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Reading Zhuangzi Eco-Philosophically
TAEHYUN KIM
Abstract
This paper examines the philosophy of the Zhuangzi from the perspective of
Westernecophilosophy.Theyaresimilarinthattheyarebothanthropocentricin
outlookandfoundedonadualismdefinedthroughhumancriteria.Thephiloso
phyoftheZhuangzibeginswiththetensionbetweenhumansandnature;itcriti
cizespeopleforthinkingofthemselvesasthecenteroftheuniverse.Thecritical
anthropologyofthetextcanbeinterpretedasantianthropocentrisminthecon
textofmodernecology.
IfindtheconceptofwanderingintheZhuangziawayofcreatingmulticen
tric landscape through Dao. By devotion to Dao as universal reality, the
Zhuangziinvalidateshumandualismandretrievesthemeaningandvalueofthe
individualinnature.Discussingtheproblemofsocialhierarchyanddiscrimina
tion,thetextprovidesacomprehensiveframeworktoapproachtherelationship
amongself,society,andnature.EcologyintheZhuangzithushasthreemainten
ets: 1) defending antianthropocentrism, 2) recovering the status of the myriad
thingsthroughandbynature,3)workingtowardsselfpurificationforharmony
withsocietyandnature.
Anthropocentrism
Etymologically, anthropocentrismcombines the Greek wordanthropos
(human) with centrism, the concept of seeing something as central. In
terms of meaning, there are three main definitions: (1) considering hu
manbeingsasthemostsignificantentityoftheuniverse;(2)interpreting
or regarding the world in terms of human values and experiences; and
1
2/JournalofDaoistStudies2(2009)
(3)assuminghumanstobethefinalendandaimoftheuniverse.1 Incon
temporary ecology, it is usually a synonym for humancenteredness;
some scholars also characterize it as human chauvinism, speciesism, or
anthropoparochialism.Insum,anthropocentrismisanideathatregards
humans as the most valuable beings in the world and judges all things
onlyfromthehumanperspective.
Puttinghumancenteredness intohegemoniccentrisms such as an
drocentrism, eurocentrism, and ethnocentrism, Val Plumwood, an
Ecofeminist, extracts the characteristics that are shared and patterned
amongthosecentrisms,andappliesthemtoanthropocentrism(2002,97
109;alsoPlumwood1993,ch.2;1999,ch3).
Shepointsoutthatallkindsofhegemoniccentrismsarefoundedon
thedualismwhichconsistsoftheOneasadominantcenterandOthers
as peripheries. Lacking ideological and physical forces which express
themselves in their own way, Others only depend on the fallacious im
agestheOnemakesandprojects.Thefallaciousimagesinturnproduce
the polarization which supports discontinuation, enlarges differences
between them and makes the differences disparate. Plumwood divides
theprocessproducingthepolarizationintotwophases:radicalexclusion
(or hyperseparation) and stereotyping (or homogenization). In the for
mer,theOnesegregatesOthersfromitself;inthelatter,itrendersdiffer
encesamongOthersmeaningless(2002,1003).
Plumwoodsubdividestheprocessofpolarizationinthreeways:1)
denial: the One negates the commonalities and relationship shared be
tweentheOneandOthers;2)backgrounding:bydenyingcommonalities,
Others are degraded from the original position; 3) incorporation or as
similation:bynotacknowledgingOthersassubjectshavingidentitiesof
theirown, the Onedefinesthem only in relation with itself. Instrumen
talism is a specified case of the assimilation, which is generated in the
senseofvalueandutility(2002,1046).
Accordingtothisanalysis,thedynamicsofanthropocentrismareas
follows. By privileging human characteristics like reason and morality
and rendering them justified grounds to govern other beings, humans
thoroughly separate themselves from nature and make themselves the
coreandapexoftheuniverse.Natureinturnisdemotedasacategoryof
1 http//www.mw.com/dictionary/anthropocentric ;Grey1998,10.
Kim,ReadingZhuangzi EcoPhilosophically/3
2 See Graham 2001, 8687; Watson 1968, 8182; Mair 1994, 5556; HYSIS
16/6/29. HYSIS stands for HarvardYenching Sinological Index Series and
referstotheseries of concordancestoclassicaltexts published bythe Harvard
YenchingInstitute,Cambridge,Mass.z
3 ThereareseveralearlymanuscriptsoftheDaodejingortheLaozi,asitwas
then called. Comparing the Guodian and the Mawangdui Boshu edi
tionswithsegmentsquotedintheHanfeizi,Idonotsupportthesuggestionthat
thetextwascompletedbeforethemiddleoftheWarringStatesperiod.RatherI
assume that various versions coexisted until the end ofthe era.Iconclude that
highly refined metaphysics of Dao(asin chapter1)as wellasideas ofthegov
ernanceofthesage,appearedundertheinfluenceofotherDaoists,especiallythe
HuangLao school, after the middle of the Warring States period (Kim unpub
lished A). It alsoseemsto methattheDaodejingwe havetoday, which isquite
4/JournalofDaoistStudies2(2009)
interested in the true nature of reality but only in the mind. One may
alsosuggest thatpartsofchapter6were, asQian Muargues(1993, 52),
notactuallybyZhuangzihimself.Evenso,itisstillnecessarytoexplain
whyandhowtheideaofDaoasultimacywasincorporatedintoandas
sociatedwiththeInnerChapters.Inotherwords,howcanthethoughtof
Zhuangzi plausibly be matched with the idea of Dao? We may find an
explanationinthecontextof theancientChineseunderstandingandpur
suit of Dao as origin and truth. Zhuangzi being part of the intellectual
atmosphereofhistimebynecessitycametosharethemeaningofDaoas
originandtruthwiththeLaozi andtheschoolof HuangLao.4
closetotheBoshuLaozi,wascompletedbetweenthelateWarringStatesandthe
earlyHan.InthisIfollowQianMu,whothoughtsoevenbeforethediscoveryof
the latest manuscripts (1991, 2159). Ning (2005), moreover, examines how the
textswere incorporatedandexpandedatthistime.
3 UchiyamadefinesDaointheinnerchaptersofZhuangziastheprinciple
tobeinthingsandtomaketheindividualastheyare(1987,60).Hefocuseson
the individual relationship of Dao with all things. That is, his understanding of
Dao in ch. 6 is similar to the term myriad principles (wanli ) of the later
ChengZhuSchool of SongNeoConfucianism.Astheconcept ofthe myr
iad principles always assumesthe presence ofone underlying principle (yili
),theGreatUltimate(taiji),thismayberelatedtotheconceptofDaoinch.
6of theZhuangzi.
4 To understand the uniqueness of Zhuangzis thought, we must under
approving the prevalent theory that all things are one body, developed
Zhuangzisperspective of epistemology, language,and logic in the competition
with Gongsun Long, Hui Shi, and the Mohists. The latter are responsible for
ideasofhumanethics, theperfectbeingasidealman, thepoliticsof thesage, and
thecosmologyofqiintheInnerChapters.Whiletheideasofformeraremainly
concentrated in chapter 2, those of the latter are broader in theme and more
widely spread in various anecdotal fragments. Altogether, this shows that the
ZhuangziwasundersomeimpactofHuangLaoinfluenceduringitseditingand
development.
5 As Fukunaga points out, the compilers of the Outer Chapters tended to
subordinate Dao to Heaven (1966, 2:4). However, the Inner Chapters do not
show this explicitsubordination. Contraryto Fukunagas interpretation, Ithink
that the term for true reality in the Inner Chapters is not only Dao but also
Heaven(Fukunaga1966,1:34).AccordingtoHYSIS,theInnerChapterscontain
the term Heaven 46 times, compared to Dao, which appears 38 times (HYSIS,
27477;21320).ThisshowsthatZhuangzipaid attentiontoultimateissues.
6 TheformationofHuangLaoresultedfromthefusionofideasinancient
Dao asoriginandtruth
Heavenas nature spontaneity astheHeavens beingintheworld
Yetanotherimportanttermisthingsorbeings(wu)thatmakeup
theworldasindividuals.TheZhuangzidealswiththistermmostlyinthe
Outer and Miscellaneous Chapters. Here wu indicates three distinct
characteristicsofbeings.Forone,thingsorbeingsarematerialobjectsof
sense,language,andcognition;theyhaveexternalformsandnames.For
another, they exist in changeable conditions, are restricted in time and
space, and are dependent on mutual counterparts or opposites. And
third,theyoriginatefromDao(or Heaven);however,sinceDaoisknown
sijing,partoftheMawangduimanuscripts(seeRyden1997;Chen1995,
2945).Theotherwasconcernedwiththecultivationofthesagekinginhiseffort
to realize Dao in the world. That is, it was about cultivating body and spirit
(yangxing yangshen ), which emphasized knowing and embodying the
heavenlyprincipleinthehumanbody.Thisappearsmostclearlyin fourchapters
oftheGuanzi,i.e.,Neiye,Xinshu I& II,andBaixin.
TheformerpaidattentiontoidentifyingtheorderofDaointhepoliticalcommu
nity;thelatterfocusedonthehumanbodyasamicrocosmosasrealizedbythe
sageking.HuangLaothoughtonpoliticsasreferredtointhispapermainlyre
latesto theformer.
Kim,ReadingZhuangzi EcoPhilosophically/7
Nature
TheZhuangziseesnatureinavarietyofways.Tobegin,natureistheen
titythatgivesbirthtoandbringsupallbeingsintheuniverse.Theylive
andblossominnature.Itisthe rootandbasisoftheperfectionofbeings,
butdoesnotaskanyrecompenseforbearingandnurturingthem.Thus
natureand/orHeaven isthemakerofthings(zaowuzhe)andthe
creatorand transformer(zaohuazhe),the one thatfashions and
transformsus(ch.6;Graham2001,88).
Beyond this,nature isalsothe genuinecriterion ofcognizance and
judgment. Only by entrusting oneself tonature can one overcome rela
tivityandobtainatruestandard.InthissenseasthetruecriterionofDao,
nature is called the true master (zhenzai ) or the true lord (zhenjun
) (ch.2).
Third,natureendowshumanbeingswithfate,literallythatwhich
isdecreed(ming).TheZhuangziusesthistermintwooppositedirec
tions:oneisthedecreegivenbyHeaventohumans;theotheristheor
dersthatissuefromhumans innermindtowardHeaven.Theformeris
thedecree of Heaven (tianming) than totheMandate ofHeaven in
thesenseofpublicdutyand politicallegitimationaswhichitiscentralto
the thought of Confucius and Mencius. The latter is ongoing or trans
Human Beings
The critical discourse on human beings in the Zhuangzi, when read in
modernecologicalterms,isaformofantianthropocentricanthropology.
It comes in two critiques: one of human reason, the other of the social
order as an extension of humancenteredness. The former is the intro
spectionoftheself,andthelatterofcommunitymattersashumansoci
etyandpolitics.
Human Reason
Westernphilosophers,asismadeclearinthedisputeoveranthropocen
trism in contemporary ecology, have tried to demonstrate that human
beings justifiably have the highest value and top status in the universe
becauseof their capacityforreason.Forexample,ImmanuelKantsaid:
8 UchiyamaunderstandsHeavenisadeterminantofexistenceandthestate
of all things in nature, including humans. At the same time, he points out the
differenceinthecharacterofHeavenasfoundintheAnalectsortheMengziand
theInnerChaptersoftheZhuangzi.WhileHeavenintheZhuangzicannotberec
ognized through reason, inthe Confucian works it can(1987, 5859).However,
Heaven in both traditions is fundamentally similar: ineffable, beyond human
reasonandlanguage,andasenseof reverencetoward greatbeing.
Kim,ReadingZhuangzi EcoPhilosophically/9
inglycloselylinkedwithwhethertheycanrationallythink.9 ThusWest
ernphilosophershaveinsistedthatreason is indisputableproof forhu
man dominion in the universe, proposing a focus on rationality in ex
plaining the value of being. The evaluation of reason in explaining the
valueofhumanbeingshasbeensoinfluentialthatevenDeepEcology,a
defenderofbiosphericalegalitarianismandoneofthemostradicaleco
logical movements in the West, emphasizes that human reason should
not be underestimated (Naess 1991, 16971). Although Deep Ecologists
do not think that rationality alonejustifies human superiority, they ap
prove the proposition that human reason has valuable meaning and
statusinnature (seeFrench1999,12745).
TheZhuangzi,onthecontrary,tendstosupport antirational thought
(Graham 1991, 17683). Two grounds for the distrust are given. First,
humancognitionandjudgmenttakerootintheinnermind,whichisfull
of desires and egooriented knowledge.10 Reasoning based on the mind
inevitably leads one to the fulfillment of desires or selfjustification,
whilehumancertaintyisboundwithinthelimitationofknowledgeand
experiences. Thus humans never reach absolute correctness by using
them.
Second, all conditions for cognition and judgment such asspecific
situations as well as object and subject are constantly exposed to the
changing reality of the world.Allcriteria undergochanges in time and
space, so any truth believed at one time may change into falsehood at
another.Anyreasonablejudgmentrestrictedintimeandspacecannever
be absolute. The conclusion is thus necessarily that on human reason
cannotbeanauthorityguaranteeingthesuperiorityofhumanbeings.
subjectinancientChina,seeNivison1987,6:47778.
10/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
11 Thisanecdoteisrelatedtoasimilaroneinch.20.SeeWatson1968,209
nialofgeneralteleology(1962,2:55). Needhamseemstounderstandthemean
ing of generalteleology asthe human assumptionas in the Christian faiththat
everythinghasitsgroundtocompleteitselffromGodandthatitscompletionis
onlyforhuman use.Teleologyusuallyimpliesthattheethicalrequirementsor
recommendations are directed entirely toward [some ideal of] the good con
Kim,ReadingZhuangzi EcoPhilosophically/11
Social Order
MurrayBookchin,thefounderofSocialEcology,arguesthathumande
spoilingof natureisanoutcomeofhumandominionoverotherhumans,
represented as the universal social pattern of hierarchy.14 The Zhuangzi,
too, supports the idea that the formation of a hierarchical society is
closelyrelatedtothecenteringofhumansintheuniverse.Asch.4says:
wasanideaasawhole,andthatearlyDaoistswerenotinterestedinnatureof
particulars(1997,85).
14 Hesays:Byhierarchy,Imeanthecultural,traditional,andpoliticalsys
temstowhichthetermsclassandstatemostappropriatelyrefer(1991,68).
12/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
Self-Cultivation
Asregardstheactualprocessofhowtogobeyondhumancenteredness
andturnbacktonature,theZhuangzi presentstwoways:openingapath
through politics and practicing selfcultivation of the inner mindtwo
waysthat,moreover,arenotincompatiblecontradictionbutpresentlev
elsof priority.
15The Liji (Book of Rites), compiled in the Western Han, says: The
practice of rites does not apply to commoners; the execution of punishments
doesnotapplytothenoble(ch. 1).
Kim,ReadingZhuangzi EcoPhilosophically/13
Limitation of Politics
TheZhuangziingeneraltendstodenypoliticsasawayofturningback
to nature, claiming that political activities are associated with egoistic
desires for fame and selfaggrandizement. It thus criticizes the human
motivationforpoliticalparticipationbutdoesnotdenytheessentialhu
man need to live together.16 In this, the text differs from HuangLao
documents,whichhaveamorepositiveoutlookonthequestionwhether
humanbeingsareabletoconstructasocialsystemanalogoustothehu
manthatmatchesthelawandreflectstheflowofDao.17
TheZhuangziismuchmoreprudent and negativeonthatpoint.It
notesrepeatedlythatallexternalizationthroughhumanlanguage,ideas,
or social structures necessarily brings about distortion. Its vision of the
idealpersonisaccordinglymoreindividualisticandinternallyfocused
in contrast to that of the Daodejing, where the sage is a political being.
But this does not imply that the text denies human communal life.18
thiskindofunderstanding.Forexample,abookofthesijing,Jingfasaysin
itsfirstsentence,DaobirthsLaw,anditmeans,onlyfromtheorderof
natureasDao,theorderofstateshouldbeestablished.Sincelawexactlyreflects
theprincipleofDao,tofollowandobeyaninstitutionalizedlawofstateissame
toparticipateinthecosmicprinciple;andinturntoenactlawistosanctifythe
human political community by thesacred principles. Thissanctification ofsoci
ety ispossible and perpetuated by and through the human Sage. The emphasis
on the Sage King rendered the HuangLao thought to hold a perspective, that
HeavenEarthManare one body (tianzhirenyiti).Inthis,thecore of
the doctrine is in the ascending power and status of humans, which became
equally matched with Heaven and Earthin the end. That is,the perspective of
the one body was an expression of awakening and ambition of human power
andcapacityoftheHuangLaoschool.
18 SimaQianhascontributedtotheunderstandingofZhuangziasa
WhiletheZhuangziisconcernedwithtragichumanrealityandseeksso
lutions for overcoming it, recognizing the fundamental limitations of
externalization such as language and social systems, it keeps silent in
addressing political alternatives. The texts silence on the ideal commu
nity,moreover,iscontrastedindirectlyandnegativelyinseveralvisions
ofidealplacesandholypersons,suchasfarawayGuyiMountaininch.1.
Intermsofecologicalconcerns,itishardtoimagineZhuangziper
suading us tocompletely abandon the will to save the Earth in crisis.19
Truly if he consistently distrusted humans and thought of them as not
understandingthatanythingwaswrong,hewouldrecognizeneitherthe
problem of humans against nature nor the necessity of selfcultivation.
However, exposing his critical view of humans and society, Zhuangzi
invites people to selfcultivation in an ethical dimension.20 In this, his
tionhowmuchSimaspositionhelpedtheoverallunderstandingoftheZhuangzi.
ThereseemstobetwopossiblereasonswhySima stressedthereclusiveandanti
political tendencies in the Zhuangzi: First, placingthe Zhuangziwith other early
Daoist works associated with Laozi, Shen Buhai , and Han Feizi, he
neededto focusonZhuangzispoliticaluniquenessandoversimplifyitsposition.
Second, asGuan points out,SimaQianwantedtocriticizethe Confucianism of
histime byreferringtoZhuangzichaptersthatpresent challengestothe Confu
ciansocialorder(1961,322).ThechaptertitlesSimauses,too,reflecthisinclina
tiontoreadthetextintheperspectiveofpoliticalanarchism. However,theprob
lemofSimasintentionaldescriptioncannot beclearlyverified,sincewedonot
know ifhistextwasthesameasours.
19 Kirkland cautiously sees a possible transformative power of the ideal
oftheZhuangzi(1989,11126).However,Idoubtthattherecanbeacleardistinc
tion between spiritual transformation with mystical and religious means in the
Zhuangzi (see Allinson1989,79).
Kim,ReadingZhuangzi EcoPhilosophically/15
skepticpositionseemstobeatherapeuticprescriptionforaharmonious
life withnature(Kjellberg1996).Therefore,hiscritiquesofhumans and
society go against the anthropocentric origin of human judgment and
morals,notagainsthumansassuch.ThusIbelievethatforZhuangzithe
ecologicalquesttosavetheearthisjustifiableinprinciple.
Cultivation of Mind
SinceZhuangzifindstheroot ofanthropocentrism in human ignorance
and inner desirerather than in the spread of the mechanistic view of
nature,theriseofcapitalism,andtheformationofahierarchicalsociety,
heseesthetruemethodtodissolvedesireandtoreturntonatureasself
cultivation.21
Despiteallrelativityandselfcontradictions,humanbeingsneedto
cultivatethemselvesandareabletoachievetransformation.Wherethen
canone findthe potentialtocultivate?Thetextsuggests:
OncewhenIwasonamissiontothestateofZhou,saidCon
fucius,Ihappenedtoseesomelittlepigssuckingattheirdead
mother. After a short while, they all abandoned her and ran
away hastily. It was because they no longer sensed her to be
their kind. What they loved about their mother was not her
physicalformbutthatwhichanimatedherform.(ch.4;Mair
1994,47)
21ItwouldbefairtosuggestintheviewofSocialEcologyorEcofeminism
thattheZhuangzisimplyreducedtheproblemofthecontradictionofsocialsys
temtothatof thesubjectivemind.Howevertherewouldalsobeafundamentally
questionablepointasfollows:whetheritistrulypossibleorappropriatetosepa
ratehumanindividualselffromsocietyitselfinexplainingandanalyzingsocial
phenomenon.TheancientChinese,includingZhuangzi,whodidthinktherela
tionshipbetweenindividualselfandsocietynotasjustconflictedorincompati
blebutaspriorandnaturallyextended,wouldnotagreethemodernapproachto
understandinghumansandsociety.
16/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
What do you mean when you say his virtue takes no form?
Among level things, water at rest is the most perfect, and
therefore it can serve as a standard. It guards what is inside
and shows no movement outside. Virtue is the establishment
of perfect harmony. Though virtue takes no form,things can
notbreakawayfromit. (Watson1968,74)
TherewasamanofLu,PrincelyNag,whohadbeenmutilated
byhavingoneofhisfeetcutoff,yetthosewhofollowedhimin
his wanderings were as numerous as the followers of Confu
cius.
Chang Ji inquired of Confucius, Princely Nag has had
oneofhisfeetcutoff,yetthosewhofollowhiminhiswander
ingsdivideuphalfthestateofLuwithyou,master.Heneither
teaches when standing nor discourses when sitting. Yet those
whogotohimemptycomebackfull.Istheretrulyadoctrine
without words, a formless mental accomplishment? What
kindofpersonishe?Sir,saidConfucius,heisasage.I
wouldleadthewholeoftheempiretofollowhim.(Mair1994,
4243)
MasterSi,MasterYu,MasterLi,MasterLaiwereallfourtalk
ingtogether.Whocanlookuponnonbeingashishead,onlife
ashisback,andondeathashisrump?theysaid.Whoknows
Kim,ReadingZhuangzi EcoPhilosophically/17
that life and death, existence and annihilation are all a single
body? I will be his friend! The four men looked at each other
andsmiled.Therewasnodisagreementintheirheartsandso
thefourofthembecamefriends. (Watson,8384)22
boundary to make friends to only the four men themselves. Cheng Xuanying
reads the passage: If anyone who can know this [principle of nature]
exists,Iwillbehisfriend (Guo2006,258). Ipreferthisunderstanding.
18/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
23 FukunagaarguesthatqiintheZhuangziiscloselypresent intwodimen
ing(1982,109,112). KanayaagreesthatparticipatingintheprincipleofNatureis
ultimatelyonthereligiousdimensionin theZhuangzi (1997,87).
25 Quoting and analyzing a paragraph in ch. 23, Mllgaard presents the
unmediatedspontaneitythatischaracteristicofanimal,todosowouldbetolose
ourhumanity(2007,59).
However, concerning this, I emphasize the truth of equalizing things that
humansshould not differentiatethemselves fromthe animals interms of order
or hierarchy of beingsa distinction that, according to the Zhuangzi, brings
about a distortion of reality. Obviously, the truth of equalization the Zhuangzi
proposedwasnottoannihilatetheinnatenature(xing)ofeachbeing.Rather,
therepudiationofthetruthaimedathumancenteredvaluationtothings.Along
the same logic to separate humans from other beings, one might not recognize
difference between Heaven and man, an idea present in the description of the
perfect being (zhenren ) in ch. 6 (see Graham 1991, 19599). However, this
raises two issues: the authenticity of the zhenren; and the difference between
Heaven/manandman/things. SeeKimunpublishedC.
26 hamaoutlinesninestatesofwanderingintheZhuangzi:1)astateofno
self,noachievement,andnoname,2)astateofdependenceupon nothing,3)a
stateofknowingtheprincipleof equalizingthingsandbeingpenetratedbyabso
lute knowledge,4)astateofforgetting,5)astateof being changeable in neces
saryprocessofnature,6)astateoffreeandspontaneousacts,7)astateofbeing
awakenedasthedecreedandtobecontrolledbyit,8)stateofbeingintheplace
oforigin,9) stateofthehighestleveloftheworld(1978, 425).
20/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
liberationfirstcomefromthemind;theyarenotprovidedbyoutercon
ditions.ThusforZhuangzi,stayingatpeaceinthedecreedisaprerequi
site for all freedom and liberation; only by attaining this state can hu
manswanderfreelyandeasilyinnature.Theycanthencoexist harmoni
ouslywithallbeings,intheirrelationshipwiththingscompletelygiving
up all humancenterednessandinstrumentalism.They havebeen trans
formedintobeingswhotrulyrespecttheintrinsicvalueofallbeings.As
thetextsays:
Thesageleansonthesunandmoon,tuckstheuniverseunder
hisarm,mergeshimselfwiththings,leavestheconfusionand
muddleasitis,andlooksonslavesasexalted.Ordinarymen
strain and struggle; the sage is stupid and blockish. He takes
part in ten thousand ages and achievessimplicity in oneness.
For him, all the ten thousand things are what they are, and
thustheyenfoldeachother. (Watson1968,47)
27Multicentrismchallengesandideallyovercomestheecophilisophicalpo
sitionofexpandingcircles(concentrism),whichisthestrategytoascertainiden
tification between humans andnature. The expansion of circles is only possible
by thesame quality fromoutside ofthe circle asthe quality of existence inside
thecircle.Thismeansthatwhetherselfandthingforinstancecanbecomeidenti
fiedismadepossibleonlyintheconditionthatappliestotheelementofidentifi
cationinsidethehuman.So,inthestrategyofidentification,theutmostdecisive
Kim,ReadingZhuangzi EcoPhilosophically/21
ing from the ruling center and assumes thatthehuman is not the only
moral being. He points out that the expansion of the human being is
based on a dualism that separates self and nonself, and demands that
one resisttheassimilationandmarginalizationaccompanyingdualism.
Beyond the dualism, to describe the present world, Weston bor
rowsWilliamJamessconceptofthemultiverse,whichmeansthatthere
arenumerousstructuresindifferentdimensionsandthattheworldcon
sistsofmultiplepowerfields,eachofwhichhavetheirowncenterinthe
networkofcomplicatedstructures.Thesestructuresformthemultiverse.
Takingthis intothe ethicalrealm, Weston demands thatone shouldre
specttherightsofallbeingsinthismultiverse.Developingamoralcon
siderationtowardsothers,oneshouldadoptanopenattitudesothateth
ics become inviting and welcoming. Acknowledging the existence of
othercenters,the moralsubjectfurthermoreisnotonlythehumanbeing
anylonger,butincludesalsononhumanbeings.Ethicsaccordinglyhave
to be constructed in cooperation with them and by taking their rights
andneedsintoaccount.
Despite their differences in explaining their views, Zhuangzi and
Weston have some significant similarities in their vision of decentering
humans by invalidating all dualisms and accepting the intrinsic moral
valueofallbeings.Theyhopetoeliminateanyandespeciallyhuman
imposedprojection, subordination, and hierarchies. Most importantly,
theyshareavisionoftheworldasamultiverseandsee allbeings as hav
ingtheirowncenterwhich mustnotbeviolatedbyothers.
Nevertheless, unlike Weston, the Zhuangzi clearly emphasizes the
Daoasuniversality.TheDaohasthefundamentalcharacteristicofbeing
anagentwhorealizesandcompletesthenatureofallbeingsandthings
withoutforcingorviolatingthem.Daoornatureinvalidatesallartificial
hierarchies and systems of domination so that all beings retrieve their
owncenter of existence.In this respect, Dao is theopencenterthatem
bracesandnurturesallthingsastheyare;itisneverthehegemoniccen
ter.ThroughDaoasthefoundationforthingstobethemselves,eachand
every being can actualize itself and realize its full potential without in
Deficiencies
Zhuangzis ecology can be considered deficient in the following three
points.
First,hedeniestheneedforpoliticalchangein society.Hispolitics
are affectedbytwo main factors:theanarchic tradition aspresentedby
recluses and the ideal tradition of the sage behind the scenes as pre
sentedbyConfucius.Atfirstglance,Zhuangziseemstodefendpolitical
skepticism resulting from anarchism; however, since he also acknowl
edges thepotentialexistence of thevirtuouscommunity, hemay not in
fact have given up the ideal of a perfect society completely. Rather, he
objectedtotherepresentationandjustificationofexternalmoralandpo
liticalstandards.
OnemayalsocriticizeZhuangziforhislackofshortterm,specific,
and practical prescriptions for ecological earthconstruction.28 On the
other hand, in order to revolutionize the world, Zhuangzi also de
mandedthatpeopleapprovehumanoriginatedlimitationsandreexam
ine themselves as political subjects. Instead of offering an immediate
practical ecology, he suggested the priority of selfpurification toward
naturethroughpotentiallypoliticallyoriented introspection.
Second, he shows no concern with the particularwhich is not to
saythathe was not interested in the individual.29 Indeed,mostpreQin
thatZhuangziseparatedwhatisheavenly(oruniversal)fromwhatishuman(or
local)andignoredthelatter(2001,2344).Shesays:TheconceptsofDaointhe
Kim,ReadingZhuangzi EcoPhilosophically/23
Zhuangzi and Laozi often focus on and emphasize the universal (pattern of
change)whiledepreciatingparticular,individualexperiences(2001, 35).
30 Zhuangzi emphasizes Heaven while downgrading the independent
showsthathetouchedthecoreofthedisputeamongtheschools. Hisrecognition
of a Daoist group also appears in his critique of the Laozi.Inhis chapter,Dis
course on Heaven, he says: Laozi knew about shrinking back, but not about
stretching out (HYSIS64/17/51). Taking account thatthe earlytext ofthe Laozi
wasenlargedandeditedby HuangLao scholarsinXunzistime,itbecomesclear
that Xunzi differentiated between Laoziand theHuangLao. Some members of
the HuangLao school, as shown in the Huangdi sijing, tended to propose the
doctrine of revering yang (chongyang) by assimilatingbothConfucian and
LegaliststatecraftandjustifyingthemundertheauspicesofDaoistcosmology.
31 Despitethefundamentallimitthatitwasconcernedwithandraisedfor
humanuse,theecologicalvirtuethatXunzisthoughthasis toemphasizehuman
responsibilitytocareotherbeings.Itispresentedasfollows:Ifitistheseason
whenthegrassesandtreesareinthesplendoroftheirfloweringandsprouting
newleaves,axesandhalberdsarenotpermittedinthemountainforestsoasnot
toendtheirlivesprematurelyortointerrupttheirmaturity.He[asageking]
scrutinizesHeavenaboveandestablishesonEarthbelow;hefillsupandputsin
orderallthatisbetweenHeavenandEarth;andheaddshisworktothemyriad
things (Knoblock1990,2:105).
32 SeeKim,unpublishedD,onecologyfromConfuciustoWangYangming.
lege human status and justify social hierarchy: Fire and water possess vital
breath but have no life. Plants and trees possess life, but lack awareness. Birds
and beasts have awareness, but lack a sense of morality and justice. Humans
possessvitalbreath,life,andawareness,andaddtothemasenseofmoralityand
justice.Itisforthisreasonthattheyarethenoblestbeingsintheworld.Inphysi
calpowertheyarenotsogoodasanox,inswiftnesstheydonotequalthehorse;
yettheoxandhorsecanbeputtotheiruse.Whyisthat?Isayitisbecausehu
mansalonecanformsocietiesandanimalscannot.Whycanmanformsociety?I
say it is due to the division ofsociety into classes.How can socialdivisions be
translated into behavior? I say it is because of humans sense of morality and
justice. Thus, iftheirsense of morality andjusticeis usedto dividesociety into
classes,concordwillresult. (Knoblock1990,2:1034)
26/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
oftheZhuangzi,althoughsomepassages,forexampleinchapter7,show
thattheauthorswereundersomeinfluenceoftheprevalentintellectual
currentsatthattime.Hismainconcernwashowhumanscouldabdicate
their superiority, never how they could ascend to the central throne of
universe. What, then, is the authentic implication of Zhuangzis harsh
critiqueofhumanbeings,especiallysinceitneitherforcestheselectionof
another alternative nor arises from misanthropism. Instead, Zhuangzi
usesittothoroughlyaskhumanbeingstounderstandwhytheyshould
always be moderate in their interaction with nature and other beings.
Zhuangzismainconcern is an invitation ofnature givenby the infinite
negationofdualismfromhumanorigins.
Conclusion
The Zhuangzi has three teachings that are highly relevant to contempo
rary ecological issues. Revolving around his understanding of nature,
humanbeings,andselfcultivation,theyareasfollows.
Asregardsnature,Zhuangziaskshumanstoreexaminetheterm.In
the contemporary world, nature is strongly disenchanted and secular
ized, understood as things completely isolated from the human world
andasmereobjectstobetakenatwill.However,intheZhuangzi,nature
notonlyconsistsofthingsasallbeingsbutisalsotheoriginandthebase
of completion of all beingsincluding humansin the Dao. All beings
andtheirorigin arealwayscloselyassociated;forminganetworkofbe
ings in andthrough Dao, all things are equal andmutually linkedwith
eachother.Freeandeasywanderingthencomesfromthesuccessfulrela
tionship ofnature andthings; from theperspective of ecology, itcanbe
understoodasthe multicentriclandscapeempoweredbyDao.
As regards human beings, Zhuangzi raises the question of reason
inargumentandsuggestsathoroughselfreflectionandmodestyinthe
knowledgeofnature.Humanbeingsdenytheirrelationshiptoallbeings
and things in the world; theywithdrawfrom them andtry to occupya
positionofsovereignty overall.Theydoallthis, believinginthe absolute
accuracy of reasona faculty they alone possessand by realizing the
desires that arise in their minds. Zhuangzi warns against essential hu
man dogmatism and an anthropocentric worldview, thus collapsing all
Kim,ReadingZhuangzi EcoPhilosophically/27
hegemonicdualism.HereiswheretheZhuangzi emergesasacoretextof
antianthropocentrism.
As regards selfcultivation, Zhuangzi proposes the need to culti
vate the mind in the individual if anthropocentrism is to be overcome.
Awakeningtotheideaofhumanfinitenessinrelationtoinfinitenature,
forgetting conscious distinctions, and emptying oneself of desires are
necessaryactionsinthiscontext.Themomentonethuscomestopartici
pate in Dao,thehorizon ofwanderingthroughnature in liberation and
freedom opens. As the human self undergoes transformation, self
purification and refinement become the ground of creating a truly har
monious relationshipwithsocietyand nature.
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Eating Your Way to Immortality
SHAWN ARTHUR
Abstract
This paper examines health and bodyrelated claims made in the Lingbao
Wufuxu(The Prefacetothe FiveLingbao Talismans ofNuminous Treasure), an
earlymedievalDaoisttextthatcontainsseventyrecipesforattaininghealth,lon
gevity,andspiritualbenefit.Synthesizingthetextsmyriadclaimsandanalyzing
theirimplicitassumptions,Iworktodevelopanintegratedpictureofwhatwas
consideredcrucialfor a healthy body, what techniques were usedtoattainthis
ideal, and what goals were sought using these practices. I examine the texts
claimsaboutbecomingphysicallyandspirituallyhealthy,itsproposedstagesof
purificationandrefinement,andtherangeofindicatorsbywhichadherentscan
measure progress toward their ideal state. Not only does this study provide a
newinterpretationoftheWufuxusdietaryregimens,italsoillustrateshowChi
nese medical theories influenced the texts authors to present immortality as a
logical evolution of healthperfecting practices. This analysis leads to questions
of how the idea of perfecting ones health functions within the worldview and
ritualpracticesofearlyDaoists.
32
Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/33
1 DZ388;hereaftercitedasWufuxu.Thenumberingsysteminthisworkis
theMasterWhoEmbracesSimplicity,DZ1185)11.3a18a2;trl.Ware1966,p.1796.
3 Foracomplete list ofthe contents ofthetexts first and thirdscrolls,see
Raz(2004,3137).
4 Although lacking an explicit explanatory statement, the context and
placementoftheserecipesalsoseemtoindicatethattheyfunctionaspreparatory
practices for participation in the later formal ritual which relies on the adept
havingattainedmanyofthegoalspresentedintherecipes,suchashavingones
energypurifiedandstrengthened,havingtheabilitytofast,beingincommunica
tionwiththegods,andhavingtheprotectionoftheJadeMaidens.
34/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
Techniques
TointroduceDaoistdiets,itmustberecognizedthatalloftheWufuxus
dietarypracticesandtheirexpectedbenefitsare predicatedonearlyChi
nese medical understandings of the physical body and the food it con
sumesinenergeticterms.Qi (organic,materialessentialenergy)isthe
fundamentalenergythatisfoundineverythingthroughoutthecosmos,
includingthehuman body,whichrequires qi tomaintainhealthandlife.
ThisideaisreflectedthroughouttheWufuxu,especiallyinitsmany
recipes that present benefiting and increasing qi as a basic self
cultivation achievement.5 For example, properly ingesting a compound
ofChinaRootfungus(fuling;Poriacocos),Rehmannia(dihuang;
Rehmanniaglutinosa Libosch),sesameseed(huma;Sesamumindicum),
andasparagus root(tianmendong;Asparaguscochinensis)powders
is thought to strengthen ones qi in just thirty days and to double it
withinonehundreddays necessary attainmentsbefore furtherrefine
mentcantakeplace(2.15a38;recipe20).
Oneresultofthisworldviewisanattempttoingestthemosteffica
ciousformsofqiin order tohave thebeststartingplace forproficiently
refiningandtransformingonesbodytoitsultimatepotential.Forexam
ple,thetextstates:Eatingthatwhichiscleanandpurebringslonglife,
andeatingthatwhichisuncleanandcorruptcausesoneslife(ming)
to be interrupted (2.23b2; recipe 28). Therefore, proper selection and
preparation of foods is crucial to Daoist selfcultivation. In fact, the
Wufuxuisfilledwithadmonitionstoingestonlyingredientsthatarehar
vestedandpreparedonparticulardaysassociatedwithoptimalqi condi
tionsandcorrespondences.
The Wufuxu contains seventythree different ingredients, the most
popularof which areSesameseeds,Asparagusroot,Rehmannia,China
rootfungus,Pinetreesap(songzhi;Pinus),Pokeroot(shanglu;
Phytolaccaacinosa),Locusttreeseeds(huaizi;Sophorajaponica),Wolf
berries(Gouqi;Lyciumchinense),andGinger(jiang;Zingiberoffici
nale).6 Eachingredienthasitsownmedicinalproperties,manyofwhich
5 Seerecipes1,2,7,12,14,20,25,27a,28,36,43,44,46.
twelvevarietiesofrice(mi),wheat(mai),andmillet(chishumi,shu
Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/35
arestatedexplicitlyinthetextandwhichcorrespondtootherearlyma
teriamedicainformation(seeArthur2006a,190213).
In addition to the ingredients innate qualities, the text stipulates
thatadeptsmusttakeintoconsiderationvariousimportantcosmological
correlationsespeciallydates,seasons,yinyangstates,andFivePhases
energies when collecting, preparing, and ingesting the various ingredi
ents.Forexample,ARecipeforLengtheningYearsandImprovingLife
Expectancydiscusses harvestingthechrysanthemumplant
(ju;Chrysanthemummorifolium),eachpartofwhichhasaspecialname
indicatingitskeyproperty, and says:
Duringthecourseofthethreespringmonths,onthejiayin
day in the middle of the day, gather transform life
leaves.Duringthecourseofthethreesummermonths,onthe
bingyindayinthemiddleoftheday,gatherthereplen
ishandrefillstalkDuringthethreeautumnmonthson
theyuyi dayintheafternoon,gatherthesunsessence
.Suns Essence isthe chrysanthemumsflower.Alwaysin
thewinterinthetenthmonthonthewuyindayatdawn,
gather the spirit essence These are the chrysanthe
mumsseeds In winter inthe eleventh ortwelfth month on
therenyindayatsunset,gatherlongevity.Longev
ityisthechrysanthemumsroots. (2.7a99a1;recipe12)7
daomi ) thatarefermentedtoproducealcoholswiththeadditionofvegetal
active ingredients. Additionally, there are a few nonvegetal active ingredients
[mica(yunmu),deerantler(mijiao),mercury(shuiyin),andtin(xi
)],andmanynonvegetal,nonactiveingredientssuchaswater,honey,andthe
animalfatsusedforfryingin somerecipes.
7 See Arthur 2006, 605 and Raz 2004, 3612 for discussion of the Chinese
calendricalsystemanditsusageinthe Wufuxu.
36/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
Theleastdemandingofthetextsregimens,thisdiettypeseemsto
focusonimprovingoverallhealthandasanintroductiontomoresophis
ticated techniques. Similar to typical medical practices, the ingredients
used in these mildly ascetic recipes are expected to retain their efficacy
regardlessofany additionalfoods that areingested.
Second,many of theWufuxusrecipes advocate an ascetic diet in
volvingfoodreplacementtherapy.Thispracticeinvolvessmallamounts
ofspecial ingredients andherbalvegetalcompoundsbeingconsumed
intheformofpillsorcakesorherbinfusedalcohols withoutadditional
ordinary foodstuffs otherthan water.For example, ACommonRecipe
forIngestingandEatingNonGlutinousRice,followinga
string of similar recipes, implies that adepts should not eat additional
foodswhenitsays:
Take one dou(; a peck) of nonglutinous rice(gengmi),
three douofalcohol,andcombinethetwothings.Soak[therice]
until all the alcohol has dissipated; then stop and take it out.
Onlyeatalittleofit.Ifyouarethirsty,thendrinkwater.After
Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/37
thirty days this will be used up, and you can make more as
above.(2.35b46;recipe63)
Althoughonlytenrecipes8 statethatthemedicinalpreparationsare
tobe used in lieuofnormal foodconsumption during theregimen,the
tenorofthetextcombinedwiththefactthatmostrecipesadvocatethe
continuedingestionofamedicinalcompoundindicatesthatthisform
of asceticism is the expected dietary norm. Subsequently, this type of
asceticdiet functions onmultiple levels for Daoistadepts: as an impor
tant selfcultivation practice, as a basic fasting purification method for
ritual preparation, and as a useful survival technique when food was
scarceorwhentravellingaloneinthemountainsinsearchofspecialin
gredientsandspiritplants(excrescences, zhi ) forimmortalityelixirs.
For example, when discussing the benefits of ingesting Solomons
Seal (huangjing ; Polygonatum sibiricum), the Wufuxu claims, The
gods canbringaboutlongevityandcanextend[life],but[typical] people
donotsucceed.Eventhoughthegodsarebright,theyareeasiertoseeif
you eat this food (18b89; recipe 27a). Furthermore, people can ingest
smallspoonfulsofthespringharvestedrootoreggsizedportionsofthe
summerharvested root three times daily, and it will function as food
whenthereisnotenoughtoeat.Inunfortunateyears,thisherbcanhelp
theoldandyoungceaseeatinggrainsandcanfeedthem(22a45;recipe
28).
Whilethisregimenwouldbedemanding,thethirdandmostimpor
tant of the Wufuxus diets requires a strongly ascetic commitment to
extensivefastingpracticeswhichincludeavoidingdietarystaples,eat
ingnofoodatall,andingestingcosmicqithroughspecializedbreathing
andvisualizationpractices.TheWufuxucontainstenrecipesthatusethe
termbigu(lit.toavoidgrains)oritsequivalent.9 Theoriginalinten
tionofthetermbiguwaslikelyarigorousfastingregimenthatrequired
thepractitionertostopeatingthefivemaingraindietarystaplesofrice,
changeablyintheliterature.Theyincludeduangu(tocutoffgrains),quegu
(to eliminate grains), xiuliang (to cease cereals), and jueli (to
abandonthestaples).SeeArthur2006,10511.Recipes7,8,9,15,20,27a,28,43,
65,66.
38/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
wheat,oats,millet,andbeans;however,notallusesofthetermindicate
strenuousortotalfasting.10
TheWufuxuusesthetermindifferentcontexts,typicallyinrecipes
whichprohibit ingesting any foods or whichclaimthat adepts will lose
their appetite naturally and will be able to live without normal food
stuffs.Forexample,APerfectedOnesRecipeforGrainAbstentionand
Eating Sesame claims that mixing steamed and
pounded sesame seeds with China Root fungus and honey will allow
adeptstoobtainstrengthandincreaseitveryquickly.Youwillbeable
toreplenish your vital essence(jing) andmarrow(sui ). Gradually
youwillnothunger.Ifyouthirst,thenjustdrinkwater(2.6a106b1,rec
ipe8).
The othermajorpractice associated with bigu isthemost asceticof
Daoistdietaryregimens:qiingestion(shiqi).Inthispractice,adepts
utilize variousbreathingandvisualization techniques toswallow theqi
ofthesun,moon,stars,andFivePhasesinordertonourishtheirbodies
and to enhance their connections to cosmic energies and deities. Qi
ingestionpractices, during whichthe adeptforgoes eatinganyphysical
food substances, are discussed throughout the Wufuxu as superior to
ingesting vegetal substances, which are thought merely to function as
healthrelated preparations which can acclimate the body to more seri
ous and subtle energy regimens. As such, shiqiregimens are necessary
forproperselfcultivation,ritualpurification,andformaltransmissionof
the Wufuxuanditstalismans.11
For example, in a recipe for the key selfcultivation practice of ex
pelling the Three Worms (sanchong ) with China Root Fungus and
poke root, an addendum states: Locust seeds are also good if you are
abletoingesttheirqi.Donotusethese[earlierstatedpreparation]tech
niquesifyoucanalsoingest theirqi.Theperfectedqiistheessenceofthe
Green Sprout(qingya)oftheFiveDirections.Daoistsingestthisfor
10 See Kohn 1993, 149; Arthur 2006, 94, 11417; Eskildsen 1998, 4344, 60;
Zhang2003,288.
11 Shiqi isonlymentionedinrecipes28,29,and44,butitplaysaprominent
role in other parts of the text (1.11b514b9; 1.18b826a8; 3.21a522a1). See also
Harper1998,3049; Huang1987;Jackowicz2006,6888;Raz2004,382397.
Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/39
Perfecting Health
In spite of any hopes to the contrary, the Wufuxu clearly indicates that
achievingitsreligiousgoalsisnotasimpletask.Rather,thetextsrecipes
presentimmortalityastheculminationofagenerallylengthyandardu
ousprocessthatbuildingontheideaofacontinuumbetweenprevail
ingmedicaltheoriesandreligiousperspectivesbeginswithperfecting
oneshealththroughingestingthepropermedicinalsubstances.
Through a structuralist analysis (see LviStrauss 1966) involving
theconcurrentexaminationoftherecipesstructureandcontents,multi
ple patterns and details become evident within the texts presentation
and organization of information; and these discernable patterns, along
with frequent attributions to important figures in the texts lineaged
transmission, indicate the lengths to which the texts redactors went in
order to produce a cohesive, consistent, and unified text. Synthesizing
the texts myriad health and bodyrelated claims and analyzing their
implicitassumptions,theremainderofthisarticleillustratestheincorpo
rationofideasregardingwhatwasconsideredcrucialforahealthybody
andhowthisdirectlyrelatestotheperceivedstagesthatleadtoimmor
tality.
TheWufuxus recipes follow a uniform style andformatbeginning
with the recipes title and ingredient list, followed by discussion of
preparationandingestionmethods,andendingwithdeclarationsabout
expectedbenefitsthatwilloccurifanadeptproperlyadherestotherec
40/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
ipesdirections.Oneofthe mostconciseexamplesofthisformat,ARec
ipeforExtendingtheYearsandIncreasingLongevity ,states:
Placeripelocusttreeseedsinacowsintestine(niuchang ),
andputthisinadarkplacetodryforonehundreddays.After
that, swallow one piece with your meal in the morning and
evening. After ten days your body will lighten. After thirty
days your white hair will revert to black. After one hundred
daysyourfacewillbecomeradiant.After twohundreddays,a
gallopinghorsewillnotbeabletokeepupwithyou.(2.16a9
b2;recipe23)
Therecipesalsocontaindescriptionsofthevariouschangesthatare
expected to occur within the body from having ingested the recom
mended medicines. Also similar in style, organization, andcontent, the
recipesmanyproclamationsbeginwithhealingthebody asthefirstgoal
ofpractice;andthistypicallytakesplaceinthefirstfewyears.Afterthis,
thebodyitsthoughttogainextraordinaryabilities,andonlythencanit
becomeperfectedandspiritualizedastheadeptcomesintocontactwith
thecosmic andbody gods who give the adeptsbodyeven greater and
more miraculous powers. Finally, the adept is expected to become an
immortalandtoascendtotheheavenlyrealminasfewasfivehundred
days(recipe30),butitmaytakeasmanyasfiftythousanddays(recipe
17).Forexample,ThePerfectedOnesRecipeforFermentingAsparagus
Alcohol says:
Ifyouingestthismedicinefor threeyearsthehundreddiseases
will all healthemselves,andskindiseasesand worms willall
borethroughtheskinatthejointsandwillbeexpelled.Ingest
it for three [more] years and your balding head will regrow
hair.Ingestitfortenyearsandyouwillbeabletocontrolyour
destinyandthechaosofyourpreviouslife.Ingestitfortwenty
years and inthe winter you will not becold, and inthesum
mer you will not be hot. Ingest it for thirty years and an old
manofonehundredyearsofagewilllooklikeayoungmanof
fifteen.
Afteringestingitforfortyyears,youwillbeabletocom
municatewiththegods;andatthistime,therewillbeaspirit
maidentobringmedicineandtoencourageyou.Ifyouobtain
Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/41
it, ingest this spirit medicine. Three days later, you will shed
yourbodylikeacaterpillarshedsitsskinandattainimmortal
ity. Even if you have already obtained and ingested a spirit
elixir, obtaining this alcohol still will be beneficial and auspi
cious. (2.31a6b5; recipe49)
My analysis of the text indicates that purifying the body and per
fectingitshealthcanbedividedintofourmajorcategories,thefirstthree
ofwhicharecuringdisease,expellingtheThreeWorms,andeliminating
hunger all indicative of strengthening the physical bodys structure
andinternalfunctionalcomponents.Thefourthhealthcategoryinvolves
refining the external physical body and its components, especially
through attention to transforming the bodys abilities and outward ap
pearance.
Curing Disease
Tobegin thepath towardperfectionand immortality, adeptsmust first
attainhealthandridthebodyofdisease,whichhasphysiological,ener
getic,andparanormalorigins.Inall,morethanhalfoftheWufuxusreci
pesdirectlyrefertocuring illness inthebody including the twentyone
recipesmakingthegeneralclaimthattheyareabletocurethehundred
illnesses (baibing ; i.e., all illness) and the eight recipes claiming to
makethebodyhealthybynaturallybenefitingit(yi )andnourish
ing it (yang).12 In fact,health issuescomprise a largerproportion of
Wufuxusrecipesthan any otherconcern. This indicatesthat thehealth
ofthebodyisofparamountimportancetoattaininganymajorreligious
goals;andsubsequentlytherearetwobasicclassesofillnessthatneedto
becured:energeticissuesandailmentsofdailylife.
Clearlyindicatingthatthetextsredactorshadatleastbasicknowl
edgeofChinesemedicalideasanddiagnosticterminology,theidealpat
tern of qiflow is presented as balanced, strong, and smoothflowing
throughout the body. One central form of illness that is essential to
eliminateis waywardandpathogenic(xie)qiflow,which involvesqi
12 Recipes1,7,8,12,16,21,25,28,35,37,40,44,45,46,47,49,50,51,52,53,
57 for curing illness; and recipes 1, 2, 10, 17, 26, 27a, 35, 52 for benefiting and
nourishingthebody.
42/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
blockagesandexcessiveflow,especiallyduetotheeffectsoftheSixPer
niciousInfluences:excesscold,dampness,heat,wind,dryness,summer
heat(see Kaptchuck1983,14657;Despeux2001,126).Forexample,refer
ring to cakes made of a mixture of pine sap, China Root fungus, and
honey,thetextclaims:
13 Recipes1,2,8,14a,17,27a,36.SeeUnschuld1985,1267.
14 Foralleviatingjointpains,seerecipes25,52,54.Forhealingthefivetrou
blesandseveninjuries,seerecipes15,17,40,43,54.Forgynecologicalissues,see
recipes:4,14,15,43,45.
Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/43
(2.10b102.11a7;
recipe15).15
The focus of curing common ailments and pregnant women indi
catesthatsomeoftheserecipeslikelyoriginatedamongsourcesoutside
the Lingbao Daoist school. The lineage associated with the compilation
of the Wufuxu was predominately comprised of male members of the
literaticlass meaning welleducated and welltodopatrons with time
andmoney topracticethe oftenasceticregiments found inthe Lingbao
corpus(Yamada2000).
Originally,theWufuxusrecipeswerepropagatedbyfangshi,whose
social roles included acting as wandering doctors and magic workers
throughout eastern and southern China. These fangshi are thought to
havesoldtheirrecipestoaristocrats,merchants,andfarmers,andpossi
blyusedrecipessuchasthoseinthe Wufuxu tocurethegeneralpopulace
(seeRaz2004,3849;Campany2002,6).Recipesfocusedoncuringissues
common to laborers and women indicate that they were culled and
adapted from extant recipes and medical treatment techniques being
propagatedby fangshi ratherthanoriginatingwithliteratiDaoists.
15 The names of these womens problems Excess Below the Belt Ill
nesses;andRedandWhiteSecretionsrefertovenerealdiseases,genitalinfec
tions,menstrualproblems,andotherissues.
16 Recipes15,16,17,18,22,27a,28,29,34,43,49.
44/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
ened.17 ThelaterhappenswhentheThreeWorms,actingasmoralagents,
emergefromtheirsleepinghostonthegengshendayjustbeforethe
newmoon(thefiftyseventhoftheChinesesexagesimalcalendricalcycle)
andreportthepersonstransgressionstotheheavenlyDirectorofDesti
nies(Siming)whothendecreasesthelengthofthepersonslifeby
theproperamountaccordingtotheinfraction.
One method for expelling the Three Worms involves fermenting
ChinaRootfungus,pokeroot,alcohol,wheatflour,andyeast,andthen
making largepills(dan) which are ingested thricedaily foronehun
dreddays.Therecipeexplains:
These three Corpses are born together with the person, and
theyoftendesiretocausethepersontodie.Whenthelastday
of the dark moon and the first day of the new moon arrives,
they will want to ascend to Heaven [in order to report] the
transgressions of commoners.When the lastday of the moon
arrives, you must grasp your heavenly soul (hun) and re
strain your earthlysoul (po) and then guard them through
the nights gengshen hour. Through this action, the Three
CorpseswillbeunabletorousetoactionTheThreeCorpses
generally desire the person to die;therefore,they want to at
tackandsnatchawaythatwhichisbeingdiscussed [i.e.,souls].
Generally,Daoists(Daoshi )arealsodoctors;howeverthey
knowhowtocultivatethebodywithrecipesbutdonotknow
that the Concealed Corpses that live in peoples abdomens
limitthe drugs powers andcausethe medicine to be ineffec
tive.18 This is all caused bythe Three WormsIf you are un
abletoexpungethem;however,youjustcheatyourself.Once
you expel them, then you will not again have hunger. Your
therecipe.
Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/45
heart/mind(xin)willbepeacefulandwithoutthoughts,and
youwillbeabletoobtainandfollowthelifeofaPerfectedPer
son(zhenren ). (2.24a3b3;recipe29)
Physical Improvements
Inadditiontocuringdisease,refiningthebodysenergies,andexpelling
the Three Worms, the Wufuxus redactors included fortyfive different
claims that explain ways to improve the physical body and its psycho
logical attributes through further development of the bodys integrated
physical and energetic components. Interestingly, the aspects of the
physicalbodythataresubjecttoproposedimprovementscanbedirectly
correlatedtothemostapparentcharacteristicsofayoungperson,suchas
clear eyesight, acute hearing, strong bones and muscles, supple flesh,
blackhair,beinglight,beinginvigorated,andhavingallofonesteeth.In
other words, these Daoists were explicitly concerned with overcoming
themanifestationsofanagingbody.
The most common enhancements are to the adepts eyesight and
hearing with eleven and ten recipes respectively.19 Besides health
related benefits, eyesight and hearing also are important to Daoist reli
giouspracticessuchasbeingabletoreadatextduringanighttimeritual,
honing ones ability to see various spirit beings and excrescences, and
19 Recipes2,5,12,14,15,17,25,27,28,43,45foreyesightimprovement,and
recipes1,2,5,12,14,15,25,27,43,45forhearingimprovement.
46/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
beingabletolistentocommunicationfromspiritbeingsandgods.20 Ad
ditionally,wecaninterpretclaimsabouttheeyesandearsintermsofthe
FivePhasescorrelativetheoryusedthroughoutthetextinordertohigh
light another level of possible meaning for basic health improvements.
Accordingly, eyesight improvement is related to lessening anger and
increasing courage; while curing hearing loss can be related to kidney
issuessuchasincreasingjing,perfectingwisdom,andlesseninganxiety
(see Kohn 2006, 57). Thus, health of the physical body corresponds to
mentalhealthaswell.
The other major aspect of perfecting the physical body relates to
improving thebodys appearance. Analyzing the text indicates that ap
pearanceisoneofthemostimportantsignsofbeinghealthyandhaving
strong qi. In fact, of all of the Wufuxus specific healthrelated claims,
morearerelatedtorejuvenatingthecomplexion;makingtheskinlook
glossy, smooth, shiny, and youthful; and making the white hair of old
ageregrowandreturntoblack thantoanyotherissue.21
For example, one recipe which advocates eating small cakes made
of pine tree sap, China root fungus, alcohol, and honey addresses im
provements to the body and its appearance; and readers can easily de
ducethathealthandyouthfulnessarebutinitialstepsalongthelengthy
pathtowardsimmortality.The recipesays:
complexion;recipes2,4,5,12,14,17,23,27,28,35,45,48,49forregrowingblack
hair;andrecipes4,12,15,17,28,39,43,45,48,49,50forskinimprovements.
Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/47
Aftersixthousanddaysthemusclesandskinwillchange.
Afterseventhousanddaystheskinandpulseswillbeableto
beconcealed.Aftereightthousanddaysthejingandshenwill
bestrong.Afterninethousanddaystheyouthfulnessofachild
willbereached.Aftertenthousanddays[27+years]thebody
willbenaturallyhealthy.(2.12b10 13a6;recipe17)
Here,intheoverallprogresstowardsimmortality,thereisevidence
of some concepts of reversal but only to a rightfully healthy state. In
otherwords,toothloss,hairloss,wrinkles,andwhitehairareallsignsof
unnecessaryagingandbodilydecaywhichwilldisappearonceahealthy
state is regained. This seems to signify that the intended audience for
these recipes would have been the older generations, especially of the
aristocracy among which the text circulated, who would have the time
andabilitytoadoptasceticpractices.Agereversal,itwashoped,would
also give interested people additional time and an increased chance of
achievingtheirreligiousgoals.
Overall,theWufuxusproposedhealthimprovementscorrespondto
common ailments and limitations of the body as it grows older. Thus,
Daoisthealthdoesnotmerelyindicatealackofdisease.Thetextsredac
tors included many examples of aggressively seeking to combat prob
lems associated with old age and death on all fronts: from its outward
manifestations inbodily weakness anddegradation to internalstatesof
disease and energy imbalance. Indicating that the adept is progressing
towardimmortality,thisstateofperfectedhealthmustbesuccessfulfor
furthercultivationandrefinementtooccur.
48/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
Extraordinary Attainments
TheWufuxupresentstheadeptsnextstageofdevelopmentasanatural
extension of the continuum of medicallyoriented theories about the
body:ifthephysicalbodycanachieveahealthystateandretardtheag
ing process, then with sustained religious ascetic selfcultivation prac
tices, it should be able to completely transcend normal capabilities.
Theseadvancedattainmentsareexpectedtoincludeextremehealth,pro
tective characteristics, and extraordinary abilities.22 Based on the extent
to which Chinese medical and correlative theories can be applied, ex
traordinary abilities are presentedasthe likely, reasonable, andnatural
products of religious selfcultivation regimens as presented in the
Wufuxu. Forexample,thetextclaims:Thosewithacleannature(xing)
receive perfected qi. For those who are clean, longevity is their natural
(ziran )destiny(2.23b45).
Byextremehealth,Irefertotheextensionofearliermedicallybased
health attainments to levels beyond the scope of traditional medical
ideas.ItisherethatIargueidealreligiousexpectationsreplacemorelim
ited medical possibilities. For example, five recipes claim to be able to
radicallyimprovesightandhearing somuchsothatadeptswillbeable
to see things a thousand miles away, to see in the dark, to hear voices
that are ten thousand miles away, and to have clairvoyance (yuanzhi
sifang ;lit.farreachingknowledgeofthefourdirections; 2.3b6;
recipe2;seealsorecipes12,16,17,27a).Thisseemstorepresentameta
phoricalclaimtoanabilitytoseetheearthlyspiritsandcosmicgodsin
theirabodesandtoheartheircommunication.
Additionally, the text contends that strengthening ones qi should
continue until it is so concentrated that the body obtains one hundred
times normal strength, the storehouse organs never become exhausted,
andvariousbodilyparts(suchastheeyes,hands,andgallbladder)be
gin to radiate qi as light. Furthermore, continued selfcultivation is ex
pectedtoleadtothebodysprotectionfromallmannerofpossibleprob
lemssuchasdrowningwhileunderwaterandbeingphysicallyorspiri
cientChinesethoughtthatthegods,spirits,souls,andghostswereanaturalpart
ofthecosmos,notseparatefromorbeyondtherealworld.
Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/49
Ifyouingestitforanentireyear,thehundredillnesseswillall
leave, your ears will become more astute, your eyes will see
clearly, your body will become lighter, and your qi will in
crease.Also,youwilladdtwoyearstoyourlife. Ifyouingestit
for two years, your face and complexion will be joyous and
smooth, your qi and strength will increase one hundredfold.
Any white hairs will return to black, and any lost teeth will
growagain.Also,youwilladdthreeyearstoyourlife.
If you ingest it for three years, when you walk in the
mountainsyouwillnotneedtoavoidsnakes,dragons,ghosts
and spirits. You will never encounter warriors or weapons.
Unlesstheyareflyingbirds,noonewilldaretoovertakeyou.
Also, you will add thirteen years to your life.If you ingest it
for four years, your name will be reported to the gods (shen
ming)aswellastheFivePhases.Also,youwilladdforty
yearstoyourlife.
Ifyouingestitforfiveyears,yourbodywillbringfortha
radiant light(guangming), your eyes will illuminate both
dayandnight,andtherewillberadianceinyourinnerparts,
bridges, intersections, and joints. Your body will be so light
that eventhough you do not havefeathers or wings, by mere
intention you will be able to travel by flying. Ingest it for six
years in order to increase your longevity by three hundred
years.
If you ingest itforseven years, the Dao in your shenwill
desireperfectionandyourlongevitywillincreasebyonethou
sand years. If you ingest it for eight years, your eyes will be
50/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
abletoseeforonethousandmiles(li ),yourearswillbeable
tohearfortenthousandli,andyourlongevitywillincreaseby
twothousandyears.
Ifyouingestitfornineyears,yourshenwillbeperfected
andwillbecomelikegoldenstone.Atdeathyouwillbeableto
come backto life. Your longevity will increase bythreethou
sand years. On your left will be the green dragon, on your
rightwillbethewhitetiger,andgoldwillbecomeyourchariot.
(2.8abrecipe12)
Everythingisfromthesameplant.Onthe7th dayofthe7th lu
nar month collect seven parts lotus flowers (ouhua ). On
the8th dayofthe8th lunarmonthcollecteightpartslotusroot
(ougen).Onthe9th dayofthe9th lunarmonthgathernine
parts lotusseeds(oushi).Mixthe plantstuffstogetherto
prepare them. When complete, ingest an inchsquare spatula
full.(2.16b79)
Ingest for one hundred days then stop. Your inner lord
(zhu ) will arrive and your inner being will be enhanced.
Yourqiwillgetstrongandwillnourishyourshen.Youwillnot
hunger and will expelthe one hundred illnesses. After along
timeofingesting,yourbodywillbecomelight.Youwillextend
youryears,notgrowold,andthenturnintoaspiritimmortal
(shenxian ). (2.17a89;recipe25)
with later internal alchemy; however, the organization of the texts myriad
claimsindicatesthatpurifying,harmonizing,andstrengtheningonesqiandjing
isnecessarybeforetheadeptisabletomoreactivelycultivatetheir shen andalign
itwiththatofthegods.
52/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
JadeMaidens(yun),andthesixArmoredSpirits(jiashen )who
willserveandprotectthepurifiedadeptfromharm.26
Withthisdefensivespiritretinueinplace,itisanticipatedthatvari
ouscosmic deities such asTaiyi (; GreatUnity) will visit andcom
municatewiththeadept.27 Buildingontheimportanceofcommunicating
with various gods discussed throughout the full text, and its focus on
detailed and lengthy selfcultivation, the Wufuxu implies that the path
beyond health and longer life eventually requires some form of divine
interventiononbehalfofadepts.
Thefirststepinthisprocessistoattracttheattentionofthecosmic
deities, who are expected to recognize when an adept has sufficiently
purified him/herself. After contact has been established to verify the
adeptspreparationiscomplete,threerecipescontendthataspectsofthe
cosmic deities will descend from their celestial abodes to take up resi
dence in the adepts internal palaces the energy centers in the body
whichincludethevariousorgansaswellasthelowerdantian (;lit.
cinnabar/elixir field) just below the navel, the middle dantian at the
heartlevel,andthenineroomNiwanPalace()intheupperdantian
inthehead.28 Eventually,itishoped,thatthesegodswillinvitetheadept
to live in the heavenly realm as an immortal. For example a Solomons
Sealrecipeclaims:
Ingestandeatthisherboverthefourseasons,anddonotstop.
Itcanbringaboutanextensionofyouryearsifyouareableto
cast aside society and its customs and live a hermit life on a
famousmountain.Ifyouingestandeatthisherb,youcanlive
aslongasHeavenandEarth.Themultitudeofgodswillcon
vene together, and Taiyi will be expecting and will welcome
you.Youwillascendandbepromotedto[therankof]Officer
ofHeaven. (2.19a35;recipe27a)
26 Thejiashenareassociatedwiththesixcalendricaljiadates,whicharethe
28 Recipes 2, 25, 27a. According to the Wufuxus first chapter, the three
dantian are the corporeal offices of the Three Ones Heaven, Earth, and the
CrimsonChildwithinthebody(1.22b2b7;seeRaz2005,3523).
Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/53
Daoiststhoughtthatthecorporealdeitiesoriginallywerepresentin
peoples bodies but normal lifes stressors and extreme emotions had
sulliedthebodytosuchadegreethatthegodsweredrivenaway.Thus,
it takes a great deal of cultivation and purification to coax the various
body gods toreturntotheir rightfulplaces within thecomplex internal
landscape of the adepts body. For example, tasting the strong flavors,
smellingputridodors,hearingloudsounds,andseeingsexordefecation
all can negatively impact the adepts sensitive constitution and its rari
fiedsubtleenergies,andcanthusupsetthebodygods,causingthemto
flee from the adept. The Wufuxu says: As you practice consistently,
avoid foods like fresh fish,pork,scallions, and strong vegetables [as all
have strong smells and tastes]. Also avoid gazing upon mourners and
corpses,aswellasdogsandpigsintheprocessofgivingbirthor defecat
ing.Beverycareful!(2.2b103a1;recipe2).
The various manifestations of the cosmic deities that take up resi
dence in the adepts body signify the adepts complete transformation
frombasehumantothefullembodimentofthesacredmacrocosmicreal
ity.29 Oncethecorporealdeitieshavetakenupresidence,theadeptsmi
crocosmicbodyhasbecomeadirectcorrelatetothemacrocosmos.With
thisattainment,anotherabstractmysticalexperienceisthoughttooccur:
the capacity to leave the obscure and enter the profound (chuyao
ruming ;2.1a5;recipe1) toachieveunionwiththeDao.
Immortality
At this point in the adepts development, the final major goal of the
Wufuxusdietaryregimesismet:theadeptattainsextendedlifeandim
mortality.Justbehindcuringillness,extremelongevityisthemostcom
mon benefit promoted by the text. Nearly half of the texts recipes de
clarethatpractitionerscanattainvaryingdegreesoflongevityandeven
tually become an immortal being (xian ). Although numerous, the
claimsabout extremelongevity lackspecificity; thereareno fewerthan
thirtysix differentphrases employed in the textto denote life extended
beyondnormalexpectationsforexample,toobtainlonglife(),
29 ThisideaisnotuniquetotheearlymedievalDaoism;itoriginatedinthe
preQineraandbecomeprominentduringtheHandynasty(Raz2005,34041).
54/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
30 Recipes1,12,14,16,24,25,27a.
31 Recipes1,2,5,12,13,17,19,25,26,27,27a,28,32,44,46,47,48.
Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/55
ofadeptstranscending(dushi)thephysicalworldandascendingto
reside intheHeaven of Great Clarity (Taiqing) where theymaybe
receivedby the godTaiyi andbe giventhe rank of Immortal Person or
OfficerofHeaven(tianfu ).32
TheWufuxu doesnotprovide aconcise explanation of what itsre
dactorsmeantbythetermimmortality,andanalystsarelimitedtoinfer
ring ideas from passages which contain the term, from the texts short
hagiographical accounts of immortals,33 and from the presentation of
immortality as theculminationof attaining sufficientpurity andrefine
ment through extensive selfcultivation and longterm maintenance of
asceticdietaryregimens.Thetextdoesnotincludeahierarchyofimmor
tal achievements as found in Ge Hongs Baopuzi, which differentiates
between celestial immortals, earthly immortals, and corpseliberated
immortals(2:9a;Ware1966,478).Yet,otherexamplesintheBaopuzido
not discuss this hierarchy because all immortals supposedly have at
tained the crucial benefit of longevity.34 These instances support the
Wufuxus implication that there is little significant difference between
forms of major longevity and immortality other than the adepts final
placeofresidence.
32 Recipes1,2,17,27a.TheideasoftheHeavenofGreatClarityandthegod
Taiyi first featured in the Shangqing school of the 4th century (Hu 1995, 1457;
Robinet2000,215).FordiscussionontheascenttoTaiyi,seeBokenkamp1990.
33 Recipes2,6,7,13,16,17,19,25,26,27,27a,28,30,32,36,49.Theseshort
accounts, of figures such as Master Red Pine in recipe 17, are similar to those
found in other narratives and major hagiographic collections: the Liexianzhuan
(;BiographiesofImmortals;Kaltenmark1953);theShenxianzhuan (;
Biographies of Spirit Immortals; Campany 2002); and chapter 82 of the Houhan
shu(;HistoryoftheLaterHan;Fangshuliezhuan;Traditionsof
theEsotericArts;Ngo1976andDeWoskin1983);also Raz2005,43n14).
34 SeeBaopuzi3.52;Ware1966,65;Campany2002,77,181,29294;Raz2005,
11012.
56/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
Conclusion
Althoughmissingmanynecessarydetailsforanallinclusive,contextual
understanding, the Wufuxu does provide a great deal of information
aboutthepathofearlymedievalDaoistselfcultivationandthemechan
icsofitsdietaryprocedures.Amalgamatingthetextsvariousclaimsand
analyzing their implicit and explicit suppositions, I have developed a
relativelycomprehensivetypology regarding theWufuxus expectations
forahealthybody,forlongevity,andforachievingitsspecificreligious
goals. This analysis leads to questions of how the idea of perfection
especially of ones health and ones energies functions within the
worldviewandritualpracticesofearlyDaoists.
The structure and organization of the majority of the texts entries
illustrateatimeconsumingstepbysteptransformationofallaspectsof
the adepts body. This process first requires balancing, purifying, and
refining the mundane aspects of the body. Demonstrating the holistic
nature of Daoist claims of perfection throughout the text, the bodys
physical, energetic, and spiritual components are interconnected and
related to prevalent medical and cosmological correlative theories. In
otherwords,adeptsbeginbybalancingandtransformingthebodysmi
crocosmbasedonperceivedpatterns,correlations,andideasabout qi.
Eventually, the text indicates that integrating characteristics of the
macrocosm,especiallyintheformoftheFivePhasesenergieswhichare
internalizedduringqiingestingpractices,willcosmicizeandspiritualize
thebodytosuchadegreethatlongevityandimmortalityaretheresult.
In fact, the texts extraordinary abilities and achievements, which indi
cateabeliefthatnormalhumanlimitationscanbetranscendedthrough
ascetic dietary and religious practices, are predicated on perfecting the
health,and inmanycasesthey alsocanbe directlycorrelated to funda
mentalconceptsofhealthaspresentedinthetext.
Interestingly,allofthetransformativeprocessesmentionedinthese
recipesareorientedtowardadeptsstrengtheningandharmonizingtheir
own internal physical, mental, and energetic processes and characteris
tics.Thetextonlydiscussesonecrucialexternalagentialinfluencethe
cosmicgods,whoareattractedtotheadeptbecauseofhis/hercontinued
internalselfcultivation.
Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/57
Onamorepracticallevel,theimprovementofhealthisparamount
intheWufuxus secondchapterbecause it allows theDaoists whoprac
tice itsdietary regimenstomore fully embodycentralreligious ideals
such as communication with the gods as they take part in the formal
talismantransmissionritualinthetextsthirdchapter.Furthermore,the
longlistsofbenefitsfoundinthetextsrecipesseemtobeintendedtobe
amapofkeyindicatorsthatadeptscouldfollowastheyprogressedfrom
anormallifetowardtheiridealstate.
Although the Wufuxu was compiled as a synthesis of longevity
ideas and practices from disparate groups (see Yamada 1989, 114; Raz
2004, 912), the coherence of themes and patterns within the text is a
strongindicationthatitsredactorsdiligentlyworkedtodevelopa coher
entandunifiedsetofpracticesofwhichingestingherbalconcoctionsfor
facilitating health, perfecting the body and its essential energies, devel
oping a connection with the divine realm, and achieving immortality
wasanintegralpart.
25. APerfectedOnesAdditionalLotusPowderstoRetardAging.
2.16b617b2
Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/59
26.ARecipetoArrestAging.
2.17b317b8
27.TheRecipeforIngestingandEatingMuskDeerAntler toGreatlyExtendthe
Years;andIfYouTakeMore,toMaketheEarsandEyesAstuteand
ClearandtheHairBlack.
2.17b918a4
27a.NoTitle. 2.18a520b3
(Thisportionseemstobethefirsthalfofthefollowingrecipe.)
28.ALingbaoRecipeforSolomonsSeal.
2.20b423b5
29.AnImmortalsMethodforExpellingtheThreeWormsandConcealed
Corpses.
2.23b624b8
30.LezichangsMethodforRefiningSesamePaste.
2.24b925a3
31.LezichangsMethodforIngestingSesame.
2.25a425a7
32. TheTalismanfor HidingtheLivingin theGreatMysteryoftheNuminous
Treasure.
2.25a825b8
33.MedicineforCorpseLiberation.
2.25b926a7
34.ARecipeforExpellingtheConcealedCorpsesandThreeWorms.
2.26a826a10
35.ASpiritImmortalsRecipefor CultivationandNourishing[Oneself].
2.26b126b6
36.ASpiritImmortalsMethodofFermentingAlcohol.
2.26b727a4
37.ARecipeforShu (Atractylodesmacrocephala)Alcohol.
2.27a527a9
38.ARecipeforSpiritAlcohol.
2.27a1027b3
39.ARecipeforSesameAlcohol.
2.27b427b7
40.ARecipefortheSpiritAlcoholofRehmannia.
2.27b828a4
41.ARecipeforPineSapAlcohol.
2.28a528a9
42.AnotherRecipe.
2.28a1028b2
43. ARecipeforPokeAlcohol.
60/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
2.28b328b10
44.ARecipefor WolfberryAlcohol.
2.29a129b2
45.ARecipeforFiveEggplant(Acanthopanax)Alcohol.
2.29b329b9
46.ARecipeforAsparagusRootLiquor.
2.29b1030a8
47.ARecipeforFriedAsparagusRoot.
2.30a930b7
48.ARecipeforIngestingandEatingtheNuminous.
2.30b831a5
49.APerfectedOnesRecipeforFermentingAsparagusRootAlcohol.
2.31a631b5
50.ARecipeforImmortalityAlcoholtoStrengthentheBody.
2.31b632a2
51.ARecipeforCuringtheHundredDiseaseswithSpiritAlcohol.
2.32a332a8
52.ALingbaoRecipeforIngestingandEatingRehmanniaandWolfberry.
2.32a932b10
53.ARecipeforAsparagusRoot.
2.33a133a7
54.ARecipefor Wolfberry Alcohol.
2.33a833b2
55.AFermentingMethod.
2.33b333b8
56.ARecipeforProducingSpiritAlcohol.
2.33b934a4
57.ARecipeforSpiritAlcohol.
2.34a534a8
58.ASpiritImmortalsMethodforDryingAlcohol.
2.34a934b3
59.ASpiritImmortalsRecipeforIngestingandEatingGreenMillet.
2.34b434b10
60.AnotherRecipe.
2.35a135a5
61.YetAnotherRecipe.
2.35a635a8
62.AMethodforDryingAlcohol.
2.35a935b3
63.ACommonRecipeforIngestingandEatingNonGlutinousRice.
Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/61
2.35b435b6
64.ARecipeforIngestingandEatingRicefromthePaddy.
2.35b735b10
65.ARecipeforCeasingGrains.
2.36a136a5
66.LezichangsRecipeforHoldingaJujubeNutinOnesMouth.
2.36a636b3
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PART TWO
LOUIS KOMJATHY
Abstract
PartOneofthepresentarticle,publishedinJDS1(2008),presented thehistorical
and terminological contours of the Neijingtu (Diagram of Internal Path
ways). As a late nineteenthcentury stelecommissioned by the Longmen monk
and court eunuchLiu Chengyin (Suyun,Pure Cloud; d. 1894), it is
currently housed inthe Baiyun guan (White Cloud Monastery; Beijing).
ThisinstallmentfocusesonthecontentofthediagramaswellastheDaoistculti
vationmethodsembeddedinitscontours.
Ifirstprovideathorough analysis ofthetextual and visualdimensions of
the Neijing tu, including a complete translation with the diagram divided into
threesections.ThearticlealsoclarifiessomeinfluencesonthisDaoistbodymap
anditscorrespondinginternalalchemysystem,specificallyindicatingapossible
connectionwiththeemergingWuLiu sublineageofLongmen.
This analysis is followed by a reconstruction of Daoistalchemicalpractice
asexpressedintheNeijingtu.Iemphasizethreemethods:praxisorientedappli
cationsofclassicalChinesemedicalviewsofthebody;visualizationswhichdraw
their inspiration from the Huangtingjingand find clear historical precedents in
Shangqing Daoism; and the alchemical technique known as the Waterwheel or
MicrocosmicOrbit.Thethreetechniquesformaninterconnectedsystem,wherein
the adepts overall psychosomatic health is maintained and strengthened, his
body is osmicized, and he awakens the mystical body, the bodybeyondthe
body or yangspirit, i.e., the culmination of alchemical transformation and the
preconditionforpostmortemtranscendence.
64
Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/65
jathy 2002, with those for the Mingdynasty Daoist Canon (DZ) paralleling
Schipper and Verellen 2004. Other abbreviations include JH (Daozang jinghua),
JHL(Daozangjinghualu),JY(Daozangjiyao),andZW(Zangwaidaoshu).
66/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
text,thoughtheexactlineageoflateimperialneidaniscurrentlyunclear
and awaits further research. Does the Neijing tu embody a distinctive
synthesis,whichinsomerespectrepresentsanewneidanlineage?Ordid
itemergeasoneexpressionofaspecificlineageofinternalalchemy?As
discussed in the previous installment of the present article and below,
therearesomeclearandintriguingparallelswiththeemergingWuLiu
sublineageof Longmen and with the subsect of the WuLiu line
age called the Qianfeng lineage,2 which was established in early
twentiethcenturybyZhaoBichen(Shunyi[AttunedUnity];
18601942)andwhichcametooccupyacentralplaceinmodernDaoism.
In terms of the Neijing tu, the former, as an identifiable lineage, is
roughlycontemporaneous,whilethelatterisslightlylater.
Theupperpoemreads:
Iamproperlyandattentivelycultivatingmyownfield
Insidetherearenuminoussproutsthatlivefortenthousandyears.
Theflowersresembleyellowgold,theircolornotuncommon;
Theseedsarelikejadegrain,theirfruitsperfectlyround.
CultivationcompletelydependsontheearthoftheCentral Palace;
IrrigationnecessarilyreliesonthespringintheUpperValley.
ThepracticeiscompletedsuddenlyandIattainthegreatDao
IwandercarefreeoverlandandwaterasanimmortalofPenglai.
(Seealso DZ1484,4.16a)
Theemphasishereisonselfcultivationandalchemicaltransforma
tion. The central metaphor is agriculturaljust as the horticulturalist
must attentively tend his orher garden, sothe Daoist adeptmust focus
onspecificelixirfields(dantian )throughoutthebody.IntheNeijing
tu,thesefieldsareidentifiedbyname:themiddleelixirfieldjustbelow
the heart is Genmountain earth (gentu ),3 while the lower elixir
2 ThissublineagederivesitsnamefromtheMountQianfeng(Hebei),and
andreferstothetrigram designatingmountainaswellastohexagram52,
Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/67
field near the level of the navel is called the correct [standard] elixir
field(zhengdantian ).4 Liketilling,planting,andharvestingcrops,
the process of internal alchemy involves a cultivation cycle; one must
preparethe ground and develop the appropriatephysiological andcos
mologicalaspects,forwhichtheNeijingtuservesasamapoftheDaoist
internal landscape and as a visual aid for alchemicaltransformation. In
theabovepoem,thefruitsofDaoistcultivationareflowersthecolorof
yellowgoldandseedslikejadegrain,bothpoeticdescriptionsofspe
cific alchemical experiences. Planted as a seed in the lower elixir field,
and nourished through consistent attentiveness (yi ) and dedication
(zhi ),qiaccumulatesandexpands.Withyellowbeingassociatedwith
the Earth phase in Chinese correlative cosmology (see, e.g., Unschuld
1985; Major 1993), and as one of the esoteric names of the lower elixir
field is the Yellow Court (huangting ), the poem suggests that the
perfect qi (zhenqi ), the qi activated and circulated in internal al
chemypractice,becomes a strongerpresence in thebody. Thebody be
comesrarified.
Genmountain .InDaoistinternalalchemy,thetrigramsrepresentvarious
psychophysiological aspects of the human being and stages in self
transformation. The Genmountain trigram may, in turn, express the state of
stillness as well as practices that help nourish such a condition. In the present
case,thereferencetotheheartregionasthefieldofGenmountainearthsug
geststhatexcessemotionalandintellectualactivityhasbecomestilled.Anexam
ple of this type of Daoist exegesis on the Yijing may be found in Liu Yi
mings (Wuyuan [Awakening to the Origin]; 17341821) Zhouyi
chanzhen (True Explanation of the Yijing), collected in his Daoshushier
zhong (TwelveDaoistBooks).TheZhouyichanzhenappearsinZW245
and has been translated in Cleary 1986. In terms of the present discussion, see
especiallyCleary1986,1035,19497,and2079.
4 Itshouldbenotedthatthelocationsoftheupper,middle,andlowerelixir
Theironoxplowsthefieldwheregolden coinsaresown;
Engravingthestone,theyoungladholdsastringofcash.
Asinglegrainofmilletcontainstheentireworld;
Mountainsandstreamsaredecoctedinahalfsheng cauldron.
TheeyebrowsofwhiteheadedLaozihangdowntotheearth,
Andtheblueeyedforeignmonkholdsuptheheavens.
Orientyourselftowardsthemysteriousanditisrealized
Outsideofthismysterythereisnoothermystery.
(seealsoDZ1484,5.11a)
The first line emphasizes the practice of tending to the bodys fields.
Whilethisinvolveseffortandprolongedpractice,symbolizedbytheox
(cf. Needham et al. 1983, 100; Wang 199192, 151; Eichman 2000a, 351),
Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/69
theoutcomewillbegoldencoins.Basedontheillustrationsofthe Neijing
tuandtheplacementofthepoem,theprimarybodylocationbeingem
phasized is that of the lower elixir field. Again taking into account the
abovementioned associations of yellow and gold with the Earth phase
and with the lower elixir field, the sowing and gathering of golden
coinsindicatesanincreasedlevelofenergeticpresenceinthelowerab
dominalregion,theprimarystorehouseofqiinthebody.Liketheprevi
ous encounter with flowers of yellow gold, and like the discovery of
goldingeneral,thisfruitisarareandpreciousoccurrenceintheworld.
A grain ofmilletcontainsthe world alludestothefamous Yel
low Millet Dream (huangliangmeng) of L Dongbin. According
to one hagiography, found in the Yuandynasty (12601368) Zengxiang
liexian zhuan (Illustrated Biographies of Arrayed Immortals;
seeKohn1993,12632;cf.Chunyangshenhuaji,DZ305,1.3a5a),untilthe
ageofsixtyfourLDongbin,althoughpracticingDaoistcultivation,still
harboredpoliticalaspirations.Havingfailedtopasstheimperialexami
nation twice, one day L encounters Zhongli Quan, an accomplished
Daoistadept.ZhongliQuaninturninvitesLtoaninnforameal,dur
ingthepreparationofwhichLfallsasleep.Hethendreamsofanentire
officialcareer,beginningwithsuccessandfameandendingwithfailure,
humiliation, and despondency. When he awakens from this dream, the
milletisstillbeingcooked.Inevenlesstimethanittakestocookmillet,
Lexperiencesonepossiblelifeandthedissipationinvolvedinseeking
fame and reputation. He in turn becomes the disciple of Zhongli Quan
(who knew of the dream before L told him), and eventually commits
himself solely to Daoist cultivation, thus coming to represent the aspir
ingDaoistpractitioneringeneral.
Throughsuchdedication,mountainsandstreamsaredecoctedina
halfsheng cauldron.Oneengagesintheactualizationandrefinementof
internal presences and comes to reside in a larger matrix of being. The
entire universe is the context for ones cultivation and ones very exis
tencebecomescosmicized.Asillustratedinthecontoursofthe Neijingtu,
theadeptengaginginalchemicalpraxisdiscoversthatthebodycontains
streams, mountains, fields, forests, temples and constellations. Ones
body is the cosmos, and the cosmos is ones body. Although such con
ventionaldistinctionslikecosmosandself,orinternalandexter
nal,arepotentiallynecessaryatthebeginningofalchemicalpraxis,the
70/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
finaloutcomeofalchemicaltransformation,rarificationandperhapsself
divinization, results in the activation of the Daoist mystical body (see
Komjathy 2007), a body which is transpersonal and infused with the
Daosnuminosity. This involves orienting yourself towardsthemyste
rious.Thefinallinesofthepoem,withthefrequentrepetitionofmys
terious(xuan ),invokechapteroneoftheDaodejing (Scripture
ontheDaoandInnerPower):Mysteriousandagainmoremysterious
thegatewaytoallwonders.TheDaoistadeptmergeswiththetwofold
mysterywhichistheDao.Heorsheliterallyshiftsontologicalconditions,
abiding in a state of mystical pervasion with the Dao as a mystery be
yond mystery, as a mystery simultaneously present and absent in its
own mysteriousness. It is this presenceabsence that also circulates
throughtheadeptsownbodyasnuminouscurrents.Hereoneencoun
ters perhaps one of the most significant Daoist challenges to conven
tional understandings of human being: ones physiology literally is sa
cred. One embodies the Dao, and one may experience the Dao
through/in/as ones own psychosomatic and energetic being. The bifur
cation of transcendent divine and mundane material processes
breaksdowninthisDaoistvisionofself.
Beyondthetwo poems whichprovide a generaldescription ofthe
alchemical endeavor, the diagram as a whole can be seen to depict the
Daoist alchemical practice of reversal in combination with the Micro
cosmic Orbit method. Here I concentrate on the textual and visual as
pectsoftheNeijingtu,whileinthesubsequentsectionIprovideamore
systematic explanation of the practices in the context of Daoist internal
alchemypraxis.Theaspiringadeptmustsealhimselforherselfofffrom
varioussourcesofdissipation,includingsensoryandemotionaldistrac
tions.Heorshemustturninwardthroughmeditativepraxistorealizea
return to psychosomatic and cosmological integration. For male adepts
in particular, they must prevent dissipation of their core vitality, vital
essence (jing ), which occurs through sexual activity and resulting
seminalemission.Oneofthefoundationsofthealchemicalprocessisthe
retention, circulation and transformation of the body fluids (see Kom
jathy 2007). In the Neijing tu, this is depicted as movement of vital es
sence, the water of the body, being reversed and transferred upward.
Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/71
Beginningatthefirstpass,onenoticesaboyandagirlworkingatread
mill,representingyangandyinrespectively(see Fig. 2).
Thecaptionnexttothemreadsthemysteriousyinyangtread
mill.The longertextualcomponentexplains,
72/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
Repeatedly,constantly,[thetreadmill]ispeddledincycles;
Whenthemechanismrevolves,thewaterflowseastward.
Thewater,tenthousandfathomsdeep,isseenstraighttoitsbottom;
Asweetspringbubblesup,risingtothesummitofSouthern
Mountain.
By using the intent and sealing the lower gate, the perineum, the
adept reverses the flow of vital essence. Instead of moving outward in
the form of seminal emission for male adepts and menstrual blood for
female adepts, both primary forms of dissipation, the vital essence be
comes conserved, stored, circulated and transformed. Reference to the
eastward flow of the vital essence (jing) alsomakes sense when read
in relation to Weil (Tailbone Gate; the coccyx) as the first pass.5
Accordingtothe Zhuangzi,
(weil ; the coccyx), Narrow Ridge (jiaji ; midspine), and Jade Pillow
(yuzhen; occiput). See, for example, the thirteenthcentury Jindandachengji
,Xiuzhenshishu,DZ263,10.6b;thethirteenthcenturyDadanzhizhi
, DZ 244, 1.4a, 1.5a, 1.12a; and the seventeenthcentury Xingming guizhi,
ZW314,9.518.
Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/73
6 InDaoistneidanpraxis,theeighttrigrams(bagua),commonlyassoci
atedwiththeYijing (ClassicofChange),havevariouscorrespondences.The
trigramsareasfollows:(1)Qianheaven(qian ) ,(2)Kunearth(kun ) ,
(3) Lifire (li ) , (4) Kanwater (kan ) , (5) Duilake (dui ) , (6)
Zhenthunder(zhen ) ,(7)Sunwind(sun ) ,andGenmountain(gen )
. See the tenthcentury Chuandao ji , DZ 263, 14.11b; and thirteenth
centuryJindandachengji ,DZ263,10.12b.
7 OneoftheearliestusagesofKunlunasareferencetothehead,andthusto
thesolesofthefeetappearsintheXiuzhentu. SeeDespeux1994;2000.
10 In neidanlineages,adistinctionisoftenmadebetweenthestoveorfur
11 Thehistoryofthestandard,modernTaijisymbol,andtheonesdepicted
intheNeijingtu(i.e.,acircledividedintointerconnectedwhite[yang]andblack
[yin]aspectsthatcontainadot[seed]ofthealternatecolors[yinyangaspects]),
is currently unclear. For some insights see the relevant entry on the Critical
TermspageoftheCenterforDaoistStudieswebsite(www.daoistcenter.org).Its
historicalusageinChinesecultureandamongDaoistsiscomplex.
12 There are avariety of extantdiagramscalledZhentutu(Diagram
ofPerfectEarth),whereinperfectearthisassociatedwiththeYellowCourtand
intent,orthinking(yi).See,e.g.,Zazhuzhixuanpian,DZ263,1.5a;
Xingmingguizhi,ZW314,9.523.Thelatterdiagramemphasizesstillingtheheart
center.
13 Unfortunately,Schipperdoesnotprovideadetailedexplanationofthese
qiphasesofthedantian.Suchtechnicalinformationmightaddadeeperunder
standingofDaoistcultivation.
14 ThetermappearsasearlyasthethirdcenturyHuangtingjing.SeeDZ331,
11b; DZ 332, 1.1a. According to the eighthcentury Huangting neijing jing zhu,
The Gate of Life is the lower elixir field (DZ 402, 3.19b). However, both the
76/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
Xiuzhen tu and Xingming guizhi (ZW 314, 9.518) clearly place Mingmen in the
kidneyregionalongthespine.
Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/77
78/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
263,18.6ab.ThefourteenthcenturyJindandayaotu containsan
earlierDaoistmapofthebodyasamountainthatincludessomeofthenamesof
theNinePalaces.SeeDZ1068,3a;alsoNeedhametal.1983,105;Despeux1994,
41;Komjathy2007,chs.4and6.
16 IntheNeijingtu,niwanislocatedabovethehead,andseeminglyrefersto
Baihui as the location where the yangspirit exits the adepts body. However,
Niwanisoftenassociatedwiththeupperelixirfield.See,forexample,theJindan
dachengji,DZ263,10.3b.Forsomedepictionsoftheexitoftheyangspiritfrom
thecrownpointseeXingmingguizhi,ZW314,9.585,9.590;Huimingjing, ZW131,
5.881; Xingmingfajuemingzhi,ZW872,26.114,26.119,26.120.
Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/79
Hereonealsonoticesthenuminousplatformofthicklymeshed
net,aphrasewhichalsooccursinthefourteenthcenturyJindaodayaotu
(DiagramofGreatEssentialsoftheGoldenElixir;DZ1068),a
diagramdepictingtheDaoistbodyasamountainandaclearprecursor
tothereceivedNeijingtu.Eichmansuggeststhatthisphrase(anditscor
respondinggraphicdepiction)impliestheultimategoalofalchemy,an
audience with representatives of the celestial hierarchy (2000a, 350).
Likehisorherterrestrialbureaucraticcounterpartinrelationtotheter
restrialemperor,theDaoistpractitionerseeksanaudiencewiththehigh
est realms of spirit beings, the gods and Perfected (zhenren ). This
section ofthediagram,then, invokeshigher levels ofalchemicalrefine
ment, ending (or beginning) in an energetic merging with the Dao. If
youorientyourselftowardsthemysterious,themysteriousmaybereal
ized(seealsoWang199192,14546).
In the upper section of the diagram there is an old man sitting in
meditation (see Fig. 4). He wears a robe with the stylized character for
longevity (shou ), and above him there is the following inscription:
The eyebrows of whiteheaded Laozi hang down to the earth. Below
him is a figure with upraised arms and the corresponding inscription:
Theblueeyedforeignmonkholdsuptheheavens.Bothoftheselines
comefromtheLDongbinpoems.Themoststraightforwardinterpreta
tion of the two figures identifies them as Laozi and Bodhidharma, re
spectively (see Rousselle 1933; Needham et al. 1983, 116). However,
Wang, in a fairly convincing art historical discussion, argues that the
iconographyoftheoldmanfiguresuggeststheImmortalOldManof the
Southern Polestar, the eighth spirit of the brain (Wang 199192, 146).
This interpretation may partially derive from the figures placement at
the energetic location corresponding to higher levels of consciousness,
eitherMingtang(HallofLight)and/orZuqiao(AncestralCav
ity).17 Wang also challenges the identification of the blueeyed monk as
Bodhidharma,arguinginsteadthatheshouldbeunderstoodasacombi
cluded as one of the Nine Palaces and identified as a mystical cranial location.
ReferencestoZuqiaoasanothermysticalcraniallocationatthecenterofthehead
appearsintheXingmingguizhi(ZW314)andthroughoutthepagesoftheXing
mingfajuemingzhi (ZW872).
Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/81
nationoftheLaughingBuddhaandtheelementmercuryand/orasMai
treya,thefutureBuddha(Wang199192,149).
Whileconvincingfromanarthistoricalperspectiveandaccounting
for certain iconographic features, this reading fails to provide an ade
quate explanation of the two figures interms of the larger Daoist tradi
tioningeneralandneidanlineagesassociatedwithLDongbinandlate
imperial Daoism in particular. Why would the person or community
whooriginallyenvisioned,commissionedandproducedsuchamapping
oftheDaoistbodyincludetheLaughingBuddhaand/orMaitreya?
If one follows a relatively straightforward reading that recognizes
the potential connection between the textual and visual contours of the
Neijingtu,then these figuresare Laoziand Bodhidharma. In thepoems
attributed to L Dongbin, Laozi is mentioned by name and the blue
eyed foreign monk (biyanhuseng ) is a standard name for Bo
dhidharma (a.k.a. Damo; see Xingyun 1989, 5848; also Ding 1939).
Inaddition,withregardtolatemedievalneidan lineages,onefindsthese
twofiguresassymbolicreferentsforalchemicalingredients:theoldman
symbolizes lead (qian), while themonkrepresentsmercury (hong)
(seealsoWang199192,147;Eichman2000a,351).Theyarereferredtoas
suchintheDanfangbaojianzhitu(DiagramofthePre
ciousMirroroftheElixirChamber),whichiscontainedinXiuzhenshishu
(Ten Works on Cultivating Perfection; DZ 263, 26.5b6a), an
anthologyoftheearlyfourteenthcentury.Heremercury(Bodhidharma)
issaidtocorrespondtothejadeyefluids(yuye),spiritwater(shen
shui ), the Maiden (chan ), white snow (baixue ), and the
azuredragon(qinglong),amongotherthings;lead(Laozi)issaidto
correspond tothe goldyefluids (jinye), Jade Pond (yuchi),the
Child (yinger), yellow sprouts (huangya), and the white tiger
(baihu),amongotherthings.Inotherneidandiscussionsoftheseal
chemicalsymbols/ingredients,leadmayrefertovitalessence(jing)or
originalspirit(yuanshen ),whilemercurymayrefertospirit(shen)
ororiginalqi(yuanqi ).18
Basedonthesecorrespondences,anumberofreadingsarepossible.
First, and most basic, the adept accumulates and gathers saliva, the ye
18 Cf.Ershisijue,DZ1158,1bandDanyangyulu ,DZ1057,
15b.Seealso Chuandaoji,DZ263,15.11a15a.
82/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
fluidsassociatedwithBodhidharma,inthemouth,theJadePondassoci
ated with Laozi. These fluids are then swallowed down to purify the
heartandeventuallycomminglewithoriginalqiinthelowerelixirfield.
Inthisrespect,onemayagainreflectuponthesymbolicmeaningofBo
dhidharma and Laozi as ones own physiology. Another possible read
ingisthatoriginalqi,associatedwithmercuryandthefigureofBodhid
harma, and original spirit, associated with lead and thefigureof Laozi,
becomecommingledintheadeptsupperelixirfield.
ReadingtheupperfigureintheNeijingtuasLaozialsomakessense
because Laozi is frequently recognized as the founder of the Daoist
tradition and as the high god Laojun (Lord Lao).19 In the lives of
specific Daoistsand Daoistcommunities,he alsocameto symbolizethe
culminationofDaoistcultivation.Hehimself,afterall,transformedinto
theuniverse:
Laoziisthesupremelylonglived,forheisthecosmosandthecos
mos is he. The Neijing tu suggests that Laozi represents the Daoist
adepts own possibilityeach persons eyes, the two circles in the dia
gram, are the sun and the moon, and each practitioners consciousness
contains thenuminouspresence whichLaozi embodied, at least from
19 ForarevisionisthistoricalanalysisoftheconstructionofLaoziasahis
toricalpersonageseeGraham1998(1986).Forstudiesofthesomeofthewaysin
whichhehasbeenrepresentedintheDaoisttraditionseeSeidel1969;Kohn1999.
20 HereLaozitakestheplaceoftheprimordialbeingPanGu (seeBirrell
1999;Kohn1993,16869;1995).
Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/83
certainemicperspectives.Accordingtothediagram,theessenceofthe
Dao and the Daoist tradition is literally contained in ones own brain.
Thehumanbeing,fromthisDaoistperspective,isacosmologicalbeing:
onesveryownbodycontainsmountains,temples,constellationsand the
locus for immortality and perfection. In some forms of Daoist religious
praxis, specifically visualization (cunxiang ) and inner observation
(neiguan ) forms of meditation during the early and late medieval
periods,theDaoistadeptturnsthelightofthesunandmoon(theeyes)
inward,thusilluminatingtheinternallandscapewhichishisorherown
body(seeKohn1989;Robinet1989a;alsobelow).Onecanalsoarguethat,
iftheNeijingtu originatesinaLongmencontext,thesignificanceofLaozi
findssubstantiationinthefactthatheisidentifiedasoneofthesocalled
Five Patriarchs (wuzu) of early Quanzhen and as one of the Three
Purities (sanqing ) in later Quanzhen. This, at the very least, may
help to explain the enduring power of the Neijing tu as a mapping of
Daoistexistentialandontologicalpossibility.
ThesignificanceofBodhidharmaisabitmoredifficulttodetermine.
One interpretation is that Bodhidharma, paralleling Laozis place in
manysectorsoftheDaoisttradition,representstheoriginandessenceof
Chan(Zen)Buddhism.Thatis,theChantradition,consideredasawhole,
identifieshim as the founder (Dumoulin 1988, 8594).21 Inaddition to
the abovementioned alchemical symbolism, the inclusion of Bodhid
harmamayhavebeenawayofgainingculturalcapital,suggestingthat
neidan practiceandChanmeditationledtothesamegoal.Ifthisreading
is convincing, the Neijing tu may also be suggesting the importance of
crosstradition cultivation practice. Here one thinks of Bodhidharmas
mythic nine years of meditation, or wallgazing (biguan ), as a
symbolofintensiveanddedicatedreligiouspraxis.22 Chaninspiredemp
grams on Chan practice (walking, standing, sitting, and lying down) that
areincludedintheXingmingguizhi,DZ314,9.554555.Inthechartonmeditation
practice, one is urged to engage in prolonged periods of seated meditation. In
addition,Liaokong(fl.1895),oneoftheteachersofZhaoBichen(founderof
theQianfenglineage), wasaChanmonkwhopracticedneidan.ZhaoBichenis,in
84/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
Fazang says: Violet eyes clarify the four great oceans; the
whitelightpervadesMountSumeru.
Cishi says: Between the eyebrows white light con
stantly emanates;this can liberateallsentient beingsfromthe
sufferingofceaselessreincarnation.
turn,identifiedasaneleventhgenerationmemberoftheWuLiusublineageof
Longmen.SeeXi2004,especially116.Takentogether,thismeansthattherewere
Daoist monks practicingChan meditation,and Chan monkspracticing Dao
ist internal alchemy in the Baiyun guan environs and nearby Buddhist sacred
sitesatatimeroughlycontemporaneouswiththecommissioningandengraving
oftheNeijingtu.The central importance of Bodhidharma and Chan again adds
support foraWuLiu connection, as Liu Huayang, the cofounder, wasaChan
monk.ForadditionalinsightsonDaoismandtheoverallreligioculturalcontext
ofBeijingduringthelateimperialandearlymodernperiodsseeGoossaert2007.
23 Interms ofWestern physiology, thefiguresalso could be interpretedas
thesphenoidboneandthepituitarygland,housedinthesellaturcicaportionof
the sphenoidbone.
24 With regardtoFazang, Rousselle (1933, 213) suggests that Fazang re
fers to Dharmagupta, but Wang points out that Dharmaguptas Chinese name
wasFami(Wang199192,148).
Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/85
gralaspectofDaoistcultivationmodelsinthelateimperialperiod.28 The
textualandvisualcontoursoftheNeijingturepresentacomminglingof
the worldviews and goals of Buddhism and Daoism, perhaps most
clearly expressed inthe final goal of prolonging longevity and [attain
ing]immortalityandBuddhahoodatthehighestpointofthediagram.
Both quotations speak of expansions of consciousness, extraordinary
abilities, and liberation from suffering. That is, one encounters further
attempts to inspire the observer to cultivate more perfected ontological
conditions.
Inadditiontothemaincourseofqicirculationalongthespine,the
diagram depicts smaller circulation routes. Some streams flow down
from the upper mountains, while others move from the center of the
headtotheDescendingBridge(jiangqiao).Theformerrelatestothe
Jade Nectar (yujiang ), Sweet Dew (ganlu ) and Spirit Water
(shenshui) (see also Needham et al. 1983, 114; Eichman2000a,350).
Intheprocessofalchemicalrefinement,theperfectqi(zhenqi)rises
up the Governing Vessel through the Three Gates, where it combines
withtheSpiritWater,asymbolicnameforthesaliva,todescendbackto
thecentralregionsofthebody(Needhametal.1983,7778).Daoistculti
vationmethodsincreasetheproductionofsaliva,whichis,inturn,swal
lowedandmadetodescendtowardsthelowerelixirfield.Thisinvolves
dropping the tongue, represented in the Neijing tu as the Descending
Bridge,fromitsnormalpositionoftouchingtheupperpalateanddrink
ing the Jade Dew. The saliva then passes through the TwelveStoried
TowerandthePalaceoftheSweetSpringandColdPeak,bothnames
for thetrachea.29 The Jade Dewdescendsthrough the Scarlet Palace (ji
anggong)tocleansetheheart,beforeitsplashesandexpandsinthe
OceanofQi(qihai ).
Then,ofcourse,therearetheCowherd(niulang )andtheWeav
ingMaiden(zhin)(seeFig.3).TheCowherd,correspondingtothe
Western star of Altair in the Aquila constellation, is shown standing in
theheartregionholdingtheNorthernDipper(UrsaMajor).Nexttohim
zhu,DZ263,58.7a;andthirteenthcenturyJindandachengji,DZ263,10.4b.
Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/87
30 Ileaveopenthepossibilitythatthereisanactualastronomicalaspectto
this section of the Neijing tu, wherein the adept connects with and ingests the
astralqiofthesestars.Whetherornotthisisthecase,thediagramagainreveals
thepractitionerofalchemicaltransformationasacosmicizedbeing.
31 Note that the Xingming fajue mingzhi, a text from a late imperial neidan
See,forexample,theeleventhcenturyYuqingneiliandanjue ,
32
DZ240,1.10b; Li1991,310.
Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/89
ing to three distinct methods and intellectual traditions within Daoism: (1) the
bodyasanadministrativesystem,rootedintheworldviewoftheDaodejing,and
realizedinquietisticandmedicallyorientedmeditation;(2)thebodyastheresi
dence of spirits or gods and associated with Shangqing visualization practices;
and(3)thebodyasimmortaluniverse,avisiondevelopedundertheinfluenceof
Buddhist insight meditation (Chn.: guan ; Skt.: vipayan) (Kohn 1991a, 230).
ForadditionalinsightsonDaoistviewsofthebodyseeSchipper1978;1993;Lvi
1989;Andersen1995;Saso1997;Komjathy2007;forChineseviewsingeneralsee
alsoAmes1993; Kuriyama1999.ForrelevanttranslationsseeKohn1993,16188.
34 ThestudyofthecrosspollinationbetweenDaoismandChinesemedicine
isonlyjustbeginning,butseeUnschuld1985;Strickmann2002.Forsomeofthe
better theoretical discussions of Chinese medicine see Porkert 1974; Liu 1988;
Maciocia1989.
Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/91
ConceptionVesselisthecentralmeridianonthefront.35 Theformerbasi
cally begins at the coccyx, the Weil point or first of the Three Passes
mentionedabove,movesfromthebaseofthespineupthemiddleofthe
back, around the crownpoint, to the upper lip. The latter basically be
ginsattheperineum,movesupthecenterlineofthefrontofthebody,to
thelowerlip.36 ThesevesselsaremostclearlydepictedintheNeijingtu as
the two pairs of five bands near the front of the headthe Governing
Vesselcontainstheqiofthefiveyangorbs(gallbladder,smallintestine,
stomach, large intestine,bladder), while theConception Vesselcontains
the qi associated with the five yinorbs (liver, heart, spleen, lung, kid
ney).37
One also notices the presence of the five yinorbs, combined with
the gall bladder, in the textual material at the center of the Neijing tu.
While only the traditional iconography of the liver is illustratedthe
strandoftreescorresponding tothe Woodphase (seeFig. 3)themost
basiclayerofmeaningherereferstothehealthofeachorbandthusthe
healthofthe entire organism,38 with healthbeing thesmooth flow ofqi
throughoutthebody.Thus,wefindthefollowingpassageintheSuwen
whereQiBo answerstheYellowThearchsinquiriesabouttheorbs:
QiBoreplied,Theheartistherootoflifeandtransformations
of spirit (shen)The lungs are the root of qi and the resi
denceofthecorporealsoul(po )Thekidneysaretherootof
quiescenceandstoringandtheresidenceofvitalessenceThe
liver is the root of extremes and the residence of the ethereal
soul (hun)The spleen and stomach, along with the large
intestine,small intestine, Triple Warmer,and the bladder, are
therootofstorageandtheresidenceofnutritive[qi](yingqi
).(DZ1018,9.15b18b;cf.18.8a9b)39
As expressed in the presence of the five yinorbs in the Neijing tu, the
Daoistadeptmustunderstandthespecificfunctionsofeachorbandthe
variousrelationshipsamongthem.40 Thehealthofeachorbandthehar
monization of their respective functions is a necessary precondition for
further alchemical work. If one takes the guidelines of the Suwen seri
ously,thisinvolvesasystemwhereindietetics,seasonalattunementand
cosmology are interwoven: one eatsdifferent types of foods and differ
ent flavors depending on ones constitutional tendencies, stage of life
andthedominantseasonalinfluence(see,e.g.,Suwen,chs.1and2).Itis
difficulttoknowifthisaspectofChinesemedicineandofDaoistcultiva
tion is embedded in the Neijing tu, but the diagram clearly orients the
adept towards the importance of the Five Phase system in general and
the five yinorbs in particular. One may say that this textual strata and
leveloftraining,rootedinaclassicalChinesemedicalview,underliesthe
moreobviousallusiontotheHuangtingjing,namely,theesotericnames
oftheorbsoccurringinthissectionofthe Neijingtu.
Beforemoving from this discussion ofpraxisbased applications of
classical Chinese medicine to the potential visualization practices ex
pressedinthediagram,afewadditionalpointsdeservereflection.Inthe
previoussectionontextualandvisualcontours,Ihaveemphasizedthat
41 FormoreonthefunctionofthesevariouspointsincontemporaryChinese
medicineseeEllisetal.1989;Deadmanetal.2001.
94/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
Thespiritoftheheartis[called]ElixirOrigin,givenname
GuardingtheNumen.
Thespiritofthelungsis[called]BrilliantSplendor,givenname
42Robinet(1993)providesinformationontheplaceoftheHuangtingjingin
ShangqingDaoism(seealsoRobinet1984;2000).Schipper1975providesacritical
edition with an index, while Homann 1971 gives a preliminary analysis of the
Neijing jing. Partial translations appear in Kohn 1993; Kroll 1996. A complete
translation appears in Huang 1990. Michael Saso (1995) has also published a
translation,butthereaderisforewarnedthatmanyofthetranslatedpassages
bear little resemblance to the original text. For insights on earlier Shangqing
visualizationpracticesseeespeciallyRobinet1989a;1993, ch.2.
Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/95
EmptinessComplete.
Thespiritoftheliveris[called]DragonMist,givenname
ContainingIllumination.
Thespiritofthekidneysis[called]MysteriousObscurity,
givennameNourishingtheChild.
Thespiritofthespleenis[called]ContinuouslyExisting,given
nameEtherealSoulPavilion.
Thespiritofthegallbladderis[called]DragonGlory,given
nameMajesticIllumination.43
tices,cun isusuallytranslatedtovisualize.However,Ileaveopenthepossi
bilitythatcun shouldbetakeninitsmorestandardsenseoftopreserve.Thatis,
the Huangtingjing may be more about stabilizing an abode for the various orb
96/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
spirits, about becoming aware of and observing these, than about imagining
somethingtobethecase.
45 Thegallbladderistheyangorbpairedwiththeliver,andthusassociated
withtheWoodphase.InthecontextoftheHuangtingjing,itisunclearwhythe
gallbladderissingledout.HereIwouldalsomentionthatdaninthenameof
theheartandxuaninthekidneyssuggestacinnabarredcolorintheformer
anddeepbluecolorinthelatter.
Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/97
Thatis,thewuxing colorassociationsarementionedinthesectionof
the Huangting jing that directly follows the passage listing the esoteric
namesof the orbspirits. If themiddle section oftheNeijingtuis an en
cryptedandabridgedreminderfortheDaoistadeptutilizingtheHuang
tingjing asavisualizationmanual,thenthetechniquebeingemployedis
even more complex than my outline suggests. The wuxing colors are
primary, but there are also secondary colors as well as anthropomor
phic images for the orb spirits.47 The adept encounters and becomes
inhabitedbybodygodswithveryspecificvisualappearances,including
robeswithcorrespondingcolorsandsymbols.48
ThepraxisorientedapplicationsofclassicalChinesemedicalviews
ofthebodyandthevisualizationofthefiveyinorbsbasedontheireso
tericnamesintheHuangtingjingandcorrespondingwuxingassociations
areintegratedintoacomprehensiveandinterconnectedsystemofDaoist
cultivation and alchemical transformation in the Neijing tu. In this re
spect,thediagramalsoclearlyillustratestheneidantechniqueknownas
theWaterwheel(heche)orMicrocosmicOrbitpractice(xiaozhoutian
;lit.,SmallerCelestialCycle).49 Generallyspeaking,thispractice
46 Thisisatentativetranslation,asthevariousreferencestojadeandclouds
may be to patterns in the clothes, colors of the clothes, or actual jade and
clouds.Ihaveattemptedtostayasclosetotheoriginalaspossible.
47 Interms ofcontinuities in Daoismin general andneidanlineages inpar
ticular,itisnoteworthythattheseesotericnamesoftheorbspiritsappearin,for
example, the Xiuzhen taiji hunyuan zhixuan tu , DZ 150, 7a
(seeBaryosherChemouny1996)andtheXingmingguizhi,ZW314,9.529.
48 Beyond this narrow and relatively conservative reading ofthe diagram,
onefindssimilarvisualizationmethodsintextswhichslightlypredateorwhich
are contemporaneous with the Neijing tu. See, e.g., the seventeenthcentury
Xingming guizhi, ZW 314, 9.516, 9.519; Xingming fajue mingzhi, ZW 872, 26.101,
26.119.Cf. Jindandachengji,DZ263,10.7a; Dadanzhizhi,DZ244,1.4b,2.1a, passim.
49 Wang(199192,152),followingNeedhametal.(1983,7280;11416),iden
tifiestheSmallerCelestialCycle(xiaozhoutian)withthecirculationofthe
perfectqibetweentheheart(theCowherd)andthekidneys(Needhamsreins;
the Weaving Maiden), while the Larger Celestial Cycle (dazhoutian) in
volvesthespinalcolumn.Incontrast,inmorecontemporarypracticestheMicro
98/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
cosmicOrbitfocusesspecificallyontheGoverningandConceptionvessels,while
theMacrocosmicOrbitinvolvescirculatingqi throughalloftheEightExtraordi
naryVessels.See,e.g.,Xingmingfajuemingzhi,ZW872.
50 The history of the socalled Microcosmic Orbit technique is currently
Reorientations
Inthepreviousinstallmentofthepresentarticle,whichcoveredthehis
torical and terminological contours of the Neijing tu, I emphasized its
originsintheLongmenmonasticcommunityofBaiyunguanduringthe
late Qing dynasty (16441911). These historical details have now been
clarified based on internal textual evidence. The intermingling of Chan
BuddhistandDaoistneidan concerns,specificallythereferencetoFazang,
indicates a potential connection with the emerging WuLiu sublineage
ofLongmen.Inaddition,analysisofinfluentiallateimperialDaoisttexts,
includingworksthatwereroughlycontemporaneouswiththeNeijingtu
andthatalsocirculatedwithintheLongmenmonasticcommunity,indi
catesstrongparallels.Ofparticularnoteinthisrespectisthestrongem
phasis that Liu Huayang, one of the nominal founders of the WuLiu
lineage,placesontheHuayanjingandtheMicrocosmicOrbitpracticein
his Huimingjing.
From the discussion of the textual and visual contours, as well as
the cultivational and alchemical contours, it has become clear that the
NeijingturepresentsadetailedandmultilayeredmappingoftheDaoist
body and Daoist religious praxis. On the one hand, it parallels various
earlier neidan lineages and related diagrams of Daoist bodies. On the
otherhand,theNeijingtuseemstobeauniquesynthesis.Itexpressesa
vision of the Daoist body as actualized through alchemical praxis and
transformation. At the core of this vision is an emphasis on self
cultivation:thebodycontainsfieldstobetended,seedstobesown,and
graintobegathered.Thatgraincontainstheuniverse,auniversewhich
issimultaneouslycosmos,world,landscape,community,self.Itisauni
verseactualizedthroughneidanpraxis,whichaccordingtotheNeijingtu
involves the conservation and transformation of vital essence, produc
tion and ingestion of saliva, visualization of the inner orbs, and activa
tionoftheDaoistalchemicalormysticalbody(seeKomjathy2007).
Thisistheyangspiritorthebodybeyondthebodythatistheprecondi
tionforpostmortemsurvival.Itisamysticalbodybecauseonesbody
becomes cosmicized, rarified and possibly divinized. Ones very physi
ology becomesexperienced as the numinouspresence ofthe Daomade
manifestandembodied.Itisalsomysticalbecausetherearenonspatial
andsubtledimensionsthatrequireactualization.BasedontheNeijingtu,
Komjathy,MappingtheDaoistBody/101
Iexamined[thediagram]foralongtimeandrealizedthatmy
comprehensionwasgrowing.Ibegantorealizethatexhalation
andinhalationaswellasexpellingandingestingofthehuman
bodyarethewaxingandwaningaswellastheebbandflowof
the cosmos. If you can divine and gain insight into this, you
will haveprogressed morethan halfway on your inquiry into
thegreatWayoftheGoldenElixir.
AccordingtoLiu,Daoistsviewingthismapseetheirownpossibilityfor
psychosomatic transformation reflected in its lines and images, in its
mapping of the Daoist body and Daoist religious practice. Simultane
ously,themapisnottheterritory(seeSmith1993).Thepurposeofamap
istofamiliarizethetravelerwiththelandscape,andthemapismerelya
preliminarystageindevelopingadeeperawarenessofandrelationship
with a particular region, to develop the appropriate orientation. Until
one becomes so familiar with, so oriented towards, the landscape that
one may burn the map as kindling for a mountain fire, the map has
failed to serve its purpose. As a map of the Daoist body, theNeijingtu
urgesaspiringDaoistadeptstodedicatethemselvestoalchemicaltrans
formation,to religiouspraxis that willresult in the emergence ofnumi
nouspresencesandasubtlebody.ThisistheDaoistbodynotasmapbut
asactuality.
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108/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
VOLKER OLLES
Abstract
TheMountainofLordLao(Laojunshan)inXinjinDistrict,Sichuan
Province,has been identified asthe center ofaformer diocese of Celestial
Master Daoism (Tianshi dao ). Moreover, it remains a famous sanctuary
fortheworshipofLaozi.ThetempleonMt.Laojunistodayanactivereli
gious institution that belongs to the Dragon Gate (Longmen ) lineage of
CompletePerfection(Quanzhen)Daoism.InthelateQingdynastyandRe
publican times, the temple was closely connected with a popular religious
movement called the Teachings of the Liu School (Liumen jiao ), which
wasfoundedbytheConfucianscholarLiuYuan(17681856).Inthispaper,
severalaspectsofMt.Laojunspastandpresentwillbehighlighted.Specialem
phasiswillbeplacedontheLiumenmovementandtheimpactthatthiscommu
nitymadeontherecentdevelopmentofthesanctuary.Wewillseethatthecur
renthagiographiclegitimizationofMt.Laojun,whichholdsthatLordLaoonce
dwelledthereandengagedinsecludedselfcultivation,verylikelyhasbeenfab
ricatedbythepatriarchsoftheLiumenmovement.Thissacredsiteisanexcellent
exampleofaformerCelestialMastersdiocesethatstillfunctionsasaDaoistin
stitution in contemporary China, and the multifaceted Daoist traditions of Si
chuan arereflectedinitsmodernhistory.
*
IamgratefultotheanonymousreadersofJDSfortheirhelpfulcomments.
109
110/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
The[significanceofa]mountaindoesnotconsistinitsheight.
If there are immortals [dwelling on it], [the mountain] is fa
mous.The[magnitudeofa]riverdoesnotlieinitsdepth.Ifit
hasadragon[residinginit],[theriver]isnuminous(ling ).1
1 SeeGuwenguanzhi(Changsha:Yuelushushe,1988,reprint1992),
7.475.OnLiuYuxiseetheentrybyWolfgangKubininNienhauser1986,59293.
Olles,LordLaosMountain /111
2 For an overview of the sacred places of Daoism see Hahn 2000. On the
dioceses in particular see the entry by Terry Kleeman (zhi, parish) in Pregadio
2008, 2:127476; Verellen 2003;Olles 2005a, 1429.A comprehensive monograph
onthetopicisWang1996.Forindepthstudiesofsingledioceses,whichcombine
textualresearchandfieldworkfindings,seeOlles2000;2005a;2005b.
3 On the geographical distribution of the dioceses and their cosmological
correspondencesseeVerellen2003,2028.
112/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
4 AtypicalexampleistheRegisteroftheEnergyBreathsoftheTwentyfour
Pregadio2008,1:70406;Esposito2000,62733.TheLongmenconquestofSichuan
is discussed in Qing 1996, 4:13348 (authored by Zeng Zhaonan ) and
Wang2000, 81,9396.
Olles,LordLaosMountain /113
eventuallybecamethepatriarchoftheBidong(JasperGrotto)sub
lineage, which became the dominant branch of Longmen in the area.6
Although written sources are scarce, we may presume that, during the
17th century, the old dioceses of Celestial Master Daoism also became a
partoftheLongmendomain.7
Mt. Laojun in Xinjin District is thus a representative example of a
formerCelestialMastersdiocesethatisstillinoperationasaDaoistin
stitution today. The sanctuary on top of the mountain, commonly re
ferredtoasLaojunmiao (TempleofLordLao)orLaozimiao
(Temple of Laozi), serves as residence for a community of Longmen
clerics and Daoist lay adherents. Mt. Laojun has been identified as the
center of the former diocese Chougeng (Chougeng zhi/hua /).8
Inhissurveyofsacredgeography,Dongtianfudiyuedumingshanji
(Records of GrottoHeavens, Blissful Lands, Peaks,
Marshes,and Famous Mountains, DZ599), thecourtDaoist Du Guang
ting(850933)gavethefollowingdescriptionoftheoldChougeng
Diocese:
6 OnChenQingjue,seeMinandLi1994,603andtheentryonYiXinying
(authoredbyCatherineDespeux)inPregadio2008,2:116061.
7 The Longmen zhengzong Bidong tang shang zhipu
(Lineage Register from the Jasper Grotto Hall of the Orthodox Dragon Gate
School), which was compiled and supplemented in late Qing and Republican
times,containsalistoftempleswhoseabbotsbelongedtotheBidongsublineage.
Only one name,Mt.Heming (Hemingshan;Mount CraneCall) in Dayi
District, explicitly relatestothe location ofa diocese;seeQing1996, 4:137.
The document istoday kept in the main temple onMt.Qingcheng (Qingcheng
shan;MountGreen Citadel);see ibid, 4:135, n.1.Onthetwo mountains
see Pregadio2008,1:479(byJamesRobson),2:79899(byVincentGoossaert).
8 SeeWang1996,18691;Verellen2003,48;Olles2000;2005a.Thecharacter
genginthediocesesnameisalsoreadjing.Mychoicefollowstheestablished
localpronunciationofthenameandtheentryontherespectivecharacterinthe
Ciyuan (4 vols. Beijing: Shangwu yinshuguan, 19791983, reprint 1992),
3:230607. In Tang dynasty sources, the character zhi for diocese is often
replacedbyhuainordertoavoidthepersonalnameofEmperorGaozong
(r.650683),LiZhi.
114/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
nodes.Above[inthesky],itcorrespondstothelunarmansion
kui.People,[whoarebornon]renzi(49)andrenwu
(19)dates[accordingtothesexagesimalcycle],areaffiliated
to [this parish]. [The diocese is located in] Shu , ten li
south of the district town of Xinjin. The Yellow Emperor
(Huangdi)refinedcinnabaratthisplace.Atopthemoun
tain are a heavenly pond and a stone stele, and the cinnabar
furnaceispreservedthere.9
in Chengdu; itspreface is dated 901.See Verellen 1989, 136; Ren 1995,431 (no.
594);Zhu1996,223(no.943);SchipperandVerellen2004,1:423(entrybyFlorian
C. Reiter). For a full analysis ofDaozangsources describing Chougeng Diocese,
seeOlles2005a,7487.
10 See Kohn 1998, 21724. For a summary of the Yellow Emperors Daoist
careerandfurtherreferences,seeOlles2005a,9598.Tomyknowledge,theearli
estaccountoftheYellowEmperorssojournatChougengDioceseistobefound
in the sixth century encyclopedia Wushang biyao (The Essence of the
Supreme Secrets, DZ 1138), 23.6a; cf. Olles 2005a, 7578. On Wushang biyao see
Ren1995,88891(no.1129);Zhu1996,349(no.1461);SchipperandVerellen2004,
1:11819(entrybyJohnLagerwey).
11 The Ming(13681644) workHantianshishijia(Lineage ofthe
HanCelestialMaster,DZ1463;2.3a)statesthatZhangpracticedmeditationthere.
The Yuan dynasty(12711368) collectionLishizhenxiantidaotongjian
Olles,LordLaosMountain /115
none of the Daozang texts make any mention of Lord Lao staying at
ChougengDiocese.Mt.Laojunscurrentappellationanditspresentspiri
tualauraaredoubtlessbasedonamuchlatertradition.
While the name Laojun shan for this locality appeared in written
sourcesaslateasintheQingdynasty(16441911),twootherappellations
ofLordLaosmountaincanbefoundinearlierhistoricalandgeographi
caltreatises.Thefirstofthese,Tiansheshan(Mt.CelestialAltar),
probably originated in the designation of a stellar constellation and
seemstorefertotheridgeofhillssouthofthedistricttownofXinjin,of
whichMt.Laojunformsapart.However,thenameTiansheshanisstill
usedassynonymforLaojunshaninpresentdays.Theotherappellation,
Mt. Chougeng , matches the name of the old diocese in the Dao
zangsources.Theexactmeaningofchougengisnotclear.Theword
seemingly designates a medicinal herb or a kind of rice. To my knowl
edge, the geographicalname Chougeng only occurs at this locality in
XinjinDistrictanddoesnotrelatetoanyotherplace. 12
Facets of History
DespitetherichhagiographicheritageofMt.Laojun,verylittleisknown
aboutits history.Whileexistingwrittensourcesandrelicsareinsufficient
for acomplete reconstruction of themountains historical development,
itispossibletogaininsightintoseveralstagesofdevelopment.
RelicsfromtheHandynasty(206B.C.E.220C.E.)havebeenfoundon
Mt. Laojun and in its close surroundings, but none of these remains
seems to have a direct connection to the Celestial Masters diocese. Yet,
the excavated relics attestto the sophisticatedcultureofthe area where
the Celestial Masters parishes were established. In a cliff tomb at the
easternfootofMt.Laojun,apictorialcarvingwasfound,showingCon
fucius visiting Laozi and seeking the latters instruction. Furthermore,
geng (Ciyuan, 3:2298 [jing ], 3:230607) stands for nonglutinous rice. On Mt.
LaojunsnamesandtheiroccurrenceinhistoricaltextsseeOlles2005a,6273.
116/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
twoHandynastyclifftombsarepreservedontheplotofthetempleand
currentlyserveassacredgrottos,containingdevotionalimages.13
ReliableinformationonthehistoryofthetempleonMt.Laojunap
pearsin an inscriptionon the iron templebell dated1796. Thebell was
stillinuseuntilrecentlyandisnowkeptinsidetherearhallofthesanc
tuary.Themaintextoftheinscriptionreadsasfollows:
Laozi,inthelightofDaoistrevelations,isdiscussedinKohn1998,29195.Onthe
relationshipbetweenclifftombsandearlyDaoismseeWu2000,7984.
14 Cf. Yan 1990, 15. A full analysis of the inscription is presented in Olles
2005a,12229;fortheChinesetextsee2005a,260andtheAppendixbelow.
15 OnthisperiodofDaoisthistoryseeBarrett1996;Kohn1998,31128.
Olles,LordLaosMountain /117
on the five sacred mountains, and these temples were named Laojun
miao.16 So it ispossiblethat the sanctuary on Mt. Laojun wasmodeled
on these official religious institutions and received its present name in
theTangdynasty.However,thereisnoevidenceinwrittensourcesthat
couldprovethisassumption.
The present inhabitants of the temple claim that a miraculous ap
pearance of Laozi in 729tookplace inthesanctuary on Mt. Laojun,but
thiscouldnotbeverified.Inthe17th yearoftheKaiyuan reignpe
riod (713741), an image of Lord Lao suddenly appeared on a wooden
pillarinahallofaBuddhistnunneryinXinjinDistrict.Afteraclosein
vestigationhadbeencarriedoutbyvariousofficials,EmperorXuanzong
(r. 712756) was informed about the miracle, and the pillar with the di
vineimagewaseventuallyconveyedtothecapital,whereitwassetupin
apalacehallforworship.ThismanifestationofLordLao,whichdoubt
lessconstitutesa significant event in thereligioushistory of Xinjin Dis
trict,iswelldocumentedinDaoistcanonicalsourcesandofficialwritings.
YetnoneoftheseaccountsprovidesanyhintthattheBuddhistnunnery
was turned into a Daoist temple after the miracle or that Lord Laos
epiphanytookplaceatthelocationofancientChougengDiocese.Sothe
connectionbetweentheKaiyuaneventandMt.Laojunisbestconfinedto
therealmofrecentreligiousfiction.17
The destruction of the temple in the transition period between the
dynastiesMing and Qing is afactthatis alsorelatedinthe local gazet
teerofXinjinDistrictfromtheDaoguang era(18211850).Itisstated
there that the temple Laojun miao was devastated and burned to the
ground by the rebel Zhang Xianzhong (16061647), which hap
pened,asweknowfromthetemplebellinscription,in1644.Inthisyear,
ZhangXianzhongsetuphisownregimeinChengdu.Duringthisreign
of terror, the rebel troops under his command butchered large parts of
Sichuanspopulationandrejoicedinthedestructionofculturalandreli
gioussites.In1647,ZhangwasfinallykilledinabattleagainsttheMan
16 SeeJiuTangshu8,benji8,Xuanzong1(Ershisishi
therelevantstoryintheLaojunlishiyinghuatushuo(Illustrated
Account of Lord Laos Responses and Transformations through the Ages;
Chengdu:Erxian an ,1936)andreferences,seeOlles2005a,13039.
118/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
chu army. According to the gazetteer, the sanctuary on Mt. Laojun was
rebuiltbylocalsin1793.18 Tosumup,afterthetempleLaojunmiaohad
been completely destroyed in 1644, it underwent reconstruction in the
lastdecadeofthe18th century.Twogovernmentofficials,YangHuiyin
from Shandong and Luo Gong from Hunan , who
servedasDistrictMagistratesofXinjin,initiatedtherebuildingproject.19
Earlier reconstruction dates are mentioned in Chinese secondary
literatureandinformativematerialonMt.Laojun,butitisnotpossibleto
verifythesedates(Olles2005a,108).Giventherapiddevelopmentofthe
LongmenbranchofQuanzhenDaoismduringthe17th century,thetem
pleLaojunmiaomighthavebecomeaQuanzhenmonasteryafteritsre
construction. The extantsources,however, do notcontain any such evi
dence.20
InthelateQingdynastyandRepublicantimes(19121949),thesanc
tuary on Mt. Laojun was closely connected with a popular religious
movement called the Teachings of the Liu School (Liumen jiao),
which was founded by the Confucian scholar Liu Yuan (1768
1856).21 UndertheguidanceofLiuYuanandhisdescendants,thetemple
20 ItshouldbenotedthatthetemplesallegedaffiliationtotheBidongsub
lineageoftheLongmenschool,whichhasbeenpurportedinarecentpublication
(LiandDing2006,26),mostlikelyisafabrication.LiandDingcitetheLongmen
zhengzong Bidong tang shang zhipu (see above, note 7), but this document (as
quotedinQing1996,4:13738)doesnotmentionthetempleonMt.Laojun.The
sameappliestotheQingyanggong (PalaceoftheGreyRam)inChengdu,
whichforalongtimewasledbyLongmenabbotswhodidnotbelongtotheBi
dongsublineage;seeQing1996,4:140.
21 TheLiumenmovement,itshistory,scriptures,anditsritualtraditionare
22 LiuBogu,September2007(personalcommunication).
23 ThesituationofMt.Laojunin1987isdescribedinHachiya1990,1:29798,
24 SeeYan1990,67;Olles2005a,162.OnthetempleQingyanggongseethe
entrybyLiviaKohninPregadio2008,2:80607.
25 ForanillustrateddescriptionofthemainbuildingsonMt.Laojunandan
analysisofthetemplespantheonseeOlles2005a,167236.
Olles,LordLaosMountain /121
ThemajortemplebuildingsaretobefoundonthesummitofLao
junshan.ThearchitecturalhighlightisthePavilionoftheEightTrigrams
(Baguating),whichhousesanimageofLordLaoridinghisgrey
ox. This monument comprises all basic elements of the traditional Chi
neseworldview.TheeighttrigramsoftheYijing(BookofChanges)
aredepictedonitssides,andthethreefundamentalpowers(sancai)
of the universe are symbolized in its ground plot: The circular body of
the pavilion represents Heaven, while its square enclosure stands for
Earth and its octagonal base for the eight trigrams and Humanity. The
mainbuildingofthetemple,in whichthedailyliturgiesareperformed,
issituatedbehindthepavilion.IntheHalloftheThreeClarities(Sanqing
dian ), the preeminent trinity of gods, who symbolize different
aspectsoftheDao,areworshippedtogetherwithagroupoftwelveGold
Immortals (jinxian ). In the back part of this hall, facing a walled
courtyardlinkingtheSanqingdiantotherearbuildingofthetemple,the
ShrineoftheSevenPerfected(Qizhendian)wasbuiltinhonorof
theeminentdisciplesofWangChongyang(11131170),thefoun
deroftheQuanzhenorder.TheHalloftheThreePrimes(Sanyuandian
), dedicated to the rulers of the Three Offices (Sanguan ) of
Heaven,Earth,andWaterandvariousothersaints,istherearhallofthe
templecomplex. Its upper story contains an image of Doumu, the
Dipper Mother, and is therefore called Doumu lou (Attic of the
DipperMother).
Besidethemain Hall of the ThreeClarities, amodestshrinehall is
situated,itsfrontopeningintoawalledcourtyard.Theoriginalnameof
thisbuilding is Rulinci(AncestralTemple of the Literati); other
currentappellationsareLiujiacitang(AncestralHalloftheLiu
Family)andGongdeci(ShrineofMeritandVirtue).Thearchitec
turaloutlineofthestructureisbasedonthetraditionalformofanances
tralhall(citang ),theopenaircourtyardallowingfamilymembersto
assemble in front of the shrine while ancestral offerings are performed.
Until the middle of the 20th century, the ancestral tablets of Liu Yuans
familywerekeptinsidethehall.Today,ancestraltabletsarestilllinedup
on wooden racks on both sides of the shrine room, but they represent
departed clerics and lay adherents of the present Quanzhen temple on
Mt. Laojun and not members of the Liu family. However, the descen
dantsofLiuYuanstillgatherinordertoworshiptheirancestorswiththe
122/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
appropriateliturgiesontheannualMiddlePrimeFestival(zhongyuanhui
)onthefifteenthdayoftheseventhlunarmonth.Formanyyears,
theycontinuedtoperformtheritesonMt.Laojun,withtheapprovalof
abbessZhangZhirong.Yet,duetothemanytouristsvisitingLaojunshan
andarecentconflictbetweentheLongmenclericsandtheLiufamily,the
descendantsofLiuYuanhavenowchosenamoreremotesanctuaryfor
theiractivities.26
InsidetheRulincitemple,anemptyshrinewithseveralinscriptions
isstillpreserved.Abovetheshrine,ahorizontalinscriptiononawooden
tablet reads as follows: Mingjiaochuiguang(TheTeachingof
Names [i.e. Confucianism] hands down its glory.). It is reported that
thisshrinecontainedasacredimageinformertimes,astatueofaQing
dynastyscholarwhohadadeeppersonalrelationshiptoMt.Laojun:Liu
Yuan,thefounderoftheLiumenmovement.
26 LiuBogu,March2007(personalcommunication).
27 FormoreonLiuYuanandhismovementseeMaandHan2004,2:100630;
Olles2005a,14063.
Olles,LordLaosMountain /123
therwhenhewasonlytwentytwoyearsold,whereuponhismotherhad
tomaintainthefamilybyweaving.Forthisreason,hewasnotwillingto
serveasofficialinotherprovincesandpreferredtosupporthisfamilyby
teachingataprivateschoolinhishomevillage.
At theageof 58, in the year 1826, Liu Yuan wasappointed District
Magistrate ofTianmen in Hubei,buthe declined onthepretext of
beinginmourningforhisparents.Atthattime,however,hismotherhad
been dead for fifteen years, and the true reason for his refusal was his
lackofinterestinanofficialcareer.Ontheotherhand,LiuYuanwasal
ready a wellknownpersonality in Sichuan wherehegathereddisciples
andspreadhisteachings.HewasthendesignatedasArchivistintheDi
rectorateofEducation(guozijiandianbu),whichinlateQing
times was an empty rank without official duties.After ashort stay in
thecapital, Liu Yuan asked for leave andreturned toSichuan wherehe
taught and lived in seclusion. He never served in an office throughout
his life, but had about a thousand students, more than a hundred of
whomobtainedacademicdegrees likejinshiorjuren.Liu Yuan fathered
eightsons,andhewasarespectedandprosperousmaninhislateryears.
Many people considered him as a great scholar and a master of high
moral standing, andhe was also venerated as asaint.Atthe end of the
fifth year of the Xianfeng era (1856), Liu Yuan passed away at the
ageof88,andhewasburiedinhis homevillageinShuangliuDistrict.
Ontheplot of the Liu familys dwelling in Shuangliustood an old
locusttree(Sophorajaponica),afterwhichthehousehadbeennamedLo
custTreeStudio(Huaixuan ).LiuYuanusedthesamenameforhis
houseinChengdu,wherehetookupresidencein1807,sincetherewere
three locust trees on its premises. The teachings of Liu Yuan and the
popularreligiousmovement,whichderivedfromtheformer,werethus
knownasHuaixuan dao(Way of the LocustTree Studio).Other
common appellations were Liumen (Liu School) and Liumen jiao
(TeachingsoftheLiuSchool).Itshouldbenotedthatcontemporaryde
scendantsofLiuYuanoftenpresenthisteachingsasaschoolofphiloso
phical thought that should only be referred to as Liu School (Liumen).
The name Huaixuan, on the other hand, became so important that it is
stillusedtodayasasynonymforLiuYuanhimself.
Those works among his numerous writings which were consistent
withtheConfucianorthodoxyhavebeenpublishedbyLiusdescendants
124/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
The religious practice of the Liumen movement was not the out
comeofadesperateattempttoimitatetheimperialstatecultortoinvent
newConfucianrituals.Individualselfcultivationandcollectiveliturgies
were completely derived from Daoist models. Today, a whole canon of
ritual scriptures and a system of selfcultivation, both rooted in the
Liumentradition,stillexist.
Theselfcultivation,atitslowerlevel,consistsoftechniquesofnur
turing life (yangsheng )not unlike those exercisesthat arecurrently
referred to as qigong. The system, named Jingyang gong (Exer
cisesofTranquilNurturing),hasfoursuccessivestepsandistransmitted
orally within an exclusive circle. These methods of selfcultivation,
rooted in Daoist internalalchemy (neidan), weredevelopedby Liu
Yuan himself after inspiring encounters with two Daoist hermits and
eightyearsofstudywithoneofthesemasters.30
LiuYuanmetYeyunLaoren (ElderoftheWildClouds),an
oldmansellingmedicinalherbs,inadifficultphaseofhislife.AfterYe
yunLaorenhaddisclosedtheessentialsofDaoistselfcultivationtohim,
whichLiuYuanfoundtobeinperfectaccordwithhisConfucianprinci
ples, he became the disciple of this mysterious old man. From around
1796 to 1804, Liu Yuan studied with the hermit, whose real name was
never revealed, and his health improved greatly. It is reported that the
retreat of Liu Yuan and his master in those days was Mt. Laojun (Yan
1996, 60). Since Liu still dwelled in Shuangliu at that time, it is indeed
possible that he frequently stayed on Mt. Laojun in neighboring Xinjin
District.Forthetimebeing,Iamnotawareofanysuchconfirmationin
Liuswritings,butthismaybeduetothesecretivemannerinwhichLiu
YuantreatsthesubjectofhisDaoiststudies.However,thesignificanceof
Mt. Laojun within the Liumen tradition confirms that the mountain
played an important role in Liu Yuans life. With regard to the current
hagiographiclegitimizationofMt.Laojun,aninterestingdetailhastobe
mentioned: According to legend, both Daoist masters of Liu Yuan, in
cludingYeyunLaoren,wereincarnationsofLordLao.31
Zixu shi zi
30 This is related in Liu Yuans autobiographical text
32 ThewholecanonandalatersupplementhavebeenreprintedinZangwai
1315).Foralistoftitles, seeKomjathy2002,9298.OntheeditionsofGuangcheng
yizhi seeMin andLi1994,14647.
Olles,LordLaosMountain /127
his fellow Daoists, for this is statedby Fan Daoheng in his introduction
toFayanhuizuan (ZW 946,30:459ab).
It is beyond doubt that the liturgical aspect of the Liumen move
ment, just as its system of selfcultivation, is deeply rooted in Daoism.
Thisisalsothecasewiththeactualperformanceoftherituals.LiuYuan
figured as chief editor of Fayan huizuan, but neither he nor his descen
dants actually performed the rites described in their canon. This was,
andstillistoday,thedutyofaDaoistpriestwhoseprofessionisheredi
taryandwhoisfamiliarwiththeliturgiesinFayanhuizuan.LiuYuanand
thefollowingpatriarchsoftheLiumencommunityhadnocommandof
thenecessary ritualmethods (fa), and itseemsthat theymade no at
tempt to interfere in this domain of professional Daoist practice. Many
DaoistpriestsinSichuanwereaffiliatedwiththeLiumenmovementand
used the Fayanhuizuan scriptures in their ritual activities. These practi
tioners constituted an independent liturgical tradition of nonmonastic
Daoism in the area, which isstill extantand known under thename of
Fayantan (AltarofRitualWords).
Liu Yuan was well versed in the Confucian classics, but he also
studied a certain amount of Daoist and Buddhist scriptures that were
popular in his time. This is demonstrated by the Collection of Sacred
Scriptures and Litanies of Repentance(Jingchanjicheng ) which
was published for the first time in 1860 by Liu Yuans disciples.34 The
compilation includes nine Daoist and three Buddhist text clusters with
introductionsandcommentaries byLiuYuan(inonecasebyLiusfather).
Most of the scriptures have prefaces by various divinities, which were
receivedthroughspiritwriting.ThefinalpartoftheJingchanjichengcol
lectionisasupplement:theDaodejingwithacommentarybyL
Dongbin, reeditedbyLiuYuan.
UndertheleadershipofLiuBeiwen(style:Ziwei;1842
1914),thesixthsonofLiuYuan,theLiumencommunitydevelopedinto
aninfluentialreligiousmovement.Newadherentswereacceptedonper
sonal recommendation and a donation, which had to be in accordance
withtheincomeoftherespectiveperson.Therecruitswereadmittedto
thecommunitythroughaceremonyandhenceforthhadtoobeyasetof
34 ZW948,30:790a1059a(reprintoftheJingchanjichenged.,Chengdu,1916).
128/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
was very widespread. The Liumen community, however, was not regarded as
heterodox,whichmaybeduetoitsConfuciancredo;seeSeiwert2003,479(n.47).
36 SeeLiandDing2006,8.TheanthologyChongkanDaozangjiyao
(Chengdu:Erxianan,1906)includesfourinscriptionsbyLiuYuanandone
textbyhissonLiuGuiwen(18371897);seeworknumbers299and300in
Komjathy2002,74.Atranslationofthesetextswillbepublishedsoon.
Olles,LordLaosMountain /129
Once[I]crossedtheHan[gu] Pass,ridingagreyox,
[then]hidawayinShu(Sichuan)toexploreTiansheshan(Mt.
CelestialAltar)anew.
Astonechamberwaschiseled,uptothethroneofGreatPeace;
thesmoke ofthe cinnabar furnace permeated theNineHeav
ens.
[Atthismountain],girdedbytheQiongRiver,theMinjiang
beingitslapel,
[I]reinedfivephoenixestowelcometheimmortalatthebridge.
37 ForfurtherinformationonYanKaiandanexampleofhiscalligraphysee
Wang1998,271.OnYiXinyingseeabove,note6.
130/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
38 Thetextoftheinscriptionisreproducedbelow;cf.Olles2005a,9395,104.
39 OnPenglaiseetheentrybyThomasE.SmithinPregadio2008,2:78890.
Olles,LordLaosMountain /131
ofagreyram.LordLaothenbestowedtherankofanaccomplishedim
mortalonhisdiscipleYinXi.Theallegedsiteoftheirencounteristoday
thelocationofthetempleQingyanggong(PalaceoftheGreyRam).40 On
thebasisof this traditional legend, themountain inXinjin was elevated
toLordLaosretreat,wheretheOldMasterdwelledinacavernanden
gagedinselfcultivation.Thenewgloryofthesanctuaryandthefurther
transmissionofLordLaosscriptures,bothalludedtointheinscription,
wererealizedundertheauspicesofLiuYuanandhiscommunity.
Furthermore,theinscriptionbearsamysterioussignatureattheend
of the poem: Jiangyuan Xingjia (Geomancer of Jiangyuan).41
Jiangyuan is a place name that already existed in the Han dynasty and
denotedalocalitynorthoftodaysXinjinDistrict.42 However,thestrange
nameisnotjustasobriquetoftheQingdynastyauthorofthepoem.Lo
callegendhasitthatJiangyuanXingjiaisnoneotherthanLordLao,and
thisisalsoconfirmedbyYanKaiscommentaryontheinscription.43 The
textwasinallprobabilityauthoredbyLiuYuan,anditmaywellbethe
productofaspiritwritingsession.
UndertheinfluenceoftheLiumenmovement,Mt.Laojunreceived
anewstatuswithinthesacredgeographyofSichuan,basedonregional
traditionssurroundingLordLao.Thecurrentappellationsofthemoun
tain and its temple certainly originated from the new definition of Mt.
Laojuns spiritual authority at that time. It remains an open question
whetheror notthe legend of Lord Laossojourn on themountain is di
rectlyrelatedtoLiuYuansDaoistmaster,YeyunLaoren.Therecognition
ofYeyunLaorenasanincarnationofLordLaowaspossiblytheworkof
Liu Yuans descendants or members of the Liumen community, who
soughttoglorifyLiusmasterretrospectively.
Today,LordLaoisstillomnipresentonthemountain.Imagesofthe
saintridinghisgreyoxaretobefoundinsidetheBaguating(Pavilionof
the Eight Trigrams) and enshrined in a cave. The Cavern of Lord Lao
(Laojundong), situatedbeneaththe summitand decorated with
40 SeeKohn1998,2021,26771;Olles2005a,9192.
41 Theterm xingjiaverylikelydenotesanexpertongeomancy(fengshui
orkanyuxue);seeQindingSikuquanshuzongmu109.11b
(Zibu 19, shushulei 2).
42 JiangyuanwasclosetotodaysShuangliuDistrict;seeTan1982,2:29,53.
43 LiuBogu,April2008(personalcommunication).
132/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
inscriptionsbyagrandsonofLiuYuan,isthespiritualheartofMt.Lao
jun. The walls of the natural cave have been lined with bricks, and a
shrinewithastatueofLordLaohasbeensetupinsidethischamber.A
stelewithaninscriptionbyLiuYuan,dated1854,hasbeenpreservedin
the grotto, but, due to the weathering of the stone, the main text is not
legible any more. Thissacredcavern wasembellished by Liu Yuan and
hiscommunityduringtheQingdynasty.Itisclearlystatedintheinscrip
tionsontheshrinethatLordLao,afterhisrestlessjourney,foundhisul
timateretreatthere.44
Lord Lao also plays a dominant role in the religious activities that
can be observed on Mt. Laojun today. The major festival of the temple
Laojun miao is Lord Laos birthday (Laojun shengdan ) on the
fifteenthday of the second lunarmonth.Every year,the festival iscele
bratedwithintheRitualPeriodofSpringPrayers(chunqifahui),
whichlastsoneweek.OnthedateofLordLaosbirthday,approximately
one hundred thousand pilgrims and visitors flock to the temple to pay
homagetotheOldMaster.Duringtheritualperiod,whichlastsfromthe
thirteenth tothe nineteenthday of themonth, various liturgiesarecon
ducted. Besides Lord Lao, the rituals address Numinous Officer Wang,
the Three Offices, Wenchang , Guandi , the Jade Emperor,
Guanyin,theDipperConstellations,andotherdeities.Theliturgicaltexts
used in these rituals are all included in the collection Guangcheng yizhi
(see Olles 2005a, 23746). The celebration of Lord Laos birthday within
this liturgical framework is unique to the temple Qingyang gong in
Chengdu and Mt. Laojun in Xinjin District.Atboth sites,therituals are
rootedintheliturgicaltraditionofQuanzhenDaoism.InthecaseofMt.
Laojun,however,thepreeminenceofLordLaointhereligiouslifeofthe
mountainhastobeascribedtothelastinginfluenceofLiuYuanandthe
Liumenmovement.
44 ForthesetextsseeWang1996,189;cf.Olles2005a,18991.Whilewriting
themonographonMt.Laojun,Iwasstillreluctanttorecognizethefullimpactof
theLiumencommunityonthissacredsite.
Olles,LordLaosMountain /133
Conclusion
The Quanzhen Daoists on Mt. Laojun continue the tradition of the old
CelestialMastersdioceseintheirownway.Yet,thecurrenthagiographic
legitimization of the locality and the traditional temple buildings were
shapedbythepatriarchsanderuditemembersoftheLiumencommunity.
AlthoughLiuYuanandhisdescendantssaw,andstillsee,themselvesas
Confucians, the Liumen movement significantly influenced the devel
opment ofmodern Daoism in theareaof Sichuan. While the Fayan tan
ritualtradition,whichevolvedunderthepatronageoftheLiufamily,is
in itself a part of nonmonastic Daoism, the Liumen movement as a
wholewascloselyconnectedwithinstitutionsofQuanzhenDaoism,e.g.
thetempleQingyanggong.TheLiumenmovementthusactivelypatron
ized Quanzhen Daoism and, at the same time, competed with this mo
nastic form of the religion. On the other hand, the Liumen community
certainly also substituted for traditional religious institutions unable to
resisthistoricalcircumstancessuchaswarandthegrowinginfluenceof
Westernculture.ThecommunitystakeoverofMt.Laojunmaybeseenas
onesuchexample.
Today, after the statecontrolled revival of religious life in the Peo
plesRepublicofChina,theLiumenmovementandsimilarcommunities
have been marginalized. The multifaceted and diffused nature of tradi
tionalChinesereligionconflictssharplywiththerigidWesternderived
MarxistLeninist definition of religion (Dean 1998, 10), that has been
adoptedbythepresentgovernment.However,sacredsiteslikeMt.Lao
jun and Qingyang gong benefited greatly from the patronage of the
Liumencommunity.InthecaseofMt.Laojun,aformerdioceseofCeles
tial Master Daoism continues to flourish as a Daoist institution in con
temporary China. Liu Yuan and his descendants spotted Lord Laos re
treat on this mountain and thus disclosed another manifestation of the
OldMaster,whoappearsthroughtheagesastheteacherofhumanity.
134/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
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Appendix
I:TheInscriptionontheTempleBell(1796)
II:TheLordLaoInscription(1799and1919)
Daoist Nuns in Taiwan
WAN-LI HO
Abstract
TheGaoxiongDaodeyuan isthefirstandonlycommunityofceli
bate female Daoists in Taiwan. Established in 1960, it draws on practices from
both the Zhengyi (Orthodox Unity, i.e., Celestial Masters) and Quanzhen
(CompletePerfection)schools.Thearticlearguesthatwhilethemajorityof
Taiwan Daoists follow the Zhengyi tradition, the priestesses and nuns at the
Daode yuan have adopted Quanzhen practices to create their own unique reli
gious tradition. Their unique syncretism represents major modifications of the
Daoist tradition and serves as an example of the interaction among different
schoolsastheyadapttomodernreligiousandsocialneedswhilepreservingtra
ditionalroots.
137
138/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
Historical Context
Daoismisbothanindigenousreligionandamarkerofculturalidentity
for most Chinese. Since the 63rd Celestial Master, Zhang Enfu ,
arrivedinTaiwan in1949thenumberofDaoistfollowershasincreased
significantly. In 1951, Zhang founded the Taiwan Daoist Association
(Taiwan shengdaojiaohui );in 1964,Jiang Zhaozhou
founded the Chinese General Daoist Association (Zhonghua daojiao
zonghui ). About 70 to 80 percent of Taiwanese religious
practitioners consider themselves Daoist adherents. Taiwan had 12,970
registered temples in 2002: 8,954 Daoist and 2,279 Buddhist.1 Officially,
thereareover8,954Daoisttemples,buttheiractualnumberismuchlar
gerbecauseunofficialDaoisthallsrarelyregisterduetolandownership
1 Bythe end of 2002, Taiwan had 11,423temples: 78.4% Daoist and 20.0%
Buddhist.Thetotalnumberofregisteredbelieverswas1,068,550:858,005Daoist
and199,938Buddhist(StatisticalYearbookofInterior,RepublicofChina2002,Taipei:
Ministry of Interior in Taiwan, 2003). However, religious participants are more
nuermous than registered ones, which means that 70 to 80 percent of religious
practitioners in Taiwan follow Daoism.However,some claimthat 70to 80per
centbelieveinfolkreligion.BarbaraReedhasarguedthatpopularreligionand
Daoism strongly influenced each other, but Daoists drew a clear line between
themselves and what they considered excessive, immortal cults (Reed in
Sharma 1987, 169). In addition, any temple neither dedicated to Buddhism nor
Confucianism isconsidered Daoist. These nuances can affect religiousstatistics.
Recent publications estimate that Buddhism has flourished in recent years be
yond previous expectations, estimating that 90% of Taiwanese consider them
selves religious: 40% consider themselves Buddhist while 3.5% consider them
selvesChristian(includingProtestantsandCatholics).SeeShi 2003,28.
Ho,DaoistNunsinTaiwan/139
constraints. Scholars estimate that there are around 20,000 official and
unofficialDaoisttemples. 2
Since the Yuan Dynasty (12791368) the Zhengyi and Quanzhen
schools have been the key branches of Daoism. In Taiwan, Zhengyi is
mostpopular.ThisschoolwasfoundedinSichuanbyZhangDaoling
oftheEasternHan. The fourth generation Celestial Master, Zhang
Sheng,movedtheheadquartersfromSichuantoMt.Longhu
inJiangxi(Lu2006,102).Theschoolallowsmarriageandhasmainlylay
priests(DaoistAssociation2003,34).Theyusetalismansandamuletsin
their rituals, adopting the practice from the Talismans and Records
School (fulu pai ) (FischerSchreiber 1996, 1124). In contrast, the
Quanzhenschoolismonasticwithacelibateclergyandstrictdiscipline.
In addition to various cultivation methods, they use internal alchemy
(neidan )totransformintoimmortals.
Early Taiwanese Daoism followed the faith as found in Fujianand
Guangdong and passed down by the Zhengyi lineage of Mt. Longhu.
Quanzhen teachingswereprimarilytransmittedtoTaiwan afterthelib
eration of the crossstrait economy in 1987. It spread into Taiwan
through a conscious learning process rather than being transplanted
naturallythroughimmigration(Zheng2004,ii).Inparticular, the Nantou
cisheng gong began to transmit and emphasize Quanzhen
ritual practices in Taiwan after its members studied them in mainland
China.3
Daode yuan nuns not only visit Quanzhen temples often, but also
tend to practice internal alchemy. This is important for this article be
cause, while their practices of celibacy and internal alchemy derive di
rectly from Quanzhen, they also draw heavily upon the rituals of the
Zhengyischool.Whataccounts forthismeldingoftraditions?
2004.IamindebtedtoProfessorLiforhiscontinuousinspiration.
3 TheNantoucishenggongwasfoundedin1985. ItsleaderisHighPriestess
time,317peopleattended,however,only107studentsgraduatedin1989.Itstill
functionsasaDaoistinstituteoflearningtoday,mostly in southernTaiwan.
6 Xunhasthreelines:yin,yang,andyang,readfromthebottom.Itrepre
sentsthesoutheast.Zhenhasthelinesyang,yin,andyin.Itrepresentstheeast.
Ho,DaoistNunsinTaiwan/141
The principal gods worshiped at Daode yuan are the great Daoist
gods:theThreePureOnes,AncestorsoftheDao(SanqingDaozu
),theHighestAncestorLao(TaishangLaozu)andtheCeles
tial Worthy of the Great One who Saves from Suffering (Taiyi Jiuku
Tianzun).Thelatteristhemostpowerfulofall.Othergods
include the Lofty Thearch on High of the Mystic Vault, the Heavenly
Jade Emperor, Grand Thearchs of the Three Offices, Celestial Master
Zhang Daoling, Thearch on High of the Mystic Heaven (Zhenwu), Star
Lords of the Northern and Southern Dippers, Most Sage Prior Teacher,
TranscendentElderoftheSouthernPole,andothers more. Amongmany
companion deities who are worshipped at Daode yuan there are also
goddesses such as the Queen Mother of the West (Xiwang mu ),
the Dipper Mother (Doulao ), Holy Mother in Heaven (Tianshang
shengmu )andtheGoddessofMercy(Guanyin ).
TheDaode jing (BookoftheDaoandItsVirtue)servesasthe
primary religious text for the members of Daode yuan along with fre
quentlyreadcompaniontextssuchastheTaishang ganyingpian
(HighestBookofImpulseandResponse),theTaishangqingjing jing
(Highest Scripture of Clarity and Tranquility), the Taishang
daozujing (Highest Scripture of Ancestor Lao), the Yuhuang
xinyin miaojing(MarvelousMindSealScriptureoftheJade
Emperor), the Yinfu jing (Scripture of Secret Correspondences),
the Dingguanjing (Scripture of Concentration and Observation),
Taiyijiukuhushenmiaojing (MarvelousScriptureofthe
GreatOnetoSavefromSufferingandProtecttheBody),etc.
Leadership
TheleaderofthecommunityisWengTaiming.Shehasdevoted
herselftothisworksincegraduatingfromcollegein1974andespecially
afterher1976ordination.HermastersSunFanbinandthe64th Celestial
MasterZhangYuanxianbestowed uponher theSanwudugongjinglu
(ScripturalRegisteroftheThreeandFiveInspectorofMerits),
which empowers her to perform Daoist rituals. At first, she worked
closelywiththefounding masterGuoCangying;in1986,shebecamethe
Daode yuan leader; in 1987, she also advanced to master of the Great
OneLotusSchool. In 1995, she was granted theShangqingsandongwulei
jinglu (Five Thunder Scriptural Register of Highest
142/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
7 TheTiantanyuge(PreciousRulesoftheJadeAltar)isaZhengyi
tions: vernacular and classical. These two can be observed at festivals and at
otheroccasionswhereritualspecialistsconductservices.SeeSchipper1985,21.
9 Forexample,liketheSongshancihuitang ,oneofthetenmost
importanttemplesinTaipeiaccordingtothecityadministration,theyhaveper
formed Reporting Repentances to the Supreme Ruler/Emperor (Lianghuangbao
can),anannualBuddhistritethatservestoaskthegodsforprotection
andsupportfor ones livingparentsas well asthe release ofsouls from purga
tory inrelation to deceasedparents (chaodu). They have done this because
manytemplemembersareBuddhistpractitioners(Ho2005).
Ho,DaoistNunsinTaiwan/143
Toclarifytheterminology,nunsarewomenwhoretreatfromsecu
larlifetoperformcontemplativepractices,ofteninvolvingvowsofpov
ertyandcelibacy.Priestessesinadditionareordainedformallyandoffi
ciate at rituals; they are considered of higher rank. The Daoist clergy
mainly consists ofordainedpriestsandpriestesses.Nuns maybeconsid
ered lowranking members of the clergy if they participate directly in
officiating at rituals; otherwise she is not considered clergy. 10 At the
Daodeyuan,believersaddressthepriestessesasdaozhangfashi
(OrdainedDaoistRitualMaster),andthenunsasfashi (RitualMas
ter). Weng has three priestesses and two nuns as her immediate assis
tants. One priestess, called Taiwu , has been ordainedby receiving
theZhengyiweimengjinglu; the others, TaiwenandTairen ,re
ceivedthe Sanwudugong jinglu.
In the Daode yuan community, all except three practitioners have
bachelorsdegrees.Thoughthosethreehavenotacquiredahigheredu
cation,theyhavehadoverthirtyyearsoflearningexperienceintheDao
ist Institute for Cultivating Perfection. 11 Most are older and were or
dained over thirty years ago; the one exception is a fortyyearold nun
who was ordained five years ago. None sought ordination to escape
tragedyorfailureinthelayworld.Their motivationistolearnandlisten
toDaoistteachings,ortohelpDaoismthriveinTaiwanesesociety.They
are devoted totheDaoandtheirdesiretohelpothers.
Thenunsandpriestessesweartheirhairpulledbackintoponytails
ofvaryinglengthsinsteadofkeepingitinatraditionalbunonthecrown
of the head. They all wear dark blue pants and white Chinese shirts
calledtangshan .Theirhairandclothesallowthemtoapproachtheir
work and daily activities with simplicity. During the rituals, they wear
traditional Daoist robes, usually yellow in color and covered with the
symbols of Three Pure Ones and yinyang. The leader of the ceremony
wearsmoredecoratedandmagnificentgarb.
10 Historically,threetermsreferredtofemaleDaoistpractitioners:women
Thepriestessesandnunsspendthreehoursindailymeditation.At
othertimesthey performdifferentkindsofworkdevotedtotheDaoand
inserviceof thespiritualneedsoflaypractitioners.Whentheytalkabout
theirdevotion,they typically saythattheirgreatestspiritual gain isthe
ability tohelppeoplebecome one with the Dao.They feel thatthey are
privilegedtobeabletointeractwiththeHighestAncestorDaothrough
theirdevotion.Oneofthenunssaysthatsheisfortunatetohavefounda
tranquilplacetodevoteherselftotheDao.Anothernunsaidthatevery
dayshelooksforwardtohelpingpeopletofindthecorrectpathinlife.12
WengTaiminghassetuprulesbywhicheverypriestessinthetem
plereceivesasmallsalary.AsTaiwupointsout,nopriestesswillaccept
any personal support from any lay sponsor, lest there be favoritism in
thecommunityoffollowers.Luckily,thefamiliesofpriestessesandnuns
areallverysupportive.Nomatterhowlongtheirdaughterhas practiced
the renunciation of worldly life, they continuously support her finan
cially,beingproudthatafamilymemberis dedicating herselftoDaoand
society (Dec.26,2004).
The priestesses and nuns also conduct rituals to reduce obstacles
and difficulties in the lives of the faithful. When people have crises in
theirlives,theytendtothinkthattheirfengshuiisnegative,andrequest
thatthepriestessescheckonit.However,thepriestessesseldompractice
fengshui rituals. Instead, they try to intervene by developing ways to
solvetheproblems,psychologicallyaswellasspiritually,andencourage
peopletocultivatethevirtueofDaoanddomoregooddeedsforothers.
Weng Taiming encourages her followers to love the Dao and ob
serve community regulations. She demands strict discipline among the
renunciants, but also shows them deep love. When I was interviewing
two of the priestesses, Taiwen remarked: Weng Taiming is a great
leader.Shewouldsaythatwearethemastersofourownselves.Sheen
courages us to follow the rules, observe our vows, cultivate ourselves
intellectually,andrespectourselvesandothers(July5,2003).
12 NunsTaiwenandYicheng,interviewonDecember23,2006.
Ho,DaoistNunsinTaiwan/145
Practitioners
Weng Taiming is much more lenient with lay followers. The basic re
quirement forthem is to attend a daylong Daoist study session on the
first day of the New Year. Priestesses and nuns pass along Daoist doc
trinessuchastheGreatWayoftheThreePureOnes(Sanqingdadao
), the Great Way of the Golden Elixir (Jindan dadao ),
and the Perfect Principle of the Great One (Taiyi zhenli ). Be
yond this, Weng Taiming also encourages communal learning through
weeklystudysessionsorganized.
The Daode Yuan Annals from 1988 through 2005 show that there
were2,588practitionerscommittedtofollowingDaoism.Ifweaddcon
verts from 1951 to 1987, there are more than 3,000 practitioners con
nectedtotheinstitution.13 Duringmyfieldwork,Isawbelieverscometo
thetemplefromdawnuntildusktoparticipateinrituals,receiveservices,
volunteer to dochores, andbring vegetablesformeals. Daode yuan fa
cilitiesareall neatand clean,and peoplearecarefultorespecteachother.
During seasonal feasts or academic conferences, all participants single
mindedlyfocusontheirwork.
OnceIspokewithWangYingmei,amiddleagedwomanfollower.
Shesaid: Coming to thetemple is likecominghome. Although I have
beentomanyotherBuddhistandDaoisttemples,Ifeelmostcomfortable
herebecauseIlikeWeng Taishiandeverypriestesshere(Dec. 19,2003).
Master Weng or Grand Master Weng of the Three Pure Ones and the
GreatOnearetitlespeopleusuallycalltheleader.Anotherbeliever,Mr.
HoQiugui,said: WhatIlikemostabout Master Wengisthatsheisvery
fairtoeverybeliever.Shewillalwaystreatapersonthesameregardless
of wealth orpoverty. Every week she gives usthe opportunity to learn
Daoistdoctrineandtextsandthenencouragesustowritedownourre
flections and remarks. From this training, I have accumulated a great
dealofDaoistknowledge(Dec.19,2003).Frommyconversationswith
theseandotherfollowers,itisclearthat theyfeelloveandrespectforthe
clergy of Daode yuan.The leadership of thepriestesses and the nuns is
palpable.
When asked about their leadership, the nuns and priestesses will
humblyclaimthattheydonotoccupyanyleadingrolesatall.Theysim
years.2,588isthenumberofconvertsbetween1988and2005.
146/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
ply say that they live under the tutelage of Highest Ancestor Dao and
followtheguidanceofWengTaiming.Anyleadershipservicetheyper
formisdoneaspartoftheirstudies.Ifthereisarealleaderamongthem,
itisWengTaiming,ofwhomthepriestesses,nuns,andlayfollowersall
speakhighly.
Wengearnsmeritasasourcebecausesheisauniqueexampleofa
Daoistpriestesswhodespiteheroverallmodelbehaviorisyetnotcom
pletely without fault. While she very seldom loses patience, she some
timesmakesminor mistakes.Forexample,sheonceansweredherphone
and also had an outside conversation while talking into the earpiece.
Whatsetsherapartisherexemplarybehavior,whichshepairswiththe
charisma of other renowned religious leaders. Dharma Master Sheng
Yenof theBuddhistfaithisanotherexampleof suchapowerfulreligious
figure,butshedoesnothavethesamestaturesincesheclingstothecon
servativenotion that infidelity isnot grounds for a womantodivorcea
man.14 Although not always in accord with her followers, they still ad
mireherforherenthusiasm.Inthesameway,Wenghasearnedthere
spectof allDaoists.
MyinterviewsshowthatMasterWengsetsanexampleforothersto
follow. She selflessly devotes herself to working for the benefit of the
nuns, priestesses, and lay followers. She treats everyone fairly and
equally.AttheDaodeyuan,laystatuscarriesnoweight.Oncepractitio
nerswalkthroughthetempledoors,alltitlesaredroppedandeveryone
ismerelyadiscipleoftheThreePureOnesandAncestorDao.Frommy
variedinterviews, I concludethatWengseriouslycaresforeveryone.She
sharesofferingsafterritualsasawayofsharingtheblessingoftheHigh
est AncestorDao.
Peopledescribeherasfullofmotherlylove.Sheconsidersthesafety
and welfare of those who come to the temple for work or conferences.
She teaches them how to cultivate their health and always insists that
theyeatwellsothattheydonothavetoworkonanemptystomach.Itis
not surprising that Daode yuan disciples have no trouble completing
their work for the Dao, given that Weng Taiming takes care to ensure
everyones wellbeing. After participating in a Daode yuan sponsored
sonalcommunicationwithauthor,September1,2008.
Ho,DaoistNunsinTaiwan/147
conferenceTheFirstInternationalScholarlySymposiumonDaoistCul
ture and the Transcendent Way in Gaoxiong (Nov. 1112, 2006)the
ZhengyipriestWuZutianpraisedthetempleanditsdisciples:Thedis
ciples oftheDaode yuanhavea strongpresence andproperdemeanor.
They treat everyone well. It is very rare to see this at Daoist temples
thesedays(personalcommunication,Nov.2006).
15 ProfessorsXieConghuiandZhengZhiming,personalcommunicationat
theSixthReligionandSpiritualReformConference,Dec.1821,2003,Taipei.
148/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
definition;morethanthat,itisalsoawayofchallengingtraditionalDao
ism in Taiwan. Its syncretic approach means that the Daode yuan is
rooted in both Zhengyi and Quanzhen but is also distinct from both
school inseveral importantways.
ZhengyiinTaiwanisprimarilynonmonastic.Becauseoftheirsecu
lar lifestyles, the priests are commonly known as following the fire
dwelling path. The title fire dwelling was a phrase coined by Bud
dhistswhoclaimedthatthosewhoexistedinthesecularlifewouldsuf
fer like everyone else,thus living as if in a flame. However, Daoists do
not embrace this claim, saying that they willingly embrace the secular
life in order to create a professional class of religious men. In Taiwan,
Zhengyipriestsareoftendividedintotwoclasses,theblackheadand
red head. The black head priests generally specialize in the rituals of
supporting purification (zhai ) and offering rites (jiao ), which are
mainly fortheredemption of the dead. Redheadpriests arecommonly
calleduponforauspiciousoccasionssuchasfestivals,destinycorrecting
rituals,andotherhappyoccasions (Lee2003,13840).
TheDaodeyuanrelatesdeeplytoZhengyibecauseitsfounderwas
ofthatschoolandthetemplehascontinuouslyperformedZhengyirites.
However,manydifferencesbecomeclearwhencomparingitspriestesses
with other Zhengyi priests. First and foremost, while Zhengyi priests
attempt to form a class of professional religious men, the priestesses of
theDaodeyuanarethosewhohave leftthefamilyandentered monas
ticlife.Secondly,whiletheZhengyipriestsprimarilyfocusonfourstyles
of ritual (temple festivals, seasonalfeasts, rites ofpassage, anddestiny
correctingrituals),Daodeyuannunsandpriestessesonlyfocusontem
ple festivals, seasonal feasts, and destinycorrecting rituals (Lee 2003,
132).Inaddition,animportantmissionforthem istheperfectionofself
andtheyengagemoreinspiritualpraxisasabasisofadvanced internal
cultivation.
AkeyaspectofthemonasticcommunityatDaodeyuanisthevow
ofcelibacyjoinedbythepracticeofalchemicaltransformation(dandao
), which involves the use of meditation and the manipulation of the
lifeforce(qi )(Xie 2000,6869).Thepracticedividesinto mens(nandan
) and womens alchemy (ndan ). Although they have many
Ho,DaoistNunsinTaiwan/149
16 Bothtakeessence(jing),energy(qi),andspirit(shen)asoriginalmaterials.
Onndan,fourteenpoemsareattributedtotheQuanzhenmasterSunBuer.Ten
of them explain techniques that can be used by both men and women, while
partsofthreedescribetechniquesespeciallyforwomen.Thefourthpoem,enti
tled Decapitating the Red Dragon, speaks of techniques just for women. See
Yuan1986, 161.
17 Some people also feel that if stopping the period is the goal, then old
women can achieve it faster and easier than young women because the period
stopsnaturallyinoldage.TheadvantageofusingthetechniqueforDecapitating
theRedDragonisthatitenablesthelifeforcetogrowwhiletheoldwomenslife
forceiswithering.Therefore,oldwomenwhowanttopracticeneidantoachieve
thestate offreedom from ones body must first bring backtheperiod andthen
cutitoff.Femalepractitionersmustdothesepracticesbeforeturningfortynine
(Xie2000,64).
18 CatherineDespeuxexplainsthatstoppingmenstruationallowstheintro
ductionofanewblood,calledthewhitemarrowofthephoenix,whichdem
onstratesthepowerassignedtomenstrualblood(2000,406).
150/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
troloverthoughtsaboutselforoutsideactions,allowingthemtofollow
the processofnature.Theyenteremptinessand nothingness(xuwu),
a realm of both being and nonbeing (June 20, 2008). In addition to re
maining tranquil, residents also practice the cultivation of purity and
stillness(qingjingxiu ),gearedspecificallytoremovesexualdesire
and achieve a tranquil state of mind. When asked about the difference
betweenthetwo,Wengsaid:Iwillnottellyou[because]youhavenot
left home(chujia),indicating thatonly renunciantsshould know
thispractice.
Supplementing the meditation, residents also practice physical
exercises to bring back spring (huichun gong ) to keep fit and
nourish body and mind.19 They practice this for fifteen minutes indi
viduallyoringroups.
The nun Tairen feels that these practices have helped her achieve
harmonybetweenheavenandearth.Shesaysthatsuchafeelingislikea
cool stream washing over her body. Although this experience is very
temporary, it increasesher sense oftranquility andconcentration while
she completes tasks throughout her busy day (Dec. 21. 2006). Taiwu
similarly mentionsthatsherecitesthenamesoftheThreePureOnesand
oftheHeavenlyWorthy.Whenreciting,shesaysshefeelsverycalmand
her qi circulates smoothly, thus improving her health (Dec. 21, 2006).
Most nuns agree that when they have free time, they chant deities
namesintheirminds,whichincreasestheirsenseoftranquility.Nomat
terwhethertheyeverreachthelevelofbeheadingthereddragon,they
all say they mustreduce innerdesire and increase essence, energy, and
spirit to promotethenaturalrelaxationofbodyandmind.
PriestessTaiwenalsonotesthat,becausetheDaodeyuanislocated
inthecity,layfollowerscomeandgofrequently.Thistrafficinthetem
plesometimesforcesthenunstospendalotoftimeservingthelaityin
stead of meditating or focusing on internal work. She thinks it is very
importanttodothingstobenefitlayfollowerswhileinternalalchemyit
canbedoneslowly,stepbystep,daybyday (Dec.20,2006).
clockwise and 36 times clockwise. The second involves spreading ones hands
apart above the head in a circular motion. The third involves raising the arms
above the head and slowly lowering them, placing them on the dantian while
relaxingthebody.
152/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
Involvement in Society
ThoughtheDaodeyuanisamonasticcommunity,priestessesandnuns
do notlivean insulated life,but worktoward thespread of Daoism.In
contrast to medieval Daoism, which had rules that forbade interaction
with people of low character (Kohn 2003, 73, 8086), the Daode yuan
clergylikestoseeeveryonegainbenefitfromDaoistpractice.Inthisthey
followanageoldtradition.IntheTangDynasty,priestessHuangLing
wei traveled widely throughout the country and restored the shrine to
WeiHuacun(Kirkland1991,47.64).UndertheJinandYuan,Quanzhen
nuns like MuShoumiao, Li Miaoyuan, and DongMiaozhensought out
monasticwork,providingmedicalaidamongstlaypeopleandbeingac
tiveintempleconstruction(Chao2008,1389).Theireffortsresemblethe
workofTaiwannunstodaywhoworkhardforthebettermentofcoun
tryand community.
Education
Daode yuan residents are very active in Daoist eduation. One project
they work on involves public exhibitions that present Daoist artifacts
from ancienttomodernperiods, thereby exposing growing numbers of
people to Daoist history and learning. For example, they held the An
cienttoModernDaoistArtifactsExhibition(Daojiaogujinwenwubolan
hui)atthe DatongNew CenturyDepartmentStore
in Gaoxiong in November, 2002. It featured more than one thousand
items,includingDaoistritualinstruments,scriptures,historicalexplana
tions of Highest Ancestor Dao and even included a concert of Daoist
music. It was the biggest Daoist exhibition in Taiwan to date (Huang
2002 ).In2007,DaodeyuanhostedasimilareventattheGaoxiongCul
turalCenter(Lu2007).
154/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
practiceoforthodoxDaoism.20 InadditiontotheDaodeyuan,GuoCang
yingset up another Daoist foundation of learning known as the Daoist
Institute forCultivating Perfection. Thematerialsthis institutioncovers
includeDaoistdoctrine,Zhengyiritualsandpractices,Quanzhenhistory
anddoctrine,andDaoistphilosophyandmartialarts.Coursesusually
oneyearinlengtharetaughtbyrespectedDaoistmastersanduniver
sity professors. After attending the classes, students often achieve a
greater sense oftranquility frombeing united with Dao.This facilitates
their participation in social projects that relieve suffering and allows
themto betterhelpothers,includingthelivingandthedead.
Philanthropic Activity
The philanthropic works performed by Daode yuan residents are done
through theCharity Organization of Dao and Virtue (Daodecishanhui
), set up in 1975. The organization has 2,000 members who
donate at least NT100 (US$3.30) eachmonth (DaodeYuan Annals2001).
Fivepeopleworktogetherasagroup,and212serveasexecutivemem
berstomakedecisionsandoverseetheoperationofthetemplesprojects.
From20032007,theTaiwaneseMinistryoftheInteriorlistedtheDaode
yuanasthetopreligiouscharityinGaoxiong(Lu2007). AsDespeuxand
KohnwriteinWomenandDaoism,ethosjoinsthegoalofimmortalityand
personal cultivation with a strong urge to develop compassion and do
goodinthesocietyaroundthem(2003,169).
Routinely, whenevertheCharity Organization hearsofpeople suf
feringfrompoverty,illness,ordisaster,themembervolunteerswillfirst
investigatethecaseandthendecidehowtorelievethesufferingbygiv
ingfinancial,material,and/orspiritualhelpasrequired.Forexample,in
TaiwanonSeptember21,1999,anearthquakemeasuring7.6ontheRich
ter Scale killedmore than 2,000people.The Daode yuan gavea total of
US$450,000tofamiliesofthedisastervictimsandprovidedcoffins,fruit
(used in memorial services in Taiwan), and food to many (Daode Yuan
Annals1999).Sincetheearthquake,Taiwanhassufferednumerousnatu
raldisasters,butfewotherorganizationshaveundertakenreliefefforts,
whereasDaodeyuanhasneverfailedtoorganizereliefcommitteesand
help for the victims. For example, many families were affected by the
Taozhi floods in 2001. The temple distributed US$175 to each family.
20 WengTaiming,emailcommunication,May15,2007.
156/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
SomeworkersaskedWengTaimingwhethertheyshouldgivemoneyto
families belonging to the aboriginal community, since they were Chris
tians;sherepliedaffirmatively,withoutanyhesitation.Afterthetsunami
in Indonesia in 2004, Weng Taiming immediately asked the Taiwen
priestess to lead the practitioners of Daode yuan to Indonesia to offer
money and assistance to victims of the natural disaster. The Taiwanese
volunteersgaveeveryfamilyaffectedbythetsunamiUS$116foratotal
donationofUS$13,000 (DaodeYuanAnnals 2004).
Eachyear,onemonthafterthefirstschoolsemesterstarts,theChar
ityOrganization divides into groups andtravels to 166 elementary and
middleschoolsinGaoxiongandothercountiestoinvestigatetheability
of parents to pay for their childrens academic tuition and lunch ex
penses. Usually, the temple gives each school the money to supply 15
lunchscholarshipsand13academicscholarshipspersemester.Eachyear
itdedicatesbetweenUS$200,000and$230,000tothisproject (Lu2007).
In these ways, Daode yuan has gained a reputation for charitable
work almost equal to that ofthe wellknown the Taiwan CihuiTemple
Organization.21 Although the Daode yuanshas considerably lessmem
bers than the Buddhist group, both share a reputation for charitable
workofthesame magnitudewithintheirrespectivereligiouscircles.The
employment of similar models of outreach by both organizations has
changed how female recluses, whether Buddhist or Daoist, are seen in
Taiwan. Themodernization of religiouspractices,moreover,hasplaced
female priestesses and nuns at the center of social mobilization and
communityactivism,openingnew sphere forwomentoactreligiously.
hadoverfourmillionmembers.In2002,itsworldwidemembershipoffivemil
lionincludednearlytwentypercentofTaiwanspopulation.By2005,itran190
branchesin38countries.Seethewebsite:www.tzuchi.org.tw.Accessed16August,
2000.SeealsoHuangandWeller1998,379.
Ho,DaoistNunsinTaiwan/157
reachouttopeoplewhosereligiondoesnotofferasimilarreligiousser
vicecometoDaodeyuantoaskforhelp.
Furthermore, contributions made by the temple have been praised
byitsmembersandrecognizedbythesocietyatlarge.Theleadershipof
thetempleinthepublicreactiontotheSARSvirusin2002illustratesits
growing social role. The SARS outbreak in Taiwan disrupted peoples
daily lifestyle and claimed 83 lives.22 In China, Hong Kong, Singapore,
andTaiwan,Daoistsperformedavarietyofritualstoboostpeoplesre
sistanceagainstthevirus.23 TheDaodeyuan,togetherwithvariousother
Daoist temples and organizations, set up altars to perform ritual bless
ingsforthosewhohaddiedoftheepidemicandtoprayforinfectedpa
tients. In May, 2003 the Daode yuan in cooperation with the Buddhist
Compassion Relief Foundation and theTaiwan Folk Village
coordinated a performance of a major Daoist rite to eradicate SARS in
ZhanghuaCity.
ChairedbyWengTaiming,theceremonywascalledtheGreatRite
for Eliminating Natural Disaster and Allowing the Good Forces of Yin
andYangtoHarmonizeDisease.24 ItwasdedicatedtoSARSvictims,in
fectedpatientsandtheirfamilies,aswellasformedicalofficialsfighting
the virus. More than 10,000 people attended.25 Different Daoist schools,
including the Zhengyi, Chanhe ,26 Quanzhen, and Great One Lotus
(representedbytheDaodeyuan)performed.
Thebasicgoalofthefourdifferentschoolswasthesame:dealwith
SARSreligiouslybycastingoffthepestilencedemons(quwen),and
allow the good forces of humanity to contain the disease (hewen ).
However,differentschools implementedmusic andritualdifferently to
dod/sars/ accessedFebruary11,2004.
23 http://www.hiangtongkeng.org/sars.htm accessed,February11,2004.
24 Two kinds of ritual are performed at Daoist temples. Head priests con
duct large communal services known as Great Rituals, while Small Rituals are
shorter, morespecific,and do notfunction ascommunal memorials. See Schip
per1974,312,322.TheGreatRitualsperformedattheDaodeyuanareaimedat
solvingproblemsonalargescale,involvingsociety,thecountryandtheworld.
25 HuangChongfa,interviewonMay16,2008.
26 TheChanheschoolissmallerthanZhengyiandQuanzhen;itshasoper
achieve this effect. For example, Zhengyi priests burned ritual boats,27
while Quanzhen masters used fire to commemorate the names of the
victims and send the disease away. Great One Lotus representatives
commemorated thenames ofthe SARSvictimsby writing them on nu
minous tablets (lingwei ), then burned them in a fire to allow the
spirits to ascend to heaven and leave their good merits to their living
descendents (DaodeYuanDVD,2003).
IntheritualsagainstSARS,thepriestessesandnunssoughtbothto
protect the living and to memorialize those who lost their lives. Daoist
priests from the Zhengyi and Chanhe schools and priestesses from
QuanzhenandGreatOneLotusschools havethesamepowertoperform
rituals,regardlessofgender.Bothpriestsandpriestesseshavethepower
andauthoritytoperformtheseceremoniesinordertorespondtonatural
disasterandhumansuffering.Theritualceremonyillustratesthefusion
of Zhengyi and Quanzhen and the cooperation among different Daoist
schools.Throughritualsrelevanttobroadpublic concernsandproblems,
not simply personal enlightenment, these groups have expanded the
wayoftheDao tobeinvolvedactively insocialandsecularlife.
27 Theybuiltaspecialritualboat[calledawangchuanorkingboatandin
Singaporecalledwenchuan orepidemicboat]thatrepresentedthediseasesand
disasters. It was believedthat diseasesand disasters were brought in byspirits
(wenshen).InTaiwan,aftertheritualstheyburnedtheboatbecausetheburning
helped the god carry away the bad qi of the epidemic. In Singapore, after the
rituals this boat was released and lighted ablaze in the sea. This signified the
sendingoffoftheSARSvirusoutofSingapore.
Ho,DaoistNunsinTaiwan/159
28 EachyeartheydistributeCDsand1,000printedcopiesfreeofcharge.
29 The observation comes from my field studies at the Sixth Religion and
SpiritualReformConference,December1821,2003,Taipei.
160/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
TheConferencehasevolvedincooperationwithBuddhisttemples,
which is a good way to foster mutual understanding. Additionally, the
Daode yuan always tries to provide support for Buddhist monasteries.
For example in 2002, when the Puxian Temple of Foguang shan
brought Buddharelics fromChina,members of the Daode yuan
tookpartinthewelcomingceremony.
This multifaith interaction is not limited to exchanges between
DaoismandBuddhism.TheWenzaoUrsulineCollegeofLanguages
, a Catholic college near the Daode yuan, often hosts Catholic
clergy from Western countries to learn about Chinese religion. Some
timesthey also engage incontacts with Daoists. In 2002,for example,a
group of Catholic sisters from various congregations visited the Daode
yuan.Theirvisitcoincidedwiththeplanningsessionforalargergather
ing, the 13th AsianMeeting of (Catholic) Religious Women,held on Oc
tober 13, 2003 in Taiwan. TheCatholicsistersstayed attheDaode yuan
forafewdaysinordertolearnaboutadifferentreligioustradition.The
visitwasmemorableforbothsides,notonlybecauseitwasthefirsttime
agroupofCatholicsistershadvisitedtheDaodeyuan,butalsobecause
oftheextraordinarykindnessandwarmwelcomegivenbyWengTaim
ing and her small community. The Catholic sisters were deeply im
pressedbytheirvisit,whichwasanunforgettableexperienceofgenuine
interreligiousdialogue.30
Itisthusclearthat,aboveandbeyonditscollaboration withdiffer
ent Daoist organizations and temples in social work and of rituals, the
Daodeyuanactivelyengagesininterreligiousdialogue,particularlywith
Buddhists and Catholics.It isvery supportive of otherreligious organi
zations.As,highpriestess(gaogong)HuangChongfa ofthe
Nantou cisheng gongsays: Among all the Daoist temples in Taiwan, I
have foundthe Daode yuanmost supportive as they havebeen known
toreferourtempletootherpeople(Dec. 22,2004).
Weng Taiming spends much of her time in prayer. She prays for
oneandahalfhoursinthemorning,andahalfhourtoonehouratnight.
I asked her what sheprays for. She saidthatsheprays that thehuman
heart will turn towards good, that society will be stable, that countries
30 Rev.AlbertPouletMathis,aCatholicpriestinTaipeiinvolvedininterre
ligiousdialogue,email communication,December23,2002.
Ho,DaoistNunsinTaiwan/161
will be peaceful, and also for harmony with nature, positive relations
betweenChinaandTaiwan,andworldpeace (Jan.6,2003).
Conclusion
The Daode yuan is a unique phenomenon in the Taiwanese religious
scene:unlikemostDaoistswhofollowtheZhengyischool,ithascreated
itsownmodeofpractice.Therearethreesourcesofitsspecificdevelop
mental trajectory. First (historically), the founder Guo Cangying estab
lishedatraditionoffemaleclergy,trustingthenunsabilityandseeking
to develop their leadership from. Second (spiritually), the priestesses
fullydevotethemselvestotheDaoaswellastomeditationandinternal
alchemy, which they see as a great reservoir of strength. Third (practi
cally), Weng Taimings leadership has become an essential force in the
community;herroleisnotlimitedtopersonaldevelopmentofthenuns,
but extends to caring for society and making connections between and
amongDaoistcommunitiesbytranslatingDaoismintomodernterms.
MosttempleleadersinTaiwanaremaleswhobelongtotheZheng
yi school, which traditionally allows them to marry and be non
vegetarian. By contrast, the leaders of the Daode yuan are priestesses
and nuns. Daode yuan, which is a celibate community, emphasizes the
internalalchemyideasoftheQuanzhenschoolwhilemaintaining their
practiceofZhengyirituals.TheirintegrationofelementsfromQuanzhen
school represents major modifications of Daoist tradition in Taiwan
whichhasbeenexclusivelyledbymenintheZhengyi school.Byinves
tigating the spiritual and physical practices of women recluses in a
changing social context, we can see how Daoist nuns have challenged
traditionalpracticesinTaiwan asmuchastheystill,intheirritualsand
ceremonies, adhere to Zhengyi practice. Overall, the nuns respect and
cooperate withestablished Daoisttraditions.
The material presented here introduces the first Daoist celibate
community inTaiwan. Inconclusion, theDaode yuan represents an ex
ampleoftheactivecombinationofZhengyiandQuanzhen.Zhengyihas
historically influenced it because the temples founder was a former
Zhengyimasterwhopassedtheritualsontohissuccessor.Quanzhenis
therootofits philosophyandpracticeofinternalcultivation.Thetemple
maintainsgoodrelationswithZhengyigroupsandQuanzhencommuni
162/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
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HARRISON MORETZ
Ihaveapinebreezeforsale,wouldyouliketobuysome?
Forthirtythousandtaelsofgold,Ishallgiveyouonegourdfull.
LDongbin
In the sixties, Zen Buddhism became popular in the West. While some
students practiced authentically and attained real accomplishmentas
seeninthethrivingZencommunitiesthatcontinuetheirtraditionthere
also arose a popular (mis)understanding of Zen. Certain notions from
Zen had appeal for Westerners and casual interpretations worked their
way into the mainstream, as evidenced by a plethora of books entitled
TheZenof___(fillintheblank).
ThatwasZen;thisisDao. TheDaoisthenewZen.JustaswithZen,
manypeoplethinktheDaoiswhatevertheywantittobe. AlthoughZen
became amarketingdevice formany products,theausterenature of its
practice kept it somewhat insulated from brand commercialization.
Daoistpractices aremorediverseandmoresusceptibletoabuse.
Thereisasaying:Thoseoutsidethefieldjudgebyflashiness;those
inthefieldjudgeby skill/knowledge.Popular
ity comes from flash; depth comes from proper method and context.
Students get excited when offered secret teachings on esoteric knowl
edge,buttrueaccomplishmentdoesnotrelysolelyontechnique.Rather,
itreliesonthegreatercontextoftheDaoistteachingandthecharacterof
the practitioners awakening (wu ) and connection (tong ). The con
textandmanner,therefore,inwhichtheteachingisdeliveredcanhinder
or facilitate true penetration and awakening: these are not for salein
essence,theycannotbe purchased,bartered,oracquiredmaterially.
167
168/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
Cultivating Virtue
There aretwo importantcategoriesof Daoistcultivation. Theonemore
familiar to people in the West is inner cultivation (neigong ). It in
cludes both stillness and moving practices, such as meditation, internal
alchemy,lifenourishing,qigong,andinternalmartialarts.Innercultiva
tion has its counterpart in outer cultivation (waigong ), which in
cludesthecultivationofvirtueandtheaccumulationofmerit(gongde
), as well as doing good works (xingshan ). An essential part of
cultivation is doing things for the benefit of others both individuals
and community. Virtue (de )understood as a high level of personal
integrity, responsibility for self and society, honesty, decency, truthful
ness, as well as the classic Confucian ideals of filiality, loyalty, benevo
lence, righteousness, propriety, and wisdomis essential to cultivating
theDao. Asalreadythefourthcentury alchemist GeHong says:
Ifoneseekstobecomeanimmortalitisnecessarytobefirstof
allloyal,filial,harmonious,compliant,benevolent,andsincere.
If one does not engage in the cultivation of virtue but only
practicesmethods[fangshu ], oneneverrealizeslonglife.
Ifapersondesirestoattainearthlyimmortality,heorshe
mustperform300gooddeeds[shan ];iftheywishtobecome
a celestial immortal, they need 1,200 good deeds; if at 1,199,
they donot keep the middleand commit evenone bad deed,
theymustbeginthecountalloveragain.Thusgooddeedsare
[notmeasuredby]greatness;evildeeds[arenotmeasuredby]
smallness.
The character of a person determinesthe extent to which
his or her inner cultivation bears fruit. If one is sincere and
consistentandactsoutwardlyforthebenefitofall,theninner
cultivation will bear fruit. Thus, if one only practices internal
cultivation without pursuing outer cultivation, it is notpossi
bletoachievegenuineattainment. (Baopuzi 3.6)
Similarly,theseventhcenturyDajiaoyishu(PivotalMean
ingoftheDaoistTeaching) says:Daoandvirtuehaveonebodybuttwo
aspects;theyareonebutnotone,twobutnottwo(ch.1).Daoandvir
tue are inner and outer aspects: Dao is unmanifest and ineffable while
Moretz,TheDaoIsNotforSale /169
virtueisitsexpressionintheworldofphenomena.Daoistheunformed
source;virtue,itsfunctionintheworld,theexpressionoftheinnatepo
tencyofDao.
The Daode jing (Book of the Dao and Its Virtue) notes that
Dao producesvirtue nourishes (ch. 51). The Dao is what engenders
thetenthousandthings;virtue, itsthe outward expression. It isthepo
tencythatnourishesthem.AsanaspectofDao,itisthepotencythatal
lows function in the world. In people it is the reflection of Dao within
oneself. The Tang emperor Xuanzong expresses it even more forcefully
inhis introduction to theDaodejing: TheDaoas it is inmyself: that is
virtue .
What,then,aresomehumanqualitiesofvirtue?Theyarethequali
ties of the moral person, of someone of good character. One whose ac
tions are benevolent and public (gong ), engaged in the world for the
goodofothers.InChina,theunderstandingthatcultivationisanessen
tialandbasicpartofcultivationisreflectedintwocommonDaoistsay
ings:Therootoflonglifesolelyrequiresgoodnessas(its)foundation
;and:Virtueisthefoundationof[cultivating]Dao
.
Itisthecultivationof virtueinactionandmannerthatallowsoneto
returntothestateofharmonywiththeDao.Thisismadeclearagainin
the Daode jing: Constant [abiding in] virtue without error [results in]
returntotheundifferentiated(wuji ) (ch.28).
There are many reasons why people study and cultivate Daoist
methods:health,spiritualattainment,companionship,andfascination,to
name a few. Common questions from students include: Once I learn
these practices, can I sleep less and have more sex more often and
longer?WillthepracticeincreasemymartialabilitysoIamasuper
person?HowlongbeforeIcanteach?Allofthesequestionsarise
fromfaultycontext,i.e.,alackofunderstandingvirtue,dpoorcharacter
development.Practicingwithinthisfaultycontextonlyleadsonefurther
astray.
An important aspect of cultivating virtue is stillness. As the Daode
jing says: Through stillness, being without desire, the world rights it
self (ch.37).Stillnessisanessentialfoundationfor
any practice; its importance cannot be overstated. It does not matter
170/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
whatkindofpracticeinternalalchemy,ritual,qigong,taijiquanthey
allrequireafoundationofstillnesstobesafeandefficacious.
The foundation of inner cultivation is refining the self(lianji ).
Thismeanstocultivatetruestillness;toreachastatewithoutself.Itisin
the state of no things no self(wuwu wuwo ) that true attain
mentmay beaccomplished. If ones actions andmotivations are for the
benefit of oneself then, through cultivation, one only becomes more at
tachedtotheself.Obviously,onewillbeunabletocultivateandattaina
selflessstate.
Whilestillnessisdominantontheinside,ontheoutsideoneshould
showrespect.Thedualqualitiesofstillness(jing )andrespect(jing )
carry an important meaning in the context of cultivation. Respect is an
aspect ofoutercultivation, while stillness is fundamental toinnerprac
tice.Bothtogetherleadtotheeliminationofdesireaspartofanaturally
rectifying practice that allows thepractitionertobe in alignment, in ac
cord with the Dao. These dual qualities are both safeguards of proper
practiceandthemeansbywhichattainmentcanbeachieved.
In other words, while people have not yet realized the Dao, they
settleforgettingconcretemethodsthatseemtobeararelationtoit;not
quitegettingthere,theypracticeaskillandyetthinkofthemselvesas
beingpartoftheDao.Learninga skillandthroughthe skilldevelopinga
methodisakindofaccomplishmentbutitisnotattainmentoftheDao.
Accomplishmentofapowerorskillisafarcryfromthetrueattainment
ofcultivation.Thisisagreattrapforstudentswhoseesomeaspectina
teacher that is developed and assume that because of this accomplish
ment,theteachersoverallcultivationishigh.
Often teachers of Daoist practices obtain a skill and teach even
though they are not yet versed in the method, or they attain a method
but are still far from attaining the greater Dao. To expect that every
teacherhasattainedgreatachievementisunrealistic;buttoaskthatthey
have the highest goal as their aim and the cultivation of virtue as their
foundation isnot only reasonablebut essential. There iscertainly acul
tural respect for teachers in China, yet it is paired with a pragmatic
viewpointthatislackingintheWest,whereweofteneitherundervalue
oridolizeourteachers.
Ateacherhasresponsibilityfortheoutcomeoftheirteaching.Ifthe
teachingharmsastudent,itisinparttheteachersfailing.Ifthestudent
usestheteachingtoharmorcheatothers,thisisalsotheteachersfailing.
Teacherswhointentionallyimpartfalseteachingsorteachprimarilyfor
172/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
material gain will find that their own cultivation becomes warped and
thattheybecomeareflectionofwhattheydo.
The onus, however, is not entirely on the teachers. Students often
expecttobuyinformation.Theyhavebeentrainedtoaccumulategoods
andinformationwithamindfullofdesiresandattachments.Oftenitis
thismindthatbringsthemtostudytheDao.Whentheteacherreinforces
this, it becomes more ingrained. Indeed, it is the responsibility of the
studentthattheiractionsreflectwellontheteacher,andtheresponsibil
ityoftheteachertorequiretheproperconductofthestudent.
It is the responsibility for those who cultivate the Dao, and espe
ciallythosewhoteach,toteachgenuinematerialand,moreimportantly,
tostrivethemselvestoembodytheteachingoftheDao.
Teachingshouldbeimpartedtothosewhoareatastagewherethey
areready forthe teaching andhavethe sufficientcomplementaryculti
vationofvirtue.Theinformationtaughtisthecoarsepartoftheteaching.
Theessenceoftruetransmissionisnotthroughwords.Themethodisthe
vehicle.Whenthevehicleisgenuinethenwhatitcarriescanbegenuine.
Dangers of Practice
TraditionallytheChinesehaveviewedqipracticeinanyformasdanger
ous and difficult. People in West, on the other hand, see it as easy and
safe.BothhereandinmodernChina,manyteachthesepracticesoutside
of the cultural context from which they grew. This traditional cultural
contextwasnotmaterialisticinthewaymodernsocietyisandcontained
within it a very strong foundation of morality. All understood that in
ordertogaintherespectofateacheronemustshowgoodqualities.
Oneaspectofmodernviewsoninnercultivationthatbespeaksthis
materialistic influence is the idea that qi is the primary thing that one
cultivates. This in itself is deviant (pian ). Obsession with material
goodsismaterialism;obsessionwithqi isapplyingthematerialistmodel
toqi.Theoveremphasisonqieasilyattractsstudentswithimpropermo
tivationsandleadstopracticeinduceddisorders.
Which brings me to the inherent dangers. People know one can
practice cultivation to become a spiritually elevated beinga sage, a
worthy,animmortal,oraBuddha(shengxianxianfo ).Mostpeo
pledonotknowthatonecanalsopracticecultivationtobecomeaghost,
Moretz,TheDaoIsNotforSale /173
ademon,anevilspirit,oramonster(yaomoguiguai ).Improper
motivation is the quickest way to invite, or become, a ghost or demon.
Sexual obsession, greed, and hunger for power or fame are all demons
thatprecludetrueattainment.ThosewhopursuetheselosetheDaoand
riskextraordinarilyseriousconsequences.
Notonlywillcultivatingmethodswithoutvirtuefailtoleadtotrue
accomplishment, it can be very dangerous. Unfortunately, because of
theirvarietyandemphasisonsubtleenergies,DaoistandpseudoDaoist
practices lendthemselvesmoreeasily toabuse thanBuddhist methods.It
is for this reason, in part, that virtue is so vital as the foundation for
propermotivationtheuprightcharacterrequiredtonotstrayintofalse
practicesortouseskillsdevelopedfrompracticeforselfishends.
Improper or inappropriate practice leads to reckless fire and the
entering of demons (zouhuo rumo ). Reckless fire refers to a
widerangeofsymptomsofqidisorder.Properfireispartofthenormal
physiologicalfunctionsofthebody:itwarms,transports,andtransforms
theqi,blood,and body fluids. Recklessfire is fire thathasan improper
source, is in the wrong place, or rises in inappropriate intensity, a fire
thatinjuresratherthannourishes.Symptomsincludeallmannerofdis
orders: irritability, insomnia,ticks, tremors,headaches, incessantsexual
desire,andsoforth.
Theenteringofdemonsliterallymeansdemonsenterthepractitio
nerorthepractitionerentersintothestateofbeingademon.Thisrefers
to practiceinduced mental disorders, most strongly manifest in people
withaprevioushistoryofmentalinstability.Theyhavetobeespecially
careful with what kind ofpractices they undertake, if any. Evenpeople
with no previous problems may suffer from obsession with qi or too
much intent in practice that can exacerbate preexisting patterns of dis
harmony ormay producenewones.
Having a virtuous character as a foundation is essential to avoid
improper motivation, which can lead to disastrous consequences for
ones physical and mental health. However, there are cases where oth
erwisevirtuousstudentsareattractedtoateacherwithcharisma,skill,or
power.Theseattributes,inandofthemselves,areinsufficientcriteriato
determinethe teachers levelofcultivationandabilitytoteach.
Anotherpotential pitfallisduocultivation,Daoistsexualpractice.It
hasatroubledhistory in China and was generally considered a hetero
174/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
doxmethodonethatwashardtomasterasaformoftruecultivation,
and which frequently caused serious problems. Sexual methods are
probably themost susceptibleto influenceby selfishmotives. It isvery
difficultforevenvirtuouspractitionerstoengageinthemwithoutfalling
preytopassionsand,asaresult,losingsightofthetruegoal.But,more
importantly,theyarephysicallydangerousandshouldundernocircum
stancesbeseenassafeandeasy.
Itisirresponsibletolightlyteachandpopularizethesetechniquesas
cultivating the Dao. In most cases they cultivate sexual obsession and
excessivesexualcraving. Inmostcasestheproduct of thesepractices
the medicineis useless for true transformation. The foundation of
Daoistpractice is stillness. Thecultivationof true essence, qi,andspirit
requiresstillness.YetthesetechniquesaretaughtintheWesttostudents
regardlessoftheirmoralcharacterortheirprevioustraining.
Not only are these methods often useless to true cultivation and a
great distraction from proper practice, but they also can cause serious
health difficulties. They can lead to great stagnation of qiand blood in
the lower abdomen in men, causing internal damage with such symp
tomsasthickgrayishbrownejaculate,enlargedprostate,testicularpain,
andheatandhernialikesymptoms.Inworsecases,theycanleadtoex
treme insomnia, chronic headaches, ticks and tremors, and even brain
tumorsanddeath. Often,they form partofapatternofsexualaddiction.
The public teaching of duocultivation in the West represents the
worst of the popularization and commoditization of Daoist methods.
Along with fortunetelling, fengshui, and external qi healing (which is
also dangerous without proper foundations), they are promoted the
most. Daoists traditionally were not allowed to practice fortunetelling
and fengshui for profit, yet these are among the most profitable enter
prisesforsocalledDaoistteachers.Thesepracticesareenticingandeasy
to market but usually bypass the true work of cultivation; moreover,
theycanbedangerous.Clearly,thecontextofvirtuehasbeenneglected
orsimplyneverunderstoodinthepopular Western dissemination.
Attainment
AcommonthemeinDaoisttextsisthatalthoughtherehavebeenmany
practitionersofDaoistinnercultivationover theages, only fewhavesuc
Moretz,TheDaoIsNotforSale /175
Conclusion
Therearemany methodsofqigongand nourishinglifesuitablefor virtu
ally anyone to practice. They start with commonsense regulation of
oneslifestyle.TrueDaoistpracticeissomethingmore.Thefoundationof
nourishinglifecoupledwithcultivationofvirtueformthefoundationon
whichDaoistcultivationmaybeaccomplished.
TheopportunitytocultivatetheDaoisineverymoment,inevery
thingwedo.Byincludingtheoutercultivationofvirtueasourcontext
and foundation for cultivation, our ability to cultivate and to facilitate
otherscultivationcan growand flourish in a significant way. This em
phasis on virtue is absolutely essential to avoidthedangers inherent in
176/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
teachingandcultivation,aswellastodevelopwhatisnecessaryforac
tualtransmissionandattainmentofDao.Itisbymodelingoneselfonthe
Daoanditsvirtuethatoneisabletocomemoreintoalignmentwithit.
The fundamental Daoist tenets of naturalness, appropriate action
andnonaction,andlivinginaccordwithnatureareaspotentaseverand
needed desperatelyintheworldtoday.Weareinauniquepositiontobe
transmittersandtranslatorsofthisauthentictradition,butonlyifweare
abletofirstembodyitourselves. Itisverysimple: TheDaoisnotforsale.
TheDaocannotbebought.
Bibliography
Lai,T.C. 1972. TheEightImmortals.HongKong:SwindonBooks
more easily, improving both mental and physical health. In the martial
model, repeated training of the heartmind using movement supports
the qi tobeexpressedmorepowerfullyinrelationtoothers.
Inthespiritualmodel,excessfixityoftheheartmindmayobstruct
theunfoldingofonesspiritualessenceormoralpower(de).Heartmind
rigidity prevents exchange of qi between the individual as microcosm
andthecollectivemacrocosmofNatureandHumanity.Zhuangziadvo
catesgettingridofthemindofeverydaylife(shengzhixin)inorderto
flyonthewingsoftheDao.Sodissolvingtheheartmindallowssponta
neous change to happen between the individual and the environment.
The dissolving process is a spiritual prerequisite to cultivating a wuwei
attitude of openness that promotes effortless change, a fundamental
valueofDaoists.
Inqigong(includingtaijiquanandotherinternalarts),bodymove
ment and breath lead the process. Moving qigong is the most comfort
ableforWesterners,asitsdynamicapproachsatisfiestheirneedtodo
somethingwiththeirmindatthesametimetheirbodilyenergiesarebe
ingproductivelydirected.Asateacher,Ihavefoundqigongmovement
andbreathingpracticestobethequickestandmosteffectivewaytotame
themonkeymind,i.e., anymindthatiseasilydistractedorfragmented.
People who claim they are unable to meditate find themselves moving
spontaneously into a space of tranquility and stillness after practicing
qigong.
Inmostmovingqigong there isno direct focus or intention to dis
solvetheheartmind,itjusthappensafterthemindachievesadeepen
trainment with body movement and regulated breathing. The resultant
benefitstobothphysicalhealthandpsychologicalhealthhavebeenwell
documentedinthousandsofscientificstudies.
Standing forms of qigong are more challenging, as the mind is
forcedtowaitinstillnessandgiveupitsimpatiencetophysicallymove,
whileitissimultaneouslychallengedbygravity.Whathappenseventu
ally is the qi within the vertically aligned body begins to create micro
movements between the poles of Heaven and Earth. This produces an
energetic detoxifying effectthat gradually intensifiesandbreaks up old
heartmindpatterns. Standingstill also allows theordinarymind toob
serveandreleasetensionwithinthelayersofthebodysvitalorganand
muscularskeletalstructure,whichinbusyeverydaylifeitwouldnotdo.
Winn,DissolvingtheHeartMind /179
InnerSmile,whichemploysapositiveembracetodissolvefixedpercep
tion,zuowanginitiallyemploysanegativemethodinthesenseofreleas
ingwhatisunwanted.ThemaindifferenceistheInnerSmilestaysheart
centered,whereaszuowangdoesnotuseongoingheartfocus.Thephrase
fasting the heartmind was made famous by Zhuangzi in 2nd century
B.C.E.andlaterpopularizedbySimaChengzhensclassicZuowanglunin
the8thcentury(Kohn1987).Todaysittinginforgetfulnesssurvivesasa
staple of modern Chinese Daoist meditators and their acolytes in the
West(Rinaldini2008;Phillips2008).
Zuowangpracticehelpstheadepttosurrendertotheimpersonalqi
field of heaven and earth. But it does not necessarily integrate human
heartedness. Zuowang likely inspired Chan Buddhist sitting in empti
ness,whichcanfeelabitcold,toomentalorimpersonalforsomeWest
erners. Yet Daoist zuowang differs from Chan methods and their Japa
nese Zen Buddhist offspring in that attaining absolute emptiness is not
the goal. In zuowang the emphasis is more on process, on cultivating
spontaneity and openness to everchanging currents of the qifield. The
dissolvingoftheheartmindisachievedbyallowingeachthought,feel
ingorsensationtomanifestwithoutresistance,andthensurrenderitto
thelargerflowoftheqifieldtobecreativelytransformed.Eventuallyan
unperturbed yet engaged state of mind is achieved. So zuowang ulti
matelyshiftsfromreleaseofthenegativetoapositiveembraceofspon
taneityandwuwei.
Robinet astutely points out in her preface to Kohns translation of
theZuowang lunthattheprocessgoesbeyondqigong,whichgrantsonly
longevity.Zuowangisamethodofsalvation,andassuchisactuallypre
paratoryforhigheralchemypractice.Zuowangisadoubledissolving,
firstofthecontentsoftheheartmindandthenofthemindsmethodof
dissolvingitself. ShefirstquotesSimaChengzhen:
Zuowangmeanstoforgetthemyriadprojections,itconsistsin
cuttingoutalldelusionsandfirmlyfixatingonesmind.Once
the mind isfirmlyfixated,there is nothing beneath it but the
One, and nothing above it but emptiness. It will never stir,
evenwhenitisshaken.
At this stage, [Sima] adds, one is not yet delivered from
yinandyang,ratheronemusttakerecoursetogoldandcinna
182/JournalofDaoistStudies2(2009)
How can inner alchemy dissolve the fundamental yinyang force that
controls the heartmind, and reshape it? This brings us to our final
model of dissolving the heartmind using inner alchemy. That Daoists
hadasophisticatedmodelofthemindinthe6th centuryB.C.E beforethe
Daode jing was written has been well established by analysis of early
texts such as the Neiye (Inward Training) chapter of the Guanzi (Roth
1991, 1999). These early Daoists were well aware ofthe jing,qi,andshen
aspectsoftheheartmindemptyinganddissolvingintoeachother.This
is the fundamental basis for the model of alchemical dissolving of the
heartmindthatsurvivesintothe21st century.
Laterneidangonglineages,suchasOneCloudsSevenFormulasfor
Attaining Immortality, claimed the secret of dissolving the heartmind
was to accelerate transformation of the jing, qi, and shen by coupling
ever higher potencies of cosmic yinyang forces. The adept uses these
polaritiestocapturetheOriginalBreath(yuanqi)hiddenwithinthepost
natal or physical qifield. For this, a vessel or danis needed to hold the
highervibrationoftheprimordialyuanqi.Theordinaryheartmindsvi
bration is too slow and too polarized to hold such potent primal force.
Inthe inner alchemymodel,this is why theling, or innerheart es
sence,mustbecultivatedbytheadeptandimbuedintotheelixirordan.
In Western terms, this is roughly equivalent to saying the soul of the
Sage is the true intermediarybetweenHeaven and Humanity.Thesoul
orlingmustbeperfectlyattunedtohigherforcesaboveit,forceswhich
mustbesmoothlycommunicatedtotheordinaryheartmindperceptions
anddecisionmakingprocessbelowit.
BothChinesemedicineandneidantheorymapouttheseforcesbe
lowastheyinyangandfivephasesqiflow thatregulatetheheartmind.
Theyarethevitalorganorbsoftheheart,spleen,lungs,kidneys,and
liverandtheirpartnersthebowelspiritswhocomprisethetwelveoffi
cials. They behave much like real politicians and bureaucrats. Collec
tivelytheirjobistoregulatetheheartmind,yetparadoxicallytheyem
Winn,DissolvingtheHeartMind /183
meanttogetridoftheheartmind,buttoreplacetheoldpatternswitha
moreexpanded,allembracingmode.Thedissolvingprocessisdesigned
to make the heartmind pliable enough to respond to the qifield, thus
empowering it to serve the Dao of Humanity in its ceaseless creativity
andselfexploration.
Bibliography
Chia, Mantak. 1991. Taoist Ways of Transforming Stress intoVitality.Huntington,
NY:HealingTaoBooks.
Frantzis, Bruce.1993.OpeningtheEnergyGatesofYourBody.Berkeley:NorthAt
lanticBooks.
_____. 1999. Original Tao: Inward Training (Neiyeh) and the Foundations of Taoist
Mysticism. NewYork: ColumbiaUniversityPress.
Sha,ZhiGang.2006. SoulMindBodyMedicine. NewYork: NewWorldLibrary.
Winn,Michael.1999.WayoftheInnerSmile:TaoPathtoSelfAcceptanceandPeace.
www.HealingTaoUSA.com
_____.2003.InternalChiBreathingandBoneRooting.QigongFundamentals3
&4.HomeStudyCourse.www.healingtaousa.com/ckf3.html
Exploring Daoist Womens Meditation*
CHARLOTTE FURTH
OnNovember89,2008,aconferenceonFemaleMeditationTechniques
in Late Imperial and Modern China convened at UCLA. The Ndan
Symposium,as it wascommonlycalled,was small,with abouttwenty
people for most sessions, the large majority women. The original plan
was that it would be a text reading seminar. Then papers were added,
mostofthemcommentsonthetexts.
The gathering was organized by Elena Valussi, a graduate from
SOASinLondonwhosedissertationandcurrentresearchbothfocuson
ndan,andRobinR. Wang,professorofChinesephilosophyanddirector
ofAsianandPacificStudiesatLoyolaMarymountUniversity,whoalso
conducts fieldwork and has been interviewing Daoist nuns in China. I
knewthemostseniorscholar,LiviaKohn(expertonDaoism),aswellas
YaoPingandSuzanneCahill(scholarsofmedievalChinesewomen,in
cluding female religious personages). A couple of younger women
scholarswerenewtome:ShinyiChaofromRutgersUniversityatCam
den, who offered a paper on a Song era (Jin dynasty) abbess; and Sara
Neswald from McGill who now teaches at Mingchuan University in
Taipei and is working on a computerized linguistic analysis of older
ndantexts. The only male Daoistscholar was Liu Xun from Rutgers at
New Brunswick. He presented a translation of an early seventeenth
centurytextonmeditativetechniquesforhealinggynecologicalandob
stetricaldisorders,andasummaryandpassagetranslationoftwoMing
Qing novels (Yaohua zhuan and Chanzhen houshi ) that
satirized femalecultivationandsexualalchemy.
In addition, there were also some interesting outliers. Dominique
HertzerandIrmgardEnzingerareacademicswithPh.D.sfromtheUni
*
I would like to thank Liu Xun for carefully going over the draft of this
report.IamgratefulalsototheeditorsofJDSfortheirhelpfulcomments.
185
186/JournalofDaoistStudies2(2009)
versityofMunich,Germany,whoalsopracticeqigong.Theirmainwork
istobringAsianhealthpracticestothewiderpopulace,Dominique serv
ing as an acupuncturist and university lecturer while Irmgard teaches
Chineseathighschoolsandsharesqigongpractice.Therewerealsofour
practitioners who work in the health/qigong field and practice Daoist
sexual techniques. Besides Liu the two other men were Mr. Ng (Wu)
Kingsing, a leader of the Hong Kong Taoist Association and senior
memberofaDaoisttemplethere;andKellyClark,professorofphiloso
phy at Calvin College who is interested in philosophical exchange be
tweenChinaandtheU.S.Ngsorganizationhadcontributedfundingto
the gathering,asdidUCLAandLoyolaMarymountUniversity.
As a group, the members of the symposium provided fascinating
perspectives on contemporary practice in China and the West. Both
scholarsandpractitionershelpedanswerthequestionIcamewith:Why
arepeopleinterestedinDaoistmeditationpracticesforwomen?Reflect
ing on what we were doing, I decided that the informal, textcentered
formatactuallyunfoldedapossibleshapeforthelargerstoryof ndan.
both lay and clerical men, who left the only written records we have
aboutit.
Contrary to this, the 2000year textual record of Daoism offers
hardlyany recordofdistinctivefemalereligiousand meditativepractices
beforetheeighteenthcentury.AfewscatteredDaoistandliteratipracti
tionersofinternalalchemy(e.g.,CaoHengandFuShan inthe
seventeenth and Min Yide in the nineteenth centuries) included
instructionsforwomenintheircollectedwritings.Butthemainbodyof
ndantextscomesfromtwoanthologiescompiledbyFuJinquan
and He Longxiang at a variety of temple sites in Sichuan and
publishedin1813and1906respectively.Hescollectionderivesfromthe
earlier one,butisby nomeans identical, and includes textsthat areas
cribed to earlier women practitioners such Cao Wenyi of the
NorthernSong or Sun Buer of the Jin.Oneofthetextsclaims to
comefromahistoricalfigure,aholywomanresidentofMt.Emei.Both
FuandHesaythattheycollectedandpublishedtheiranthologiesatthe
behestoftheirmothersandotherfemalekinwhocravedguidance.Their
prefaces evoke a picture of proper, sexsegregated upperclass house
holds where Daoistpiety waspracticed athome, andwhere temple go
ingandotherformsofpublicworshipwereoutofboundsforwomen.
However, the majority of texts in these two collections appear to
have been the product of spiritwriting sances. Spiritwriting was a
wellknownpopularpracticeinmanypartsofChinaintheQingperiod.
Sances were group affairs, with texts written on sandby amedium in
trance andcopiedby one ormoreparticipants.Manyndantextsshow
tracesofthisprocess:theybeginbyinvokingalineageofgoddessesand
immortal women presumed to be speaking through the medium. Sara
NeswaldsaysherlinguisticresearchshowstracesofSichuandialectsin
someofthem.Spiritwritingistypicallytheproductofreligiousenthusi
asm, and itbypassesestablishedreligioushierarchies.Wedonot know
anything about the groups who presumably originated the ndantexts,
including the genderofparticipantsor whomanaged interpretations of
theaffair.Wecannotevenbesurethatproperliteratiwivesandmothers
neverconductedorparticipatedinsuchsances.
What isclear is that the scholarlymales whocollectedandprinted
these texts were ambivalent about perpetuating an understanding of
188/JournalofDaoistStudies2(2009)
ChenYingning ,theleaderofaShanghaibasedDaoistfellowship
influential in the 1920s and 1930s, had many female disciples and fol
lowed this path. In sum, by the end of the Republican Era in the mid
twentieth century the ndantextshadbecome a sort of canonsources
ofanewtraditionof modernDaoismforwomen.
That thisnewtraditionhasresonance today was illustratedduring
oursymposiummostvividly byqigong teachers IrmgardEnzinger and
Fay McGrew who had come to learn from the academics. Both women
hadstudiedqigonginthePRC,IrmgardbeingafollowerofLiuYafei
, a famous master who travels the world holding workshops on
qigong for women (nzi qigong ). Female participants had a
threequarterhourpracticesessionwithIrmgardusingLiussequenceof
movesandlatersawavideoofherperformance.
It turnsoutthat Liu isconnected with thebeginnings ofqigong in
thePRCinthe1950s, beingthedaughterof LiuGuizhen who first
introducedthemethodstocommunistpartyleadersin1947.Duringthe
Cultural Revolution theparty renounced itsearly sponsorship, andMr.
Liu suffered persecution. Today, perhaps as a consequence, Liu Yafei,
whoalsohasaChineseM.D.,insiststhatherqigongisforfemalehealth
onlyandperfectlyscientificandrational.Similarly,FayMcGrewinSan
Diego, who started out as amartialarts champion and took up qigong
onlyinherforties,reportsthatthelanguageusedbyherPRCinstructors
wascarefullyneutral,avoidingallreferencestomeditationandspiritual
ity.
TheseinterpretationsclearlyreflecttheongoingtensionsinthePRC
between religion and science, and the commitment of the TCM estab
lishmenttoaligntraditionalChinesehealingpracticeswiththoseofbio
medicine.Yet out inthediaspora, inboth Europe and theUS,there are
womenteachersofqigongwhobothseeitasahealingpracticeandwant
tolookforthemoreoccultrootsthatseemimpliedbyahistorythatlinks
qigongtondan. Thesejuxtapositionsraiseanewtheoldandoftenvexed
questionsoftherelationshipbetweenDaoism,healingandreligion.
Another face of diasporic Daoism was revealed by Cindy Barlow
and Lana Reichert, twopractitioners from Boston. They hadbeen intro
duced to Daoism via a book only few academics had heard of: Sexual
TeachingsoftheWhiteTigressbyHsiLai(pennameofStuartOlson,who
190/JournalofDaoistStudies2(2009)
runsthePhoenixTaoistCenter). Theytellusthathepresentshimselfasa
renegadeDaoistfroma socalled foxlineagehehookedupwithinTai
wanandthatamongotherthingsheconductsretreatsinArizonawhere
selected paying clients can learn about Daoist sexual cultivation. But
bothCindyandLana(aswellasFay)arebeginningtowonderaboutthe
authenticity of what they have been taught and may want to distance
themselvesfromthismaster.Theyaskedlotsofquestions.Ifounditfas
cinatingthatthehiddenandfaintlyscandaloustraditionsofDaoistsex
ual mysticism and erotic practice, purportedly promoted by deviant
masterslikeZhangSanfenginlateimperialChina,hadfoundanichein
our contemporary scene, and that women involved in it thought that
ndan might have something to teach them. Their presence also raised
questionsaboutwhetherhistoriansshouldlookforamorecomplexpic
tureofwomenandsexualityinDaoismthanthatconveyedeitherbythe
pious rhetoric of the received ndan texts or the bawdy fictional bur
lesquesLiuXunshowedus.
1 Theterm kundao,whichtodayrefersstrictlytoDaoistnunsinlateimperial
ndan textsisusedwidelytodescribefemaleselfcultivatorswhocouldbeeither
monasticorlay.
Furth,ExploringDaoistWomensMeditation /191
2 AmorecompletepresentationontheKundaoAcademyiscomingoutin
LiviaKohnandRobinWang,eds.,InternalAlchemy:Self,Society,andtheQuestfor
Immortality (ThreePinesPress,2009).
192/JournalofDaoistStudies2(2009)
suspectsthatmanycomefromruralbackgroundswherepeoplestillfeel
shameful aboutabandoningthefamily forthereligious life.Theprinci
paloftheschool,however,isanationalfigure,aseniorleaderwhosuf
fered in the Cultural Revolution and says she is committed to training
womenwithplentyofbackbone.
To sum up, I came away from the symposium concluding that
ndanispartofavarietyoflifestylecounterculturesintheWest,while
in the PRC it is being retooled as part of official Chinese religion. As a
traditionitisverymuchaliveaforumwhereconceptsofsexualdiffer
ence and spiritual meaning are being reworked continually and where
different communitiesofpracticedealwithtodaysgenderedrelationsof
power.Afollowupconferencewillhavealotofinterestingworktodo.
Mt. Wudang and Daoism
Mt.Wudang(Wudangshan)inHubeiProvincehasalonghistory
in connection with Daoism. By the Tang shrines dedicated to the Five
Dragons (wulong ) and Taiyi were firmly established on the
mountain. By the end of the Five Dynasties, the stellar symbol of the
north, Xuanwu (Dark Warrior), developed into an anthropomor
phizedgodZhenwu(PerfectWarrior).TheemergingDaoisthagi
ography of Zhenwu in the Song (9601279) identified Wudang as the
mountainuponwhichthecrownprinceofJinglepracticedausteritiesfor
fortytwo years, reached perfection, and ascended to heaven to be in
vestedasagodbytheJadeEmperor.
193
194/JournalofDaoistStudies2(2009)
1 Aboutthescopeandmethodofresearch:Thetempleparadestheauthors
observedtookplaceindifferentlocationsinTaipeicityandcounty.Thephotos
whichaccompanythisarticlewereshoteitherinSanChungCity,orthe
Wan Hua district of Taipei or an area of Taipei City near the Danshui
River .Theywereshoteitherin2007or2008.Astothevariousfactsabout
the temple parades, the sources for these were interviews of Taiwanese con
ductedbyMr.Kennedy.
198/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
Standard Elements
Taiwanese temple parades usually involve a number of stock perform
ances and standard elements. They include handdrawn carts or mini
trucksbearingcommemorativeplaquesnamingtheinvolvedtemplesor
carryingthedeities.Stiltwalkers,megapuppets,LionandDragondanc
ers,EightGeneralsteams,musicianseitherintruckbedsoronfootwith
mobileamplifiers also appear. Twodistinct groups accompany thedei
ties on foot, wearing a common uniform that usual consists of Tshirts
and ball caps bearing the name of the temple. One group usually has
somewhatroughlookingyoungmen;theotherinsharpcontrasthas
merry olderfolks,bothmen and women. The formergroupcan loosely
be defined as temple parade security; the latter comprises the faithful
whobelievetheygatherdivinefavorbyaccompanyingthe parades.
Howmanyoftheseelementsanygivenparadehasdependsonthe
economicresourcesofthetemple.Forexample,EightGeneralsperform
ance troupes are not so common; nor are Lion or Dragon dance teams.
Yet even modestly endowed temples can afford one or more mega
puppetsandsomeformofmusictoaccompanythedeitiesontheirtour.
Mega Puppets
Mega puppets are the highest profile aspect of any temple procession.
Theyarebiggerthanlifeandrepresentvariousdeitiesandhistoricalfig
ures.Theperformershandlingthemneedstamina,keenbalance,aswell
asotherqualitiesthatcharacterizeChinesemartialarts.
The more ornate puppets can be over two and a half meters tall;
theyareconstructedofwoodandbamboo.Theheadandthehandsare
madeofwood,whilethetorsoandarmsconsistofabambooframecov
ered with thick, expensive clothing. One person manipulates them; he
Kennedy&Guo,TempleParades/ 199
seesoutthelittlewindowinthegodsstomacharea.Insidethepuppetis
a harness arrangement with two large shoulder straps and a bamboo
controlbar attachedto thepuppetsbody.Theperformercanrotate the
torso left and right by gripping the control bar, which has two hand
holds.Hewearsthepuppetsomewhatlikeputtingonalargebackpack.
Megapuppetsonthemove.
Hisappearanceisamacabrereflectionofhavingdiedbyhanging.
Theotheronehasabloated,puffyface,theresultofhavingdrowned.In
addition,both oftenhave a large roundbreadhanging fromtheirneck,
whichsomewhatresemblesaverylargebagel.Thisbagelhasamilitary
historyconnection. InTaiwanese folklore, it iscalledGeneral Qi Bread,
named afterthe famousMing general Qi Jiguang who allegedly
202/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
inventedtheloaftoprovideadurablestapleforhistroopsinthesouth
ernamphibiouscampaigns;theyareakindofChinesehardtack. 2
Stilt Walkers
Equallyhigh abovethecrowd aretheperformers walkingonstilts.The
stilt walkers depict different gods and their attendants, such as Guan
Gong.
StiltwalkersportrayingGuanGongandhisattendants
Thewoodenstiltsaretiedtotheperformersfeetwithastirruparrange
ment.Nohandgripscomeupfromthestilts,soquiteadegreeofskillis
required.
Thestiltwalkerstendtobefarmoremobilethanthemegapuppets
andarethusmorelikelytointeractwiththecrowdsliningtheprocession.
Ofcoursewalkingonthestiltscanbedangerous,particularlygiventhe
potholes, oil slicks, broken asphalt, and general litter that make up the
average Taiwanese street. So, thestilt walkers are attendedby spotters;
they literally and figuratively move up as their skill and experience in
crease. In thebeginning, they will portray aminor figure in theparade
andusestiltsthatareonlyabouthalfameterhigh.Astheirskillisnoted,
they will eventually advancetomore important figures which involves
higherstiltsandmoreornatecostumesagreaterchanceoffallingover
duetoweight.
The costumes and the makeup both come largely from the many
forms of Chinese opera. Aficionados easily recognize what historical
personage,mythical figure, ordeity isbeing shown.The generalpublic
whomaynotbequitesofamiliarwithChinesemythsorChineseopera
yetcantellwhethertheperformerismartialorcivil,thetwomajorcate
gories of characters. They can also discern their relative importance by
theirphysicalheight.
3 We are speaking in generalities. Given the old and wide river which is
Chinesereligiontherearenodoubtsometeachersandschoolsthatwillviewthe
woodenstatutesasrepresentationsbuttheyaretherareminorityview.
4 These divination blocks come in pairs and are sometimes in english re
ferredtoasmoonblocksbecauseoftheirhalfmoonshape.Thequestionerwill
holdtheblocksintheirhandsandpresenttheirquestiontothedeity.Thendrop
theblockstotheground.Theblockswilllandeitherfaceuporfacedown;with
twoblocksthatmakesforthreepossibilities;doublefaceup,doublefacedown,
one up and one down. The deities answer comes from a series of these drops.
Questionshavetobefashionedinayesnoformatandthedeitiesanswerwill
beeitheryes,no,oryougottobekidding/unsure.
Kennedy&Guo,TempleParades/ 205
the determined auspicious day, packs it with incense taken from the
maintemple.Aftertheincenseisinplace,thepieceofwoodisnolonger
amerepieceofwooditisMazuorGuanGongandhasadistinctpar
entage,alineageconnectedtotheparenttemple.Anothertriptothefor
tunetellerwillrevealthebestdaytomovethenowlivingdeityfromthe
woodcarversshop to itsnew home. The leaders ofthe host temple will
carryhimorherwithgreatreverence.
Thefactthatthesedeitiesarelivingcreaturesandnotjustpiecesof
wood, paint, and animal hair is evident from a social problem recently
noted in Taiwanese newspapers. 5 Perhaps because of the economic
downturn, people have been abandoning their deities at neighborhood
templesratherthanleavingtheminthetrash,whichoneshouldntdo
with living entities. Those abandoned statues now become foundlings
andmustbecaredforlikeabandonedchildren,whichtakestime,space,
and money, overburdening the temples. Some simply do not have the
altarspacetocontainallthesefigures;othersdonotwishtobeinvaded
bynewcomers.Asaresult,templesareputtingoutpleastothepublicto
stopabandoningtheirdeitiesandinsteadretrievethosetheyalreadyleft
behind.
5 ToomanyunwanteddeitiesdiscardedinSuao,May9,2008, ChinaPost.
206/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
itandpasteditonawoodenfan.ThewoodenbadgeboardsoftheEight
Generalsthusmodeltherealworldversion.Theyallcarryweaponsbut
onehasacarvedwoodentigeronhisshoulderwhocarriestheexecu
tionersswordonhisback,securedbymagictalismans.
TheEightGenerals
The most popular story of the Eight Generals says that they serve
the Emperors ofthe Five Blessings .Originally a gang ofeight
maliciousmountainspriteswholivedinacaveonMountLu,
theyweresomaliciousandpowerfulthatregulargods couldnotcontrol
them. But one of the Emperors of the Five Blessings was an expert in
martialartsandskilledinDaoistdemonology.Hesteppeduptofacethe
challengeofcatchingandcontrollingtheeightsprites.Towardthatend
hetraveledtoMountLuandpromptlysubduedthemonsters.Afterde
feating them, he held them captive rather than destroying them. To re
pay the favorof sparing their lives,they swore eternal allegiance tothe
Emperorsof the Five Blessingsand vowedto helpthemprotecthuman
beings.ThusthereformeddemonsbecamecelestialcopscalledtheEight
Generals.
Kennedy&Guo,TempleParades/ 207
BaoMaZai,theheraldofparades,withthetalismansonhishatandumbrella.
Duringaparade,thearrivaloftheEightGeneralsisannouncedbya
somewhatcomicbutpowerfulandgoodhearteddeityknownasBaoMa
Zai .A Taiwanese god, he acts as a herald bringing news to the
village or district. Always appearing in a standard form, he has one
pants leg rolled up, wears eyeglasses on his face, and carries a small
hand gong as well as a bandoleer of bagels for the childrensmaller
sized versions of General Qi Bread. People believe it is good luck for a
parent to ask Bao Ma Zai for one of the bagels and give it to a child
whosegoodhealthistherebyensured.
Taiwan is well known for itsporkproductsand Ba Ma Zaialways
carriesapigsfootandshankwithhim.Inmodernhygienictimes,hehas
208/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
BaoMaZai,inhisstockappearance
Kennedy&Guo,TempleParades/ 209
ThelatterprotectioncomesfromtheDaoisttalismanspastedinacross
patternonthetopofhishat.Thetalismansindicatethatthedoortosteal
hissoulissealedclosed.Asaresulthecannotbeharmedbyanyghostor
demon.
* * *
Western Languages
Books
Baptandier, Brigitte. 2008. The Lady of Linshui: A Chinese Female Cult. Translated
byKristinIngridFryklund.Stanford:StanfordUniversityPress
Baptandier,BrigitteandCharutyGiordana,eds.2008.Ducorpsautexte. Approches
comparatives.Nanterre :Socitdethnologie.
DeAngelis, Gary D., and Warren G. Frisina, eds. 2008. Teaching the Daode Jing.
NewYork:OxfordUniversity Press.
Drge,JeanPierre,ed.2007. EtudesdeDunhuangetTurfan.Geneva:Droz.
Enzinger, Irmgard. 2007. Ausdruck und Eindruck : Zum chinesischen Ver
stndnis der Sinne. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
Kohn, Livia. 2008. Chinese Healing Exercises: The Tradition of Daoyin. Honolulu:
UniversityofHawaiiPress.
Kohn,Livia.2008. IntroducingDaoism.London:Routledge.
Kohn,Livia.2008.MeditationWorks:IntheDaoist,Buddhist,andHinduTradi
tions.Magdalena,NM:ThreePinesPress.
Mattieu, Rmi.2008.Laotseu.LeDaodejingClassiquedelavoieetdesonefficience,
nouvelle traduction daprs les trois versions compltes : Wang Bi, Mawangdui,
Guodian. Paris:MdicisEntrelacs.
Miller,James.2008.TheWayofHighestClarity: Nature, Vision and Revelation in
Medieval Daoism.Magdalena,NM:ThreePinesPress.
Mollier, Christine. 2008. Buddhism and Taoism Face to Face: Scripture, Ritual,
and Iconographic Exchange in Medieval China. Honolulu: University of
HawaiiPress.
Nevot,Aurlie.2008.Commelesel,jesuislecoursdeleau.Lechamanismecriture
desYiduYunnan,Chine. Nanterre :Socitdethnologie.
Pregadio,Fabrizio,ed.2008. TheEncyclopediaofTaoism.London:Routledge.
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214 /JournalofDaoistStudies2(2009)
RochatdelaValle,Elisabeth.2007.TheEssentialWoman:FemaleHealth andFertil
ityinChineseClassicalTexts. London:MonkeyPress.
Santangelo, Paolo, and Middendorf, Ulrike. 2007. From Skin to Heart : Per
ceptions of Emotions and bodily Sensations in Traditional Chinese Cul
ture. Wiesbaden:Harrassowitz.
Shahar, Meir. 2008. The ShaolinMonastery:History, Religion,and theMartial Arts.
Honolulu:UniversityofHawaiiPress.
Smith,RichardJ.2008.FathomingtheCosmosandOrderingtheWorld:TheYijingand
ItsEvolutioninChina.Charlottesville:UniversityofVirginiaPress.
Articles
Baptandier,Brigitte.2008.LaBiographiedelaMre,Nainiangzhuan:Latablette
criture. In Du corps au texte: Approches comparatives, edited by B. Bap
tandierandG.Charuty,11149.Nanterre:SocitdEthnologie.
Reviews
Kohn,Livia:StephenR.Bokenkamp,AncestorsandAnxiety:DaoismandtheBirthof
RebirthinChina (Berkeley:University of California Press, 2007). InTheChi
neseHistorialReview 15.1(2008),17981.
Forthcoming in 2009
Campany,RobertF.2009.MakingTranscendence:AsceticsandSocialMemoryin
EarlyMedievalChina.Honolulu:UniversityofHawaiiPress.
Katz Paul. 2009. Divine Justice: Religion and the Development of Chinese
LegalCulture.London:Routledge.
Kohn,Livia,andRobinR.Wang,eds.2009.InternalAlchemy:Self,Society,andthe
QuestforImmortality.Magdalena,NM:ThreePinesPress.
Littlejohn,Ronnie.2009. Daoism:AnIntroduction.London:I.B.Tauris.
Liu,Xun.2009.DaoistModern:Innovation,LayPractice,andtheCommunityofInner
AlchemyinRepublicanShanghai.Cambridge:HarvardAsiaCenter/HUP.
Major,JohnS.,SarahA.Queen,AndrewS.Meyer,andHaroldD.Roth.2009.The
Huainanzi:AGuidetotheTheoryandPracticeofGovernmentinEarlyHanChina.
NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress.
Pregadio,Fabrizio.2009.LiuChuxuan(11471203)andhisCommentaryonthe
DaoistScriptureHuangdiyinfujing,byPeterAcker.JournalofChineseRelig
ions 36.
Yates, Robin D. S. 2009.Women in China from Earliest Timestothe Present:A
BibliographyofStudiesinWesternLanguages.Leiden:E.Brill.
Girardot,Norman,JamesMiller,andLiuXiaogan,eds.2008. :
[Translation of Daoism and Ecology]. : .
http://www.amazon.cn/dp/bkbk810338.
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LiGang ,ed.2008. . :
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NewsoftheField/ 217
Dissertations
HsinI Mei. The Religious Realm of Jiangxi during theSong Dynasty,
9601279 (Spring 2011), University of California, Los Angeles, super
visedbyRichardvonGlahn(hmei@ucla.edu)
JenniferLundinRitchie.TheGuodianLaozi:ANewWindowintoDao
ist Thought (Spring 2010), University of British Columbia, supervised
byEdwardSlingerland(jritchie@interchange.ubc.ca)
ThefocusofmygraduateresearchisanewversionoftheLaozi(a.k.athe
Daodejing),whichwasdiscoveredinatombatGuodianvillageinHubei,
China, in 1993. The GuodianLaozi is 150 years older than the previous
oldestversionandcontainsapreviouslyunseenthirdsection,titled Taiyi
shengshui(TheGreatOneGivesBirthtoWater),thecosmologyofwhich
decentralizes yin and yangconcepts heretofore fundamental to inter
218 /JournalofDaoistStudies2(2009)
pretationsofthetext.Thethemesthroughoutthetextalsodifferconsid
erablyfromthereceivedversions.NotablyabsentaretheLaozischarac
teristicreferencestowaterandthefeminine,anditsvehementcriticisms
ofConfucianism.Themajorityofthepassageshavetodowithde (Virtue)
asitrelatestostatecraft,ratherthanthemoremystical dao(Way).
Inmy analysis, Iplan to explorehow the prominence ofverses on
statecraftandthedecentralizationofyinandyangaffecttheinterpreta
tion and the flavor of the text as a whole. Can the Laozi still be read
throughthelensofdichotomyandreversal?Whatdoesthismeanforthe
extensions of the yinyang dichotomy metaphor (for example male
female, activereceptive, solidliquid, fullempty)? Was the Laozi origi
nallymeanttobesimplya handbookforrulingthestate?Theanswersto
thesequestionscouldcertainlychangeinsignificantwaysthemannerin
whichthe Laozi isread.
Research Projects
Daoism and Psychology
The government sponsored research project on Reciprocal Influence
betweenDaoistThoughtandWesternPsychologicalTreatments
wasledjointlybyDaoistscholarLXichen
, Central South University, and psychologist Yang Deshen .
Completed in 2007, it resulted in a series of essays to be published by
ChineseSocialSciencesPress.
The projectconsistsofthreeparts:theculturalbackgroundandphi
losophicalfoundationofthereciprocalinfluencebetweenDaoistthought
and Western psychology; Daoist teaching and Western psychological
treatments;researchontheapplicationsofDaoistpsychologicaltheory.
In part one, the authors analyze the crisis in psychology and the
changesinpsychologicalmethodsduetothetransformationofcontem
poraryWesternthought,notablythemovementsofphenomenologyand
existentialismandthemethodsofpsychoanalysis.Phenomenologyplays
an important role inbuilding thebridgebetweenEast andWest during
this process. On the one hand, some phenomenologists integrate tradi
NewsoftheField/ 219
Conferences
Dreams and East-West Culture
Mt.Shizhu ,Fuqing (Fujian),October68,
ing the local dream phenomenon and discussing its historical and cul
turalorigin.
They also examined its cultural characteristics, functions and effi
cacy, as well as its connections with internal alchemy and folk culture.
Some presentations also made a connection between understanding
dreams and Daoism, which acknowledges them as a pertinent experi
enceinbodycultivation.Sometalksshowedhowdreamsembeddedthe
twomainDaoistconcernsoflifeanddeathandcanbeseenasawayto
demonstrate and verify the ultimate Dao. Other scholars explored con
nectionsbetween dreamculture and theteachings oftheYijing, Confu
cianism, Buddhism, and Chinese literature. To a lesser degree, partici
pants came to analyze dreams from the perpective of modern science,
psychology,andphysiology.
ZhangQinandRobinR.Wang
JointlysponsoredbytheUBCDeanofArtsandtheLiuFoundation(and
in thepresence of itschairman,J.J. Liou), thismeeting on Daoism was
convened by Edward Slingerland and administered by Jennifer Lundin
Ritchie.Itbroughttogetherapproximatelytwentyscholarsinthefield
philosophers likeMichael Puett, AlanChan,HaroldRoth, Liu Xiaogan,
andLeeYearley;manuscriptspecialistssuchasRobinYates,ScottCook,
Xing Wen, Carine Defoort, Griet Vankerberghen, and Attilio Andreini;
DaoisthistoriansincludingLiviaKohn,RobertCampany,TerryKleeman,
andPaulCrowe;anthropologistssuchasErinKline,DanOvermyer,and
YenHsuehCheng;aswellasYijing scholarssuchasRichardSmith,Ben
jaminNg,andRichardLynn.
Topics rangedaccordingly, focusingon the understanding ofemo
tions,sagehood,andthebodyinDaoistthoughtthroughtheevaluation
ofnewtextualevidencefoundinmanuscriptsourcestovariousissuesof
Daoist practice both in ancient and contemporary China. A special ses
sion was dedicated to the Yijing, not usually part of Daoist discussions
butavaluablesupplementnonetheless.
NewsoftheField/ 221
Paperswerepostedaheadoftimeandmostsessionswerespentin
animated discussion. The setting, at the Liu Centre for the Study of
Global Issues on the scenic UBC campus, was comfortable and condu
cive to exchanges on all levels, and the participants enjoyed the close
connectionwithothersitafforded.Therearenoplansforpublicationof
avolume;individualpaperswillappearseparately,andsomemayeven
be published in this journal. For further information, please visit
www.ubcdaoism.ca
EdwardSlingerland
AtthisyearsAAR,threewerepanelsdevotedtoDaoism,allstrongand
wellattended.Inaddition,therewereseveralindividualpapersthatfo
cusedonorincludedDaoism.Belowarethehighlights.
The first panel, Practices of Transformation in Daoist Ritual,
scheduledonthe first afternoon, exploredhow differentritualpractices
affecttransformationofritualspace,ofthehumanbody,ofmaterialob
jects, and of moral dispositions. The panel started with Julius N. Tsais
presentation on the development of the ritual of theNocturnal Invoca
tion (suqi ) in an effort to identify and contextualize commentarial
concerns and controversies. The second presenter, Mark Meulenbeld,
elaborated on transformation of thebody (huashen) in Daoist rit
ual, arguing that it is a process of selfdivination, mimicking the post
humous ascent of the spirit into the divine abode. Next, a multimedia
presentationbyDavidMozinaexaminedathunderritualcurrentlyper
formed by Daoist priests in Hunan to explain the rites cosmology and
physiology. Finally, Clarke Hudson articulated the practice of moral
transformation in the Jingming ritual tradition during Song times and
shedlightonalittleexaminedaspectofDaoistritual.
Thesecondpanel,onsacredspace,hadthreepapers.Thefirstone,
Lord Laos Mountain: from Celestial Master Daoism to Contemporary
Daoist Practice, by Volker Olles from Germany, discussed the compli
cated relationshipbetween Daoism anda selflabeledConfucian sectar
iangroup,Liumenjiao,overtheDaoistsanctuariesonMt.LaojuninSi
chuan.Itisprintedinfullinthisvolume.Thesecondpaper,Modeling
222 /JournalofDaoistStudies2(2009)
GalwayTraynorandChristineWelter(Eckerd),ImaginingaDeity:
TheGuanYuMythandImageryinEarlyChina
LiviaKohn(Boston),HealingExercisesinHighestClarity Daoism
Dorothy C. Wong (Virginia), The Artof Huayan Buddhism atthe
CourtsofEmpressWuandEmperorShmu
Michelle C. Wang (Louisiana): Mogao Cave 14 and Esoteric Bud
dhistArtoftheTang
Hongjie Wang (Armstrong Atlantic), Diplomatic Culture in Five
DynastiesChina:TheCaseofFormerShuLaterLiangRelations
NormanHarryRothschild(NorthFlorida),WenmuandWuZhao:
TwoMothersofZhou
AndrewChittick(Eckerd),DragonBoatRacinginTangPoetry
Ashleigh Dean (North Florida), IllOmened Turtles in the New
TangHistorysTreatiseof theFiveElements
JonathanK.Skaff(Shippensburg),HeavenlyQaghans,Propaganda
Wars,andtheOriginsofSimultaneousKingshipinEasternEurasia
Discussants and other participants included Russell Kirkland
(Georgia), Cynthia Chennault (Florida), and Soon Ong Keong (Univer
sityofNorthFlorida).
Seetheprogramathttp://faculty.berea.edu/richeyj/seecr.html
NormanHarryRothschild
Thethirdinaseriesof jointAmericanJapaneseconferences,thismeeting
was organized by Yamada Toshiaki and Terry Kleeman and sponsored
by Toyo University and the Japanese Society for the Study of Daoism
ParticipantsincludedStephenBokenkamp,GilRaz,LiuXun,JuliusTsai,
Lowell Skar, andElena Valussi fromthe American side as well asAsai
Motoi, Asano Haruji, Ikehira Noriko, Kato Senchi, Kikuchi Noritaka,
Mabuchi Masaya, Maruyama Hiroshi, Matsushita Michitaka, Shiga
Ichiko,TanakaFumio,UmekawaSumiyo,YamadaAkahiro,YokoteYu
taka,andYusaNoburoamongothersontheJpaaneseside.
Topicsrangedwidely.TheyincludedgeneraldiscussionsofDaoist
history, forms of BuddhistDaoist interaction, sacred geography and
NewsoftheField/ 225
cosmology,practiceissuesinsexualtechniques,thunderandotherritu
als, major figures and practices of internal alchemy, as well as modern
martialartsandinnercultivation.Formoredetails,contactTerryKlee
man(terry.kleeman@colorado.edu).
XunLIU
Upcoming Conferences
The Past, Present, and Future of Daoism
June1822,2009, Wudangshan,Hubei,China
Foranother,convenientsourceofonlineDaoisttexts,youcanalsogoto
http://www.sinica.edu.tw/~tdbproj/handy1/, scroll down, and click on
.
ShinyiChao
NewsoftheField/ 227
ManyDaozangtextsarealsofoundatthewebsiteoftheMinglonggong
inTaipei:http://www.ctcwri.idv.tw/CTCWRIMTS/CH000.htm.Thetexts
derive from the Zhonghua Daozang. They seem to have been scanned
since, at least within some texts, certain characters are consistently
wrong.
FabrizioPregadio
DaoistIconographyProject(DIP),undertheguidanceofPoulAndersen,
UniversityofHawaii,proudlyannouncesthatitscollectedmaterialsare
nowavailableonline: http://manoa.hawaii.edu/daoisticonography/index.htm.
Science on Qi
Qigong Research
Chen, K.W., Perlman, A., Liao, J.G., Lam, A., Staller, J.,& Sigal, L.H.
(2008).Effectsofexternalqigongtherapyonosteoarthritisoftheknee:A
randomized controlled trial. ClinicalRheumatology, 27:14971505. One
hundredtwelveadultswithkneeosteoarthritiswererandomlyassigned
toexternalqihealingorshamtreatment(controlgroup);106participants
completedtreatmentandwere analyzed.Twotherapistsprovidedfiveto
sixexternalqihealingsessionsoverthreeweeks.Healerone,withmore
than 15 years healing experience, was a lineage holder in an unnamed
Daoisttradition who was famousforhis anticancer treatment in China.
Healer two, also trained in China with more than 35 years experience,
was a fifth generationmember of a qigong healing family. Both healers
emittedqitothepainfulareausingsimilaranddifferenttechniques.Pa
tients treated by healer two reported greater reduction in pain and im
proved physical functioning that persisted for three months after com
pletion of treatmentcompared tocontrols.There wasno significant dif
ference in outcomes between participants treated by healer one and
thoseintheshamcontrolgroup.
228 /JournalofDaoistStudies2(2009)
Guo,X.,Zhou,B.,Nishimura,T.,Teramukai,S.,&Fukushima,M.(2008).
Clinical effect of qigong practice on essential hypertension: A meta
analysis of randomized controlled trials. The Journal of Alternative and
ComplementaryMedicine,14.1:2737.Ninetytworesearchstudieswere
identified,and9ofthesemetselectioncriteriaforqualitytobeincluded
in the metaanalysis comprising a total of 908 cases. Those practicing
qigong showed significant reductions in systolic and diastolic blood
pressure.Thesereductionsweregreaterthanthoseexperiencedbynon
specificinterventioncontrolgroupmembersbutnotsuperiortopartici
pants in drug control groups or conventional exercise control groups.
Resultsthatqigongismoreeffectiveinreducingbloodpressurethanno
treatmentandequalineffectivenesstootherformsofexerciseanddrug
treatment.Qigongcombinedwithdrugshasamorepositiveeffectthan
drugtreatmentalone.
Taijiquan Research
Hackney, M.E., & Earhart, G.M. (2008). Tai chi improves balance and
mobilityinpeoplewithParkinsondisease.Gait&Posture,28:456460.
Thirtythree participants with Parkinson disease were randomly as
signedtoeitheragroupreceiving20,onehourlong,weeklytaichitrain
ingsessionscompletedover1013weeksoranotreatmentcontrolgroup
that received only pre and postintervention measurement. The tai chi
group improved more than the control group on several measures of
balance. All taichiparticipants alsoreported improvements inphysical
wellbeing.
NewsoftheField/ 229
Kerr,C.E.,Shaw,J.R.,Wasserman,R.H.,Chen,V.W.,Kanojia,A.,Bayer,
T.,&Kelley,J.M.(2008).Tactileacuityinexperiencedtaichipractitioners:
Evidenceforusedependentplasticityasaneffectofsensoryattentional
training. Experimental Brain Research, 188.2:317322. Fourteen tai chi
practitionerswerecomparedto14controlparticipantsmatchedforgen
der and age who were recruited from the local community. All partici
pantswerescreenedtoexcludethosewithdiminishedtactileacuitydue
toavarietyofcauses.Taichipractitionershadstudiedforatleast2years
withanaverageof3sessionsperweekwitheachsessionlasting40min
utes or more. Tai chi practitioners demonstrated significantly greater
tactile acuity compared to control participants. While younger partici
pants demonstrated greater tactile acuity than older participants, there
wasatrendtowardasignificantinteraction,withtaichidemonstratinga
greater impact on improving tactile acuity among older practitioners.
Theresults demonstratethat taichi, asa somatosensory attentiontrain
ingpractice,isassociatedwithgainsinsensoryperception.Thisstudyis
thefirsttodemonstratethisconnection.
DonaldDavis