T.P.

2846

THE FORCE EXERTED BY SURF'ACE WAVES ON PILES

J. R. MORISON, M. P. O'BRIEN, J. W. JOHNSON AND S. A. SCHAAF, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY,

CALIFORNIA

THE FORCE EXERTED BY SURF ACE The horizontal component of the orbital velocity IS obtained
by differentiation with respect to time as
WAVES ON PILES
2".
The force exerted by unbroken surface waves on a cylin- cosh - (d + z)
".H L 2".t
drical object, such as a pile, which extends from the bottom u = --
T
-------
2".d
cos--
T
(2)
upward above the wave crest, is made up of two components, sinh - -
namely: L
The acceleration of the water particles at any pOSItIOn is
1. A drag force proportional to the square of the velocity
obtained by again differentiating with respect to time as
which may be represented by a drag coefficient having
substantially the same value as for steady flow, and 2".
cosh -L- (d + z)
a u -2".'H - - - - - - - sin 2".t
2. A virtual mass force proportional to the horizontal com- (3)
ponent of the accelerative force exerted on the mass of at 2".d T
sinh
water displaced by the pile. L

These relationships follow directly from wave theory and where

have been confirmed by measurements in the Fluid Mechanics H =
wave height - ft
Laboratory of the University of California, Berkeley. L = wave length - ft
d = still water depth -- ft
The maximum force exerted by breakers or incipient break-
z = depth below the still water measured negatively down-
ers is impulsive in nature, reaching a value much greater
ward - ft.
than that produced by unbroken waves but enduring for only
T = wave period - sec
a short time interval. This impulsive force represents the
ultimate development of the accelerative force and is pro- t = time - sec
duced by the steep wave front and large horizontal accelera- The force exerted on a differential oectiun, dz, in length is
tiun at the front of a breaker. This impulsive force greatly
exceeds the drag force computed from the particle velocities
uf the breaker.
The reader is cautioned that these preliminary results are where
applicable only to single piles without bracing and are likely
tu be modified somewhat where multiple piles are driven, one
D = pile diameter - ft
within the influence of the other or where multiple piles are p = water mass density - slugs/ft'
cunnected by submerged bracing. This paper is essentially C" = coefficient of mass
a preliminary report submitted at this time because of the CD = coefficient of drag
current importance uf wave forces in the design of offshore
Substituting for au/a t and u' from Eqs. (3) and (2), the
~tructures. An extended series of additional experiments is
force per unit length at any position z is
planned for the near future.
dF
dz 2T'
[- f" sin 8 fD cos' 8] (5)
Theoretical Relationships
For the sake of simplicity of treatment, the theory will be '1 D fD 2".t
- - - ".A- --'-A' 8 -
developed from the equations for waves of small amplitude. C" - H' CD - ,- T
The horizontal displacement of a water particle is described
by the equation 2".
+ cos' 8 for 0 < 8 < "./2
cosh - (d + z) 3".
2".
cosh - (d + z) A =-----:c-
L - <' 8 < 2".
2
H L 2~ 2".d
X = -2 ----2".D
----
sinh - -
sin
T
(1) sinh--
L fL - cos' 8 for -
".
2
<8<-
3".
2
L
The sin 8 term (inertia) IS negative for 0 < 8 <". and
Manuscript received at the office of the Petroleum Branch October 23,
1949.
positive for". < 8 < 2".. Values of A and A' appear in Fig. 1

Vol. 189, 1950 PETROlEUM TRANSACTIONS, AIME 149

T.P.2846 THE FORCE EXERTED BY SURFACE WAVES ON PILES

as functions of z/ d a\ld d/L. Values off"/C,, ~ppear in Fig. 0

.. ..
~ oo V Ifl!'
-f ~
2 as a function of D/H. Values of d/L corre~ponding to values
of d and Lo have been tabulated. * o. 2 /

t/ / II
~j
The preceding equations permit several important conchl-
sions as to the distribution and variation of the force exerted, o. .,,,
..y o - ci
:q f--~ '"q0
0
namedly,
Vv
/
1. The drag force decreases with distance below the ,mr-
face more rapidly than does the inertia force.
2. The maximum force at any position (z/ d) develops
before the crest passes and the angle (or time) of
o
vv
6

8/ II
J
!I
J

' 'I
advance increases with the ratio h,/fD I 1/
3. The maximum forces applied at different values of z/ d
do not occur simultaneously and the angle of advance
o
b I \.,
01 10
A
I .0

0.00I
of the maximum forces, measured forward from the crest,
in(;fea~es from the surface to the bottom. '\,

4. The relative importance of the inertia force increases

-~
0.0 I
with the ratio of pile diameter to wave height. The lim- -----
iting effect occurs when the diameter is so great as com-
pared with the wave length that the structure begins to
act a~ a ~ection of a wall; the maximum force then oc-
A'

0. 1 - - "
'\,
cur~ when tbe run-up of water on the structure reaches
..
ib maximum elevation. 1.00'--'- ----- -=-=-",
-_._-------_.
The angle II corre,ponding to the maximum force may be
obtained analytically from Eq. (5) by differentiating with
re"pcd to II and cCllIating to zero, as
10 .0
-

-
--~

--~
"
-+ f" cos II 2f., sin II co.-; II = 0
10
oC:==:. -. -------- _-'L.._'- __
f"
SinO =~-
Z d
2" FIG. 1 - - VERSUS A AND A' FOR VARIOUS -
d L
f ' 4f,,' - fM
Cos' 0 = 1 - ----=-
4C.'
= ----
4f,,'
Since the angle 0 is in the fourth quadrant, i.e., tLe force lead5 / '7
V V
the wave, we have
1/ / V /
P D H'
dF )
J.-+ ~
f' ( 4f" f' .
l V V V-
7r'
-+ fv D' - .. - ) I/V I/
(
~ max = 21" l 2f" 4,,' f /

v:v/V
/ /

/ /V
=-D. -
H" {
7r' P f'r'}
flJ-+-~ 0
'V/
/
/ / /
21" 4-f"
<i / / V /
which is the maximulll furce at a particular depth z. / ~
0 V / 7
The moment exerted by the wave force ahout the buttolll of
/ / ~~ /v
v7~
/ /
the pile is / .... -

dM = (d -+ z) d F
/
V/V / /
o.17
M=r (d+z) d F / / /
-d / V / V V -- ---
p D H' L'
~------

T
(6) ~[7V/
V [IV
/ ---- f -

~VV~
21Td 21Td ---.-1---- - ~
~--cosh
L L
o 01 /
0.1 1.0 10
A
n

fill D
FIG. 2 - - - VERSUS A FOR VARIOUS-
elll H

Wiegel, R. L. - Oscillatory Waves, The Bulletin of the Beach Erosion

L Board, Special Issue No. I, Washington, D. C., July 1. 1948.

150 PETROlEUM TRANSACTIONS, AIME Vol. 189, 1950

 J. R. MORISON, M. P. O'BRIEN, J. W. JOHNSON AND S. A. SCHAAF T.P.2846

is, in fact, very nearly trochoidal. The orbit velocities ,are

also unsymmetrical, the forward velocity at the crest exceed
ing the backward velocity in the trough by approximately
Values of K, and K, appear in Fig. 3. 10 per cent in a deep-water wave having a steepness ratio
(HjL) of 0.02 and approximately 25 per cent for a steep
The development of these force and moment relationships
ness ratio of 0.10. Analysis of the data in this report has
was based on the sinusoidal wave theory 'for waves of small
been based upon a sinusoidal "ariation in velocity and, in
amplitude.
effect, the asymmetrical velocity variation is represented in
Theory and experiment show that the surface profile of a -the empirical coefficient. An extended series of experiments
wave of finite amplitude departs from a sinusoidal form and on piles, caissons, structural members, and flat surfaces
under different exposures to wave action is planned. Measure-
ment of orbital velocities in waves of varying HjL and djL
are iN. progress. When these experimental programs are com
II pleted, the data will be analyzed on the basis of the asym-
metrical variation of velocity with time in waves of finite
V amplitude. The current importance of wave force in the design
of offshore structures makes it desirable that the reiults to
V date be made available now. The force coefficients Cn and C"
I
reported here are regarded as sufficiently accurate for design
/ purposes, provided that they are re-inserted in the equations
from which they have been derived, namely, eqs. (4) and (6).
/
K~
Laboratory Investigations
. / The laboratory measurements were planned on the basis
"
,,- V V of Eq. (6). The model pile was hinged at the bottom and the
V necessary restraining force was measured at a known moment
., "l K.V arm above the hinge (Fig. 9). The wave profile at the pile

-
10
1/
and the wave force were recorded simultaneously on the same
oscillograph record. The wave velocity just ahead of the pile
was obtained by means of a second wave profile on the same
/
/
record. Time was measured by a 60-cycle frequency traced by
the oscillograph. Thus, aU the data for analysis appeared on
V the same record, with the exception of the still-water depth

V
7 which was measured directly. Details of the experimental
equipment are available in reports of the Fluid Mechanics'
Laboratory and will not be presented here. Fig. 4 is a sample

o.
..
I 10'. 1<1'
of the records obtained for each wave condition .
Analysis of the data took advantage of the fact that the two
components of the total force are out of phase. Writing a
FIG. 3 - K, AND K2 VERSUS d/L dimensionless moment coefficient as
MT' 7r D
M = pDH'L'
= - -4 CM -
H'
K sin 8 r K cos' 8
~,
(7)
WAVE 'it 20 1-
the equation may be solved for C" and CD by measuring the
T 1.68 SEC.
L 12.25Ft
. H '
.
0.244FT.
0" t20
0 >11.32
force when cos 8 or sin 8 are zero, respectively. When the
d _, 2.03l Ft
o ' 0.083 I'"T.
H/L' 0.0199
". " ,4.$1;'10' crest passes the pile, 8 = 0 and sin 8 =
0, and the value of
d/H , 8.32 1\1 at this instant may be solved for CD' When the instantane-
dlL' 0.lS6
ous water-surface elevation is at the still water level, the
velocity is zero and the corresponding value of M may be
~olved for C". It is to be noted that the actual wave profile,
which is very nearly trochoidal, has been used and that the
instant of zero velocity has been assumed to occur when the
water surface crosses the still water level. The acceleration at
the same instant lias been taken as the theoretical value from
[-'2 RESlSTANOE
ELEMENT TRACE Eq. (3). The important requirement is that the determination
of C" be made from the measured moment at the instant of
zero velocity.
REFERENCE
LINE After determining the values of C" and CD at the instants
of zero velodty and zero acceleration, these values were then
FIG. 4 - SAMPLE OSCILLOGRAPH RECORD employed to compute the remainder of the moment curve

Vol. 189, 19t!O PETROLEUM TRANSACTIONS, AIME 151

T.P.2846 THE FORCE EXERTED BY SURFACE WAVES ON PILES

m.easur.ed {or each run. ThJ~ agreement hetween the measured
and computed moment curve was good over the entire wave
length and this result confirms the analysis. Fig. 5 shows the
wave profile as measured and the measured and computed
moments.
The experimental values of C" and CD showed some scat-
tering but no trend as a fu~ction of d/L, H/L or Reynolds
number. The average values obtained for runs with the pile
on a horizontal bottom and without impulsive forces, were
C M = 1.508 0.197
CD = 1.626 0.414
The Reynolds number, corresponding to the maximum sur-
face orbital velocity, ranged from 0.22 x 10' to 1.11 x 10'. The
Reynolds number decreased from these maximum values both
downward along the pile and with time. The drag coefficient
of a cylinder varies not only with Reynolds number but also
with the turbulence of the incident stream. Values of CD for
cylinders in a steady stream of air or water within this range
of Reynolds numbers vary from 0.65 to 1.20.
The virtual ma~" coefficient of a cylinder a~celerated per-
pendicular to its axis has been measured in a number of ways.
The principle involved in the idea of a virtual mass is that
the flow field around a cylinder contains kinetic energy in
amount proportional to the square of the velocity of the cylin-
der and an increase in the velocity of the cylinder requires
that work be done through the application of a force to
increase this kinetic energy. Thus the cylinder appears to
have a mass greater than its true mass. Measurements of the
virtual mass of cylinders gives values between 0.5 and 1.0 to
which must be added unity, representing the mass of water
displaced by the pile, for comparison with the results of these
experiments.
Surface profiles followed closely the trochoidal form corre-
sponding to the ratio of the horizontal to vertical axis of the
wave orbits which in turn depends upon the ratio djL. In
analyzing the data, the velocity and acceleration were as-
sumed to follow Eqs. (2) and (3).

0.8 3 ELEMENT

0.4 \. of' ~ #
\ I \ I
o \ sw . t l
\ l \ I
-0.4 \ V \y ~
i'e'"
o 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 1.8
x'/, _ t'/
L- T
o. WAVE PROFILE

WAVE #5 6 28-49

o 0.4 OS 1.2 1.6 1.8

..
x~ ."ii , t' .;,
I '
L T
b. TOTAL MOMENT ~
I
I
6-17-49, RUN I WAVE 20
T' 1.68 SEC. H/L=0.0199 - - PlEASURED
L 12.25 FT. d/H' 8.32 - - - THEORETICAL
H 0.244 FT. d/L' 0.166 ------ MEASURED
d 2.03 FT. CD" 1.32 WAVE PROFILE
0" 0.083 FT. CM' 1.20
f I. 94 slUCJ/FT. R 4.85 X 10 5 FIG. 6 - RECORD .oF WAVE IMPACT
A - BREAKER, SLIGHTLY AFTER PILE; WAVE PEAKED UP AS
FIG. 5 - COMPARISON OF THEORETICAL AND MEASURED TOTAL IT HITS PILE
MOMENT AND WAVE PROFILE B - WAVE BREAKING ON 'PILING

152 PETROlEUM TRANSACTIONS, AIME Vol. 189, 1950

 J. R. MORISON, M. P. O'BRIEN, J. W. JOHNSON AND S. A. SCHAAF T.P; 2846

The variation in the moment arm between trough and crest incipient breaker greatly exceeds the force corresponding
was not considered in the integration to obtain M and has to the orbital velclcity, which under breaking conditions, is
been neglected in the analysis. The effect is generally small the wave velocity. The impact force is of short duration and
for unbroken waves. Refinement of the analysis to consider its impulse may not be great. In future work, the force meas-
this variation seems justified only in the case of breaking uring system will be revised in order to follow these impulsive
waves, where the percentage variation in moment arm would forces and relate them to the wave velocity and height of
be large. The additional experiments contemplated will breaker.
include measurement of the moment at three positions along
0
the pile and the analysis of these data will include the effect 1 /
of variation in the lever arm. -0.2
F M liFo
Fig. 6 show the record obtained for selected runs in which -0.4
ZI
impact forces occurred. The trace of the force measurement d
-0.6 /
shows that the instrument oscillated after impact and the
values are not regarded as quantitatively reliable but it is -0.8
evident that the maximum force produced by a breaker or

---
-1.0
o D 00 ~ ~ ~ ro ro 00 ~ 00

-
0
F (LBS. PER FT.)

-02 / O. MAXIMUM FORCE DISTRIBUTION

-0.4
/FM .,.- ~FD
Z'd
-06 / / 80
-0.6 I V
60 1\ I~
'10
o
I (
100 200 300 400 500 40 \ Z/d= 0
I \ I
F (LBS. PER FT.)
20
\ I \ /
a. MAXIMUM FORCE DISTRIBUTION
0
\ I r\ I
II
500 -20 \ \
400
Z'd' 0
-40 \ I \ /
1\ /\ I If V
300

200
\ \ I .,.:
-60

-80
rc V
100 \ \ \L.
a:
11.1

o \ I II \ I
0..
60

\ V \ if <Ii
In
..J 40
\ I "\ I
-100

\\ ( \ ( \L.
20 \ Z/d =-0.5
I \ J
-200
,; / 0
'\ I r\ I
-300
1\ II 1\...... II -20 \ ./ \ ./
If
-400
'-'
, -40 1\ / V
a:
ILl
II.
-500
-60
\ 1\)
Ul
CD
oJ
60

40
1\ I 1\ I
00
\ Z/d =-1.0
I \ /
o 1\ / r\ /
-20
\ .....11 \ ./
V

if /
IFttJ?1JfUlJ
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.6 1.0
t
T
1.2 1.4 1.6 1.6 2.0
-40
oro
o 0.2
f\:
0.4 06 0.8 1.0
~T
1.2 1.4
ICY
1.6 1.8 2.0

b. TOTAL FORCE VERSUS WAVE POSITION b. TOTAL FORCE VERSUS WAVE POSITION.

FIG. 7 - EXAMPLE 1. FORCE RELATIONSHIPS FIG. 8 - EXAMPLE 2. FORCE RELATIONSHIP

A - MAXIMUM FORCE DISTRIBUTION A - MAXIMUM FORCE DISTRIBUTION
B - TOTAL FORCE VERSUS WAVE POSITION B - TOTAL FORCE VERSUS WAVE POSITION

Vol. 189, 1950 PETROlEUM TRANSACTIONS, AIME 153

T.P.2846 THE FORCE EXERTED BY SURFACE WAVES ON PILES

Ranges of Variables
The range of wave characteristics, water depths, and other
vari.ables used in the experiment were as follows:
ITO AMPLIFIER
POWER SUpPlY
J~:--SPRING
'AND RECORDER ' - - - PILE
D
H = 0.212 to 0.758
CHANNEL
$
D
-L = 0.0090 to 0.0419 PLAN VIEW

D
- = 0.0411 to 0.0833
d
d
- = 4.81 to 18.15
H
INOOCTION COIL ::::i:lIS--C:::;-TORSION BALANCE CONNECTION
d PICK-UP'-
- = 0.102 to 0.529
L
H DIRECTION
- = 0.0090 to 0.1135
L
Re = 0.22 x 10' to 1.11 x 10'
The experiments were performed in a constant depth chan
nel. The above ratios were obtained from the records of 17
waves and one pile diameter. The range of variables will be
extended in the contemplated program by testing model piles
having three different diameters in the ratio 1:2 :4.

Examples of Wave Forces

As an aid in applying these results to piles, the following
simple examples have been developed:
Example 1. LEAF
A pile 2 ft in diameter is driven in 60 ft of water at a point SPRING BED
at which the maximum wave is forecast as H = 20 ft, T= 7
sec. From Fig. 2, f,,/C M = 0.35 at surface. Using C", = ELEVATION
1.705 and CD = 2.040, chosen on the high side of the FIG. 9 - SCHEMATIC OF EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENT
average values for safety, the force per unit of length is
expressed as
dF (3.14)' 2 2 . 400
1 + -21 (411"d)'
-L + 411"d
-L 411"d 411"d
sinh - - cosh-
L L
(- f" sin 0 fD cos' 0) K, = 27rd ' = 0.0852
dz 2 x49
Fig. 7 (a) shows the variation of the maximum velocity force 64 ( sinh -L- )
and the maximum inertia force as a function of distance D K, C"
below the surface. These two forces are out of phase and

SIll 0 becomes SIll 8 m " =- 11"

8 H K, C n
= 0.1558
their maxima do not occur simultaneously. Fig. 7 (b) shows
Co~ fJ""., = 0.9878
the variation in total force with time at the surface, mid
depth, and bottom. The arrow indicates the phase position The,e values in equation (6) yield
of the maximum total moment given by Eq. (6), that is, Moo .. = 293:000 tlbs
8""r = 857' (lead angle)
pDH'L' (-D1I" )
M= l' H 4 C" K, Sin 0 CD K, Cos' 8 Example 2.
where A pile 2 ft in diameter is driven in 50 ft of water where
p = 2.0 slugs/ft' (salt water) the maximum forecast wave is H 10 ft, T = IS sec. =
=
D 2.0 ft f"/C,, =
1.67 at surface
H = 20.0 ft dF (3.14)'.2.2. ]00
(- f", Sin 8 fo Cos' fJ)
T = 7.0 sec or L o = =
5.12(7)' 251 ft dz 2. 22,'}
d = 50.0 ft See Fig. 8(a) and 8(b)
d/L" = 0.1995 M",", =
77,600 ftlbs
L = 225ft* (*See footnote page 150)
C" = 1.705 Model study values; further experiments
C" = 2.040 are required to completely evaluate the ACKNOWLEDGMENT
range to these terms. The work described has been conducted under a contract
211"d 211"d 211"d * with the Bureau of Ships and the Office of Naval Research.
1 + -- sinh - - - cosh - - Kenneth Kaplan has participated in the analysis of the reo
L L L
K, = - - - - - - - - - - - -
211"d
= 0.403 sults. The authors are grateful to the late Harry Epstein of the
2Sinh-- Bureau of Yards and Docks for his critical review of this
L theory. * * *
154 PETROlEUM TRANSACTIONS, AIME Vol. 189, 1950