Professional Documents
Culture Documents
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 21
Six Sigma reduces candy defects for a
UK food manufacturer
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 22
Learning Objectives
1. Understand chance and assignable causes of variability in a process
2. Explain the statistical basis of the Shewhart control chart
3. Understand the basic process improvement tools of SPC: the histogram or stem-
and-leaf plot, the check sheet, the Pareto chart, the cause-and-effect diagram, the
defect concentration diagram, the scatter diagram, and the control chart
4. Explain how sensitizing rules and pattern recognition are used in conjunction with
control charts
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 23
Chance and Assignable
Introduction Causes of Quality
Variation
Discussion topics
Implementing SPC in a
Quality Improvement An Application of SPC
Program
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 24
Introduction
A process must be capable of operating with little variability
around the target or nominal dimensions of the products quality
characteristics in order to meet or exceed customer expectations.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 25
Statistical Process Control (SPC)
SPC is one of the greatest technological developments of the
twentieth century because
it is based on sound underlying principles,
is easy to use,
has significant impact, and
can be applied to any process.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 27
Chance and Assignable
Introduction Causes of Quality
Variation
Discussion topics
Implementing SPC in a
Quality Improvement An Application of SPC
Program
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 28
Chance and Assignable Causes of
Quality Variation
In any production process, regardless of how well designed or
carefully maintained it is, a certain amount of inherent or natural
variability will always exist.
This natural variability or Background Noise is the cumulative effect of
many small, essentially unavoidable causes.
In the framework of statistical quality control, this natural variability is
often called a stable system of chance causes.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 29
Chance and Assignable Causes of
Quality Variation
Other kinds of variability in key quality characteristics usually
arises from three sources:
Improperly adjusted or controlled machines,
Operator errors, or
Defective raw material.
These sources of variability that are not part of the chance cause
pattern are referred to as assignable causes of variation.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 11
Chance and Assignable Causes of
Quality Variation
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 12
SPC
A major objective of statistical process control is to quickly detect
the occurrence of assignable causes of process shifts so that
investigation of the process and corrective action may be
undertaken before many nonconforming units are manufactured.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 13
Chance and Assignable
Introduction Causes of Quality
Variation
Discussion topics
Implementing SPC in a
Quality Improvement An Application of SPC
Program
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 14
The Control Chart
The control chart is a graphical
display of a quality characteristic
that has been measured or
computed from a sample versus
the sample number or time.
The chart contains a center line
that represents the average value
of the quality characteristic
corresponding to the in-control
state.
Two other horizontal lines, called
the upper control limit (UCL) and
the lower control limit (LCL), are
also shown on the chart. These
control limits are chosen so that if
the process is in control, nearly all
of the sample points will fall
between them.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 15
The Control Chart
A point that plots outside of the control limits is interpreted as
evidence that the process is out of control, and investigation and
corrective action are required to find and eliminate the
assignable cause or causes responsible for this behavior.
Even if all the points plot inside the control limits, if they behave
in a systematic or non-random manner, then this could be an
indication that the process is out of control.
If 18 of the last 20 points plotted above the center line but below the upper
control limit and only two of these points plotted below the center line but
above the lower control limit, we would be very suspicious that something
was wrong.
If the process is in control, all the plotted points should have an essentially
random pattern.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 16
Control Chart Example
In semiconductor
manufacturing, an important
fabrication step is
photolithography.
The developing process is
typically followed by a hard
bake process to increase resist
adherence and etch resistance.
An important quality
characteristic in hard bake is the
flow width of the resist
Suppose that the flow width can
be controlled at a mean of 1.5
microns, and it is known that
the standard deviation of flow
width is 0.15 microns.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 17
Control Chart
Every hour a sample of five wafers is taken, the average flow
width is computed, and plotted on the chart.
x 1.5 microns, 0.15 microns, n 5
= = 0.15/ 5 = 0.0671
x n
If the process is in control with a mean flow width of 1.5 microns
Using Central Limit Theorem, x is approximately normally distributed, we
would expect 100(1-)% of the sample means x to fall between
1.5 + Z/2(0.0671) and 1.5 - Z/2(0.0671)
Choose Z/2=3
Therefore, UCL=1.5 + 3(0.0671) = 1.7013 & LCL = 1.5 - 3(0.0671) = 1.2987
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 18
Three Sigma Control Chart
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 19
Control Chart
The width of the control limits is inversely proportional to the
sample size n for a given multiple of sigma.
x
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 20
Control Chart
Note that sigma refers to the standard deviation of the
statistic plotted on the chart (i.e., x ), not the standard
deviation of the quality characteristic.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 21
Shewhart Control Chart
This general theory of control charts was first proposed by Walter
A. Shewhart
mean of
standard deviation of
An OCAP
is a flow chart or text-based description of the sequence of activities that
must take place following the occurrence of an activating event.
consists of checkpoints, which are potential assignable causes, and
terminators, which are actions taken to resolve the out-of-control
condition, preferably by eliminating the assignable cause.
Is a living document in the sense that it will be modified over time as more
knowledge and understanding of the process is gained.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 24
OCAP Example
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 25
Control Chart as an Estimating Device
From a control chart that exhibits statistical control, we may
estimate certain process parameters, such as the mean, standard
deviation, fraction nonconforming or fallout, and so forth.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 26
Types of Control Charts
Variables Control Chart
If the quality characteristic can be measured and expressed as a number on
some continuous scale of measurement, it is usually called a variable.
In such cases, it is convenient to describe the quality characteristic with a
measure of central tendency and a measure of variability.
Control charts for central tendency and variability are collectively called
variables control charts.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 28
Types of Variability
Another important consideration in
control chart usage is the type of
variability exhibited by the process.
Figures 3.7a and 3.7b illustrate
stationary behavior. By this we
mean that the process data vary
around a fixed mean in a stable or
predictable manner.
This is the type of behavior that
Shewhart implied was produced by
an in-control process.
In Fig 3.7 (a) the past values of
the data are of no help in
predicting any of the future
values.
In Fig 3.7 (b) shows that
successive observations in the
data are dependent
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 29
Control Chart
In Fig 3.7 (c) the process is
very unstable in that it drifts
or wanders about without
any sense of a stable or fixed
mean.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 30
Shewhart Control Chart
Shewhart control charts are most effective when the in-control
process data look like Figure 3.7 (a).
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 31
Chance and Assignable
Introduction Causes of Quality
Variation
Discussion topics
Implementing SPC in a
Quality Improvement An Application of SPC
Program
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 32
The Rest of the Magnificent Seven
Although the control chart is a very powerful problem-solving and
process-improvement tool, it is most effective when its use is
fully integrated into a comprehensive SPC program.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 33
Check Sheet
In the early stages of
process improvement, it
will often become
necessary to collect
either historical or
current operating data
about the process under
investigation.
This is a common activity
in the measure step of
DMAIC.
A check sheet can be
very useful in this data
collection activity.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 34
Check Sheet Design
When designing a check sheet, it is important to clearly specify
the type of data to be collected, the part or operation number,
the date, the analyst, and any other information useful in
diagnosing the cause of poor performance.
In some cases, a trial run to validate the check sheet layout and
design may be helpful.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 35
Pareto Chart
The Pareto chart is simply a
frequency distribution (or
histogram) of attribute data
arranged by category.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 36
Pareto Chart
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 37
Pareto Chart
The Pareto chart does not automatically identify the most
important defects, but only the most frequent.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 38
Types of Pareto Charts
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 39
Cause-and-Effect (or Ishikawa) Diagram
Once a defect, error, or problem has been identified and isolated
for further study, we must begin to analyze potential causes of
this undesirable effect.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 40
Cause-and-Effect Diagram
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 41
Cause-and-Effect Diagram
Cause-and-effect analysis is
an extremely powerful tool.
A highly detailed cause-and-
effect diagram can serve as
an effective troubleshooting
aid.
Furthermore, the
construction of a cause-and-
effect diagram as a team
experience tends to get
people involved in attacking a
problem rather than in
affixing blame.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 42
Defect Concentration Diagram
A defect concentration diagram is a picture of the unit showing all
relevant views.
Then the various types of defects are drawn on the picture, and
the diagram is analyzed to determine whether the location of the
defects on the unit conveys any useful information about the
potential causes of the defects.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 43
Defect Concentration Diagram
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 44
Defect Concentration Diagram
When defect data are portrayed on a defect concentration
diagram over a sufficient number of units, patterns frequently
emerge, and the location of these patterns often contains much
information about the causes of the defects.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 45
Scatter Diagram
The scatter diagram is a useful plot for identifying a potential
relationship between two variables.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 46
Scatter Diagram
It is tempting to conclude the
relationship between the two
variables is one of cause and effect.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 47
Chance and Assignable
Introduction Causes of Quality
Variation
Discussion topics
Implementing SPC in a
Quality Improvement An Application of SPC
Program
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 48
Implementing SPC in a Quality
Improvement Program
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 49
Chance and Assignable
Introduction Causes of Quality
Variation
Discussion topics
Implementing SPC in a
Quality Improvement An Application of SPC
Program
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 50
An Application of SPC
This section gives an account of how SPC methods were used to
improve quality and productivity in a copper plating operation at
a printed circuit board fabrication facility.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 52
Measure Step - Check Sheet for Data
Collection
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 53
Pareto Analysis
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 54
Pareto Analysis
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 55
Improve Control Chart
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 56
Control Chart
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 57
Tolerance Diagram
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 58
Designed Experiment
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 59
Designed Experiment
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 60
Designed Experiment
Factorial Experiment
An experimental design in which all possible combinations of these factor
levels would be run.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 61
Chance and
Introduction Assignable Causes of The Control Chart
Quality Variation
Implementing SPC in a
Discussion topics
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 62
Applications of SPC & Quality Improvement
Tools in Transactional & Service Businesses
Many of the examples used to reinforce the SPC principles are in
an industrial, product oriented framework.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 63
Applications of SPC & Quality Improvement
Tools in Transactional & Service Businesses
There seems to be two primary reasons for the difference
between Transactional and service industry applications and
manufacturing applications:
Most transactional and service businesses do not have a natural
measurement system that allows the analyst to easily define quality.
The system that is to be improved is usually fairly obvious in a
manufacturing setting, whereas the observability of the process in a
nonmanufacturing setting may be fairly low.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 64
Example 1: Preparing Form 1040
income tax returns
Flow charts, operation
process charts, and value
stream mapping are
particularly useful in
developing process definition
and process understanding.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 65
Process Flow Chart
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 66
The accounting firm was able to use quality improvement
methods and the DMAIC approach successfully in their
Form 1040 process, reducing the tax document preparation
cycle time (and work content) by about 25%, and reducing
the cycle time for preparing the client bill from over 60 days
to 0 (thats right, 0!). The clients bill is now included with
his or her tax return.
Example 1 - Result
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 67
Example 2: Planning Process
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 68
Check Sheet
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 69
Summary Check Sheet
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 70
Pareto Analysis
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 71
Run Chart
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 72
The common causes were systematically removed
from the process, and the long term impact of the
SPC implementation in this organization was to
reduce planning errors to a level of less than one
planning error per 1,000 operations.
Example 2 - Result
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 73
Example 3
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 74
Typical Process Data
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 75
Value Stream Map
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 76
Technical quality improvement tools applied
to service & transactional businesses.
Designed experiments, Simulation models, Control charts can all
have many applications in the service economy.
One difference in the service economy is that you are more likely
to encounter attribute data.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 77
Dealing with Non-Normal data
One alternative to dealing with moderate to severe non-
normality is to transform the original data (say, by taking
logarithms) to produce a new set of data whose distribution is
closer to normal.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 78
End - Chapter 3
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Managing, Controlling & Improving Quality by Montgomery, Jennings & Pfund 2 79