Water Supply and Development of Alternative

Water Sources
Related Practices
Environmental and Natural Resources

Related Information
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The management of water, possibly our most vital resource, is evolving. Sustainable water supply
planning is gaining attention and businesses, municipalities and governments are seeking a better
understanding of the connection between quality and quantity. Regulatory agencies are seeking to
expand the scope of their authority, creating consequences that affect everyone.

At Troutman Sanders, we have experience with every essential issue related to water supply, from
resource management and systems planning to permitting, compliance and litigation. We have developed
permits and regulations, defended against government or citizen challenges to water withdrawals, and
negotiated with state and federal legislators over regional water issues. When called upon, we have
represented our clients in water-related litigation, always keeping their business interests at the forefront
of our litigation strategies.

The number and type of permits required to develop or expand water projects has changed dramatically
over recent decades. Water projects almost always affect "waters of the United States," especially
wetlands, which cannot be filled without permits from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (the Corps) and,
in many cases, state environmental agencies. Many states now limit the quantities of water that can be
taken on a daily or seasonal basis in order to protect fish life, recreation and other instream values.

Compliance with the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), and issues surrounding endangered
species, coastal zone management, historic and cultural resources, and environmental justice are also
important considerations. All potential issues must be treated carefully, given the Environmental
Protection Agencys (EPA) power to veto any Corps permit and the fact that federal and state permits are
subject to judicial review.

The following are among the major issues raised in challenges to alternative water source development:

Long-term water supply needs

Water conservation
Identification and selection of the least environmentally damaging practicable alternative
Impacts to wetlands, stream flows, water quality, fish and wildlife

REPRESENTATIVE EXPERIENCE
Negotiated water-withdrawal permits for businesses and public water-supply systems.
 Defended water-withdrawal programs and permitting decisions against challenges from environmental
groups.
Represented a large city in the southeastern United States in planning, permitting and construction of a
60-million-gallon-per-day water project. The project consisted of a water-pumping station in an existing
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) licensed hydroelectric project and an 86-mile long
pipeline to convey the water to the city. This work included representing the city before FERC, the U.S.
Department of Commerce, state trial and supreme courts, federal district courts, the U.S. Courts of
Appeals for the Fourth Circuit and the D.C. Circuit, and the U.S. Supreme Court, in challenges by a
neighboring state and other affected interest groups.
Mission H2O: A stakeholder group focused on water supply issues in Virginia, Mission H2O is led by
Troutman Sanders and includes agricultural and industrial water users, providers and service
professionals. This group acts as a voice for members to ensure sound policy and regulatory decisions
are made that affect supply issues in Virginia.
Represented a large municipality in a class-action lawsuit against all riparian landowners on a major
interstate river. The suit sought to obtain a declaration that a proposed municipal water-supply withdrawal
would not injure downstream riparian landowners or trigger equitable apportionment of water rights
among the affected states. We coordinated comments on water-management policies and regulations
proposed by state agencies.
Coordinated a water-supply stakeholder group focused on water-supply issues in Virginia. Our work
included participation in the development of a state water-supply plan and evaluation of groundwater
management options.
Represented a manufacturing trade association in lobbying against a statutory alteration of the common
law of riparian rights and public trust doctrine to make all waters in Georgia subject to the public-trust
doctrine.
Helped conduct environmental sustainability audits, aiding our client in documenting water usage and
developing strategies for managing water needs.
Handled all permitting work for a large municipal water-supply system seeking to develop a large
reservoir project to add 30 million gallons per day of water capacity. This project involved endangered
species, Indian rights, fisheries, and a host of other legal and factual issues.
Advised a major real-estate developer on compliance with NEPA, the Endangered Species Act and the
Federal Power Act. Our client was seeking approval to increase water withdrawals from a FERC-licensed
hydroelectric reservoir to meet the needs of a large mixed-use development.
Drafted portions of the Apalachicola/Chattahoochee/Flint and Alabama/Coosa/Tallapoosa interstate
compact, and participated in contentious negotiations regarding said compacts.

Water supply and distribution Intermediate Engineering Distribution systems layout

Selection and Development of Water Sources

When selecting a water source for development, the engineer must consider three primary factors: water quantity,
water reliability, and water quality. The quantity factor considers the amount of water that is available at the source
and the amount of water that will be required or demanded for use. The amount of water that maybe available at the
source depends on variables, such as the amount of precipitation, the size of the drained area, geology, ground
surface, evaporation, temperature, topography, and artificial controls. Water demands are estimated using per capita
requirements and other controlling factors, such as water requirements for fire protection, industrial use, lawn
sprinkling, construction, vehicles, and water delivered to other activities.

The reliability of a water supply is one of the most important factors that the engineer considers when selecting a
water source. A reliable water source is one that will supply the required amount of water for as long as needed. To
determine the reliability of the water source, the engineer studies data, such as hydrological data, to determine the
variations that maybe expected at the water source. Geological data should be studied since geological formations
can limit the quantity and flow of water available. Also, legal advice may be necessary when selecting a water source
since the laws regulating and controlling water rights may vary considerably from state to state and country to
country.

The third primary factor the engineer must consider when selecting a water source is the quality of the
water. Practically all water supplies have been exposed to pollution of some kind. Therefore, to ensure that water is
potable and palatable, it must be tested to determine the existence of any impurities that could cause disease, odor,
foul taste, or bad color. In most cases, the water will require treatment for the removal of these impurities. In water
treatment, the water is subjected to various filtration and sedimentation processes, and in nearly all cases is
disinfected using chlorine or other disinfecting chemicals.

Once the water source has been selected, development of the source can begin. Developing a water source includes
all work that increases the quantity and improves the quality of the water or makes it more readily available for
treatment and distribution. In developing a source, the engineer may use the construction of dams, digging
or drilling of wells, and other improvements to increase the quantity and quality of the water.

For a more detailed discussion of water source selection, development, and treatment, you should refer to chapter 9
of the UT1 TRAMAN. For NAVFAC guidance, you should refer to Water Supply System, MIL-HDBK-1005/7.

Now that you are familiar with water sources, let us move onto water distribution.

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM ELEMENTS AND ACCESSORIES

The elements of a water distribution system include distribution mains, arterial mains, storage reservoirs, and
system accessories. These elements and accessories are described as follows:

1. DISTRIBUTION MAINS. Distribution mains are the pipelines that make up the distribution system. Their function
is to carry water from the water source or treatment works to users.

2. ARTERIAL MAINS. Arterial mains are distribution mains of large size. They are interconnected with smaller
distribution mains to form a complete gridiron system.
Figure 2-19.Typical distribution system layout.

3. STORAGE RESERVOIRS. Storage reservoirs are structures used to store water. They also equalize the supply or
pressure in the distribution system. A common example of a storage reservoir is an aboveground water storage tank.

4. SYSTEM ACCESSORIES. System accessories include the following:

a. BOOSTER STATIONS. Booster stations are used to increase water pressure from storage tanks for low-pressure
mains.

b. VALVES. Valves control the flow of water in the distribution system by isolating areas for repair or by regulating
system flow or pressure.

c. HYDRANTS. Hydrants are designed to allow water from the distribution system to be used for fire-fighting
purposes.

d. METERS. Meters record the flow of water in a part of the distribution system.
e. SERVICE CONNECTIONS. Service connections are used to connect individual buildings or other plumbing systems
to the distribution system mains.

f. BACKFLOW PREVENTERS. A cross-connection is any connection between a potable and nonpotable water system
through which a contaminating flow can occur. Backflow preventers, such as air gaps and vacuum breakers, are used
to prevent flow through potential cross-connections.

http://www.tpub.com/inteng/2k.htm

Water and sustainable development

Water is at the core of sustainable development and is critical for socio-economic
development, healthy ecosystems and for human survival itself. It is vital for reducing
the global burden of disease and improving the health, welfare and productivity of
populations. It is central to the production and preservation of a host of benefits and
services for people. Water is also at the heart of adaptation to climate change, serving
as the crucial link between the climate system, human society and the environment.

Water is a finite and irreplaceable resource that is fundamental to human well-being.

It is only renewable if well managed. Today, more than 1.7 billion people live in river
basins where depletion through use exceeds natural recharge, a trend that will see two-
thirds of the worlds population living in water-stressed countries by 2025. Water can
pose a serious challenge to sustainable development but managed efficiently and
equitably, water can play a key enabling role in strengthening the resilience of social,
economic and environmental systems in the light of rapid and unpredictable changes.

What is "sustainable development"?

Sustainable development was explicitly popularized and contextualized by the

Brundtland Commission in the document "Our Common Future" where it was defined
as development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability
of future generations to meet their own needs. (UN, 1987). The Brundtland
Commission focused on three pillars of human well being: economic, socio-political
and ecological/environmental conditions. The basic concept endorses putting in place
strong measures to spur economic and social development, particularly for people in
developing countries, while ensuring that environmental integrity is sustained for
future generations.

Water, sustainable development, the MDGs and the SDGs

The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)

The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), agreed in 2000, aim to halve the
proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic
sanitation between 1990 and 2015.

A total of 748 million people still do not have access to an improved drinking water
source and existing indicators do not address the safety and reliability of water
supplies. To reach the requirements of the right to access to safe drinking water
requires real improvements for several billions of people.

In July 2010, the General Assembly adopted a resolution, which recognized the right
to safe and clean drinking water and sanitation as a human right that is essential for
the full enjoyment of life and all human rights. (A/RES/64/292).

The MDG target for sanitation is an even more pressing challenge, with 2.5
billion people currently lacking access to improved sanitation and over one billion
still practicing open defecation. At current rates of progress, the sanitation target will
be missed by over half a billion people.

These global aggregates also mask large disparities between nations and regions, rich
and poor, between rural and urban populations, as well as between disadvantaged
groups and the general population.

There is currently no global target to improve hygiene, despite this being one of the
single most cost-effective public health interventions.

The United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20)

The Rio+20 Conference in 2012 was an opportunity to reflect on progress towards

sustainable development over the previous 20 years. One of its main outcomes was an
agreement to launch a process to develop a set of Sustainable Development Goals,
which build on the Millennium Development Goals and converge with the post-2015
development agenda.

2015 UN-Water Annual International Zaragoza Conference. Water and

Sustainable Development: From Vision to Action. 15-17 January 2015

The Zaragoza Conference focused on the tools for implementation stated in the
outcome document of the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development,
held in Rio de Janeiro from 20 to 22 June 2012, entitled "The future we want", which
includes finance, technology and capacity building, adding the institutional and policy
dimensions.
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) on Water

As the time limit for the MDGs draws to a close in 2015, the global community is
taking stock of how it can move towards a sustainable future. The MDG framework
did not address the full water and development agenda, nor fully recognize its
synergies with other areas and concerns. Emphasis on Sustainability was not
included and human rights and inequalities were also largely ignored in the MDG
framework. Subsequently, member states have agreed that human rights, equality and
sustainability should form the core of the development agenda and be recognized as
critical for true development.

UN-Waters overarching goal is Securing Sustainable Water for All. The water goal
and targets directly address the development aims of societies, promote human dignity
and ensure achievements are sustainable over the long term leading to the following
development outcomes, amongst others:

Sustainable development, water, and

Agriculture is by far the thirstiest consumer of water globally, accounting for 70% of
water withdrawals worldwide, although this figure varies considerably across
countries. Rainfed agriculture is the predominant agricultural production system
 around the world, and its current productivity is, on average, little more than half the
potential obtainable under optimal agricultural management. By 2050, world
agriculture will need to produce 60% more food globally, and 100% more in
developing countries.

Industry and energy together account for 20% of water demand. More-developed
countries have a much larger proportion of freshwater withdrawals for industry than
less-developed countries, where agriculture dominates. Balancing the requirements of
sustainability against the conventional view of industrial mass production creates a
number of conundrums for industry. One of the biggest is globalization and how to
spread the benefits of industrialization worldwide and without unsustainable impacts
on water and other natural resources.

Domestic sector accounts for 10% of total water use. And yet, worldwide, an
estimated 748 million people remain without access to an improved source of water
and 2.5 billion remain without access to improved sanitation.

Cities. More than half the world already lives in urban areas and by 2050, it is
expected that more than two-thirds of the global population of 9 billion will be living
in cities. Furthermore, most of this growth will happen in developing countries, which
have limited capacity to deal with this rapid change, and the growth will also lead to
increase in the number of people living in slums, which often have very poor living
conditions, including inadequate water and sanitation facilities. Therefore, the
development of water resources for economic growth, social equity and
environmental sustainability will be closely linked with the sustainable development
of cities.

Ecosystems. Perhaps the most important challenge to sustainable development to

have arisen in the last decades is the unfolding global ecological crisis that is
becoming a barrier to further human development. From an ecological perspective,
the sustainable development efforts have not been successful. Global environmental
degradation has reached a critical level with major ecosystems approaching thresholds
that could trigger massive collapse. The growing understanding of global planetary
boundaries, which must be respected to protect Earths life support systems, needs to
be the very basis of the future sustainable development framework.

http://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/water_and_sustainable_development.shtml

6. How could water resources be developed

sustainably?
o 6.1 What are the obstacles to sustainable water management?
o 6.2 How could water be used more efficiently and sustainably?

6.1 What are the obstacles to sustainable water

management?
The source document for this Digest states:
Climate change and the hydrological variability of waters distribution and occurrence are natural
driving forces that, when combined with the pressures from economic growth and major
population change, make the sustainable development of our water resources a challenge.
5a. Driving forces and pressures
The combination of these factors commonly results in increased water use, competition and pollution in
addition to highly inefficient water supply practices. These results can be traced back to the fact that most
decisions in water resources management, at almost all levels, remain principally driven by short-term
economic and political considerations that lack the long-term vision needed to
implement sustainable development practices. Water management plans should consider the best
existing practices and the most advanced scientific breakthroughs.
The scientific community has to convey more effectively its recommendations to decision-makers to
enable the latter to develop and maintain multidisciplinary integrated approaches and solutions. Societies
should realize that todays water-related challenges are no longer readily solved just by using last
centurys hydraulic schemes. Increased funding and resources need to be provided for the collection of
detailed water data and information.
5b.State of our natural water resources
The roles and interdependencies of the different hydrological cycle components are often not fully
appreciated. As a result, it is difficult to set up adequate protection and prevention strategies.
All components of the hydrological cycle should be taken into account when developing water
management plans. Each component has a specific role that must be better understood. For example,
rain and snow directly supply terrestrial ecosystems and soil moisture is a unique water source for both
agricultural development and terrestrial ecosystems. Furthermore, glacial melting has a strong influence
on water availability in many nations and as a result more comprehensive global assessments are
needed.
We can substantively predict annual variability in surface runoff and have created solutions to deal with it.
However, overcoming the less predictable five- to ten-year global cycles of distinctly lower and higher
runoff remains a challenge. Groundwater resources could provide a valuable contribution to overcoming
climate variability and meeting demands during extended dry periods. A surplus of surface water runoff
during wet periods can be used to replenish aquifer systems.
However, we do not have enough data on groundwater and aquifer systems, especially in developing
countries where the lack of adequate surface water resources is most extreme. This is particularly true in
both Asia and Africa where there has been a dramatic reduction in water monitoring programmes.
Water quality monitoring programmes are inadequate or lacking in most developing nations; thus
safeguarding human health is difficult. Despite two decades of increased international scientific attention
and concern, attempts to collect, compile and gain knowledge from consumption, pollution and
abstraction data and information at a global scale are still piecemeal and in relatively early stages of
applicability.
 5c. Impacts
Poor quality water and unsustainable supplies limit national economic development and can lead
to adverse health and livelihood conditions.
Landscape modifications further complicate our understanding of and ability to predict the impacts on
water resources since these changes disrupt natural hydrological and ecosystem functioning. This
becomes more important when we seek to advance our understanding of the future impacts of climate
change at local and regional scales. We know that detailed estimates of climate change impacts on water
resources at regional or global scales are currently very problematic due to inadequate water data.
We have reached a reasonable level of knowledge towards recognizing impacts on water quality and
quantity from pollution and excessive groundwater and surface water withdrawals. The focus must now
be on reducing these impacts. In most developing countries, specific and well-targeted programmes
should be funded to reduce impacts on water quality and quantity.
Overall, there are reasons to be hopeful as new water programmes are emerging that finally emphasize
the application of more sustainable practices to reduce impacts.

Source & : UNESCO, The United Nations World Water Development Report 2 (2006)
Section 2: Changing Natural Systems,
Chapter 4 (UNESCO & WMO, with IAEA),
Part 5. The Challenge of Sustainable Development, p.151
www.unesco.org/water/wwap/wwdr2/pdf/wwdr2_ch_4.pdf
Level 1: Summary
Level 2: Details
Level 3: Source

6.2 How could water be used more efficiently and

sustainably?
The source document for this Digest states:
5d. Responses
Prevention strategies and new technologies that augment existing natural water resources,
reduce demand, and achieve higher efficiency are part of the response to meet todays increasing
demands on our available water resources.
To meet current and future water demands, increased attention should be given to precautionary
approaches such as innovative uses of natural supplies and new technologies. In the past we have
responded by storing runoff in reservoirs, diverting flows from water-abundant to water-scarce regions,
and extracting aquifer resources methods that provided ample water where and when it was needed.
These methods are likely to remain part of most water resources development strategies. Non-
conventional water resources, such as water reuse and desalination, are being increasingly used and
new technologies such as artificial recharge are also becoming more and more common. Capturing rain
at the source through rainwater harvesting is yet another method used to increase the availability of
natural water sources. In certain regions, an extreme response has been adopted. In some arid countries,
where sufficient renewable water resources are not available, non-renewable groundwater reserves are
being exploited to support development.
Demand management and conservation are methods that target efficiency. Conservation begins by
reducing high losses from water supply distribution systems. Demand management has gone largely
unaddressed since most water utilities still focus on infrastructure development rather than on
conservation.
It is worth noting that industrys approach in recent years has been to reduce wastewater and minimize
the quantity of processed water needed as this method has proven to be technically feasible and
economically advantageous. The demand reduction and efficiency approach should be an integral part of
modern water resources management. Its applicability should be promoted while recognizing that it
requires a distinct change in the behavioural patterns of institutions, utilities and individuals a change
that will require education, awareness-raising and political commitment to achieve effective
implementation.
Institutional responses at different levels are also needed. Some nations have implemented new laws and
regulations that point the way forward toward protecting and restoring our water sources. Many nations
are adapting emerging technical practices to secure and protect their existing natural water resources and
use local knowledge as part of sustainable resource development.
5e. The benefits
There will be economic, social and environmental benefits from carrying out regular Water Resources
Assessments (WRAs) in all basins and aquifers in individual nations as well as regionally, where
transboundary shared water resources are present.
Modern approaches to WRA are rapidly emerging and now go well beyond the traditional hydraulic and
supply-biased studies carried out during the last century. WRAs have been extended to take advantage
of the recently recognized benefits that come from using an integrated approach (IWRM) and including
ecosystems services (ecosystem approach). WRAs continue to fundamentally require well-documented
hydrological cycle component data without this data the evaluation results are unreliable. To be
comprehensive and assist in sustainable practices, WRAs should include well-documented user
consumption and water quality requirements, accurate use data, estimates of the environmental flow
volumes needed to maintain ecosystem resilience, characterization of both point and non-point sources of
pollution and the quality of the receiving waters, and the extensive engagement of all water users and
other pertinent stakeholders.
Providing incentives to improve demand management efficiencies has proven highly effective in
augmenting natural water supplies. WRAs should consider new capacities to use non-conventional water
supplies and new technologies to augment existing supplies. A comprehensive WRA must also include
social and economic considerations as well as ecosystem needs and contributions.
If climate change follows the projected scenarios, we can expect more erratic weather in the future,
including increased variability in precipitation, which will threaten crop yields in both developed and
developing countries, while placing more than 2.8 billion people at risk of water shortage. Understanding
all aspects of the hydrological cycle is critical if our society is to be able to cope with the many changes
we observe.

Source & : UNESCO, The United Nations World Water Development Report 2 (2006)
Section 2: Changing Natural Systems,
Chapter 4 (UNESCO & WMO, with IAEA),
 Part 5. The Challenge of Sustainable Development, 5d. Responses, p.153
www.unesco.org/water/wwap/wwdr2/pdf/wwdr2_ch_4.pdf
Conserving available water and reducing demand is a necessary measure in water-short regions,
especially those in arid climates. Programmes of conservation and demand reduction are referred to as
water demand management (WDM). This approach differs from the traditional supply-driven method,
which makes all existing water available. WDM applies selective economic incentives to promote efficient
and equitable water use. It also identifies water conservation measures that are aimed at raising societys
awareness of the scarcity and finite nature of the resource.
Conservation measures have not been readily implemented, particularly where water was perceived as
abundant. However, the benefits in the extended useful life of water supply and treatment plants and in
the operating efficiency and duration of sewage disposal systems can be considerable in terms of higher
economic return on investment. On the environmental front, conservation allows for the diversion of the
unused volumes to sustain ecosystems and also lowers the pollution loadings to lakes, rivers
andgroundwater. Such steps lead to improved protection of drinking water sources and overall ecological
balance (Environment Canada, 2005b).
WDM advocates a wide range of measures that go beyond conservation to broadersustainable resource
management. It applies to the protection of water quality sources; reduction of wastage both in
infrastructure leakage and by users; improvement of water allocation among competing uses, and
creation of appropriate pricing mechanisms. One example of a situation where conservation measures
are needed is the case of undelivered water a commonly accepted result of utilities supplying water
through piped distribution systems. The leakage from degraded pipes provides unaccounted for water
that results in both a physical shortage and reduced revenue. In terms of inefficiency of resources and
operations, losses are routinely reported as 40 percent and as high as 60 to 70 percent in some major
cities. Though it is an endemic problem for most water utilities, its impact on society in terms of wasted
water resources is even more substantial.
Further water conservation can be achieved after delivery by improving use practices in households.
Reductions in community water use after conservation measures have been applied are reported to be as
high as 40 percent. These two situations illustrate to what extent the water that is currently supplied may
not actually be needed. By reducing leakage and demand, substantial reductions in the source volumes
could be achieved. This should be a clear message in development settings. WDM may obviate the need
for some of the proposed large-scale physical or infrastructure investments and thereby provide real
efficiency gains to society (GWP, 2005a).

Source & : UNESCO, The United Nations World Water Development Report 2 (2006)
Section 2: Changing Natural Systems,
Chapter 4 (UNESCO & WMO, with IAEA),
Part 4. Matching Demands to Supply, 4d. Demand management, p.149
www.unesco.org/water/wwap/wwdr2/pdf/wwdr2_ch_4.pdf
Water resources assessments (WRAs) are designed to be analyses of available water sources from the
perspective of potential water use. Since Rio 92, and in particular the Dublin 2000 considerations, water
resources have come to be more broadly considered within the dimensions of social equity, economics
and ecosystem/ecohydrology. The modern WRA process can be adapted and updated to include these
relationships (GWP, 2005b).
Hydrological data and information systems and networks provide the basic and critical input to WRA,
whether the assessment is done within an IWRM perspective at the national or basin/sub-basin/aquifer
level or otherwise. Factors that affect the accuracy of hydrological input to WRAs include: the number of
gauging stations, station distribution within physiographic regions, duration and continuity of observations,
quality of measurements, and data processing. The commonly measured parameters include
precipitation, evaporation, soil moisture, river level and discharge, groundwater (well) depths, sediment
and water quality data on a continuous, hourly, daily or monthly basis.
However, reliability and availability of data have declined sharply since the mid-1980s, particularly in
Africa and in Eastern Europe (Rodda, 1998), and that situation has not changed substantively since the
turn of the century. Investment in national networks has fallen drastically and is still decreasing.
Hydrometric networks, while they are costly to maintain, provide basic WRA input that cannot be collected
dependably by any other means (see Chapter 13).
The development of more decentralized and basin-type approaches for WRA is inherent in the
internationally agreed upon IWRM principles. It is widely recognized that it will take several decades of
institutional adjustment (Blomquist et al., 2005) to reorient water management practices on basins.
However, such changes are beginning at the basin level and there are examples of decentralized
approaches on most continents in terms of water management processes. An important element of the
World Water Assessment Programmes mission is to assist partner case study countries in developing
their own assessment capacity (see Chapter 14). Sovereignity issues and competition will always remain
factors in managing the resource. However, the basic WRA scope which broadly defines the extent of
available water quantity and quality, including aspects related to environment, pollution and water use, is
the basis for effective management. This information can be collected and jointly developed by the
nations sharing the resource (see Chapter 11). These will give forward-looking direction not only in water
technology areas but also on how improving data, information and assessment practices for water
resources will provide critical knowledge that will greatly benefit society, human livelihoods and the
environment.

https://www.greenfacts.org/en/water-resources/l-3/6-sustainable-management.htm

3.6 Water source development

One of the main duties of a water supply provider is to ensure that a safe and plentiful water
supply is available to all segments of a community at a reasonable cost. This may mean seeking
new water sources to satisfy demand. Identifying potential new sources and assessing their
viability prior to development is a skilled technical task that requires several different factors to
be assessed. These factors include:

Volume of water required: This will depend on demand, which relates to the number and
type of potential users. Will the new source be able to meet the demand of all users? Have
future increases in demand and population growth been taken into consideration?
Quality: Is the water from a safe and protected source? If not, what will be the level of
treatment needed and how will this be achieved? What is the risk of pollution of the source?
 Seasonal variations: Is the new water source reliable, or is it vulnerable to seasonal
variations in the availability of water? How will this be accommodated?
Distance between source and users: How far must the water be transported? What is the
sort of distribution system that will be needed? What are the engineering requirements for
the system?
Cost: Following on from all the above, what is the cost of developing the new source (both
capital and continuing operating and maintenance costs) into the future?
Environmental impact: What are the predicted environmental consequences of developing
the water source? Will the benefits of the new supply outweigh any disadvantages?
Sustainability: Can the water source be developed and used in such a way that it does not
compromise the future ability to supply water? For example, the rate of abstraction from a
spring should not exceed the rate of natural replenishment.
Answers to all of these questions and more, together with detailed surveys, assessments and
analyses, will be required to identify possible new water sources. Mentioned in the list above is
the possibility of pollution of the water source. There are many possible sources of pollution and
these will be discussed in the next study session.

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