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Key words: WFD, GIS, distributed modelling, strategic decision making, data scarcity
1. Introduction
The objective of this study was to investigate the use of hydrological modelling
software for data scarce catchments, in order to propose tools that could be used
to support decision-making, specifically with regard to establishing structural
and non-structural interventions required for conformity with the Water
Framework Directive (WFD). The WFD was officially published on 22nd
December 2000. All member states and candidate countries have to adapt their
water management system to the requirements of the WFD and introduce
participatory river basin management (Mostert, 2003). The Directive establishes
a framework for the protection of all water bodies (including inland surface
waters, transitional waters, coastal waters and groundwater) which (European
Commission, 2003):
Prevents further deterioration of, protects and enhances the status of water
resources.
Promotes a sustainable water use based on long-term protection of water
resources
568 A. IRESON ET AL.
3. Software
3.1. ARCVIEW
along with the ability to analyse geographic locations and the information linked
to those locations. A powerful feature of ArcView GIS is the ability to carry out
mathematical and logical operations on spatial data. Furthermore, tabular data
from Arcview dBASE files can be created or manipulated using Microsoft Excel,
which is useful in facilitating the integration of ArcView with other software.
assumptions are still valid, however the data used to define the model should be
based on measured or calibrated transmissivity and not on measured hydraulic
con- ductivity. This also means that only steady-state analysis can be carried out
with this model.
Contaminant transport through the aquifer can be modelled using a Random
Walk Particle Tracking method. This method is based on representing the spatial
distribution of some extensive quantity, such as the mass of a particular chemi-
cal constituent, by a large collection of particles. A simulation involves chang-
ing the various particle attributes according to a set of forces or other conditions
determined by some interparticle relationship, space-dependent field property or
boundary condition. In the case of a non-reactive dissolved chemical constituent,
the particle is displaced in space, based on a deterministic component and a
random component. The deterministic component represents advection-
dispersion, and the random component accounts for small-scale dispersion,
caused by small-scale het- erogeneity, which cannot practically be measured (see
also Tompson and Gelhar, 1990). In a groundwater transport model the particles
represent the contaminant, and the spatial location of these particles is updated
for each time step based on the velocity of the groundwater, and a random
component.
around 1500 mm/year in the south. The average volume of precipitation that falls
on the catchment is 6.95 109 m3. Average potential evaporation is 700750
mm, and in the summer months this exceeds precipitation. Almost half of the
average pre- cipitation returns to the atmosphere by evaporation, and the average
annual runoff is equivalent to 600 mm/year. The average runoff coefficient is
estimated as 0.59 (Vodoprivereda BiH and Energoinvest, 1989).
The upper region of the catchment comprises of hills and mountains. There is an
extensive network of streams, the most significant being the rivers Pliva, Ugar,
Crna and Vrbanja, all of which drain Karstic Plateaus at the top of mountains,
and are
574 A. IRESON ET AL.
tributaries of the Vrbas. The region also contains springs that are suitable for
water supplies, the most significant being the springs of the rivers Pliva and
Janja.
The geology is composed of rocks originating from the Mesozoic and Tertiary
periods. In the south western area there are thick layers of karstic limestone. In
this area there is an extensive underground network of branches and reservoirs.
The rest of the upper-catchment is largely impermeable, meaning there are more
developed surface water streams, and less springs.
Lijevce Polje is located in the North of the Vrbas catchment, in the floodplain of
the river Sava. The area of this region is around 370 km2. It is surrounded by the
mountains Kozara and Prosara to the west, the river Vrbas to the south and east,
and the river Sava to the north. The aquifers main source of recharge is the river
Vrbas, which is at a higher altitude. The aquifer drains to the river Sava and the
Bardaca wetlands. The field is an alluvial plateau, with altitude in the range of
125 m in the south to 90 m in the north, with slopes of up to 5%.
The aquifer is composed of a layer of sandy gravel, whose thickness varies
between 530 m. It has a high conductivity of around 7 10 3 m/s. Overlying
this aquifer is a layer of sandy clay, with thickness between 0.54 m. The clay
has low permeability, less than 10 6 m/s. This therefore acts as a confining layer,
and also
protects the aquifer from infiltration of pollutants. Finally, there is a thin layer of
fertile topsoil overlying the clay layer.
Note that there are perched sandy-clay layers located in the gravel layer, 610
m below the surface. This can give the false impression of two separate aquifers.
However, due to the patchy, localised nature of these layers, and the fact that they
are well beneath the water level, they do not affect the global pattern of
groundwater flow, and the aquifer effectively behaves as a normal confined
aquifer. Furthermore, it should be noticed that in southern area of the aquifer, the
water level is not generally sufficiently high to reach the confining layers. In this
area, the aquifer behaves as an unconfined aquifer, with a water table.
The aquifer in the Lijevce Polje is an important water resource, for drinking
water and for irrigation. Large numbers of small wells in the area serve as water
supplies for small rural properties and farms. Large pumping wells are used to
abstract water for water supplies to the larger communities, such as the of town
Bosanska Gradiska, where groundwater is pumped into a large water tower
reservoir, and the town Laktasi. There also is a large sprinkler irrigation system
near Nova Topola that uses groundwater. Therefore, the groundwater quality in
this region is very important, and ensuring it is of a standard suitable for drinking
is imperative. Currently there are several major point sources of pollution which
threaten the long term quality of the aquifer. These include leaky sewer systems,
abandoned gravel pits which are used as illicit landfills, buried fuel tanks, etc.
WATER RESOURCES MODELLING UNDER DATA SCARCITY 575
4. Model Descriptions
4.1. SURFACE WATER MODEL DESCRIPTION
A Digital Elevation Model (DEM) was generated for this project by digitising
isoline maps, and including some field measurements. This provides an
appropriate resolution of elevation data over the catchment, except in the
relatively flat lowland area of Lijevce Polje. This area is the least important in
generating stream flow, so the lack of elevation data was not considered a
problem for modelling purposes. The DEM is shown in Figure 2, with the main
precipitation, evaporation and streamflow
gauging stations. The River Vrbas is shown, from its source in the south to its
confluence with the Sava in the north. The two main tributaries, the Pliva to the
west and the Vrbanja to the east are also shown.
In order to run a rainfall runoff model, rainfall, evaporation, temperature (to
account for snow) and streamflow time series data are necessary. The data set
that was used was for the years 1971 to 1972, the only period for which all
required time series data were available with daily time steps. Also during that
period no major anthropogenic changes in the catchment had taken place (e.g.
building dams). In order to attain a simple, functional model of the catchment, no
tributaries were modelled, but their corresponding catchment area was assumed
to contribute to the Vrbas directly as overland-flow, inter-flow and base-flow. The
river was traced and the catchment delineated (such that the watershed of each
sub-catchment were defined), based on the Digital Elevation Model. Initially, due
to the low resolution of data in the northern, flat floodplain area, the river was
not traced correctly in this region. To amend this the DEM was modified by
burning the digitised channel into it, so that the river would follow the correct
path. The path of this channel was created based on the river path as shown on a
map of the region. The delineated catchment is shown in Figure 3. It can be seen
that the south western, and western areas do not apparently contribute to the
catchment runoff. This is true in terms of overland flow, however they may have a
significant contribution from karstic springs under the mountains.
Rainfall was applied to each sub-catchment using weighted average rainfall
data from the observation stations, using a Thiessen polygon technique.
Evaporation and temperature time series data were applied to sub-catchments
using data from the gauging station nearest to the sub-catchment, because this
data tends to vary less between stations than the precipitation data. Observed
streamflow time series data was associated with the representative catchment
node. It was found from the observed streamflow data, on a daily timescale, that
there was no significant delay in the flow peaks along the river Vrbas, and
therefore it was assumed that there is no significant delay or smoothing of the
hydrograph between nodes.
Some water quality parameters for the river Vrbas were available for the year
1971, from the Faculty of Technology at the University of Banja Luka. In order
to model water quality, the flow velocity is required for each branch of the river.
This was calculated based on the river width, the stage-discharge relationship,
and the discharge time series. For the river Vrbas, the stage discharge data was
available for two gauging stations, which were used to estimate a stage-discharge
relationship
in the form Q = a.Hb, where Q = discharge (m3/s), H = stage (m) and a and b
are constants, to be input into MIKE BASIN. Water supply nodes were used to
represent
point sources of pollution. This routes water into the catchment node at a rate
specified in a time series file. Quality parameters are input as concentrations in
this flow. The data that was available was sufficient to demonstrate the use of the
point- source pollution modelling capabilities of the software, but not sufficient
to calibrate the rate coefficients, and hence predict realistic downstream
concentrations.
WATER RESOURCES MODELLING UNDER DATA SCARCITY 577
The groundwater model used in this study was based entirely on work carried out
previously for the University of Banja Luka (Jandric, 2003). In this study, various
parameters were optimised to calibrate the model. The calibration criterion was
the simulated head compared to the observed head from various boreholes in the
southern region of the aquifer. Unfortunately there was no observed data for the
northern region of the aquifer. The simulation tended to underestimate the water
table by an average of around 3 m. This result is far from ideal, but there was no
sufficient data to attempt to improve it. In this section, all parameters that were
subject to optimisation in the previous study will be described. A steady-state
analysis, using average annual data, was used.
578 A. IRESON ET AL.
The base and top of the confined aquifer were generated by interpolating
point measurements from borehole logs in the region. The elevation of the base
of the aquifer was in the range of 60129 m, and the top was in the range of 81
130 m. The aquifer thickness ranged from 36 m in the central and north-eastern
areas to 1 m in the southern and western areas.
Three types of hydrogeological boundary condition were used in the model,
as shown in Figure 4. A zero-flux boundary is used to represent the impermeable
rock to the west of the aquifer. A specified flow boundary condition represents
an inflow to the aquifer from karstic rock in the north-west area of the aquifer.
The flow rate on this boundary was subject to optimisation in the previous study,
which gave the value of 0.0002 m2/s, expressed in terms of flow per unit depth.
Finally, the rivers Vrbas to the south and east, Sava to the north, Jablanica to the
north west, as well as the canal and lakes in the north east, were all modelled
with mixed boundary conditions, with the flow through the boundary defined by
a leakage rate. This allows flow to occur into the aquifer from the river, or out of
the aquifer into the river, depending on the hydraulic head in the aquifer, and the
stage in the river. Recharge to the aquifer is mainly from the river Vrbas, which is
taken into account through the use of this boundary condition. A further small
amount
of recharge was specified from infiltration of rainfall through the confining layer,
which was uniform over the entire aquifer. A value of 1.4 10 10 m/year was
found
WATER RESOURCES MODELLING UNDER DATA SCARCITY 579
The surface water model, in MIKE BASIN, is already fully integrated into the
ArcView GIS software. The input and output data files for ASM software are
stored in ASCII format, in a matrix structure. Therefore, it was possible to write a
simple programme to format these files such that they could be read by the GIS,
thus providing loose integration between the groundwater model and GIS.
5. What-if Scenarios
The combined catchment model developed was used a basis for a series of what-
if scenarios. As insufficient data were available to attempt to forecast actual out-
comes, a sensitivity analysis approach was employed. Two specific scenarios
were investigated:
1. The effect of dams on the groundwater. There are a number of proposed dams
on the river Vrbas, three of which are within the area of the aquifer. Dams
raise the upstream water level in the river. The river is separated from the
aquifer by a layer with a relatively low permeability, so the river level
determines the hydraulic gradient through this layer, and hence the recharge
to/discharge from the aquifer. The objective therefore is to investigate the
effect of these dams on the groundwater in the region, and specifically
whether the local increase of the water table could cause flooding. This was
be modelled by simply modifying the specified head in the mixed boundary
condition for the river Vrbas. No backwater effects were accounted for in this
simplistic simulation.
2. River bed lowering When a dam is built on a river, the sediment load in the
flow downstream of the dam tends to decrease. This then leads to increased
erosion in the river, and as a result the riverbed is lowered. This can be
modelled
WATER RESOURCES MODELLING UNDER DATA SCARCITY 581
by simply lowering both the specified head and the base of the leakage node
boundary conditions for the river Vrbas. Both should be lowered by the same
amount, so that the river is assumed to still have the same stage, and hence
flow. The approach to investigating these effects was to incrementally lower
these boundary conditions for the entire length of the Vrbas.
6. Results
6.1. THE SURFACE WATER MODEL
The calibration result for the headwater sub-catchment, using the demonstration
version of MIKE 11 is shown in Figure 6.
The main flaw with this is that in the springtime the model fails to simulate
the high flows. It was noted that the river Pliva, a tributary in the south west of
the catchment, gets much of its flow from karstic springs. This means the area to
the south west of the catchment (i.e. outside the delineated sub-catchments
shown in Figure 6.), which doesnt contribute any overland flow directly,
contributes to the catchment water balance by draining some proportion of the
rainfall into karstic conduits flowing under the watershed and emerging as
springs. This explainaton is indeed backed up by field observations. As these
karstic plateaus are at a high altitude, they would be particularly susceptible to
the effects of snow storage. It follows then that these karstic springs mainly
contribute in the spring months, when there is a large amount of snowmelt. This
could explain the observed spring peaks, in 1971. Karstic aquifers often contain
open conduit flow paths with hydraulic characteristics similar to surface streams
rather than groundwater (White, 2002). Therefore, it is not sufficient to treat this
contribution as groundwater flow using the extended groundwater components in
the NAM rainfall-runoff model. It is suggested that further work should attempt
to quantify this contribution by means of a conceptual network link between this
region, and the Vrbas. This would require a full version of Mike 11 to perform
the calibration, as inputs to the catchment other than precipitation must be
considered. Furthermore, rainfall, evaporation and temperature data from the top
of the mountains would be required. Further research is required to establish how
effective this suggested methodology might be.
The rainfall-runoff model was then run for the rest of the sub-catchments,
using the optimised parameters. Figure 7 shows the result for the lower sub-
catchment, which gives an indication of the overall catchment response.
The results are considered satisfactory in view of the severe shortages in data
and the various model uncertainties discussed. The main issues are the peak in
the spring and the fact that the late autumn peak underestimates the runoff
magnitude. The assumption of the method employed is that the rainfall-runoff
parameters are homogeneous throughout the entire catchment, which would
seem unlikely in reality. However, comparing the results for each sub-catchment
seems to indicate that this assumption could indeed be valid.
582
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Figure 7. The observed and simulated outflow from the lowermost sub-catchment.
583
584 A. IRESON ET AL.
6.00
5.00
4.00
mg
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
01/01/71 06/02/71 14/03/71 20/04/71 26/05/71 02/07/71 07/08/71 12/09/71 19/10/71 24/11/71 31/12/71
Whilst a calibration of the water quality rate coefficients was not possible,
a demonstrative simulation was run, using arbitrary coefficients. The result for
degradation of Nitrate concentration in the river between two points, Banja Luka
upstream and Delibasino Selo downstream, in the river is shown in Figure 8.
Using the ASM water budget calculator a summary of flows into and out of the
catchment was produced, which gave an overall mass balance error of 0%. In
order to compare this with other data it was converted to units of m3/year, and
expressed in the following terms:
Recharge to aquifer from the river Vrbas 6.33 107 m3/year
Recharge to aquifer from infiltration through clay +1.86 106 m3/year
Recharge to aquifer from seepage from karstic rock +3.63 107 m3/year
Total recharge into aquifer = 1.01 108 m3/year
Groundwater flow out of aquifer, to rivers and lakes 1.01 108 m3/year
Comparing these volumes to the average precipitation, 6.95 109 m3/year, it
is estimated that around 1.5 % of the total catchment water budget (i.e.
precipitation) goes towards recharging the aquifer.
The modelled head distribution is shown in Figure 9, which is taken from the
ASM software output display. Measurements are in meters above sea level. This
shows the heads are high in the south, and decrease in a fairly uniform pattern
from south to north. The karstic rocks to the northwest have a significant effect
WATER RESOURCES MODELLING UNDER DATA SCARCITY 585
the river. For example, in the middle of the river Vrbas (on the east boundary) the
head in the aquifer is reduced more than the surrounding areas. The effect of
river lowering is therefore, to reduce the head in the aquifer, reduce the recharge
from the river, and reduce the overall water budget of the aquifer.
For the investigation of groundwater quality, contaminant plumes were gener-
ated from a number of potential point sources, using the random walk particle
track- ing technique. These sources were identified in a previous study by
Trifkovic (2001). A typical result is shown in Figure 12, of a contaminant plume
coming from a pig farm. The plume can be used to identify potential receptors
and develop risk maps.
7. Conclusions
A surface water model was created, calibrated and validated using Mike BASIN.
There was scope to improve the rainfall-runoff model calibration. It was
suggested
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588 A. IRESON ET AL.
that the software Mike 11 be obtained, and the conceptual model be modified to
include a contribution of runoff from karstic springs in the south of the
catchment, similar to the approach that was used by Jrgensen, 2002. Further
research should endeavour to use the suggested methodology to produce a
reliable rainfall-runoff model. A reliable rainfall-runoff model would allow
streamflow to be predicted for extreme floods and droughts as well as form the
basis of groundwater and surfacewater quality models, to predict worst-case
pollution risk scenarios.
The water quality modelling capabilities of Mike BASIN for point source pol-
lution were successfully demonstrated. There was need for more data in order to
be able to calibrate the parameters, and thus decrease the associated uncertainty.
It was suggested that a study be carried out to identify all pollution sources in the
catchment, and incorporate these into the GIS. Based on this study a water
quality monitoring scheme should be designed. Future work should also aim to
use avail- able data to produce a fully representative surface water quality model
for the Vrbas catchment, using Mike BASIN.
Two possible scenarios were modelled separately using the groundwater
model of the Lijevce Polje region. The first scenario was the effect of three dams
being built on the water level in the river Vrbas, the main source of recharge to
the aquifer.
WATER RESOURCES MODELLING UNDER DATA SCARCITY 589
This was performed by modifying the boundary condition representing the river.
As a result, the recharge to the aquifer increased by 21%, and the groundwater
head in the aquifer increased both locally (maximum of 9 m) and globally. It is
therefore suggested that this is a highly significant modification. The second
scenario was riverbed lowering, as a result of increasing the erosion of the
riverbed, caused by the construction of upstream dams. This was again
modelled by modifying the boundary condition representing the river Vrbas. This
led to a reduction in recharge to the aquifer, and a reduction in the groundwater
head. The implications of this could be wells drying up, which would be
extremely serious in a region where a large proportion of the population relies on
groundwater, either from small hand pumped wells, or from large water supply
wells.
These investigations highlighted the sensitivity of the groundwater to the
stage in the river. Therefore, it was hypothesised that the seasonal variation of the
ground- water, as a response to the seasonal variation of stream flow, would be
significant, and should be accounted for. This should ideally be done with a
transient model, but could also be done by using a number of steady state models
driven by differing seasonal data.
Random walk particle tracking was used to simulate transport of
contaminants, from perceived sources in the aquifer. It was suggested that this
method be used to simulate plumes from all point sources in the aquifer, in order
to design a groundwater-monitoring scheme.
The issue of model integration was addressed so that the results from both the
groundwater and surface water models could be processed and presented in the
GIS software. Mike BASIN software is already tightly integrated with ArcView
GIS. The ASM groundwater model was loosely integrated, by means of a simple
program to exchange data beween ASM and ArcView formats. It is suggested
that this loose integration technique is easy to implement and yields acceptable
results, particularly when data scarcity prohibits the use of more detailed models.
The methodology presented in this paper demonstrates how GIS based tools
can provide an effective, integrated approach to environmental catchment
modelling in data scarce situations. However, it must be understood that there are
limitations to this approach and even a good GIS model cannot help if a bare
minimum of data are not available.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Professor Demetris Koutsoyiannis for his very useful
comments in reviewing this paper.
References
Batchelor, C., 1999, Improving water use efficiency as part of integrated catchment management,
Agricultural Water Management 40, 249263.
590 A. IRESON ET AL.