INTRODUCTION

In this chapter, the concept of a pure substance and the physics of phase-change
processes were introduced. Various property diagrams and P-v-T surfaces of pure substances
were also illustrated. After demonstrating the use of the property tables, the hypothetical
substance ideal gas and the ideal-gas equation of state were discussed. The compressibility
factor, which accounts for the deviation of real gases from ideal-gas behavior, was introduced,
and some of the best known equations of state such as the van der Waals, Beattie-Bridgeman,
and Benedict-Webb-Rubin equations were presented.

OBJECTIVE: Properties of Pure Substances

Pure Substance
A substance that has a fixed chemical composition throughout is called
a pure substance such as water, air, and nitrogen.
A pure substance does not have to be of a single element or compound.
A mixture of two or more phases of a pure substance is still a pure
substance as long as the chemical composition of all phases is the same.

Phases of a Pure Substance

A pure substance may exist in different phases. There are three
principal phases solid, liquid, and gas.
A phase: is defined as having a distinct molecular arrangement that is
homogenous throughout and separated from others (if any) by easily
identifiable boundary surfaces.
A substance may have several phases within a principal phase, each
with a different molecular structure. For example, carbon may exist as
graphite or diamond in the solid phase, and ice may exist in seven
different phases at high pressure.
Molecular bonds are the strongest in solids and the weakest in gases.
Solid: the molecules are arranged in a threedimensional pattern (lattice)
throughout the solid. The molecules cannot move relative to each other;
however, they continually oscillate about their equilibrium position.
Liquid: the molecular spacing in liquid phase is not much different from
that of the solid phase (generally slightly higher), except the molecules
are no longer at fixed positions relative to each other.
Gas: the molecules are far apart from each other, and a molecular order
does not exist. Gas molecules move randomly, and continually collide
with each other and the walls of the container they are in.
Molecules in the gas phase are at a considerably higher energy level
than they are in liquids or solid phases.
PhaseChange Processes of Pure Substances
Consider a process where a pure substance starts as a solid and is heated
up at constant pressure until it all becomes gas. Depending on the
prevailing pressure, the matter will pass through various phase
transformations. At P0:
1. Solid
2. Mixed phase of liquid and solid
3. Subcooled or compressed liquid (means it is not about to vapourize)
4. Wet vapour or saturated liquidvapour mixture, the temperature will
stop rising until the liquid is completely vapourized.
5. Superheated vapour (a vapour that is not about to condense).

Fig. 1: Tv diagram for the heating process of a pure

substance.
 At a given pressure, the temperature at which a pure substance starts
boiling is called the saturation temperature, Tsat.
Likewise, at a given temperature, the pressure at which a pure
substance starts boiling is called the saturation pressure, Psat.
During a phasechange process, pressure and temperature are
dependent properties,
Tsat = f (Psat).
The critical point is the point at which the liquid and vapour phases
are not distinguishable
The triple point is the point at which the liquid, solid, and vapour
phases can exist together. On Pv or Tv diagrams, these triplephase
states form a line called the triple line.
Table 1: Critical and triple point for water and oxygen.
Critical Point Triple Point

P (atm) T (K /C) P (atm) T (K /C)

H2O 218 647.30/(374.14) 0.006 273.17 (0.01)
O2 50.136 154.80/(118.36) 0.0015 54.16/(219)
Vapour Dome
The general shape of a Pv diagram for a pure substance is very similar
to that of a Tv diagram.
P
critical point
SUPERHEATED
sat. vapourline VAPOUREGION
R

COMPRESSED
LIQUID
T2 = const. >T1
REGION

SATURATEDLIQUID
sat. liquid VAPOUREGION
line R T1 = const

Fig.2: Pv diagram of a pure substance.

The PT or Phase Change Diagram
This is called phase diagram since all three phases are separated from
each other by three lines. Most pure substances exhibit the same
behavior.
One exception is water. Water expands upon freezing.

Fig. 3: phase diagram of pure substances.

There are two ways that a substance can pass from solid phase to
vapour phase i) it melts first into a liquid and subsequently evapourates,
ii) it evapourates directly without melting (sublimation).
the sublimation line separates the solid and the vapour.
the vapourization line separates the liquid and vapour regions
the melting or fusion line separates the solid and liquid. these
three lines meet at the triple point.
if P<PTP , the solid phase can change directly to a vapour
phase
at P<PTP the pure substance cannot exist in the liquid phase.
Normally (P>PTP ) the substance melts into a liquid and then
evaporates.
 matter (like CO2) which has a triple point above 1 atm
sublimate under atmospheric conditions (dry ice)
for water (as the most common working fluid) we are mainly
interested in the liquid and vapour regions. Hence, we are
mostly interested in boiling and condensation.

Property Tables
For most substances, the relationships among thermodynamic
properties are too complex to be expressed by simple equations. Thus,
properties are frequently presented in the form of tables, see Table A4.
The subscript f is used to denote properties of a saturated liquid and
g for saturated vapour. Another subscript, fg, denotes the difference
between the saturated vapour and saturated liquid values of the same
property. For example: vf = specific volume of saturated liquid vg =
specific volume of saturated vapour vfg = difference between vg and vf
( vfg = vg vf)
Enthalpy: is a property defined as H = U + PV (kJ) or h = u + Pv
(kJ/kg) (per mass unit).
Enthalpy of vapourization (or latent heat): represents the amount of
energy needed to vapourize a unit mass of saturated liquid at a given
temperature or pressure. It decreases as the temperature or pressure
increase, and becomes zero at the critical point.

1 Saturated LiquidVapour Mixture

During vapourization, a mixture of part liquid part vapour exists. To
analyze this mixture, we need to know the proportions of the liquid and
vapour in the mixture. The ratio of the mass of vapour to the mass of
the total mixture is called quality, x:
m vapour
X= m total=m liquid+m vapour =mf +mg
m

Saturated liquidvapour mixture is treated as a combination of two sub

systems (two phases). The properties of the mixture are the average
properties of the saturated liquidvapour mixture.
 V =V f +Vg
mtvave =m f v f +mg vg
m f =mt - mg = mtvave =(mt mg) v f +mg vg
dividing by mt
vave =(1-x)v f + xvg and x=mg / mt
vave =v f+xvfg (m3/kg)
or,

x=vave -v f

v fg

P or critical point
T

sat.
sat.
vapour
liquid
states
states
sat. vapour

sat. liquid

Fig. 4: The relative amounts of liquid and vapour phases (quality x) are
used to calculate the mixture properties.
Similarly,
uave =uf +xu fg

have =hf +xhfg

Or in general, it can be summarized as yave = yf +x.yfg. Note that:
0 x1

y f yave
yg
Note: pressure and temperature are dependent in the saturated mixture
region.

Fig. 5: Quality defined only for saturated liquidvapour mixture.

Example 1: Saturated liquidvapour mixture

A closed, rigid container of volume 0.5 m3 is placed on a hot plate.
Initially the container holds a twophase mixture of saturated liquid
water and saturated water vapour at P1= 1 bar with a quality of 0.5.
After heating, the pressure in the container is P2=1.5 bar. Indicate the
initial and final states on a Tv diagram, and determine: a) the
temperature, in C, at each state.
b) the mass of vapour present at each state, in kg.
c) if heating continues, determine the pressure, in bar, when the
container holds only saturated vapour. Solution:
Assumptions:
1. Water in the container is a closed system.
2. States 1, 2, and 3 are equilibrium states.

3. The volume of container remains constant.

Two independent properties are required to fix state 1 and 2. At the
initial state, the pressure and quality are known. Thus state 1 is known,
as mentioned in the problem. The specific volume at state 1 is found
using the given quality:

v1=v f 1 +x1(vg1 - v f1 )
From Table A -5 at P =1 bar =100 kPa
v1 =0.001043+0.5 (1.694 - 0.001043)
=0.8475 m3 /kg
At state 2, the pressure is known. Volume and mass remain constant
during the heating process within the container, so v2=v1. For P2= 0.15
MPa, Table A5 gives vf2= 0.001053 and vg2=1.1593 m3/kg. Since
vf2 < v2 < vg2
State 2 must be in the twophase region as well. Since state 1 and 2 are
in the twophase liquidvapour region, the temperatures correspond to
the saturation temperatures for the given. Table A5:
T1 = 99.63 C and T2 = 111.4 C
To find the mass of water vapour present, we first find the total mass, m.
V 0.5m3
m= v = 0.8475m3 / kg
=0.59kg mg1
=x1m=0.5(0.59kg)=0.295kg

3
P2 = 1.5 bar
2
P1 = 1 bar
1

The mass of vapour at state 2 is found similarly using quality x2. From
Table A5, for P2 = 1.5 bar, we have:
v-v f 2
x2 =
vg2 -
vf2

x2 = = 0.731
mg2 = 0.731(0.59kg)=0.431
kg
If heating continued, state 3 would be on the saturated vapour line, as
shown in on the Tv diagram above. Thus, the pressure would be the
corresponding saturation pressure.
Interpolating in Table A5 at vg = 0.8475 m3 /kg, we get P3 = 2.11 bar.
2 Superheated Vapour
Superheated region is a single phase region (vapour only), temperature
and pressure are no longer dependent. See Table A6 for superheated
vapour properties.
If T>> Tcritical or P<<Pcritical, then the vapour can be approximated as an
ideal gas.

3 Compressed (or Subcooled) Liquid

The properties of a liquid are relatively independent of pressure
(incompressible).
A general approximation is to treat compressed liquid as saturated
liquid at the given saturation temperature.
y y f @T
The property most affected by pressure is enthalpy. For enthalpy use
the following approximation:
h hf @T vf P Psat
The IdealGas Equation of State
Any equation that relates the pressure, temperature, and specific volume
of a substance is called an equation of state.
The simplest and best known equation of state for substances in the gas
phase is the idealgas equation of state.
Gas and vapour are often used as synonymous words. The vapour
phase of a substance is called a gas when it is above the critical
temperature. Vapour usually implies a gas that is not far from a state of
condensation.
It is experimentally observed that at a low pressure the volume of a gas
is proportional to its temperature:
Pv=RT
Where R is the gas constant. The above equation is called the idealgas
equation of state
(ideal gas relation). Since R is a constant for a gas, one can write:
R=Pv/T
where 1 and 2 denote two states of an ideal gas. The constant R is
different for each gas; see Table 23 in Cengel book.
Ru = 8.314 kJ / (kmol. K) is the universal gas constant, R = Ru /M.
The molar mass, M (kg/kmol): is defined as the mass of one mole of a
substance. The mass of a system is equal to the product of its molar
mass M and the mole number N:
M=MN (kg)
See Table A1 for R and M for several substances. An ideal gas is an
imaginary substance that obeys the relation Pv = RT. It is
experimentally observed that the ideal gas closely approximate the Pv
T behavior of real gases at low densities.
In the range of practical interest, many familiar gases such as air,
nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, helium, argon, neon, and CO2 can be
treated as ideal gases with negligible error.
Water vapour (in general see Fig. 449 Cengel book), refrigerant
vapour in refrigerators should not be treated as ideal gases.
Water vapour at pressures below 10 kPa can be treated as an
ideal gas, regardless of temperature.
Compressibility Factor
The assumption of ideal gas relation implies that:
the gas particles take up negligible volume

the intermolecular potential energy between particles is small

particles act independent of one another

However, real gases deviate from ideal gas behavior. This deviation at
given temperature and pressure can be accurately accounted for by
introduction of a correction factor called the compressibility factor Z.
Pv
Z= or Pv = ZRT
RT
or Z = vactual / videal. Obviously, Z=1 for ideal gases.
Gases behave very much the same at temperatures and pressures
normalized with respect to their critical temperatures and pressures.
P T
PR = and TR =
Pcr Tcr
Here PR and TR are called the reduced pressure and temperature,
respectively.
By curvefitting all the data, the general compressibility chart is
obtained which can be used for all gases.

Fig. 6: Z factor, general compressibility chart.

From the Z chart, one can conclude:
at very low pressure (PR <<1), the gases behave as an ideal gas
regardless of temperature
at high temperatures (TR>2), ideal gas behavior can be assumed.

the deviation is highest in the vicinity of the critical point.

Example 2: Ideal Gas
Determine the specific volume of R134a at 1 MPa and 50C, using (a)
ideal gas equation (b) the generalized compressibility chart. Compare
the values obtained with the actual value of 0.02171 m3/kg.
Solution:
From Table A1, for R134a, R = 0.0815 kPa.m3/(kg.K), Pcr = 4.067
MPa, and Tcr = 374.3 K
(a) Ideal gas equation of state

v=RT =(0.0815 kPa.m3 /kg.K)(323 K) =0.02632 m3 / kg

P (1000 kPa)
Comparing with the tabulated value, using ideal gas equation one would
get an error of (0.026320.02171)/0.02171=0.212 or 21.2%.
(b) To determine the correction factor Z,
P 1MPa
PR = = = 0.246
Pcr 4.067MPa

T 323K
TR = = =0.863
Tcr 374.3K
From Fig. A28, Z= 0.84. Thus,
v = Z videal = 0.84 (0.02632 m3/kg) =0.02211 m3/kg
The error is less than 2%.
Therefore, in the absence of exact tabulated data, the generalized
compressibility chart can be used with confidence.
THEORY

Chapter 3: Properties of Pure Substances.

Part A: Pure Substances
A pure substance is known as a substance that completely filled with one type of
chemical composition where the material can be in any single type. Some example are pure
H2 which shown in below figure 1.

Figure 1. H2 example
Part B: Phases of Pure Substance
Substances can be divided into three different phases (figure 2) such as:
- State A: Fixed position
- State B: Group together and move about each other
- State C: Random movement

Figure 2. Different state of pure substances

Part C: Phase-Change Processes of Pure Substances
Pure substances phase change can be categorized into 5 stages:
- Compressed Liquid (subcooled liquid): A substance that it is not about to vapourize.
- Saturated Liquid: A liquid that is above to vapourize.
- Saturated liquid-vapour mixture: The state at which the liquid and vapour phases
coexist in the equilibrium.
- Saturated vapour: A vapour that is about to condense.
- Superheated vapour: A vapour that is not about to condense
 Below figure 3 shows five stages of phase change processes

Compressed Saturated Saturated liquid Saturated Superheated

liquid Figure 3. Stages
liquid of phase
vapour mixture change processes
vapour vapour

Heating process of water at constant pressure

Figure 4. T-v diagram

Based on figure 4 above, if the entire process between sate 1 and 5 is reversed by
cooling the water while maintaining the pressure at the same value, therefore the water
will go back to sate 1 retracting the same path with the amount of heat released that
exactly matches the amount of heat added during the heating process.
Part D: Saturation Temperature and Saturation Pressure
Definition:
Saturation temperature - The temperature at which a pure substance changes phase at a given
pressure.
Saturation pressure - The pressure at which a pure substance changes phase at a given
temperature.
Latent heat - The amount of energy absorbed or released during a phase-change process.
Latent heat of fusion - The amount of energy absorbed during melting. It is equivalent to the
amount of energy released during freezing.
Latent heat of vapourization - The amount of energy absorbed during vapourization and it is
equivalent to the energy released during condensation.
Latent heat of vapourization The amount of energy needed to vapourize a unit mass of
saturated liquid at a given temperature or pressure
 Figure 5. Table of variation of standard atmospheric pressure and the boiling temperature of
water corresponding to altitude.
The magnitudes of the latent heats depend on the temperature or pressure at which the
phase change occurs. Therefore, according to table 1, the atmospheric pressure and the
temperature of water will decrease with elevation.
Part E: Property Diagram for Phase-Change Processes

Figures 6(a,b,c) - Sample of T-v diagram.

Based on figures 6(a,b,c) above, T-v diagram of constant-pressure phase-change
processes of a pure substance at various pressure. Beside that, there are several regions that
we can find from figure 6(a,b,c) above such as:
- Saturated Liquid Line
- Saturated Vapour Line
- Compressed Liquid Region
- Superheated Vapour Region
- Saturated Liquid Vapour Mixture region (Wet Region)
There is also a tripe point pressure and temperature where the substances are able to exist in
three phases when it reach equilibrium states. Besides that, based on figure 6c, there is a
ciritical point where it is a point at which the saturated liquid liquid and saturated vapour
states are identical. At low pressure which is below the triple-point value, the solids will
evapourate without melting first where the process can also be known as sublimation.
Part F: Property Tables
A table that present the property of substances in a convenient form which is in the
result of measurement and calculation. This is because most of the thermodyamics properties
are calculated by using their relation and measurable properties but it is too complex to be
expressed by simple equation so table will assist enginner in solving problems regaring
thermodynamcs. The properties for each substance were listed more than one table. Some
example of substances are supersaturated vapour, compressed liquid and saturated mixture
regions. Besides that, a combination property which known as Enthalpy,H are introduced and
the formula are given below:

Part G: Substances Properties

For both saturated liquid and saturated vapour states properties are listed under table
A-4 and table A-5. Table A-4 are listed based on temperature while table A-5 are based on
pressure. Below table figure shows table A-4and table A-5:

Figure 7. Table A-4

Figure 8. Table A-5

 From Table A-5, the Hfg decreases when pressure or temperature rises and eventually will
become zero at a critical point.
Next is saturated liquid-vapour mixture where it exists as part of liquid and part
vapour during the vapourization process. The proportion of liquid and vapour in the mixture
are able to be analyzed by using Quality X where it is the ratio of vapour mass to the mixture
total mass and the equation are given:

where
The properties of saturated liquid remain the same either it exists alone or in a mixture
with saturated vapour. The mixture also dependent on pressure and temperature. For
convenience, this two phases system can be treated as a homogenous mixture. Therefore, the
average volume of saturated liquid-vapour mixture is the sum of saturated vapour and
saturated liquid. Below figure show the derivation of formula using the condition of
homogenous mixture.

Figure 9. Derivation of formula

From figure 9 formula, a general equation can be introduced

y = v, u, or h.
where
v= specific volume
u= internal energy
h= enthalpy
With the condition

The following is superheated vapour where it can be obtained by rising the

temperature above saturation temperature and maintaining the constant pressure. It is output
of working substance in steam engines. Superheated vapour exists at the region to the right of
the saturated vapour line and is above the critical point temperature and the temperature and
pressure act as independent variable. Characteristic of superheated vapour are:

T > Tsat (at a given P)

P < Psat (at a given T)
v > vg or h > hg or u > ug (at given either P or T)
At a specified P, superheated vapour exists a higher h than
the saturated vapour
 Compressed liquid is a phase where there is no vapour and the liquid are not about to
vapourize. The characteristic of compressed liquid are:

T < Tsat (at a given P)

P > Psat (at a given T)
v < vf , h < hf , u < uf (at either given T or P)
Compressed liquid properties depend on
temperature much more strongly
Approximate compressed liquid behaviour
evaluated at the given TEMPERATURE
v=vf@t
h=hf@t
u=uf@t
Ideal gas is a hypothetical gas whose molecules occupy negligible space with no
interaction between each other. Below shows different types of ideal gas equation:
Ideal gas equation of state
Pv=RT
P = R(T/V)
R = Ru/M
While R is the gas constant 8.31447kJ/kmol K
M is the molar mass(kg/kmol), Ru is the universal gas constant
Equation at two states at a fixed mass
P= pressure ,V= volume ,
T= temperature
Mass = molar mass x mole number
Real gases
Various expression of ideal gas equation
Real gases behave as an ideal gas at low densities

Real gases behave as an ideal gas at low densities

 Compressibility factor, Z is a factor that accounts for the deviation of real gases from
ideal-gas behavior at a given temperature and pressure. The farther away Z is from unity, the
more the gas deviates from ideal-gas behavior. Gases behave as an ideal gas at low densities
(i.e., low pressure, high temperature). Criteria for low pressure and high temperature is that
the pressure or temperature of a gas is high or low relative to its critical temperature or
pressure. The equation for Z are:

Part H: Other form of Equation of State

Several equations have been proposed to represent the P-v-T behavior of substances
accurately over a larger region with no limitations.

Van der Waals Equation of State

This model includes two effects not considered in the ideal-gas model
- the intermolecular attraction forces
-the volume occupied by the molecules themselves
Beattie-Bridgeman Equation of State
Benedict-Webb-Rubin Equation of State

Virial Equation of State

CASE STUDY
Example 1
Determine the internal energy of refrigerant 134a at a temperature of 0C and a quality of
60%.
From table A-5:
Uf = 51.63 kJ/kg
Ug = 230.16 kJ/kg
The internal energy of R 134a at a given condition:
U = Uf + x(Ug Uf)
= 51.63 + (0.6)(230.16 51.63)
= 158.75 kJ/kg
Example 2
A rigid tank contains 50kg of saturated liquid water at 90C. Determine the pressure in tank
and the volume of the tank.
m = 50kg T = 90C
From table A-4,
P = 70.183 kPa
v= 0.001036 m^3/kg
V = mv
= (50)(0.001036)
= 0.0518 m^3

Example 3
A piston cylinder device contains 0.06m^3 of saturated water vapor at 350kPa pressure.
Determine the temperature and mass of vapor inside the cylinder.
P = 350kPa V = 0.06m^3
From table A-5,
T = 138.86C
V = 0.22422 m^3/kg
V = mv
m = 0.06 / 0.52422
= 0.114 kg
Example 4
A closed, rigid container of volume 0.5 m3 is placed on a hot plate. Initially the container holds
a two-phase mixture of saturated liquid water and saturated water vapor at P1= 1 bar with a
quality of 0.5. After heating, the pressure in the container is P2=1.5 bar. Indicate the initial and
final states on a T-v diagram, and determine:
a) the temperature, in C, at each state.
b) the mass of vapor present at each state, in kg.
c) if heating continues, determine the pressure, in bar, when the container holds only
saturated vapor.
Solution:
Assumptions:
1. Water in the container is a closed system.
2. States 1, 2, and 3 are equilibrium states.
3. The volume of container remains constant.
Two independent properties are required to fix state 1 and 2. At the initial state, the pressure
and quality are known. Thus state 1 is known, as mentioned in the problem. The specific
volume at state 1 is found using the given quality:
v1 v f 1 x1 v g1 v f 1
From Table A - 5 at P 1 bar 100 kPa
v1 0.001043 0.5 (1.694 0.001043) 0.8475 m 3 / kg
At state 2, the pressure is known. Volume and mass remain constant during the heating
process within the container, so v2=v1. For P2= 0.15 MPa, Table A-5 gives vf2= 0.001053 and
vg2=1.1593 m3/kg. Since
vf2 < v2 < vg2
State 2 must be in the two-phase region as well. Since state 1 and 2 are in the two-phase
liquid-vapor region, the temperatures correspond to the saturation temperatures for the
given. Table A-5:
T1 = 99.63 C and T2 = 111.4 C
To find the mass of water vapor present, we first find the total mass, m.
V 0.5m 3
m 0.59kg
v 0.8475m 3 / kg
m g1 x1 m 0.50.59kg 0.295kg

3
P2 = 1.5 bar
2
P1 = 1 bar
1

The mass of vapor at state 2 is found similarly using quality x2. From Table A-5, for P2 = 1.5 bar,
we have:
 v vf2
x2
vg 2 v f 2
0.8475 0.001053
x2 0.731
1.159 0.001053
mg 2 0.731 0.59kg 0.431 kg

Example 5
Determine the enthalpy of 1.5 kg of water contained in a volume of 1.2 m3 at 200 kPa.
Recall we need two independent, intensive properties to specify the state of a simple substance.
Pressure P is one intensive property and specific volume is another. Therefore, we calculate
the specific volume.
Volume 12. m3 m3
v 0.8
mass 15
. kg kg
Using Table A-5 at P = 200 kPa,
vf = 0.001061 m3/kg, vg = 0.8858 m3/kg
Is v v f ? No
Is v f v v g ? Yes
Is v g v ? No
We see that the state is in the two-phase or saturation region. So we must find the quality x
first.
v v f x (v g v f )

=

0.8 .0001061
0.8858 0.001061
=0.903
Then,
h h f x h fg
504.7 (0.903)(2201.6)
kJ
2492.7
kg
Example 6
Calculate the specific volume of nitrogen at 300 K and 8.0 MPa and compare the result with the
value given in a nitrogen table as v = 0.011133 m3/kg.
From Table A.1 for nitrogen
Tcr = 126.2 K, Pcr = 3.39 MPa R = 0.2968 kJ/kg-K

T 300 K
TR 2.38
Tcr 126.2 K
P 8.0 MPa
PR 2.36
Pcr 3.39 MPa
Since T > 2Tcr and P < 10Pcr, we use the ideal gas equation of state
Pv RT
kJ
0.2968 (300 K ) 3
RT kg K m MPa
v
P 8.0 MPa 103 kJ
m3
0.01113
kg

Example 7
An ideal gas is contained in a closed assembly with an initial pressure and temperature of 220
kPa and 70C respectively. If the volume of the system is increased 1.5 times and the
temperature drops to 15C, determine the final pressure of the gas.
State 1:
P1 = 220kPa
T1 = 70 + 273K = 343K
State 2:
T2 = 15 +273 = 288K
V2 = 1.5V1
From ideal gas law:
11 22
=
1 2
1 288
P2 =
1.51
(343) (220103 )
= 123.15 kPa
Example 8
A closed assembly contains 2 kg of air at an initial pressure and temperature of 140 kPa and
210C respectively. If the volume of the system is doubled and temperature drops to 37C,
determine the final pressure of the air. Air can be modelled as an ideal gas.
State 1:
P1 = 140 kPa
T1 = 210 + 273K = 483K
State 2:
T2 = 37 + 273 = 310K
V2 = 2V1
From ideal gas law:
11 22
=
1 2
1 310
P2 =
21
(483) (140103 )
= 44.93 kPa

Example 9
An automobile tire with a volume of 0.6 m^3 is inflated to a gage pressure of 200kPa calculate
the mass of air in the tire if the temperature is 20C.
State 1:
P = 200 + 100 kPa
T = 20 + 273K = 293K
From ideal gas law:

=


300103 (0.62 )
3
=
287 (293)
.

= 2.14 kg
Example 10
Determine the specific volume of R-134a at 1 MPa and 50C, using (a) ideal gas equation (b)
the generalized compressibility chart. Compare the values obtained with the actual value of
0.02171 m3/kg.
Solution:
From Table A-1, for R-134a, R = 0.0815 kPa.m3/(kg.K), Pcr = 4.067 MPa, and Tcr = 374.3 K
(a) Ideal gas equation of state

v
RT


0.0815 kPa.m 3 / kg.K 323 K
0.02632 m 3 / kg
P 1000 kPa
Comparing with the tabulated value, using ideal gas equation one would get an error of
(0.02632-0.02171)/0.02171=0.212 or 21.2%.
(b) To determine the correction factor Z,
P 1MPa
PR 0.246
Pcr 4.067 MPa
T 323K
TR 0.863
Tcr 374.3K
From Fig. A-28, Z= 0.84. Thus,
v = Z videal = 0.84 (0.02632 m3/kg) =0.02211 m3/kg
DISCUSSION

T-v diagram shows the state of saturated liquid water of the phases change process of
water at 1 atm pressure. The saturation line continues to shrink when the pressure increase
further and comes to a point call critical point. This point is which the saturated liquid and
saturated vapor states are identical. The temperature at that point is critical temperature. The
pressure at critical point is critical pressure and the volume at that point is critical volume. P-
v diagram is also similar to T-V diagram. The difference of P-V diagram is just that the
constant lines are having downward trend. P-T diagram is related to pure substance and its
called phase diagram. Saturated liquid water is vaporized at constant pressure. The amount of
energy needed to vaporize a unit of mass substance at a given pressure is the enthalpy of
vaporization of that pressure. At the saturation temperature, the temperature of water is
higher than the saturation temperature because the water is in superheated vapor region. The
temperature and pressure are not dependent properties and used as two independent
properties. Water vapor does not consider as ideal gas or not depends on the pressure that
acting on it. When the pressure is below 10kPa, water vapor is treated as ideal gas. This was
applied in applications such as air conditioning applications as the pressure of water vapor is
relatively small. Meanwhile, for steam power plant, which has a high pressure of water vapor
does not able to apply the ideal gas relations as the pressure exceed the critical point and the
saturated vapor line. The pressure in gas container is due to the individual molecules striking
the wall of container and exerting a force on it. This force is proportional to the average
velocity and the number of molecules per unit volume of the container. Therefore, the
pressure exerted by gas is a function of density and temperature of gas. Relatively humidity is
the ratio of the actual amount of moisture in the air at a given temperature to the maximum
amount air can hold at that temperature. For imbalance of a commodity in a medium, nature
ends to redistribute it until balance is establish. This tendency is often called driving force
which occurs behind many naturally occurring transport phenomena. The amount of
commodity per unit volume is concentration, which occurs from high concentration to the
direction of lower concentration, which is also known as diffusion process. The natural
tendency of water to evaporate in order to achieve phase equilibrium with the water vapor in
surrounding air forms the basis for the operation of the evaporative coolers. Boiling and
evaporation are often used interchangeably to indicate phase change from liquid to vapor.
Evaporation occurs at the liquid vapor interface when the vapor pressure is less than the
saturation pressure of the liquid at a given temperature. Boiling on the other hand occurs at
the solid liquid interface when a liquid is brought into contact with a surface maintained at a
temperature, T which is sufficiently above the saturation temperature of a liquid.
CONCLUSION
A substance that has a fixed chemical composition throughout is called a pure substance. A
pure substance exists in different phases depending on its energy level. In the liquid phase, a
substance that is not about to vapourize is called a compressed or sub cooled liquid. In the
gas phase, a substance that is not about to condense is called a superheated vapour. During a
phase-change process, the temperature and pressure of a pure substance are dependent
properties. At a given pressure, a substance changes phase at a fixed temperature, called the
saturation temperature. Likewise, at a given temperature, the pressure at which a substance
changes phase is called the saturation pressure. During a boiling process, both the liquid and
the vapour phases coexist in equilibrium, and under this condition the liquid is called
saturated liquid and the vapour saturated vapour. In a saturated liquid-vapour mixture, the
mass fraction of vapour is called the quality and is expressed as

Quality may have values between 0 (saturated liquid) and 1 (saturated vapour). It has no
meaning in the compressed liquid or superheated vapour regions. In the saturated mixture
region, the average value of any intensive property y is determined from

where/stands for saturated liquid and g for saturated vapour. In the absence of compressed
liquid data, a general approximation is to treat a compressed liquid as a saturated liquid at the
given temperature,

where y stands of r v, u, or h. The state beyond which there is no distinct vapourization

process is called the critical point. At supercritical pressures, a substance gradually and
uniformly expands from the liquid to vapour phase. All three phases of a substance coexist in
equilibrium at states along the triple line characterized by triple-line temperature and pressure.
The compressed liquid has lower V, u, and h values than the saturated liquid at the same T or
P. Likewise, superheated vapour has higher v, u, and h values than the saturated vapour at the
same T or P. Any relation among the pressure, temperature, and specific volume of a
substance is called an equation of state. The simplest and best-known equation of state is the
ideal-gas equation of state, given as
Pv = RT
where R is the gas constant. Caution should be exercised in using this relation since an ideal
gas is a fictitious substance. Real gases exhibit ideal-gas behaviour at relatively low pressures
and high temperatures. The deviation from ideal-gas behaviour can be properly accounted for
by using the compressibility factor Z, defined as
The Z factor is approximately the same for all gases at the same reduced temperature and
reduced pressure, which are defined as

where Pcr and Ta are the critical pressure and temperature, respectively. This is known as the
principle of corresponding states. When either P or T is unknown, it can be determined from
the compressibility chart with the help of the pseudo reduced specific volume, defined as

The P-w-T behaviour of substances can be represented more accurately by more complex
equations of state. Three of the best known are

van der Waals:

where,

Beattie-Bridgeman:
Where,

Benedict- Webb-Rubin:

where Ru is the universal gas constant and v is the molar specific volume.