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Article history: Liquefaction has been a main cause of damage to civil engineering structures in seismically active areas.
Received 6 March 2015 The effects of damage of liquefaction on deep foundations are very destructive. Seismic behavior of pile
Received in revised form foundations is widely discussed by many researchers for safer and more economic design purposes. This
5 May 2015
paper presents a pseudo-static method for analysis of piles in liqueable soil under seismic loads. A free-
Accepted 6 May 2015
Available online 11 June 2015
eld site response analysis using three-dimensional (3D) numerical modeling was performed to deter-
mine kinematic loads from lateral ground displacements and inertial loads from vibration of the su-
perstructure. The effects of various parameters, such as soil layering, kinematic and inertial forces,
Keywords:
Pile foundations
boundary condition of pile head and ground slope, on pile response were studied. By comparing the
Lateral spreading numerical results with the centrifuge test results, it can be concluded that the use of the p-y curves with
Liquefaction various degradation factors in liqueable sand gives reasonable results.
Pseudo-static method 2015 Institute of Rock and Soil Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences. Production and hosting by
Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction been caused due to both lateral ground movement and inertial
loads transmitted to piles. Under earthquake loading, the perfor-
The liquefaction is one of the challenging issues in geotechnical mance of piles in liqueed ground is a complex problem due to the
engineering and it damages structures and facilities during earth- effects of progressive buildup of pore water pressures and decrease
quakes. This phenomenon was reported as the main cause of of stiffness in the saturated soil (Liyanapathirana and Poulos, 2005).
damage to pile foundations during the major earthquakes (Kramer, These effects involve inertial interaction between structure and pile
1996). In many earthquakes around the world, extensive damage to foundation, signicant changes in stiffness and strength of soils due
piles of bridges and other structures due to liquefaction and lateral to increase of pore water pressures, large lateral loads on piles,
spreading has been observed (Boulanger et al., 2003). Failures were kinematic interaction between piles and soils, nonlinear response
observed in both sloping and level grounds and were often of soils to strong earthquake motions, kinematic loads from lateral
accompanied with settlement and tilting of the superstructure ground displacements, and inertial loads from vibration of the su-
(Adhikari and Bhattacharya, 2008). The loss of soil strength and perstructure (Bradley et al., 2009; Gao et al., 2011).
stiffness due to excess pore pressure in liqueable soil may develop Various approaches including shaking table and centrifuge tests
large bending moments and shear forces in the piles. If the residual and also various numerical methods have been developed for the
strength of the liqueable soil is less than the static shear stresses dynamic response analysis of single pile and pile group. The soile
caused by a sloping site or a free surface such as a river bank, sig- pileestructure interaction has been investigated using the centri-
nicant lateral spreading or downslope displacements may occur. fuge test (e.g. Finn and Gohl, 1987; Chang and Kutter, 1989; Liu and
The moving soil can exert damaging pressures against the piles, Dobry, 1995; Hushmand et al., 1998; Wilson, 1998; Abdoun and
leading to failure (Finn and Fujita, 2002). The performance of Dobry, 2002; Su and Li, 2006) and shaking table test (e.g. Mizuno
structures above piles depends widely on the behavior of pile and Liba, 1982; Yao et al., 2004; Tamura and Tokimatsu, 2005;
foundations under earthquake loading. During past earthquakes, Han et al., 2007; Gao et al., 2011; Haeri et al., 2012). The obvious
because of inadequacy of the pile to sustain large shear forces and advantage of shaking table and centrifuge tests is the ability to
bending moments, the extensive damage in liqueable soil has obtain detailed measurements of response in a series of tests
designed to physically evaluate the importance of varying earth-
quake characteristics (e.g. level of shaking, frequency content), soil
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 98 9158342367. prole characteristics, and/or pileesuperstructure characteristics
E-mail address: A.zahmatkesh@stu.nit.ac.ir (A. Zahmatkesh). (Wilson, 1998). However, some limitations exist in centrifuge tests,
Peer review under responsibility of Institute of Rock and Soil Mechanics, Chi- for example, sand grains in centrifuge tests correspond to bigger
nese Academy of Sciences.
1674-7755 2015 Institute of Rock and Soil Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sci-
gravel particles in prototype (Towhata, 2008).
ences. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. To simulate the piles in liqueable soil layers, Finn and Fujita
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jrmge.2015.05.001 (2002), Klar et al. (2004), Oka et al. (2004), Uzuoka et al. (2007),
A. Janalizadeh, A. Zahmatkesh / Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 7 (2015) 532e539 533
Cheng and Jeremic (2009), Comodromos et al. (2009), and Rahmani First, the time history of the ground surface acceleration and the
and Pak (2012) used three-dimensional (3D) nite element maximum ground displacement at each depth were obtained from
method. The complexity and time-consuming nature of 3D the free-eld site response analysis. Taboada and Dobry (1993) and
nonlinear nite element method for dynamic analysis makes it Gonzalez et al. (2002) showed that the pore pressure time histories
useful only for very large practical projects or research and not recorded at the same elevation are identical, indicating the 1D
feasible for engineering practice. However, it is possible to obtain behavior of the model. In free-eld analysis, the model consists of a
reasonable solutions for nonlinear response of pile foundations single column of 3D brick elements. The soil layers were modeled
with fewer computations by relaxing some of the boundary con- using cubic 8-noded elements with u-p formulation in which each
ditions in full 3D analysis (Finn and Fujita, 2002). node has four degrees of freedom: three for soil skeleton dis-
The simple approach for modeling and simulation of the piles in placements and one for pore water pressure. To consider the effect
liqueed grounds is based on scaling of p-y springs, where p and y of the laminar box in the numerical simulation, nodes at the same
are the soil resistance per unit length of the pile and pile lateral depths were constrained to have equal displacements in the hori-
displacement, respectively. Because of complexity and time- zontal and vertical directions. The pore water pressures were
consuming of two-dimensional (2D) and 3D numerical modeling, allowed to freely develop for all nodes except those at the surface
most of the designers and researchers prefer to use one- and above the water table. The bottom boundary was assumed
dimensional (1D) Winkler method based on nite element or xed in all directions.
nite difference method for the seismic analysis of pile foundations. The material model plays a key role in the numerical simulation
In pseudo-static method, a static analysis is carried out to obtain the of the dynamic behavior of liqueable soils. The model in Dafalias
maximum response (deection, shear force and bending moment) and Manzari (2004), a critical state two-surface plasticity model,
developed in the pile due to seismic loading. In Winkler models, p-y was used in this paper. This model requires fteen material pa-
curves are used to dene the behavior of the nonlinear spring at any rameters and two state parameters to describe the behavior of sands
depth. These p-y curves can be obtained from the results of model and has been amply tested for simulating the behavior of granular
tests or eld (Liyanapathirana and Poulos, 2005). The Winkler soils subjected to monotonic and cyclic loadings (Jeremic et al.,
assumption is that the soilepile interaction resistance at any depth 2008; Taiebat et al., 2010; Rahmani and Pak, 2012). The key advan-
is related to the pile shaft displacement at that depth only, inde- tages of the model are that (1) it is relatively simple and (2) it has a
pendent of the interaction resistances above and below (Wilson, unique calibration of input parameters. Thus, a single set of pa-
1998). rameters independent of void ratio and effective consolidation
This pseudo-static method has been suggested early by Miura stress level was used for the Dafalias and Manzaris material model.
et al. (1989), Miura and ORourke (1991), Liu and Dobry (1995), Table 1 presents the material parameters for Nevada sand. The
JRA (1996), AIJ (1998) and recently by Liyanapathirana and Poulos additional parameters used for free-eld analysis are presented in
(2005) and Elahi et al. (2010). This method for pile seismic anal- Table 2. It can be noted that at the onset of liquefaction, change of soil
ysis sometimes underestimates, and sometimes overestimates particles creates additional pathways for water. This leads to a sig-
shears, moments and deection of the piles. However, in many nicant increase in permeability coefcient (Rahmani et al., 2012).
practical conditions, the results of pseudo-static method are In this study, the permeability coefcient value was increased 10
reasonable (Tabesh, 1997). times the initial value (suggested by Rahmani et al. (2012)).
In this paper, a pseudo-static method has been applied for esti- For free-eld analysis, the simulations were carried out in two
mation of the response of pile during dynamic loading. First, de- loading stages. At the rst stage, the soil skeleton and pore water
nition of the geometry and the soil modeling parameters are weight were applied to soil elements. The values of stress and strain
presented. Next, the numerical model is vertied by means of the in this stage were used as initial values for the next stage of loading.
centrifuge test. And then the effects of various parameters, including At the second stage, dynamic analysis was performed by applica-
soil layering, kinematic and inertial forces, boundary condition of tion of an input motion to the model base.
pile head and ground slope, on the behaviors of piles are studied.
Table 1
Material parameters for Nevada sand (Rahmani and Pak, 2012).
Elasticity Critical state Yield surface parameter, m Plastic modulus Dilatancy Dilatancy-fabric
G0 n M c lc e0 x h0 ch nb A0 nd zmax cz
150 0.05 1.14 0.78 0.027 0.83 0.45 0.02 9.7 1.02 2.56 0.81 1.05 5 800
R R0 eH lnR0
z Fig. 4. Comparison of superstructure displacement in various cases with the centrifuge
(2)
tests by Wilson (1998).
10
Simulation
15 Centrifuge test
20
Fig. 3. Acceleration record of Kobe earthquake scaled to 0.22g used in the centrifuge Fig. 5. Comparison of bending moment proles with the centrifuge tests by Wilson
test by Wilson (1998). (1998).
536 A. Janalizadeh, A. Zahmatkesh / Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 7 (2015) 532e539
the lower layer (relative density of 80%) is not. Three different Bending moment (kN m)
ground slopes of 1%, 2%, and 4% were considered. The water table
-500 0 500 1000 1500 2000
was supposed to be 1 m, 2 m, 3 m, and 4 m below the ground. This 0
means that the thicknesses of non-liqueable surface crust are 1 m,
2 m, 3 m, and 4 m. The input motion for the model was a 20-cycles
-2
sinusoidal wave with a frequency of 2 Hz and the peak acceleration
1%
of 0.5g. It should be noted that the intensity, frequency content (e.g.
predominant period) and the duration of strong shaking are -4 2%
important characteristics of an earthquake (Rathje et al., 1998).
4%
These characteristics affected the response of piles. The pile re-
Depth (m)
-6
sponses largely depend on the shaking amplitude. Increase in the
shaking amplitude (because of more reduction of restraint on liq-
ueed soil) resulted in a decrease in the restraint against bending -8
under the lateral load, and the maximum bending moment in piles
signicantly increased (Gao et al., 2011). The frequency also had a
-10
signicant effect on pile response.
The free-eld analysis showed that displacement of level
ground is signicantly less than that of the sloping ground. Fig. 6 -12
compares the displacement of sloping ground when the thickness
of the non-liqueable surface layer is 1 m and 2 m with ground
-14
slope of 2%. This gure highlights the importance of non-liqueable
surface layer as a key parameter on ground displacement. When
liquefaction occurs in sloping ground, because of displacements Fig. 7. Variations in bending moment along the pile in different sloping grounds (free
developing up to several meters, large lateral forces may act on the head, without superstructure).
pile. This phenomenon is commonly called lateral spreading (Klar
et al., 2004). In lateral spreading, the driving forces only exceed occurred as the ground slope increased. After liquefaction, if the
the resisting forces during those portions of the earthquake that static shear stress caused by sloping ground is more than the shear
impose net inertial forces in the downslope direction. Each cycle of strength of liqueable soil, the non-liqueable surface crust over-
net inertial forces in the downslope direction causes the driving lying a liqueed soil layer can slide with a considerable amount of
forces to exceed the resisting forces along the slip surface, resulting displacement. In this condition (lateral spreading), the non-
in progressively and incrementally lateral movement (Day, 2002). liqueable surface layer was carried along with the underlying
Based on the results of free-eld analysis, the displacement prole fully liqueable soil and a large lateral force was imposed on the
can be matched with constant displacement across the upper soil embedded piles (Ashour and Ardalan, 2011). This force due to the
layer, a linear variation across the liqueable and non-liqueable lateral movement of the non-liqueable layer has the potential to
layers. induce large bending moments in the piles leading to failure.
The variations in bending moment along piles in different The boundary condition of the pile head has an important effect
ground slopes for various conditions are presented in Figs. 7e10. on the pile responses (moments, shear and deections). In layered
The results show that in sloping grounds, when a non-liqueable soil deposits, a liqueable soil layer is overlain by a non-liqueable
soil layer overlies a liqueable soil layer and piles are embedded layer; when the pile head is free, the maximum bending moment
in the non-liqueable soil layer, the lateral spreading has more
inuences on the damage of piles. An increase in bending moment
Bending moment (kN m)
-8
Depth (m)
-10 -8
1m
-12
2m
-10
-14
-16 -12
-18
-14
-20
Fig. 6. Displacement prole at two different thicknesses of non-liqueable surface Fig. 8. Variations in bending moment along the pile in different sloping grounds (xed
layer when the ground slope is 2%. head, without superstructure).
A. Janalizadeh, A. Zahmatkesh / Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 7 (2015) 532e539 537
Bending moment (kN m) inuence of liquefaction on free-eld soil response and soilepilee
-500 0 500 1000 1500 2000 structure interaction, the magnitudes of inertial and kinematic
0 loads change (Han et al., 2007). When the acceleration of ground
surface or superstructure mass is large or lateral dynamic stiffness
-2 of pile group due to pile and/or soil stiffness is small, the inertial
1% effects may become important (Elahi et al., 2010). Figs. 7 and 8
2% illustrate that in the absence of a superstructure, the maximum
-4 bending moment near the pile head decreases signicantly, and a
4% major difference is observed at that location between piles with
-6 and without superstructure, but the values are approximately un-
Depth (m)
changed at large depths (Figs. 9 and 10). In other words, the same
kinematic forces were developed in the piles with and without
-8 superstructure. At greater depths, where the inertial effects from
the superstructure are less signicant, pile damage can occur due to
-10 the lateral loads arising from lateral spreading (the excessive
ground movement). Both inertial and kinematic loads can cause
damages at the pile head.
-12 The inertia effects of the superstructure before development of
the pore water pressures and liquefaction are important and the
-14 kinematic effects can often be neglected. Ishihara (1997) stated that
inertial forces are the cause of development of the maximum
bending moment near the pile head. These forces are predominant
Fig. 9. Variations in bending moment along the pile in different sloping grounds (free before liquefaction and are conrmed by the results of Figs. 7e10. If
head, with superstructure).
the shaking continues after liquefaction, the inertial forces are
combined with kinematic forces on the pile foundation arising from
large cyclic ground deformations. It can be said that the kinematic
develops at a depth corresponding to the interface of liqueable
loading in the areas of lateral spreading with relatively strong non-
and non-liqueable layers (see Figs. 7 and 9). When the pile head is
liqueable surface layers is important. Then, the pile failure near
xed, the maximum bending moment develops at two locations:
the bottom of the liqueable layer is likely inuenced by kinematic
(1) at the pile head and (2) at the interface of the two layers (see
loads from the liqueable layer, while failure near the pile head is
Figs. 8 and 10).
likely inuenced by inertial loads from the superstructure and ki-
The dynamic effects during earthquake on deep foundations are
nematic loads from the non-liqueable layer. It should be noted
critically important. These effects include the kinematic forces
that the bending moments are underpredicted when the structural
applied by the soil to the pile foundation and the inertial forces of
inertia forces are neglected.
the superstructure due to earthquake. The combination of cyclic
The pile response is sensitive to the thickness of the non-
horizontal kinematic loads due to ground displacements and in-
liqueable surface layer (H) and thickness of the liqueable layer
ertial loads from the superstructure determines the critical load for
(L). Fig. 11 shows variations in pile head displacement when the
piles during the shaking phase (Cubrinovski et al., 2009). The ki-
ratio of thickness (H/L) for different sloping grounds is increased.
nematic loads depend on the magnitude of ground deformations
The pile head displacement increases to a peak value and then
and the stiffness of the soil during a given loading cycle. Due to the
decreases with subsequent increase in thickness ratio. As the
thickness of the non-liqueable surface layer increases, horizontal
kinematic loads due to ground displacements also increase and
60
1%
50 2%
Pile head displacement (cm)
4%
40
30
20
10
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
H /L
Fig. 10. Variations in bending moment along the pile in different sloping grounds
(xed head, with superstructure). Fig. 11. Variations in pile head displacement against ratio of thickness (H/L).
538 A. Janalizadeh, A. Zahmatkesh / Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 7 (2015) 532e539
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Tamura S, Tokimatsu K. Seismic earth pressure acting on embedded footing based Iran. He received his M.Sc. degree in Geotechnical Engi-
on large-scale shaking table tests. In: Seismic performance and simulation of neering from Mazandaran University, Iran in 2010. Since
pile foundations in liqueed and laterally spreading ground. Reston, USA: 2012, he is a Ph.D. student at Babol University of Tech-
American Society of Civil Engineers; 2005. p. 83e96. nology. His thesis topic is Analysis of Performance of Pile
Towhata I. Geotechnical earthquake engineering. Berlin-Heidelberg, Germany: Foundations in Liqueed Soils. His research interests cover
Springer-Verlag; 2008. soil improvement, soil liquefaction and numerical
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merical simulation of earthquake damage to group-piles in a liqueed ground.
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of piles in liqueable soils. PhD Thesis. Atlanta, USA: School of Civil and Envi-
ronmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology; 2010.
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PhD Thesis. Davis, USA: University of California; 1998.