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(4.1-1)
2. Convection
The transfer of heat by convection implies the transfer of heat by bulk transport
and mixing of macroscopic elements of warmer portions with cooler portions of a gas or
a liquid. It also often involves the energy exchange between a solid surface an a fluid.
Examples of heat transfer by convection are loss of heat from a car radiator where the
air is being circulated by a fan, cooking of foods in a vessel being stirred, and so on.
3. Radiations
Radiation is the transfer of energy through space by means of electromagnetic
waves in much the same way as electromagnetic light waves transfer light. The same
laws which govern the transfer of light govern the radiant transfer of heat. Solids and
liquids tend to absorb the radiation being transferred through it, so that radiation is
important primarily in transfer through space or gases. The most important example of
radiaton is the transport of heat to the earth from the sun.
(4.3-1)
The fourier`s law can be integrated for the case of steady state heat transfer through a
flat wall of constant cross sectional area A, where temperature at point 1 is T 1 and T2 at
point 2 a distance od x2 x1 m away. Rearranging equation
(4.3-2)
Integrating assuming that k is constan and does not vary with temperature and dropping
the subscript x on qx for convenience,
(4.3-3)
Where qx is the heat transfer rate in the x direction in watts (W), A is the cross sectional
area normal to the direction of flow of heat in m 2, T is temperature in K, x is distance in
m, and k is the thermal conductivity in W/m 2. The quantity dT/dx is the temperature
gradient in the x direction. The minus sign in Eq. (4.1-2) is required because if the heat
flows is positive in a given direction, the temperature decreases in this direction.
105,1 W/m2
(105,1 W/m2)
Simple examples of steady state conduction are shown in figure 4.1 in figure
4.1(a) a flat walled insulated tank contains a refrigerant at perhaps -10 , while the air
outside the tank is at 28 . The temperature falls linearly with distance across the layer
of insulation as heat flows from the air to the refrigerant. As we will see in a later
section, there may actually be a temperature drop between the bulk of the air and the
outside surface of the insulation, but it is assumed to be negligible in fig 4.1 (a), fig
4.1(b) shows a similar tank containing boiling water at 100 , losing heat to air at 20
.
The rate of heat flows is found as follows, assuming that k is independent of
temperature, q is constant along the path of heat flows. If x is the distance from the hot
side.
(4.5-1)
(4.5-2)
(4.5-3)
(4.5-4)
4.6 Compound Resistances in Series
Consider a flat wall constructed of a series of layers, as shown in figure 4.2 let the
thicknesses of the layers be BA, BB, and Bc and the average conductivities of the
(4.6-1)
(4.6-2)
Since in steady heat flow, all the heat that passes through the first resistance must pass
through the second and in turn pass through the third, qA, qB, and qC are equal and all
can be denoted by q. using this fact and solving for q/A gives
(4.6-4)
R = overall resistance
Consider a hollow cylinder of length L with an inside radius r i and an outside ro.
The cylinder is made of material with a thermal conductivity k. The temperature of the
outside surface is To that of the inside surface is Ti with Ti To. At radius r from the
center the heat flow rate is q and the area through which it flows is A.
(4.7-1)
(4.7-2)
(4.7-3)
(4.7-4)
(4.7-5)
The logarithmic mean is less convenient than the arithmetic mean and the latter can be
used without appreciable error for thin walled tubes, where r 0/ri is nearly 1. The ratio of
figure 4.5.