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THE PROBLEM
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
In order to both design tasks that support the mentioned transition and to perform an
a priori analysis of them a theoretical framework is needed. In this paper the
anthropological theory of didactics will be this framework and since there is a heavy
focus on the value of the applet in the tasks also theories about instrumented
techniques are necessary. First we will discuss the concept of functions.
The concept of functions
A modern day view of the concept of function is called the Dirichlet-Bourbaki
concept. Here a function is a correspondence between two nonempty sets that
assigns to every element in the first set (the domain) exactly one element in the
second set (the codomain).(Dreyfus & Vinner, 1989). When it comes to the
transition from an operational to a structural way of thinking of functions The
Freudenthal Institute let their design be guided by three aspects of the function
concept: The function as an input-output assignment, the function as a dynamic
process of co-variation and the function as a mathematical object (Doorman et al.,
2012).
Anthropological theory of didactics
In the framework of The Anthropological theory of Didactics (ATD) learning,
teaching and transposing knowledge of e.g. mathematics are considered as human
activities that takes place only in an institutional setting (Bosch & Gascn, 2014). In
the epistemology of this theory, which is based on work by Yves Chevallard,
mathematical knowledge is to be seen as a human activity of study of types of
problems. (Barb, Bosch, Espinoza & Gascn, 2005). So mathematics is studying a
given type of problem or task so that it can be solved. In the case of functions this
can for example be a task of evaluating a function at a point, finding when two
functions are equal, find roots or to find the conditions of monotony of the function.
In order to solve the task the student must apply a technique such as finding the roots
of the differentiated function and consider its value between roots. Tasks together
with their corresponding techniques are called the practical block or know-how. The
theory also assumes that there is a knowledge-block, a discursive environment,
which is needed to justify the practical block. This knowledge-block contains
technology which is knowledge about why the technique works and it contains the
mathematical theory behind the technology (Barb et al., 2005). Technology could
then be the knowledge about the sign of the derivative and its meaning for the
original function and the theory could be proofs of why this is so.
Such types of tasks, techniques, technologies and theories will be denoted with the
symbols T, , and , respectively. Together they represent a praxeology or a
mathematical organization (MO). An MO based on one type of problem is called
punctual MO and several punctual MO can integrate to a local or a regional MO
(Barb et al., 2005). A praxeology can be applied to any form of human activity and
as such this epistemology also applies to teaching and learning where we can
consider a didactical praxeology (Barb et al., 2005).
In ATD the creation of an MO happens through a didactic process that consists of six
moments: the moment of the first encounter, the exploratory moment, the technical
moment and the evaluation moment. Possibilities for these moments to appear can
therefore be considered when designing tasks for achieving an MO concerning the
notion of functions (Barb et al., 2005).
Instrumented techniques
Techniques as presented in ATD can have more than just a pragmatic value for
finding a solution to the given task. They can also have an epistemic value because
they can give a better understanding of the involved mathematical objects (Lagrange,
2005). When using an applet to solve a given problem about functions this applet
becomes a part of the technique used and we call it an instrumented technique. So
when introducing an instrument such as an applet many new techniques appear and
therefore the pragmatic and epistemic value of traditional paper-and-pencil
techniques must be evaluated along with the new ones (Lagrange, 2005). One must
also consider what influence these techniques have on the technology and theory.
The aim is therefore to design a task that will need the mentioned applet in its
corresponding instrumented technique such that it gets an epistemic value that can
help the students in transitioning their understanding of the concept of function. It
will also be important to consider if these instrumented techniques can enhance the
focus on the mathematical objects. This is called a lever-potential. Also the
materialization-potential, where the instrumented technique leads to better access to
mathematical objects can be considered (Gyngysi, Solovej & Winslv, 2011).
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DESIGNS AND RESULTS FROM
THE FREUDENTHAL INSTITUTE
Researchers from The Freudenthal Institute has designed and tested a teaching
arrangement which included the applet AlgebraArrows. The aim was to foster the
development of students conceptual development of functions. The following
presentation is based on this work (Doorman, 2012).
The arrangement was designed to last eight lessons and consisted of four parts: An
applet (AlgebraArrows), a student textbook, a teacher guide and a set of tests
consisting of both computer- and written tests.
The applet AlgebraArrows is a computer tool with which chains of operations can be
constructed in arrow chains. (An arrow chain is a way of representing a sequence
of operations performed on an input (Figure 1). The applet can also deal with tables
formula and graphs and it thus has many ways of representing functions (Figure 1).
In the first three lessons tasks that demanded a series of calculations were explored
and arrow chains were introduced. This was followed by two computer lessons, then
a reflective lesson, a computer lesson and a closing lesson.
REFERENCES
Barb, J., Bosch, M., Espinoza, L. & Gascn, J. (2005). Didactic restrictions on the
teachers practice: The case of limits of functions in Spanish high schools.
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Bosch, M. & Gascn, J. (2014). Introduction to the Anthropological Theory of the
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Theories as a Research Practice in Mathematics Education (67-83). Hamburg,
Germany: Springer
Doorman, M., Drijvers, P., Gravemeijer, K., Boon, P. & Reed, H. (2012). Tool use
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