntraditionalChinesehealingpracticeswiththoseofbio
medicine.Yet out inthediaspora, inboth Europe and theUS,there are
womenteachersofqigongwhobothseeitasahealingpracticeandwant
tolookforthemoreoccultrootsthatseemimpliedbyahistorythatlinks
qigongtondan. Thesejuxtapositionsraiseanewtheoldandoftenvexed
questionsoftherelationshipbetweenDaoism,healingandreligion.
Another face of diasporic Daoism was revealed by Cindy Barlow
and Lana Reichert, twopractitioners from Boston. They hadbeen intro
duced to Daoism via a book only few academics had heard of: Sexual
TeachingsoftheWhiteTigressbyHsiLai(pennameofStuartOlson,who
190/JournalofDaoistStudies2(2009)

runsthePhoenixTaoistCenter). Theytellusthathepresentshimselfasa
renegadeDaoistfroma socalled foxlineagehehookedupwithinTai
wanandthatamongotherthingsheconductsretreatsinArizonawhere
selected paying clients can learn about Daoist sexual cultivation. But
bothCindyandLana(aswellasFay)arebeginningtowonderaboutthe
authenticity of what they have been taught and may want to distance
themselvesfromthismaster.Theyaskedlotsofquestions.Ifounditfas
cinatingthatthehiddenandfaintlyscandaloustraditionsofDaoistsex
ual mysticism and erotic practice, purportedly promoted by deviant
masterslikeZhangSanfenginlateimperialChina,hadfoundanichein
our contemporary scene, and that women involved in it thought that
ndan might have something to teach them. Their presence also raised
questionsaboutwhetherhistoriansshouldlookforamorecomplexpic
tureofwomenandsexualityinDaoismthanthatconveyedeitherbythe
pious rhetoric of the received ndan texts or the bawdy fictional bur
lesquesLiuXunshowedus.

Temples and Community


Back in China ndanhas yet another contemporary face, as we learned
from Ng Kingsing and Robin Wang. Ng did not give a paper, but his
occasional comments drew a picture of a stable temple community in
Hong Kongto which his family belonged due to the influence of his
mother and where his grandchildren now participate. He said that an
cient texts are not very important in this community. What matters is
practice. But incase any one wonders, the women inhistemple would
justlaughatanyscripturethattoldthemtodefertotheirhusbandsasa
matterofreligiousduty.
Robin Wang, on the other hand, offered a fascinating picture of a
PRCprojecttobringwomenintoleadershiprolesintherevivednetwork
of officially approved Daoisttemples aroundthecountry. Shehasbeen
interviewing women of the new Kundao 1 Academy at the foot of
Nanyue,Hunan,notfarfromMaoZidongshometown(andcurrentcult

1 Theterm kundao,whichtodayrefersstrictlytoDaoistnunsinlateimperial
ndan textsisusedwidelytodescribefemaleselfcultivatorswhocouldbeeither
monasticorlay.
Furth,ExploringDaoistWomensMeditation /191

center). The Academy offers a twoyear Masters certification in Daoist


studies,cultural learning, andbusiness/temple administration toclasses
of about fifty female Daoists competitively recruited from temples all
overthecountry.MembersoftheQuanzhenschool,thewomenbeginas
novice nunsandtypicallydonothavemore thananelementaryorjunior
high school education. Robins impression is that the authorities have
notbeen ableto locate areliablecadre ofmaledisciplesand so increas
inglyturntowomentofillleadingadministrativeposts.TheAcademys
curriculummatchesthatusedtotrainDaoistmonksinacademiesinBei
jing andon Mt. Qingcheng. It includesclassesinChinese languageand
literature, calligraphy, history, political study, and English, as well as
computerskills,accounting,businessadministration,andarchitecture
subjects of practical use to a temple manager. The religious education
includes classical Daoist writings, ethics, and art, as well as self
cultivation.Therearealsoclassesinritual,music,morningandevening
services, and every student is expectedtoplay a traditionalmusical in
strument. 2
In sum these young women are being trained to be managers and
ritual masters, serving to make Daoist temples into showcases of tradi
tional aesthetics, art, and morality. One of their teachers, Professor L
Xichen, who is a professor of philosophy at Zhongnan University in
Changsha,wasalsopresentatthesymposium.Shereflectedontherole
oftheQingndantextsascanonandmodelaswellasonthetensionbe
tweenthemessagethat Daoism is unique in esteeming women and the
socialpreceptsofthereligionthatstresswomanlydeferenceandservice
overselfassertionandentitlement.ItalsobecameclearthatProfessorL
on the one hand is participating in an educational project that de
sexualizes Kundao students while at the same time lavishing praise on
Daoismfor its affirmation ofthebody and the(clearly sensuous)pleas
ure and joy to be found in the practice. We feminists were suspicious,
and it was not clear how L will handle all these issues. In any case,
thereare nogenderstudiesattheKundao Academy,andRobinreported
that the students were secretiveabout theirpractice and lifestyle. She

2 AmorecompletepresentationontheKundaoAcademyiscomingoutin

LiviaKohnandRobinWang,eds.,InternalAlchemy:Self,Society,andtheQuestfor
Immortality (ThreePinesPress,2009).
192/JournalofDaoistStudies2(2009)

suspectsthatmanycomefromruralbackgroundswherepeoplestillfeel
shameful aboutabandoningthefamily forthereligious life.Theprinci
paloftheschool,however,isanationalfigure,aseniorleaderwhosuf
fered in the Cultural Revolution and says she is committed to training
womenwithplentyofbackbone.
To sum up, I came away from the symposium concluding that
ndanispartofavarietyoflifestylecounterculturesintheWest,while
in the PRC it is being retooled as part of official Chinese religion. As a
traditionitisverymuchaliveaforumwhereconceptsofsexualdiffer
ence and spiritual meaning are being reworked continually and where
different communitiesofpracticedealwithtodaysgenderedrelationsof
power.Afollowupconferencewillhavealotofinterestingworktodo.
Mt. Wudang and Daoism

YANG LIZHI, TODD STOLL, CHEN MEI

Mt.Wudang(Wudangshan)inHubeiProvincehasalonghistory
in connection with Daoism. By the Tang shrines dedicated to the Five
Dragons (wulong ) and Taiyi were firmly established on the
mountain. By the end of the Five Dynasties, the stellar symbol of the
north, Xuanwu (Dark Warrior), developed into an anthropomor
phizedgodZhenwu(PerfectWarrior).TheemergingDaoisthagi
ography of Zhenwu in the Song (9601279) identified Wudang as the
mountainuponwhichthecrownprinceofJinglepracticedausteritiesfor
fortytwo years, reached perfection, and ascended to heaven to be in
vestedasagodbytheJadeEmperor.

Song and Yuan


The Song imperial family promoted worship of Zhenwu and believed
that he helped protect the dynasty. Song Zhenzong rebuilt the
Five Dragonsshrine intoamajortemple, andthefive dragons were in
corporated into Zhenwus hagiography as messengers of his ascension.
Later Song emperors continued their support of the Zhenwu cult and
bestowedhonorificadditionstohistitle.AlsointheSong,theMaoshan
HighestClarity (Maoshan Shangqing)branch of the Orthodox
Oneness(Zhengyi)sectspreadtoMt.Wudang.Thissectlaterdevel
oped into themostprominent Daoist group onthemountaincalledthe
Highest Clarity Five Dragons Sect (Shangqing wulong pai ).
This led to the formation of what would eventually be called the Wu
dang Tradition,characterizedby: its worship of Zhenwu; itspractice of
internalmartialarts;itsadvocacyoftheThreeDoctrinesasOne(sanjiao
heyi);anditsemphasisoninneralchemypractices.

193
194/JournalofDaoistStudies2(2009)

In the Yuan dynasty (12601368), Emperor Chengzong raised


ZhenwutotherankofemperorintheDaoistpantheon,andWuzong
bestowedtitles on Zhenwusparents. Thenext emperor, Renzong
,sharedthesamebirthdayasZhenwu,thethirddayofthethirdlunar
month,andeachyearonthatdaysentadelegationofofficialsandDao
istprieststoMt.Wudangtoperformofferings.Lateremperorscontinued
that observance, andWudang Daoismprospered withninepalaces and
eighttemples.AlsoduringtheYuan,theDaoistpriestYeYunlai
brought Thunder Rites (leifa ) of the School of Purity and Subtlety
(Qingwei)toMt.Wudang.Hisfollowers,withZhangShouqing
as the leader, built the Tianyi Zhenqing Palace carved
intothe face of South Cliff.Thename of thetemplereferences the
name of Xuanwus palace in heaven. It is indeed a wonder: each of its
componentpartsarecarvedoutofstonetoresembleawoodenstructure.

The Ming Dynasty


The greatest period of imperial sponsorship and growth, however, oc
curred in the Ming. The Hongwu Emperor observed auspicious
manifestations of Xuanwu during the Battle of Lake Poyang, and in
gratitudeorderedyearlysacrificestoZhenwuonhisbirthdayanddayof
ascension(3/3and9/9).AfterreceivingdivineaidfromXuanwuduring
hisusurpationofthethrone,theYongleEmperorsentover300,000
soldiersandartiststorestoretheformertemplesoftheYuanonMt.Wu
dangthathadbeendestroyedbywarsandfire.Theprojectfarsurpassed
simplerestoration,though,andbythetimeitwascompletedin1424Mt.
Wudang held the grandest temples and largest Daoist communities of
theempire.TheJiajingEmperorlaterorderedamajorrenovationof
thesetemples,andrebuiltthehalldedicatedtoXuanwuthattheYongle
Emperor originally built at the imperial palace in Beijing. During the
Ming,theOrthodoxOnenesswasthemostprominentsectonthemoun
tain,andtheOrthodoxOnenesspriestsrankedasleadersineverypalace
andtempleonthemountain.
Several of the major palaces and temples built during the Yongle
periodremainingoodconditiontoday.Theseinclude:fivepalaces(gong
:Zixiao,Taihe,Yuzhen,Chaotian,Tianyizhenqing
Yang,Stoll,&Chen,Mt.WudangandDaoism/ 195

);threeabbeys(guan : Taichang,Fuzhen ,Yuanhe


),andseveralotherimportantbuildingssuchastheGoldenHall,
BronzeHall ,andImperialScriptureHall ontheGoldenPeak
.Inthepastsixyears, majorreconstructionhas beenunderway,with
projectsattheXuandiHallofSouthCliffandtheMiddleTemple
of the Qiongtai complex completed. In addition, major projects to
rebuildtheFiveDragonsPalace(Wulonggong)andJadeEmpti
nessPalace(Yuxugong )arecurrentlyunderway.
ThePurpleCloudPalace(Zixiaogong)istheseatoftheMt.
Wudang Daoist Association. Fiftytwo nuns and eightyone priests be
longtotheassociationandliveonthemountainpracticingmorning,af
ternoon,andeveningrituals.Manyyoungernunsandpriestshavebeen
attractedtotheorder duetoaninterestinWudangmartialarts andinner
alchemypractices.

The Wudang Museum


The Wudang Museum is located in Wudang Town at the foot of the
mountain. The museum opened its doors to visitors on April 23, 2008.
Constructionstartedin2005,withatotalfloorspaceof5,820squareme
ters. The exhibit area presently occupies 4,418.7 square meters. It is the
only museum in China which focuses on Daoism. It has three floors,
withsevenhalls exhibiting Wudang architecture,an introductionto the
immortalsanddeitiesofthemountain,TangthroughQingdynastystat
ues, Daoist ritual items, Wudang palace music, the history of Wudang
martialartsandhealthpractices,andWudangfolkcustoms,respectively.
There are approximately four hundred cultural relics on display
which were originally bestowed by the imperial court. Among these, a
golden dragon, a jade bi, and calligraphy inscribed on bamboo by the
Jianwen emperor(13991402)aremostprecious.Theheaviestrelicis
thebronzestatueofZhangSanfengwhichweighsmorethanone
ton; while the lightest relic is the golden dragon which only weighs 16
grams.Altogethertherearemorethantwothousandrelics,70percentof
whichrankasfirstclassnationaltreasures.Theserelicsareaninvaluable
resource for the study of Wudangshan culture and the iconography of
Daoistdeitiesespeciallyof Zhenwu.
196/JournalofDaoistStudies2(2009)

The Daoist Studies Institute


The Wudangshan Daoist Studies Institute (Wudangshan daojiao xueyuan
) is located in Danjiangkou , about 80 km east of
WudangTown.TheinstitutestandsadjacenttotheJinglePalace,
originally erected in the Yongle period of the Ming and then rebuilt in
2006.InSeptember,2008,theinstituteenrolledfortyDaoistmonksfrom
templesacrossChina.
Supported by the Chinese National Religion Bureau, it is the only
DaoistinstituteinsouthcentralChina.Ithasaquietandbeautifulcam
pus, withmodernteaching facilities and experiencedteachers. Thecur
riculum consists of basic subjects such as history, Chinese, philosophy,
and English in addition to religious subjects including readings in the
Daoist canon, textual interpretation, rituals, Wudang martial arts, and
Daoist music. The basic subjects are taught by associate professors and
professors from the nearby Yunyang Teachers College, and the major
subjectsaretaughtbyqualifiedDaoistsandscholarsfrominstituteswith
Daoist Studies programs. While enrolled the students must follow aca
demic rules and regulations in addition to maintaining a religious rou
tine.Afterthreeyearsofstudyandsuccessfullypassingexams,thestu
dentcangraduatewithacollegediploma.
In2008theinstitutelaunchedfourpedagogicaltrainingsessionsin
January,June,JulyandthemiddleofAugusttofurtherraisethelevelof
teaching and administrative expertise. The Wudangshan Institute is
dedicatedtoimprovingtheeducationallevelofDaoistnunsandmonks,
andtoprovidingaplatformforDaoistresearchandoutreach.

In 2009, the Fifth International Conference on Daoism is being held on


Mt.WudangincooperationwithYunyangTeachersCollege.Fordetails,
seewww.daoismconference.cn.
Taiwanese Daoist Temple Parades
and their Martial Motifs

BRIAN L. KENNEDY & ELIZABETH NAI-JIA GUO


Stilt walkers, exploding fireworks, cacophonic music, gigantic figures
waltzing down the street, performers in demonic outfits and makeup,
crowds lining the street, a mixed feeling of religious sentiment, and jo
vialcommunityfun:thissoundslikeMardiGras,maybeinNewOrleans
orRiodeJaneiro.However,itisinTaipei,Taiwanandthereligionisnot
Catholicism but Daoism. In this article we will take a look at different
elementsoftypicalDaoisttempleparadesinTaiwan.1
EachDaoisttempleinTaiwanhasonemaindeitytowhichthetem
ple is primarily dedicated. Temple officials on special occasions, nor
mally on the birthdays of the deities, will take the deities from their
altars for a tour of the neighborhood. Depending on who the deity is,
theymaytakeoutingsonotheroccasionstoo,buttheirbirthdaytourwill
generally be grandest. Temple tours involve parades with motorized
vehicles,handdrawncarts,peopleonfoot,andthespecialtypesofper
formersthatformthetopicofthisarticle.
OnenoticeablefeatureofDaoisttempleparadesistheirmartialtone
andflavor.Althoughthecharactersandthedeitiesfeaturedinthesepa
rades are both civil and martial in background, nonetheless the overall
feeling of the parades is martial. For example, the performers usually

1 Aboutthescopeandmethodofresearch:Thetempleparadestheauthors

observedtookplaceindifferentlocationsinTaipeicityandcounty.Thephotos
whichaccompanythisarticlewereshoteitherinSanChungCity,orthe
Wan Hua district of Taipei or an area of Taipei City near the Danshui
River .Theywereshoteitherin2007or2008.Astothevariousfactsabout
the temple parades, the sources for these were interviews of Taiwanese con
ductedbyMr.Kennedy.
198/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

stride about with somewhat of a John Wayne swagger and bravado.


Heads hung low in modesty or religious supplication is not their style.
And although a number of the deities seen in such parades, such as
Mazu orPangu ,havenodirectconnectiontothemilitaryorto
martialepisodes,manyofthemostpopularones,suchasLordGuan
orthe7th and8th Lords aremilitaryfigures.

Standard Elements
Taiwanese temple parades usually involve a number of stock perform
ances and standard elements. They include handdrawn carts or mini
trucksbearingcommemorativeplaquesnamingtheinvolvedtemplesor
carryingthedeities.Stiltwalkers,megapuppets,LionandDragondanc
ers,EightGeneralsteams,musicianseitherintruckbedsoronfootwith
mobileamplifiers also appear. Twodistinct groups accompany thedei
ties on foot, wearing a common uniform that usual consists of Tshirts
and ball caps bearing the name of the temple. One group usually has
somewhatroughlookingyoungmen;theotherinsharpcontrasthas
merry olderfolks,bothmen and women. The formergroupcan loosely
be defined as temple parade security; the latter comprises the faithful
whobelievetheygatherdivinefavorbyaccompanyingthe parades.
Howmanyoftheseelementsanygivenparadehasdependsonthe
economicresourcesofthetemple.Forexample,EightGeneralsperform
ance troupes are not so common; nor are Lion or Dragon dance teams.
Yet even modestly endowed temples can afford one or more mega
puppetsandsomeformofmusictoaccompanythedeitiesontheirtour.

Mega Puppets
Mega puppets are the highest profile aspect of any temple procession.
Theyarebiggerthanlifeandrepresentvariousdeitiesandhistoricalfig
ures.Theperformershandlingthemneedstamina,keenbalance,aswell
asotherqualitiesthatcharacterizeChinesemartialarts.
The more ornate puppets can be over two and a half meters tall;
theyareconstructedofwoodandbamboo.Theheadandthehandsare
madeofwood,whilethetorsoandarmsconsistofabambooframecov
ered with thick, expensive clothing. One person manipulates them; he
Kennedy&Guo,TempleParades/ 199

seesoutthelittlewindowinthegodsstomacharea.Insidethepuppetis
a harness arrangement with two large shoulder straps and a bamboo
controlbar attachedto thepuppetsbody.Theperformercanrotate the
torso left and right by gripping the control bar, which has two hand
holds.Hewearsthepuppetsomewhatlikeputtingonalargebackpack.

Megapuppetsonthemove.

The puppets have a characteristic slow arm swing. The performer


activates itby slowly rotating thetorso. Because the handsaremade of
heavyblocksofcarvedwoodtheycangetapendulumeffect,aswinging
back and forth. Being able to get the arms to swing smoothly and cor
rectly, without flailingorbangingagainst the frame, isabigpartof the
art.Theperformeralsohastohavethegongfuofnotgettingdehydrated
andpassing out, especially inthe summer whenTaiwan ishotandhu
mid. The puppets are quite heavy and, with the gods gowns reaching
belowtheperformersknees,theirinsideisoftenstifling.Whentheper
formerstakeabreak,onecanseehowtheyaredrenchedinsweat;help
ersmakesuretheydrinkenoughwateranddonotfaint.
Thepuppetsareextremelytopheavyanditisquiteeasytotopple
overwhilewearingthem.Theyarethereforealwaysaccompaniedbyan
entourageofassistantswhoactasspottersofanyuntowardmovement.
They protect the puppet, and also the performer inside, from accidents
200/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

and wayward moves. Given the highcentered weight of the puppet,


handlingitrequiresthatthepersonmustbeabletokeepbothhisandthe
puppetsweightcenteredandmoveasacoordinatedandconnectedunit.
Hisactionsmustbedeliberate,slow,andcontrolled.

Come Hell or High Water


Anumberofdeitiesappearmostcommonlyinthesemegapuppets.Two
ofthemostcommonarethe7th and8th Lords.TheTaiwaneselegendsur
rounding them can best be encapsulated by the phrase come hell or
high water, meaning that the person intends to do what they said, no
matterwhattheobstacles,risks,orhardships.
Accordingtothestory,the7th and8th Lordswereverygoodfriends;
theyservedasgeneralswithastrongsensesofdutyandenormouscour
age.Onedaytheydecidedtomeetbeneathabridgethatspannedalarge
river. The 8th Lord arrived first and saw that because of a heavy storm
the river was rapidly rising and would soon flood the area where he
stoodbyhishorse.Buthewasdeterminedtostayrightwherehesaidhe
wouldbeandkeeptheappointment,determinedtoholdhispositionno
matter what. The river rose rapidly and he was swept away. Barely a
minute later, his friend and comrade in arms, the 7th Lord, arrived. In
stantlyheknewwhathadhappened,thathisfriendwouldratherdrown
in the torrent than fail to be where he said he would be. Stricken with
grief,the7th Lordhunghimselffromanearbytree.
Admittedly for many modern people this story seems to have no
moralandfromamodernperspectivetheactionsofbothLordsvergeon
psychotic stupidity. But fortraditional Taiwaneseculture the actionsof
the 8th Lord in not moving from his position and the suicide of the 7th
Lord to accompany his friend into death reflect deep values: steadfast
adherencetomartialdutyandpersonalloyaltyevenbeyonddeath.The
actionsofthewarriorsintheIliad maystrikemodernreadersinthesame
way. The almost pathological stubbornness and tenacity of Achilles or
Agamemnon reflected Greek warrior values in the same vein that the
actions of the 7th and 8th Lords do in Taiwanese culture. The Lords are
perhaps the most common megapuppet figures and thus widely wor
shipedinTaiwan.Whenshownduringaparade,oneofthemwillhave a
longer,stretchedfaceandaprotrudingtongue:thisis7th Lord.
Kennedy&Guo,TempleParades/ 201

The8th LordwithGeneralQi Breadaroundhisneck

Hisappearanceisamacabrereflectionofhavingdiedbyhanging.
Theotheronehasabloated,puffyface,theresultofhavingdrowned.In
addition,both oftenhave a large roundbreadhanging fromtheirneck,
whichsomewhatresemblesaverylargebagel.Thisbagelhasamilitary
historyconnection. InTaiwanese folklore, it iscalledGeneral Qi Bread,
named afterthe famousMing general Qi Jiguang who allegedly
202/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

inventedtheloaftoprovideadurablestapleforhistroopsinthesouth
ernamphibiouscampaigns;theyareakindofChinesehardtack. 2

Stilt Walkers
Equallyhigh abovethecrowd aretheperformers walkingonstilts.The
stilt walkers depict different gods and their attendants, such as Guan
Gong.

StiltwalkersportrayingGuanGongandhisattendants

2 Whether Taiwanese folklore reflects historical reality,


we have no idea.
GeneralQifillsthesamekindofmythicroleinsouthernChinaasGeneralYue
Feididinthenorth.
Kennedy&Guo,TempleParades/ 203

Thewoodenstiltsaretiedtotheperformersfeetwithastirruparrange
ment.Nohandgripscomeupfromthestilts,soquiteadegreeofskillis
required.
Thestiltwalkerstendtobefarmoremobilethanthemegapuppets
andarethusmorelikelytointeractwiththecrowdsliningtheprocession.
Ofcoursewalkingonthestiltscanbedangerous,particularlygiventhe
potholes, oil slicks, broken asphalt, and general litter that make up the
average Taiwanese street. So, thestilt walkers are attendedby spotters;
they literally and figuratively move up as their skill and experience in
crease. In thebeginning, they will portray aminor figure in theparade
andusestiltsthatareonlyabouthalfameterhigh.Astheirskillisnoted,
they will eventually advancetomore important figures which involves
higherstiltsandmoreornatecostumesagreaterchanceoffallingover
duetoweight.
The costumes and the makeup both come largely from the many
forms of Chinese opera. Aficionados easily recognize what historical
personage,mythical figure, ordeity isbeing shown.The generalpublic
whomaynotbequitesofamiliarwithChinesemythsorChineseopera
yetcantellwhethertheperformerismartialorcivil,thetwomajorcate
gories of characters. They can also discern their relative importance by
theirphysicalheight.

Deities and Sedan Chairs


Theactualdeitiesarenormallynotatthefrontoftheparadebutplaced
in the center or sometimes towards the centerrear, carried in sedan
chairs. Inthe 21st century, thesesedanchairshaveseveralforms. Some
times they are open, on other occasions, the deity seems to prefer the
privacyofaclosedchair.Usuallymadeofexpensivehardwoods,suchas
mahogany or teak, the chairs are often ornately carved. They may be
borneontheshouldersofateamofbearersorsetonawheeledcartthat
ispulledbyhand.Somedeitiesprefermoremodernmotorizedconvey
ance and ride in openair convertibles, usually modified minitrucks.
Like human politicians, they ride on the back ledge of the convertible
while their attendants and security personnel walk beside them. The
convertibles,moreover,areusuallynormallycoveredwithartificialflow
ersorplaquesnamingthedeitystemple.
204/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

We have spoken of the deities preferring this or that and we


choose that wording quite on purpose because it makes an important
pointregardingtheontologyoftheseicons.Sometimesindiscussionsof
Taiwanese religious it will be said that the statutes that are present in
Daoist temples and temple parades are representations or symbols
of the deity. They are not. In thetraditional Chinese view,3 the statutes
arethedeityandnotmeresymbols.Whenwesaytheyarethedeitywe
meanthatinanontologicalsense,thepieceofwoodhasbecomethede
ity.
Theprocessbywhichcarvedwoodbecomesadeityiscomplicated,
a kind ofTaiwanese Pinocchiostory. Certaincarversspecialize incarv
ingdeities.Ifanindividualortemplewantsanewdeitythefirststepis
toaskthedeityiftheywouldliketoresideinthetempleortheindivid
ualshome,asthecasemaybe.Thisaskingcanbedoneanyofanumber
ofwaysthemostcommonisviatheuseofdivinationblocks.4 Ifthe
deityagreestoresideatthetempleorhouse,thenextstepistocontacta
temple that already has a living or empowered deity of the same
god,forexample,MazuorGuanGong.Thetemplewillasktheirdeityif
itisokaytoempowerthenewdeity.Ifheorsheagrees,thedonorisex
pected to pay a fee, which may be quite large but matches an amount
discussedinadvance.Onceeverythingissettled,thedonorcancommis
sionacarvertofashionthedeity.
Nextthedonorshouldconsultafortunetellertodetermineanaus
piciousdaytobringthedeitytolife.Onceadayisset,thedonorobtains
a certain amount of incense ash from the parent temple to take to the
carver.Thelatternextdrillsholesinthebackbaseofthestatueand,on

3 We are speaking in generalities. Given the old and wide river which is

Chinesereligiontherearenodoubtsometeachersandschoolsthatwillviewthe
woodenstatutesasrepresentationsbuttheyaretherareminorityview.
4 These divination blocks come in pairs and are sometimes in english re

ferredtoasmoonblocksbecauseoftheirhalfmoonshape.Thequestionerwill
holdtheblocksintheirhandsandpresenttheirquestiontothedeity.Thendrop
theblockstotheground.Theblockswilllandeitherfaceuporfacedown;with
twoblocksthatmakesforthreepossibilities;doublefaceup,doublefacedown,
one up and one down. The deities answer comes from a series of these drops.
Questionshavetobefashionedinayesnoformatandthedeitiesanswerwill
beeitheryes,no,oryougottobekidding/unsure.
Kennedy&Guo,TempleParades/ 205

the determined auspicious day, packs it with incense taken from the
maintemple.Aftertheincenseisinplace,thepieceofwoodisnolonger
amerepieceofwooditisMazuorGuanGongandhasadistinctpar
entage,alineageconnectedtotheparenttemple.Anothertriptothefor
tunetellerwillrevealthebestdaytomovethenowlivingdeityfromthe
woodcarversshop to itsnew home. The leaders ofthe host temple will
carryhimorherwithgreatreverence.
Thefactthatthesedeitiesarelivingcreaturesandnotjustpiecesof
wood, paint, and animal hair is evident from a social problem recently
noted in Taiwanese newspapers. 5 Perhaps because of the economic
downturn, people have been abandoning their deities at neighborhood
templesratherthanleavingtheminthetrash,whichoneshouldntdo
with living entities. Those abandoned statues now become foundlings
andmustbecaredforlikeabandonedchildren,whichtakestime,space,
and money, overburdening the temples. Some simply do not have the
altarspacetocontainallthesefigures;othersdonotwishtobeinvaded
bynewcomers.Asaresult,templesareputtingoutpleastothepublicto
stopabandoningtheirdeitiesandinsteadretrievethosetheyalreadyleft
behind.

Eight GeneralsCelestial Cops


AnothersetofdeitiesoftendepictedinparadesaretheEightGenerals
.AlthoughnormallycalledEightGeneralsinEnglish,theirnameis
bettertranslatedasEightRetainersinthesensethattheyarestaffofficers
working for a judicial court. For the Chinese, they are celestial cops or
divine police officers who walk the toughest beat on earth. Like cops
everywhere,theirjobistoprotectthepublicfrombadelements,butthe
bad elements in this case are invisible and preternaturally strong, with
noscruplesorcompassion.Theyareghosts,demons,anddenizensofthe
netherworld who bringpestilence,plague, andmisfortune.
Toarrestandpunishthem,theEightGeneralscarrywoodenhand
cuffsandbadgeswhichresemblesolidwoodenfans.Thebadgesimitate
actual warrants carried by Qingdynasty police to arrest criminals. The
reallifemagistratewouldwriteoutthearrestwarrant;hisbailiffssealed

5 ToomanyunwanteddeitiesdiscardedinSuao,May9,2008, ChinaPost.
206/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

itandpasteditonawoodenfan.ThewoodenbadgeboardsoftheEight
Generalsthusmodeltherealworldversion.Theyallcarryweaponsbut
onehasacarvedwoodentigeronhisshoulderwhocarriestheexecu
tionersswordonhisback,securedbymagictalismans.

TheEightGenerals

The most popular story of the Eight Generals says that they serve
the Emperors ofthe Five Blessings .Originally a gang ofeight
maliciousmountainspriteswholivedinacaveonMountLu,
theyweresomaliciousandpowerfulthatregulargods couldnotcontrol
them. But one of the Emperors of the Five Blessings was an expert in
martialartsandskilledinDaoistdemonology.Hesteppeduptofacethe
challengeofcatchingandcontrollingtheeightsprites.Towardthatend
hetraveledtoMountLuandpromptlysubduedthemonsters.Afterde
feating them, he held them captive rather than destroying them. To re
pay the favorof sparing their lives,they swore eternal allegiance tothe
Emperorsof the Five Blessingsand vowedto helpthemprotecthuman
beings.ThusthereformeddemonsbecamecelestialcopscalledtheEight
Generals.
Kennedy&Guo,TempleParades/ 207

BaoMaZai,theheraldofparades,withthetalismansonhishatandumbrella.

Duringaparade,thearrivaloftheEightGeneralsisannouncedbya
somewhatcomicbutpowerfulandgoodhearteddeityknownasBaoMa
Zai .A Taiwanese god, he acts as a herald bringing news to the
village or district. Always appearing in a standard form, he has one
pants leg rolled up, wears eyeglasses on his face, and carries a small
hand gong as well as a bandoleer of bagels for the childrensmaller
sized versions of General Qi Bread. People believe it is good luck for a
parent to ask Bao Ma Zai for one of the bagels and give it to a child
whosegoodhealthistherebyensured.
Taiwan is well known for itsporkproductsand Ba Ma Zaialways
carriesapigsfootandshankwithhim.Inmodernhygienictimes,hehas
208/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

thepigs foot inaclearplasticbag on hisrighthop.Hisrattan hatpro


tectshimfromthenaturalelementsofrain,sun,andwindbutalsopro
tectshimfromthemorebalefulinvisibledangersofghostanddemons.

BaoMaZai,inhisstockappearance
Kennedy&Guo,TempleParades/ 209

ThelatterprotectioncomesfromtheDaoisttalismanspastedinacross
patternonthetopofhishat.Thetalismansindicatethatthedoortosteal
hissoulissealedclosed.Asaresulthecannotbeharmedbyanyghostor
demon.

* * *

To sum up: Taiwanese temple parades reflect an aspect of lived


Daoism that is still very much alive and well and thriving in Taiwan.
While the reality is that most Taiwanese can only vaguely remember
somepartsoftheDaodejingorastoryortwooutoftheZhuangzi,almost
allarefamiliarwiththecharacters,stories,andescapadesthatappearin
Daoist temple parades. Most neighborhoods host at least two or three
parades a year and most people will, at least once a year, come to the
curbside for a doseofstreet Daoism and to explain to one oftheirchil
dren,nieces,ornephewsabitaboutwhatisgoingon.Thegoodnewsis
that, at least in Taiwan, despite all modernization and secularization,
thereisnoendinsightforDaoisttempleparades.
Publications

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Shahar, Meir. 2008. The ShaolinMonastery:History, Religion,and theMartial Arts.
Honolulu:UniversityofHawaiiPress.

Smith,RichardJ.2008.FathomingtheCosmosandOrderingtheWorld:TheYijingand
ItsEvolutioninChina.Charlottesville:UniversityofVirginiaPress.

Articles
Baptandier,Brigitte.2008.LaBiographiedelaMre,Nainiangzhuan:Latablette
criture. In Du corps au texte: Approches comparatives, edited by B. Bap
tandierandG.Charuty,11149.Nanterre:SocitdEthnologie.

Herrou, Adeline. 2008. Quand les moines taostes se mettent en texte. In Du


corpsautexte:Approchescomparatives,editedbyB.BaptandierandG.Charuty,
4374.Nanterre:SocitdEthnologie.
BujardMarianneJuXi.2007.Mmoiredestemples,mmoiredepierre.Aperu
delpigraphiereligieusedePkin. Perspectiveschinoises,2007/4:2230.
Goossaert, Vincent. 2008. Republican Church Engineering: The National Reli
giousAssociationsin1912China.InChineseReligiosities:AfflictionsofModer
nityandStateFormation,editedbyMayfairYang,209232.Berkeley:Univer
sityofCaliforniaPress.
Lagerwey, John. 2007.Stateand Local Society in LateImperialChina. Toung
Pao 93:45979.
Raz, Gil. 2008. The Way of the Yellow and the Red: Reexamining the Sexual
InitiationRiteofCelestialMasterDaoism. Nann 10:123.

Reviews
Kohn,Livia:StephenR.Bokenkamp,AncestorsandAnxiety:DaoismandtheBirthof
RebirthinChina (Berkeley:University of California Press, 2007). InTheChi
neseHistorialReview 15.1(2008),17981.

Kohn, Livia:CeciliaLai Wan Chan andAmy YinManChow, eds.Death,Dying


and Bereavement: A Hong Kong Chinese Experience (Hong Kong: Hong Kong
UniversityPress,2006).In ChinaReviewInternational 13.2(2008).
NewsoftheField/ 215

Forthcoming in 2009

Campany,RobertF.2009.MakingTranscendence:AsceticsandSocialMemoryin
EarlyMedievalChina.Honolulu:UniversityofHawaiiPress.

Katz Paul. 2009. Divine Justice: Religion and the Development of Chinese
LegalCulture.London:Routledge.

Kohn,Livia,andRobinR.Wang,eds.2009.InternalAlchemy:Self,Society,andthe
QuestforImmortality.Magdalena,NM:ThreePinesPress.

Littlejohn,Ronnie.2009. Daoism:AnIntroduction.London:I.B.Tauris.
Liu,Xun.2009.DaoistModern:Innovation,LayPractice,andtheCommunityofInner
AlchemyinRepublicanShanghai.Cambridge:HarvardAsiaCenter/HUP.

Major,JohnS.,SarahA.Queen,AndrewS.Meyer,andHaroldD.Roth.2009.The
Huainanzi:AGuidetotheTheoryandPracticeofGovernmentinEarlyHanChina.
NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress.
Pregadio,Fabrizio.2009.LiuChuxuan(11471203)andhisCommentaryonthe
DaoistScriptureHuangdiyinfujing,byPeterAcker.JournalofChineseRelig
ions 36.
Yates, Robin D. S. 2009.Women in China from Earliest Timestothe Present:A
BibliographyofStudiesinWesternLanguages.Leiden:E.Brill.

Chinese and Japanese

Girardot,Norman,JamesMiller,andLiuXiaogan,eds.2008. :
[Translation of Daoism and Ecology]. : .
http://www.amazon.cn/dp/bkbk810338.

GouBo. 2008.,,:.:
.

GuoJian. .2008. : . :.

Guojixueshu ,ed.2008.. : .

Guojixueshu ,ed.2008..:
.

HuFuchen .2008. . :.
216 /JournalofDaoistStudies2(2009)

HuYun .2008. . : .

HuoKegong . 2008. : . : .

LiChonggao .2008. . : .

LiGang ,ed.2008. . :

LiGang ,ed.2008. :. :

LiGang .2008.::. : .

LiLai .2008. . : .

LiuShouhua .2008. . : .

LXichen etal.2008.:.
:

MizunoAki.2008... 112:125.

QingXitai .2008. . : .

QingXitai .2008. .

RenZongquan . 2008. . : .

Sakai Norifumi. 2008. :


. 112:2644.

ShimogoriTakeshi.2008..
112:4564.

TongXun.,ed.2008. . : .

Xinjiapo, ed. 2008. . :


.

Minzu ,ed.2008. . : .

ZhuYueli,ed.2008.. : .

LXichenandZhangQin
NewsoftheField/ 217

Dissertations
HsinI Mei. The Religious Realm of Jiangxi during theSong Dynasty,
9601279 (Spring 2011), University of California, Los Angeles, super
visedbyRichardvonGlahn(hmei@ucla.edu)

My researchproject will examinethereligious worldof Jiangxiin Song


China. Thepurpose isto explore thedevelopmentsof variousreligious
beliefs, the relationship between new Daoist exorcistic traditions and
popularcults, and thechanges in local,regional, andnational societies.
The workwillcenter on the institutions,theologies, andritualpractices
oflocalcults,Daoism,andBuddhism, alsoinvolvinga study ofthesocial
relations revealed by the interaction, cooperation, and competition
among these religious traditions and social groups. Instead of treating
themasseparate,Iregardthemas partsof aholisticreligiousculture.
The research focuses particularly on local cults in Jiangxi as well as
thedevelopment of Daoist traditionsthere, includingCelestialMasters,
Pure Brightness, and DivineEmpyrean. What werereligious groupsin
Jiangxi during the Song? How were they practiced and disseminated?
What is the significance of the spatial and temporal context? What are
therelationships amongthem and local,regional,andnationalcommu
nities?Theanswerstothesequestionswillenhanceourunderstandingof
the multifaceted religious world of Song China, the changes it under
went,andtheinterplaybetweenlocal,regional,andnationallevelsthat
shapedthisworld.

JenniferLundinRitchie.TheGuodianLaozi:ANewWindowintoDao
ist Thought (Spring 2010), University of British Columbia, supervised
byEdwardSlingerland(jritchie@interchange.ubc.ca)

ThefocusofmygraduateresearchisanewversionoftheLaozi(a.k.athe
Daodejing),whichwasdiscoveredinatombatGuodianvillageinHubei,
China, in 1993. The GuodianLaozi is 150 years older than the previous
oldestversionandcontainsapreviouslyunseenthirdsection,titled Taiyi
shengshui(TheGreatOneGivesBirthtoWater),thecosmologyofwhich
decentralizes yin and yangconcepts heretofore fundamental to inter
218 /JournalofDaoistStudies2(2009)

pretationsofthetext.Thethemesthroughoutthetextalsodifferconsid
erablyfromthereceivedversions.NotablyabsentaretheLaozischarac
teristicreferencestowaterandthefeminine,anditsvehementcriticisms
ofConfucianism.Themajorityofthepassageshavetodowithde (Virtue)
asitrelatestostatecraft,ratherthanthemoremystical dao(Way).
Inmy analysis, Iplan to explorehow the prominence ofverses on
statecraftandthedecentralizationofyinandyangaffecttheinterpreta
tion and the flavor of the text as a whole. Can the Laozi still be read
throughthelensofdichotomyandreversal?Whatdoesthismeanforthe
extensions of the yinyang dichotomy metaphor (for example male
female, activereceptive, solidliquid, fullempty)? Was the Laozi origi
nallymeanttobesimplya handbookforrulingthestate?Theanswersto
thesequestionscouldcertainlychangeinsignificantwaysthemannerin
whichthe Laozi isread.

Research Projects
Daoism and Psychology
The government sponsored research project on Reciprocal Influence
betweenDaoistThoughtandWesternPsychologicalTreatments
wasledjointlybyDaoistscholarLXichen
, Central South University, and psychologist Yang Deshen .
Completed in 2007, it resulted in a series of essays to be published by
ChineseSocialSciencesPress.
The projectconsistsofthreeparts:theculturalbackgroundandphi
losophicalfoundationofthereciprocalinfluencebetweenDaoistthought
and Western psychology; Daoist teaching and Western psychological
treatments;researchontheapplicationsofDaoistpsychologicaltheory.
In part one, the authors analyze the crisis in psychology and the
changesinpsychologicalmethodsduetothetransformationofcontem
poraryWesternthought,notablythemovementsofphenomenologyand
existentialismandthemethodsofpsychoanalysis.Phenomenologyplays
an important role inbuilding thebridgebetweenEast andWest during
this process. On the one hand, some phenomenologists integrate tradi
NewsoftheField/ 219

tionalDaoistteachingsintotheirtheorieswitha highly beneficialresults;


ontheotherhand,phenomenologyexertsadirectinfluenceonWestern
psychologicaltreatments,whichinturnledtoaninterestinChinesecul
tureandwaysofthinkingasconceptualresourcesforWesternpsychol
ogy. Phenomenology explores the connections between Daoist thought
andWesternpsychologicaltreatments atthemethodological level from
humanistic,holisticandpracticalperspectives.
In part two, authors explore the works of Carl Gustav Jung (1875
1961), Abraham Maslow (19081970), and Carl Ranson Rogers (1902
1987), focusing on their association with Daoist thought, how they inte
gratedandappliedDaoistideasintheirtheoriesandhowthesetheories
in turn provided inspiration for contemporary Chinese psychological
treatmentandculturalstudies.
Inpartthree,theauthorslinkvariousmethodsofWesternpsycho
logical treatment with Daoist therapeutic wisdom to deal with a wide
range of contemporary mental conditions in China. They also strive to
explainthespecificpracticeofDaoistknowledgetreatmentcreatedby
the psychologistYangDeshen.
LXichenandRobinR.Wang

Conferences
Dreams and East-West Culture
Mt.Shizhu ,Fuqing (Fujian),October68,

Mt. Shizhu, thedetachedpalaceof the immoral He Jiuxian ,has


beenasacredplacefordreamssincetheSouthernSongandisknownas
the Home of Chinese Dreams. Many local and popular stories tell
about the immortals dreams and a variety of related practices are still
goingontoday.
SponsoredbytheDaoisttempleatMt.Shizhu,theFujianCenterfor
ReligiousStudiesatSichuanUniversity,theCenterforDaoismandTra
ditionalCulturalStudiesatXiamenUniversity,theFujianAssociationof
YijingStudies,theFujianAssociationofLaoziStudies,thismeetingcon
vened about a hundred scholars who offered presentations interpretat
220 /JournalofDaoistStudies2(2009)

ing the local dream phenomenon and discussing its historical and cul
turalorigin.
They also examined its cultural characteristics, functions and effi
cacy, as well as its connections with internal alchemy and folk culture.
Some presentations also made a connection between understanding
dreams and Daoism, which acknowledges them as a pertinent experi
enceinbodycultivation.Sometalksshowedhowdreamsembeddedthe
twomainDaoistconcernsoflifeanddeathandcanbeseenasawayto
demonstrate and verify the ultimate Dao. Other scholars explored con
nectionsbetween dreamculture and theteachings oftheYijing, Confu
cianism, Buddhism, and Chinese literature. To a lesser degree, partici
pants came to analyze dreams from the perpective of modern science,
psychology,andphysiology.
ZhangQinandRobinR.Wang

UBC Conference on Daoist Studies


Vancouver,October2426

JointlysponsoredbytheUBCDeanofArtsandtheLiuFoundation(and
in thepresence of itschairman,J.J. Liou), thismeeting on Daoism was
convened by Edward Slingerland and administered by Jennifer Lundin
Ritchie.Itbroughttogetherapproximatelytwentyscholarsinthefield
philosophers likeMichael Puett, AlanChan,HaroldRoth, Liu Xiaogan,
andLeeYearley;manuscriptspecialistssuchasRobinYates,ScottCook,
Xing Wen, Carine Defoort, Griet Vankerberghen, and Attilio Andreini;
DaoisthistoriansincludingLiviaKohn,RobertCampany,TerryKleeman,
andPaulCrowe;anthropologistssuchasErinKline,DanOvermyer,and
YenHsuehCheng;aswellasYijing scholarssuchasRichardSmith,Ben
jaminNg,andRichardLynn.
Topics rangedaccordingly, focusingon the understanding ofemo
tions,sagehood,andthebodyinDaoistthoughtthroughtheevaluation
ofnewtextualevidencefoundinmanuscriptsourcestovariousissuesof
Daoist practice both in ancient and contemporary China. A special ses
sion was dedicated to the Yijing, not usually part of Daoist discussions
butavaluablesupplementnonetheless.
NewsoftheField/ 221

Paperswerepostedaheadoftimeandmostsessionswerespentin
animated discussion. The setting, at the Liu Centre for the Study of
Global Issues on the scenic UBC campus, was comfortable and condu
cive to exchanges on all levels, and the participants enjoyed the close
connectionwithothersitafforded.Therearenoplansforpublicationof
avolume;individualpaperswillappearseparately,andsomemayeven
be published in this journal. For further information, please visit
www.ubcdaoism.ca
EdwardSlingerland

Ritual and Sacred Space


AmericanAcademyofReligion,Chicago,November12,2008

AtthisyearsAAR,threewerepanelsdevotedtoDaoism,allstrongand
wellattended.Inaddition,therewereseveralindividualpapersthatfo
cusedonorincludedDaoism.Belowarethehighlights.
The first panel, Practices of Transformation in Daoist Ritual,
scheduledonthe first afternoon, exploredhow differentritualpractices
affecttransformationofritualspace,ofthehumanbody,ofmaterialob
jects, and of moral dispositions. The panel started with Julius N. Tsais
presentation on the development of the ritual of theNocturnal Invoca
tion (suqi ) in an effort to identify and contextualize commentarial
concerns and controversies. The second presenter, Mark Meulenbeld,
elaborated on transformation of thebody (huashen) in Daoist rit
ual, arguing that it is a process of selfdivination, mimicking the post
humous ascent of the spirit into the divine abode. Next, a multimedia
presentationbyDavidMozinaexaminedathunderritualcurrentlyper
formed by Daoist priests in Hunan to explain the rites cosmology and
physiology. Finally, Clarke Hudson articulated the practice of moral
transformation in the Jingming ritual tradition during Song times and
shedlightonalittleexaminedaspectofDaoistritual.
Thesecondpanel,onsacredspace,hadthreepapers.Thefirstone,
Lord Laos Mountain: from Celestial Master Daoism to Contemporary
Daoist Practice, by Volker Olles from Germany, discussed the compli
cated relationshipbetween Daoism anda selflabeledConfucian sectar
iangroup,Liumenjiao,overtheDaoistsanctuariesonMt.LaojuninSi
chuan.Itisprintedinfullinthisvolume.Thesecondpaper,Modeling
222 /JournalofDaoistStudies2(2009)

Daoist Sacred Space: Imagining Emperors as Practitioners in Medieval


China,byJonathanPettit,gaveaclosereadingofalateseventhcentury
steleinscriptionattheshrinetoMotherofKingQi(Qimu )toshow
how stelae at temple sites functioned as a means to convey the rudi
ments of local practices. The third paper, The Influence of Wu
ShamanismonDaoistMastersinGeHongsShenxian zhuan,byThomas
Michael, argued that the fourthcentury Daoist masters confronted and
defeatedlocalmastersofpopularreligion,theshamans(wu),inorderto
pushthelimitsoftheirfledglingreligiousauthorityinpostHanChina.
ThepanelonChroniclingtheDao:ACriticalAppraisalofKristofer
SchipperandFranciscusVerellensTheTaoistCanon:AHistoricalCompan
iontotheDaozang,scheduledonthefinalday,wasabookreviewpanel.
Verellen presented but Schipper was unable to attend. The presenters
discussion covered the history and overview of the project as a whole
(TerryKleeman,LouisKomjathy),orfocusedonparticulartexts,themes,
andcriticalperspectives(JamesMiller,StephenEskildsen).Verellenwas
gracious in recognizing the limitations of the project, which of course
wasambitious.Heseesthepublicationastheendofthebeginningof
Taoistcanonicalstudiesratherthanthebeginningoftheend.Inother
words,itisjustastart,oralaunchingpad,forfurtherresearchintothe
Canon.
Inaddition,RobertCampanysTheDreamscapeofEarlyMedieval
China included texts from Shangqing Daoism in a comparative study
on dreams inmedievalChinesementality. IanChapman, whohad sub
mitteda paperonDaoistinscribedimages,wasunabletoattend.
ShinyiChaoandRandallNardeau
NewsoftheField/ 223

Southeast Early China Roundtable


Jacksonville,Florida,November1416,2008

The twelfth annual meeting of the Southeast Early China Roundtable


tookplaceonthecampusoftheUniversityofNorthFloridainJackson
ville, Florida, on November 1416, 2008. It was sponsored by UNF and
organizedbyNormanHarryRothschild,AssociateProfessorofHistory.
This meeting, by far the largest in the history of the roundtable, was a
threedayevent,featuringthekeynoteaddressandfivepanels.
TheRoundtableisayearlyforumforearlyandmedievalChinaspe
cialistsbasedinthesoutheasternUnitedStatestogettogetherandshare
theirresearchinarelaxedsetting.Apubliclectureofferedinconjunction
with the meeting helps to disseminate knowledge about premodern
Chinatothehostcommunity,andalsobringsinaspecialistfromoutside
the southeast region. Participantsthis year represented a wide rangeof
disciplines,includingsixinhistory,fourinclassicalphilosophy,threein
religiousstudies,andoneeachinliteratureandarthistory.
Our guest lecturer this year was Suzanne Cahill, from the Univer
sityofCaliforniaatSanDiego,whopresentedapubliclectureonFriday
evening entitled, Government Attempts to Prescribe Material Expres
sionsofStatusandIdentity:EssaysonVehiclesandClothingintheOffi
cialHistoriesoftheTangDynasty.PanelpresentationsonSaturdayand
Sunday includedthefollowing:
Lai Guolong (Florida), Religious Boundariesand Imperial Politics
inEarlyChina
Keith N. Knapp (Citadel), The Exemplary Everymen: Guo Shidao
andGuoYuanpingastheEpitomeofConfucianCommoners
LiangCai(Arkansas),AReshuffleofPower:TheWitchcraftScan
dalintheWesternHanDynasty
Wang Huaiyu (Georgia College): Benevolence, Affective Connec
tion,andEarlyChineseRitesInvolvingSpiritualSurrogates
MarioPoceski(Florida),TeachingandWritingabouttheHistoryof
ChineseReligions
Eric Henry (North Carolina), Remnants of Ancient Vietic King
domsinChina:AFieldReport
JeffreyL.Richey(Berea),ZhuangzisandLiezisDreamlessSages
224 /JournalofDaoistStudies2(2009)

GalwayTraynorandChristineWelter(Eckerd),ImaginingaDeity:
TheGuanYuMythandImageryinEarlyChina
LiviaKohn(Boston),HealingExercisesinHighestClarity Daoism
Dorothy C. Wong (Virginia), The Artof Huayan Buddhism atthe
CourtsofEmpressWuandEmperorShmu
Michelle C. Wang (Louisiana): Mogao Cave 14 and Esoteric Bud
dhistArtoftheTang
Hongjie Wang (Armstrong Atlantic), Diplomatic Culture in Five
DynastiesChina:TheCaseofFormerShuLaterLiangRelations
NormanHarryRothschild(NorthFlorida),WenmuandWuZhao:
TwoMothersofZhou
AndrewChittick(Eckerd),DragonBoatRacinginTangPoetry
Ashleigh Dean (North Florida), IllOmened Turtles in the New
TangHistorysTreatiseof theFiveElements
JonathanK.Skaff(Shippensburg),HeavenlyQaghans,Propaganda
Wars,andtheOriginsofSimultaneousKingshipinEasternEurasia
Discussants and other participants included Russell Kirkland
(Georgia), Cynthia Chennault (Florida), and Soon Ong Keong (Univer
sityofNorthFlorida).
Seetheprogramathttp://faculty.berea.edu/richeyj/seecr.html
NormanHarryRothschild

Daoism and Kysei Philosophy


Tokyo,December1719

Thethirdinaseriesof jointAmericanJapaneseconferences,thismeeting
was organized by Yamada Toshiaki and Terry Kleeman and sponsored
by Toyo University and the Japanese Society for the Study of Daoism
ParticipantsincludedStephenBokenkamp,GilRaz,LiuXun,JuliusTsai,
Lowell Skar, andElena Valussi fromthe American side as well asAsai
Motoi, Asano Haruji, Ikehira Noriko, Kato Senchi, Kikuchi Noritaka,
Mabuchi Masaya, Maruyama Hiroshi, Matsushita Michitaka, Shiga
Ichiko,TanakaFumio,UmekawaSumiyo,YamadaAkahiro,YokoteYu
taka,andYusaNoburoamongothersontheJpaaneseside.
Topicsrangedwidely.TheyincludedgeneraldiscussionsofDaoist
history, forms of BuddhistDaoist interaction, sacred geography and
NewsoftheField/ 225

cosmology,practiceissuesinsexualtechniques,thunderandotherritu
als, major figures and practices of internal alchemy, as well as modern
martialartsandinnercultivation.Formoredetails,contactTerryKlee
man(terry.kleeman@colorado.edu).
XunLIU

Upcoming Conferences
The Past, Present, and Future of Daoism
June1822,2009, Wudangshan,Hubei,China

The fifth in a series of international conferences on Daoism to be held


everyyearortwoinChina,Europe,orNorthAmerica,thismeetingfol
lowsconferencesinBoston2003,Chengdu2004,Munich2006;andHong
Kong2007.Theaimofthemeetingistopromoteacademicexchangeand
researchinthefieldofDaoism,andconferenceswillcoverbothcontem
porary and historical topics related to sociocultural constructions of
Daoistidentities,beliefs,andpractices.
Wudangshan is the devotionalcenter of one ofthemost important
deitiesoftheDaoistpantheonZhenwudadialsoknownasXuantian
shangdi. Beginning in the Northern Song (9601127), the Zhenwu cult
received imperial sponsorship which continued and grew through the
Ming(13681644).IntheYonglereignoftheMing(14021424),amassive
project created a Daoist complex that was arguably the most ambitious
and impressive architectural achievement of the empire outside of the
Imperial Palace in Beijing. That complex is today recognized by
UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, and continues to receive a large
numberofpilgrimseveryyearfromacrossChinaandSoutheastAsia.
Theconferenceissponsored by YunyangTeachersCollege,Rutgers
University,theHong Kong TaoistAssociation,theYuen Yuen Institute,
WudangshanTown,andtheWudangDaoistAssociation.Chieforganiz
ersareYangLizhiandLiuXun,assistedbyasteeringcommitteewhich
includes Li Gang, L Xichen, Zhang Qin, Mei Li, Shinyi Chao, Tang
Weixia, and WuJingxing.
226 /JournalofDaoistStudies2(2009)

Topicstobediscussed include state andsociety,ethics,modernity,


rites and rituals, architecture, iconography, martial arts, women, pil
grimageand religious tourism, healthand longevity practices, localstud
ies,aswellassectariandevelopments.Ideallytheyshouldlinktothesite
of the conference, but more distant themes are also welcome. Presenta
tions can be in English or Chinese, with abstracts translated into the
other language. For more details and to register, go to www.daoism
conference.cn
LiuXun
Web Resources
SearchableTexts.ThereareseveraltextsfromtheDaozangthatarefully
searchableonthe web,butnocompleteversion. One byproduct of the
DaoistCanonprojectpublishedbySchipperandVerellenisanindexof
names (in French romanization) that is online under the name Tao
tsang. Traveaux dIndex. It has online copies of the fiches the project
developed. It was compiled by K. M. Schipper and the Daozang Study
Group: http://www.sino.uniheidelberg.de/database/daozangidx/index.htm. It is
notaveryconvenient site but withlotsofinterestinginformation.
ComparethiswiththeDaozangsuoyin[andcomparisonforthefive
main versions of the indexes] to be found at the following site:
http://www.sino.uniheidelberg.de/database/daozang_suoyin/index.htm
Another source is James Millers site which has a searchable data
baseat http://www.daoiststudies.org/daozang/index.phpor,lessconveniently,
athttps://qspace.library.queensu.ca/handle/1974/189. Thelatterisstillmostly
titlesandauthorsandprovidesonlyalimitedsubjectindex. Manyofthe
textsareavailableinpdfformat,though.
AthirdvenueforsearchabletextsisbeingcreatedbyMugitaniKu
nio at the Jimbun kagaku kenkyujo of Kyoto University. His site is
http://www.zinbun.kyotou.ac.jp/~dokisha/
LowellSkar

Foranother,convenientsourceofonlineDaoisttexts,youcanalsogoto
http://www.sinica.edu.tw/~tdbproj/handy1/, scroll down, and click on
.
ShinyiChao
NewsoftheField/ 227

ManyDaozangtextsarealsofoundatthewebsiteoftheMinglonggong
inTaipei:http://www.ctcwri.idv.tw/CTCWRIMTS/CH000.htm.Thetexts
derive from the Zhonghua Daozang. They seem to have been scanned
since, at least within some texts, certain characters are consistently
wrong.
FabrizioPregadio

DaoistIconographyProject(DIP),undertheguidanceofPoulAndersen,
UniversityofHawaii,proudlyannouncesthatitscollectedmaterialsare
nowavailableonline: http://manoa.hawaii.edu/daoisticonography/index.htm.

Science on Qi
Qigong Research

Chen, K.W., Perlman, A., Liao, J.G., Lam, A., Staller, J.,& Sigal, L.H.
(2008).Effectsofexternalqigongtherapyonosteoarthritisoftheknee:A
randomized controlled trial. ClinicalRheumatology, 27:14971505. One
hundredtwelveadultswithkneeosteoarthritiswererandomlyassigned
toexternalqihealingorshamtreatment(controlgroup);106participants
completedtreatmentandwere analyzed.Twotherapistsprovidedfiveto
sixexternalqihealingsessionsoverthreeweeks.Healerone,withmore
than 15 years healing experience, was a lineage holder in an unnamed
Daoisttradition who was famousforhis anticancer treatment in China.
Healer two, also trained in China with more than 35 years experience,
was a fifth generationmember of a qigong healing family. Both healers
emittedqitothepainfulareausingsimilaranddifferenttechniques.Pa
tients treated by healer two reported greater reduction in pain and im
proved physical functioning that persisted for three months after com
pletion of treatmentcompared tocontrols.There wasno significant dif
ference in outcomes between participants treated by healer one and
thoseintheshamcontrolgroup.
228 /JournalofDaoistStudies2(2009)

Guo,X.,Zhou,B.,Nishimura,T.,Teramukai,S.,&Fukushima,M.(2008).
Clinical effect of qigong practice on essential hypertension: A meta
analysis of randomized controlled trials. The Journal of Alternative and
ComplementaryMedicine,14.1:2737.Ninetytworesearchstudieswere
identified,and9ofthesemetselectioncriteriaforqualitytobeincluded
in the metaanalysis comprising a total of 908 cases. Those practicing
qigong showed significant reductions in systolic and diastolic blood
pressure.Thesereductionsweregreaterthanthoseexperiencedbynon
specificinterventioncontrolgroupmembersbutnotsuperiortopartici
pants in drug control groups or conventional exercise control groups.
Resultsthatqigongismoreeffectiveinreducingbloodpressurethanno
treatmentandequalineffectivenesstootherformsofexerciseanddrug
treatment.Qigongcombinedwithdrugshasamorepositiveeffectthan
drugtreatmentalone.

Energy Psychology Research

Feinstein, D. (2008). Energy psychology: A Review of the preliminary


evidence.Psychotherapy:Theory,Research,Practice,Training,45.2:199213.
Energypsychology is acontroversial, new approach topsychotherapy
thatcombinesattentionandvisualizationpairedwithtappingacupunc
ture points while being guided by a therapist to focus on specific
thoughts and emotions. This is the first published review of research
findings. Although preliminary, the evidence shows that this treatment
seemstobeeffectiveforsomephobiasandformaintainingweightloss.

Taijiquan Research

Hackney, M.E., & Earhart, G.M. (2008). Tai chi improves balance and
mobilityinpeoplewithParkinsondisease.Gait&Posture,28:456460.
Thirtythree participants with Parkinson disease were randomly as
signedtoeitheragroupreceiving20,onehourlong,weeklytaichitrain
ingsessionscompletedover1013weeksoranotreatmentcontrolgroup
that received only pre and postintervention measurement. The tai chi
group improved more than the control group on several measures of
balance. All taichiparticipants alsoreported improvements inphysical
wellbeing.
NewsoftheField/ 229

Kerr,C.E.,Shaw,J.R.,Wasserman,R.H.,Chen,V.W.,Kanojia,A.,Bayer,
T.,&Kelley,J.M.(2008).Tactileacuityinexperiencedtaichipractitioners:
Evidenceforusedependentplasticityasaneffectofsensoryattentional
training. Experimental Brain Research, 188.2:317322. Fourteen tai chi
practitionerswerecomparedto14controlparticipantsmatchedforgen
der and age who were recruited from the local community. All partici
pantswerescreenedtoexcludethosewithdiminishedtactileacuitydue
toavarietyofcauses.Taichipractitionershadstudiedforatleast2years
withanaverageof3sessionsperweekwitheachsessionlasting40min
utes or more. Tai chi practitioners demonstrated significantly greater
tactile acuity compared to control participants. While younger partici
pants demonstrated greater tactile acuity than older participants, there
wasatrendtowardasignificantinteraction,withtaichidemonstratinga
greater impact on improving tactile acuity among older practitioners.
Theresults demonstratethat taichi, asa somatosensory attentiontrain
ingpractice,isassociatedwithgainsinsensoryperception.Thisstudyis
thefirsttodemonstratethisconnection.
DonaldDavis

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