PHYS 720: SOLID STATE PHYSICS I

Purpose
To identify, explain and derive the fundamentals of solid state physics.
Learning outcomes
i. To explain and analyze the properties of plasma.
ii. To explain and analyze the properties of dielectrics.
iii. To explain and analyze the properties of semiconductors.
iv. To explain and analyze the properties of ferromagnetism.
v. To explain and analyze the properties of superconductors.
Course description
Crystalline Perfection, free electron gas. Screening, plasma oscillations and dielectric response.
Block electrons, Brillion zones and band structure. Semiconductors intrinsic and extrinsic with
applications: phonons, elasticity' and anharmonicity Ferromagnetism and second-order phase
transitions. Superconductivity.
Teaching methods
Lectures, Laboratory experiments, group discussions, Demonstrations and illustrations

Evaluation;
CAT 40%
Examination 60%
Total 100%

Course references
1. M. P. Marder, "Condensed Matter Physics", New York: John Wiley & Sons (2000), ISDN
0471177792
2. Harald Ibach, Hans Lth, :Solid-state physics : an introduction to principles of materials
science", 3rd extensively updated and enlarged edition, Berlin ; New York : Springer
(c2003) ISDN 354043870X
3. Harald Ibach, Hans Luth, "Solid-state physics : an introduction to theory and experiment",
2nd rev. and enl. Edition, New York : Springer-Verlag (1995) ISDN 3540585737

Page i of 80
 Table of contents

Table of Contents
Table of contents ........................................................................................................................ ii
Chapter One ................................................................................................................................1
Crystalline Solids ........................................................................................................................1
1.1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................1
1.1.1. Unit cells and the direct lattice ...............................................................................1
1.1.2. Primitive Cell .........................................................................................................1
1.2. The reciprocal lattice .....................................................................................................2
1.2.1. Properties of the R.L. .............................................................................................3
1.2.2. Brillion Zones ........................................................................................................4
1.2.3. Geometrical Structure Factor .................................................................................4
1.3. Miller Indices ................................................................................................................5
1.4. Periodic function ...........................................................................................................6
1.5. Bragg Scattering ...........................................................................................................7
1.4.1. Consequences of the Braggs Law ...........................................................................8
1.6. Symmetry and Crystal structure ....................................................................................8
Questions ................................................................................................................................9
1.7. Free electron Model .................................................................................................... 14
1.7.1. Energy levels in 1-D ............................................................................................ 14
1.7.2. Density of states for Free electrons ....................................................................... 15
1.7.3. Fermi energy ........................................................................................................ 16
1.7.4. Heat Capacity of the electron Gas ........................................................................ 17
1.7.5. Quantitative expression for ( ................. 19
1.7.6. Dielectric Function of the electron Gas ................................................................ 20
1.7.7. Dispersion relation for electromagnetic wave (, ) ......................................... 22
1.7.8. Failure of electron model ..................................................................................... 22
Questions .............................................................................................................................. 32
Chapter Two ............................................................................................................................. 37
Semiconductors......................................................................................................................... 37
2.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 37

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2.2. Bonding model............................................................................................................ 37
2.3. Energy model .............................................................................................................. 37
2.3.1. Formation of Energy Bands ................................................................................. 37
2.3.2. Charge carriers ..................................................................................................... 39
2.3.3. Band energy and material classifications .............................................................. 40
2.4. Extrinsic Semiconductors ............................................................................................ 41
2.4.1. Charge carriers terminologies ............................................................................... 42
2.5. Drift Current ............................................................................................................... 42
2.6. Density of state functions ............................................................................................ 43
2.6.1. Mathematical Derivation for free electrons........................................................... 44
2.6.2. Density of states functions in semiconductors ...................................................... 46
2.7. Distribution function and fermi energy ........................................................................ 48
Questions .............................................................................................................................. 49
2.8. Impurity semiconductors and thermal ionization of impurities..................................... 56
2.8.1. Donor type impurities .......................................................................................... 57
2.8.2. Acceptor type impurities ...................................................................................... 57
2.9. Impurity states and fermi energy ................................................................................. 59
Questions .............................................................................................................................. 61

Page iii of 80
 Chapter One
Crystalline Solids
1.1. Introduction
1.1.1. Unit cells and the direct lattice
A perfect crystal consists of a space filling array of periodically repeated identical copies of a
single structural unit containing some distribution of mass and charges. In the simplest case , the
structural unit contains a single atom, more generally, it may contain many different atoms it a
continuous variation in the mas density about the same mean. The repeated structural unit is called
the unit cell. The unit cell with the smallest possible volume is a primitive unit cell. The structure
of all crystals can be described in terms if a lattice with a group of atoms attached to every lattice
point. The group of atoms is called the basis, when repeated in space it forms the crystal structure.
Lattice + Basis = Crystal Structure
Any lattice point can be specified by an integral linear combination of independent primitive
translation vectors 1 . . . for a d-D lattice.
= 1 1 + 2 2 + 3 3 . .
Where,
= (1 , 2 , 3 . . ) indexes a particular unit cell. specifies its position in real space. The
set vectors 1 . . . completely define the mathematical lattice. The lattice of points
in a coordinate space is often called the direct lattice.
1.1.2. Primitive Cell
There are many ways of choosing primitive cell, however there is always one lattice point per
primitive cell and the no. of atoms in a primitive cell is always the same, e,g. consider the
parallelepiped formed by axes 1 , 2 3 .

The parallelepiped has lattice points at each of the eight corners each l.p. is shared by 8 more other
cells. The volume of the parallelepiped is . ( ).

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Another way of choosing a primitive cell is the Weigner Seitz cell. The Wigner-Seitz unit cell is
obtained by constructing perpendicular bisectors to all lattice vectors emerging from a given lattice
point. The smallest volume enclosed by planes constructed in this way defines the Wigner-Seitz
cell. The construction of the Wigner-Seitz cell for a two-dimensional lattice is shown in Fig. below.

1.2. The reciprocal lattice

R.L. is a device for tabulating both the slopes and the interplanar spacing of the planes lattice. Its
built from the direct crystal lattice by construction a normal to each plane from a common origin,
with a length which is reciprocal of the interplanar spacing.
Associated with any periodic lattice is a set of equispaced parallel planes containing all lattice
points as shown in Fig. below.

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Vector development of the reciprocal lattice.
Each set of these planes can be defined by its normal vector G. Lattice vectors in a given plane
perpendicular to G satisfy G T = const. For this set of parallel planes all lattice vectors lie in
some plane which satisfies, = , for some integer n.

The coefficient 2 is chosen by convention so that (. ) = 1. Any point (not just a lattice
point T) in the nth plane associated with G satisfies . = 2. The difference
1 between points in adjacent planes satisfies ( 1 ) = 2. The distance between
2
adjacent planes is the component of 1 parallel to G. Thus = ||. For any set of primitive

translation vectors, . . . , it is always possible to construct a set of reciprocal vectors,

. . . satisfying,
. = 2 , , = 1, . . ,
2( )
In three dimensions, 1 = , and 2 and 3 are obtained from 1 by cyclically permuting
.( )

, . Any vector satisfying = can be written as = 1 1 + +

where 1 , , are positive or negative integers or zero. The vectors G, therefore, form a periodic
lattice, called a reciprocal lattice, with primitive translation vectors 1 , , . The Wigner-Seitz
unit cell for the reciprocal lattice is called the first Brillouin zone.

1.2.1. Properties of the R.L.

3.1. The reciprocal of the R.L. is the direct lattice.
Prove;
Let us first form the reciprocal vector as,

( ) =
.
Multiply R.H.S. by . , where . = 1, . = 0

( ) = . .
.
.

= .
.
=
Similarly, ( ) = ( ) =

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 3.2. The volume of the unit cell of the R.L. is inversely proportional to the volume of
the unit cell of direct lattice. i.e.

. =
.
The volume of direct lattice = .
The volume of direct lattice = .
Prove;

. = ( )( )( )
. . .


=( ) [( ). ( ) ( )]
.


=( ) [( ). {( )} ( ). {( )} ]
.
[. ][. ( )]
=
(. )

=
(. )
3.3. Every reciprocal lattice vector is normal to the lattice plane of the crystal lattice.
. = 0
1
3.4. The spacing of the of the place crystal lattice is equal to

1.2.2. Brillion Zones

A Brillouin Zone is a particular choice of the unit cell of the reciprocal lattice. It is defined as the
Wigner-Seitz cell (also called Dirichlet or Voronoi Domain) of the reciprocal lattice.

1.2.3. Geometrical Structure Factor

In crystal lattice, the possible reflections are described by the reciprocal lattice points,
= + +
The relative intensities of various reflections depend upon the contents of the unit cell i.e
- The number
- Position and
- Electronic distribution of atoms in the unit cell

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Suppose the unit cell contain N atoms and consider jth atom of the cell,

Let = + +
Assuming that all the electrons of the jth atoms are concentrated at the position . represents a
measure of the scattering power of the jth atom.
Hence,

= exp()

For total scattered amplitude becomes,

= exp[( + )]

= [ exp[ ]] exp[ . ]

.
1.3. Miller Indices
The planes of a crystal parallel to one another shall form a family of planes which are designated
by three numbers (hkl) known as Miller indices. The steps in the determination of Miller indices
of a plane are described with reference to the adjacent figure as follows:
(i) Determine the site indices of the intercepts made by the plane along a-axis, b-axis and
c-axis. Let them be [[300)). [[040]] & [[006] ] . In general, let them be [ [mOO]] ,
[[OnO]] and [ [OOp]] respectively.
1 1 1
(ii) Determine the reciprocals of a-intercept, b-intercept, and c-intercept as follows: 3 4 6

(iii) Reduce these fractions into smallest integer ratio by multiplying them by their LCM.
12 12 12
3 4 6

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(iv) Enclose them in the bracket without introducing comma in between the numbers, which
gives rise to miller indices of the plane: (hkl) = (432)

1.4. Periodic function

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 1.5. Bragg Scattering
Bragg Scattering yields structural information. An incident wave will be diffracted by a set of
partially reflecting equally spaced parallel planes, its intensity being modulated by constructive or
destructive interference. For an infinite set of such planes the only surviving reflection is one for
which there is constructive interference between waves reflected by each set of neighboring planes.
Thus, the difference in path length between waves reflected from adjacent planes separated by a
distance d must be an integral multiple of the wavelength .
This leads to Bragg's law, 2 sin = where n is an integer and is defined in Fig below, Note
that the angle between incident and scattered particles is 2.

(The QM transition rate between the plane wave states of scattered particles is calculated on Pg
30-32 of Condensed matter Physics by Lubensky)

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 1.4.1. Consequences of the Braggs Law
Most solids have interparticle spacing on the Armstrong Scale (=10-10 m). From Braggs law, <
2. Hence energies scattered particles must be corresponding to these wavelengths. For photons
in the visible light range, the energy is,

= 1 = 0.4 0.7 104

This is suitable for probing structures on the scale of a micron.
For the electron = 1 , energy = 100 . Scattering from the electrostatic potential , which is
often large unless thin ( )samples are used, there is a problem with multiple
scattering.
For Neutrons = 105 , = 0.1 , which is correct energy to probe in Armstrong scale.
Heavier Charged particles like ions tend to interact strongly with the electrostatic potentials hence
used to probe surface structures to avoid multiple scattering.

1.6. Symmetry and Crystal structure

The fundamental centers of external symmetry are ;
1. Plane of symmetry-Reflection
2. The center of symmetry
3. The n-fold of symmetry
A figure is said to possess an n-fold rotations/axis if symmetry if it is brought into self-coincidence
2
by rotation of about that axis.

Crystals have internal symmetry given by the primitive translations. Diffraction of X-rays by
simple Lattice array of atoms.
Braggs Simple explanation,

2 sin = , = sin1 = 1,2,3
2
Crystals cannot give rise to reflection to all angles but discrete angles,
3
= sin1 , sin1 , = sin1
2 2
Braggs reflection occurs only 2, which means visible light cannot be used in diffraction.

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Questions

1. In a crystal whose primitives are 1.2 , 1.8 and 2 long whose miller indices are (231)
cuts intercepts 1.2 along x-axis. What will be the lengths of intercepts along y and z axis?
Solution
Taking h:k:l =2:3:1
1 1 1
We have, : : = : : = 2: 3: 1

1 1
: : = : : 1
2 3
= 3: 2: 6
Now, : : = (31.2): (21.8): (62)
= 3.6: 3.6: 12
If 1 and 2 and 3 be the actual length of intercepts on x,y and z axis respectively, then,
1 : 2 : 3 = 3.6: 3.6: 12
3.6 12
1 = 1.2 , 2 = x 1.2 , 3 = x1.2 = 4
3.6 3.6
Thus the intercepts along y and z are 1.2 , and 4

2. NaCl crystals have fcc structure. The density of NaCl is 2.18 g/cm3. Calculate the distance
between two adjacent atoms. Atomic weight of sodium is 23 and that of chlorine is 35.5.
Solution
From the problem,

= = 2.18
3
= 58.5
1 1
= = 8 + 6 = 4
8 2
Now using the formula,
458.5
3 = =
2.186.02 1023
= 5.63 108
The distance between adjacent atoms is half of this value.

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3. An X-ray analysis of a crystal is made with monochromatic X-rays of wavelength 0.58 .
Braggs reflection are obtained at an angle of,
a. 6.45
b. 9.15
c. 13 .
Calculate the interplanar spacing of the crystal.

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4. The primitive translation vector of the horizontal space lattice are,
3
= +
2 2
3
= +
2 2
=
3 3
a. Show that the volume of the primitive cell is
2

b. Show that the primitive translation of the reciprocal lattice are,

2 2
= +
3
2 2
= +
3
2
=

So that the lattice is its own reciprocal but with a rotation of axes.

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Page 12 of 80
 5. Calculate the glancing angle on the cube (100) of a rock salt crystal ( = 2.814 )
corresponding to second order diffraction maximum for x-ray of wavelength 0.710 .
2
Solution
According to Braggs law ,2 sin =

In 3-D, = 2 2 02 2 sin
+ +
The distance between consecutive lattice planes defined by miller indices (hkl) in a cubic
lattice,
0
=
2 + 2 + 2
2.814
= n = 2 x 2.814 sin
1
For n = 2 and = 0.710
2 0.710
sin =
2 2.814
0.710
= sin1
2.814
6. A beam of X-rays is incident on a sodium chlorine crystal (lattice spacing 2.82 x 10 -10 m).
The first order Bragg reflection is observed at a glancing angle of 8 35 . What is the other
3 order Braggs reflection occur.
Solution
2 sin =
= 2 sin = 1
= 2 2.82 sin 8 35
= 0.8418

But sin = 2 = sin1 2
3
= 2, = sin1 = 17 22 , = 3, = sin1 = 26 36
2
7. Bragg's law gives the angles for diffraction from a crystal lattice. Answer the following
questions If necessary, Avogadro constant, NA = 6.021023 mol-1 may be used.
i. Let n be an integer (n>0), the wavelength of incident wave, d the spacing between the
planes in the atomic lattice, and the angle between the incident ray and the scattering
planes. Using the parameters given above, write down Braggs law.
ii. The density of NaCl is 2.18 g cm-3. When the Pd KX-ray was irradiated onto an NaCl
crystal, the diffraction from the (100) plane appeared at 6.0.
a. Draw the crystal structure of NaCl and draw its (100) plane.
b. How many Na+ and Cl- ions are there in a unit cell of NaCl? Calculate the mass of
a unit cell in grams.

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 iii. Calculate the volume of the unit cell in nm3. Calculate the spacing between the
(100) planes.
iv. Calculate the wavelength of the Pd K X-ray.

1.7. Free electron Model

Consider solid Sodium Na which has 11 electrons, its an Alkali metal as is K, Li and Rubidium.
The core electrons are treated as almost completely localized. Valence electrons or conduction
electrons are assumed to go into Bloch state i.e. states extended throughout the whole crystal. In
an alkali metal , atomic core occupies a relatively small part (15% of the volume) but in a metals
such as Cu, Ag, Au, the atomic core are relatively larger and may be in contact with each other.
The common crystal structure at room temperature is bcc for the alkali metal and fcc for the noble
metals. The alkali metals are transparent to conduction electrons due to;
1. Conduction electrons are not deflected by the ion cores arranged on a periodic lattice
because matter waves propagate freely in periodic structure.
2. A conduction electron is scattered only by other conduction electrons.

1.7.1. Energy levels in 1-D

An electron of mass m confined to a length L by infinite barrier,

n=3
9E 2 1
= ( )
2 2
L= n=2 n n =
4 L
E

n=1
1E=

Wave function f the electrons is a solution of the Schrodinger wave equation,

=
2
Neglecting p.e. = 2, where P is momentum.

In QM P may be represented by ,

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 2 2
= = . .1
2 2
Where = energy of the electron in the nth orbital, The boundary conditions are,
(0) = 0
() = 0
Equation 1 is satisfied if the wave function is sine wave,
2
= sin ,

Where n n = L
Energy,
2 2
= ( ) . .3
2
For n electrons Paulis exclusion principle holds. Q no.s of a conduction electron orbital are
1
positive and ms (magnetic Q no = 2) e.g.

If there are six electrons, then in the ground state of the system the filled orbitals are those given
in the table below;
n ms Electron Occopancy
1 1
1 1
2 1
2 1
3 1
3 1
4 0
4 0

More than one orbit results to degeneracy.

1.7.2. Density of states for Free electrons

Give them the Handouts 1 and 2.

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 1.7.3. Fermi energy

The fermi energy (Ef) is the energy of the topmost filled level in ground state of the electrons
system.
2 2 2 2
= ( ) = ( ) = 2
2 2 2
This is ground state for N electron system at absolute zero.
If temperature increases the solution is given by the Fermi-Dirac distribution (Pg 613 C. Kittel).
The Fermi-Dirac distribution gives the probability that an orbital at energy E be occupied in an
ideal electron gas in thermal equilibrium,
1
= .5

exp ( ) + 1

Where is a function of temperature = () Read more on (C.Kittel Page 146 and Chapter
5).
1
If , = = exp ( ) = exp ( ) which is Boltzmann distribution.
exp( )

Free gas in 3-D.

- Read C. Kittel page 146-151
-
Worked example,
Consider the interacting electron Hamiltonian,

+
1 + +
= + ()( + ) ( )
2

2 2 1
Of a 1-D free electron gas in a volume L with one-electron energies. = and here = 2
2

is the spin index.

a. For the non-interacting case () = 0 evaluate the total k.e. at zero temperature for;
i. A ferromagnetic case with all spins up and
ii. A paramagnetic state with half of the spins up and half down
Express your results in terms of the density n=N/L where N is the total number of electrons.

Page 16 of 80
Solution
2 2
i. At zero temperature the electrons fill every energy state up to the fermi energy = .
2
2
Since there is one state in each interval of length in k-space, we can write the total k.e U as

2 2 2 3
= 2 =
2 6

But,

= =

Therefore,
2 2 3
=
6

ii. For a paramagnetic system, we gain a factor of the sum for U from the spin degeneracy;
however is now half of its previous value for the same reason, so that the new k.e.
is
2 2 3
=
24

1.7.4. Heat Capacity of the electron Gas

3
Classical statistical mechanics predicts that free particle should have a heat capacity of 2 where

is Boltzmann constant. But the observed electronic contribution at room temperature is usually
less than 0.01 of this value. How can the electron participate in electrical conduction processes as
if they were mobile while not contributing to the heat capacity? When a sample or specimen is
heated from absolute zero, not every electron gains an energy as expected classically,

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 Density of single-particle states as a
function of energy, for a free electron gas
in three dimensions. The dashed curve
represents the density (, )() of filled
orbitals at a finite temperature, but such that
is small in comparison with .The
shaded area represents the filled orbitals at
absolute zero. The average energy is
increase when the temperature is increased
from 0 to T, for electrons are thermally
excited from region 1 to region 2.

Only the electrons un orbitals within an

energy range of the fermi level are thermally excited.

= .

Therefore electrons has a thermal energy of the order of . The total electronic thermal k.e.


U is of the order of =

Electronic heat capacity is given by,

= = 2 ( )

This means ,

Read Derivation of quantitative expression (section below) for electronic heat capacity,

- C. Kittel Pg 152.
- Fundamentals of SS physics Pg 228-236 Examples 8.4, 8.5, and 8.6
- SOLID-STATE PHYSICS An Introduction to Theory and Experiment, Page 86-101

Page 18 of 80
 1.7.5. Quantitative expression for (
The increase in the total enety U when a system of N electerons is heated from 0

to T is See fig. above.

The first integral on the RHS gives the energy needed to take electrons from to the orbitals of
energy > and the 2nd integral gives the energy needed to bring the electrons to from
orbitals below . Both contributions are positive.

It is a good approximation to take D() outside the integral

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 1
= 2 36
2

Recall that although is called Fermi temperature, it is not an actual temperature, but only a
convenient notation.

1.7.6. Dielectric Function of the electron Gas

If we define;

Page 20 of 80
 1. (, ) to be the dielectric function of the electron gas depending on frequency and wave
vector. It has significant consequences for the physical properties of solids.
2. (, 0) collective excitation of the fermi sea.
3. (0, )- represents electrostatic screening of the electro-electron or electron-lattice
interaction in solid states in crystals.

Dipole moment density ;

= 0 + = . .1
Where permittivity of free space
- Relative permittivity
- Polarisation
Taking divergence,
= = . .2

( + )
= = .3

Motion of electrons in Electric field,

2
= . .4
2

If x and E are time dependent , we assume a solution proportional to . On substituting to

equation 4 , we have,

2 = =
2
Dipole moment of one electron can be calculated as,

2
= .5
2
Polarization is defined as dipole per unit volume,

2
= = .6
2
Where n is the electron concentration.

The dielectric function at frequency ,

() ()
( ) = =1+ 7
() 0 ()

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From 6 and 7, we have,

2
( ) = 1
2 0 ()

2
( ) = 1 .8
2 0

The plasma frequency defined as,

2
2
= . .9
0

Defination; Plasma is a medium with equal concentration of positive and negative charges.
Therefore from 9 and 8 becomes.

2
( ) = 1
2
If () = 0 = . This shows that there is no damping of the wave.

1.7.7. Dispersion relation for electromagnetic wave (, )

1.7.8. Failure of electron model

1. On the basis of free electron theory, the electrical conductivity is proportional to the
electron concentration. But divalent metals like Be , Cd, Zn etc and trivalent metals Al and
In are consistently less conductive than monovalent metals (Cu, Ag and Au) despite the
fact that the formers have higher concentration of electrons.
2. The free electron model always predicts a negative Halls constant while most metals like
Be, Zn and Cd exhibit positive hall constant.
3. Free electron model always predict spherical Fermi surface which is often non-spherical.

1.8. Lattice Vibrations, Phonons and Dispersion relations

The wave number, k, , is a measure of the spatial periodicity of a wave, i.e. the number of
oscillations per length unit. It is therefore measured in m1. Since a wave may travel in different
directions, the wave number is the magnitude of the wave vector, k . In spectroscopy, where the
oscillating medium is electromagnetic radiation, the wave number is usually denoted as , and
there is a fixed relationship between the wave number ( m1) and the frequency (s1):

Page 22 of 80
 = where the speed of light acts as the constant of proportionality.

The "beads" of an electromagnetic wave have no rest mass, so they will be propagating at the speed
of light. However, atoms in a crystal have a finite mass; therefore they travel at a lower speed, and
the frequency of oscillation will become dependent on the wave number (and also on the direction
of the wave vector). The relationship between frequency (usually expressed as an angular
frequency, ) and wave number is known as a dispersion relation.

Just as the concept of photons is used to express the particle-like aspects of electromagnetic waves,
the term phonon is used to refer to lattice vibrations where they behave in a particle-like manner.
For example, when two oscillations along different lattice vectors meet and interact in a crystal,
their interaction can be interpreted as two pseudo-particles, phonons, scattering off one another.

1.8.1. Monatomic chain

The monatomic chain model represents a crystal in one dimensions where all atoms are identical,
equally spaced in equilibrium and connected by bonds of equal strength. The mass of an atom is
m , the spring constant, C, describes the strength of the bond between atoms, and we enumerate
the atoms along the chain using a variable s as a counter. The coordinate of atom s along the chain
is xs.

The force Fs acting on an atom s at any given moment is the product of its mass and its acceleration:

As long as the displacement of the atom is elastic, i.e. no permanent deformation takes place, we
can apply Hooke's law and express the force as the displacement times the spring constant, C.
Since the neighbouring atoms s1 and s+1 are also displaced from their equilibrium position, we
need to consider the relative displacement between pairs:

This assumes, besides the validity of the elastic regime, that there are no long-range interactions
between atoms that aren't immediately adjacent to one another.

The wave motion of the atoms is described by a complex exponential function in time with an
angular frequency of

Page 23 of 80
By differentiating this twice

we can equate the two expressions for the force Fs in an equation that depends only on the
positions x of adjacent atoms:

At the same time, we can also represent the oscillation of all the atoms in the chain at a given
moment as a wave (complex exponential) in space with a wave number k

Here, a is the equilibrium lattice spacing between the atoms. After substituting this into the
equation, we have

cancels out from both sides of the equation, and Euler's formula allows us to substitute the
other two complex exponentials with a trigonometric function:

This can be solved for 2:

Page 24 of 80
 and finally for

to produce the dispersion relation for the monatomic chain. It is called a relation because of the
absolute value appearing in the formula.

Dispersion relation for the monatomic chain:

The figure above shows this dispersion relation. The vertical axis shows
the frequency in units of the prefactor, , while the wave number on the horizontal axis is
normalized to the lattice spacing, a

Every possible frequency occurs within the range from 0 to /a. Including the negative half of the
diagram (representing waves travelling in the opposite direction), this means that any wave number
outside this range is indistinguishable from another oscillation within it. For example, the atoms
shown in green in the figure on the right have the same displacements for both the short-wave
oscillation (pink) and the long-wave oscillation (magenta). Since there are no atoms spaced closer
together than the lattice spacing a, wave numbers larger than 2/a will have more than one
maximum within each atomic spacing.

The range of wave numbers from /a to /a is known as the first Brillouin zone. Any wave
vectors outside the first Brillouin zone can be mapped into it by adding an integer multiple of a
reciprocal lattice vector; /a in the one-dimensional example.

Page 25 of 80
 1.8.2. Group velocity and phase velocity

In a travelling wave, the velocity of a particular feature of the wave (such as its maximum) is its
phase velocity, = .

However, energy is transported by the wave at a generally slower speed, the group velocity,

= ,

i.e. the speed at which wave packets (beats) move.

Specifically, for the dispersion relation of the monatomic chain, this means

The cos term

forces the group velocity down to zero at the edge of the first Brillouin zone (k=/a), i.e. there is a
standing wave with no net propagation in this limit.

1.8.3. Diatomic chain

Consider the diatomic chain, with two atoms of masses 1 2

The positions of the two atoms will be denoted by .

For the first atom, the sum total force Fu is the difference of its own displacement us relative to
its two neighbors on the right and left, i.e. v s and vs-1 respectively.

Therefore,

= ( + 1 2 ) .1

The equation of motion obtained form newtons second law is,

2
1 = ( + 1 2 ) 2
2

Page 26 of 80
Similarly, the equation of motion of the second atom of mass 2 is,

2
2 = (+1 + 2 ) 3
2
Equations 2 and 3 are second order linear differential equations with trial periodic solutions
for the displacement as,

= () 4 and
()
= 5 respecitively

Where u and v are the amplitudes of the two atoms respectively.

2
= = 2 = 2 () 6
2
Similarly ,

2
= 2 () .7
2

Inserting equations 6 and 7 into 2 and 3 respectively gives two simultaneous equations
below,

2 () = ( + 2) ()

2 () = ( + 2) ()

Which reduces to,

2 1 = (1 + ) 2
{ }
2 2 = (1 + ) 2

Or

(2 2 1 ) (1 + ) = 0
{ }
(1 + ) + (2 2 2 ) = 0

Which can be written as a determinant

(2 2 1 ) (1 + )
| |=
(1 + ) (2 2 2 )

The determinant is solved as,

Page 27 of 80
 (2 2 1 )(2 2 2 ) ( (1 + )( (1 + ) )) = 0

On expansion we get,

4 2 22 1 22 2 + 4 1 2 2 (1 + )(1 + ) = 0

Which is a quadratic equation in 2

4 1 2 22 (1 + 2 ) + 4 2 2 (2 + 2 cos ) = 0

Where we have used Eulers formula to expand the terms in bracket.

Consider the term 4 2 2 (2 + 2 cos ) = 2 2 (1 cos )

Therefore

4 1 2 22 (1 + 2 ) + 2 2 (1 cos ) = 0

Let us further consider,

(1 cos ) = (1 cos ( + ))
2 2

= (cos 2 ) + sin2 ((cos 2 ) sin2 ))
2 2 2 2

= 2 sin2
2
Therefore,

4 1 2 22 (1 + 2 ) + 4 2 sin2 =0
2
Applying the quadratic formula we have,

1 + 2 (1 + 2 )2 4
2 = ( ) 2 2
sin2 ( )
1 2 1 2 1 2 2

Finally, take the root again to produce the dispersion relation for the linear chain with
alternating masses:

Page 28 of 80
 (1 + 2 ) (1 + 2 )2 4
( ) = 2 2
sin2 ( )
1 2 1 2 1 2 2

The under the (outer) root causes the appearance of two branches to the dispersion relation, an
optical branch and an acoustic branch. This separation occurs for both longitudinal and transversal
waves.

In order to investigate the reason of the appearance of the optical branch, we can investigate the
special case M=m:

2 2 4
( ) = 2
4
2 sin2 ( )
2

2
= 2 (1 2 2 sin2 ( ))
2

The two branches remain even if the masses are the same. They are a consequence of the fact
that the unit cell is no longer primitive but has an additional atom, i.e. it is a centred cell.

The dispersion relation produces the familiar arches with maxima and minima at the centre and
at the edges of the first Brillouin zone. The acoustic branch behaves similar to the solution for
the primitive (monatomic) linear chain, but the optical branch has the location its maximum and
minimum swapped. This becomes obvious when calculating the frequencies for the two limiting
cases.

Page 29 of 80
At the center of the first Brillion zone k=0

Therefore

(1 + 2 ) (1 + 2 )2
(0) = 0
1 2 1 2 2 2

(1 + 2 ) (1 + 2 )
=
1 2 1 2

2(1 + 2 )
=
1 2

2
= 0

Therefore the frequency of the

acoustic branch is zero in this limit,
while the frequency of the optical
branch depends only on the spring
constant and the reduced mass. Since

the reduced mass, = ( 1+2 ) , is
1 2
always smaller than either of the two
interacting masses, this must be the
absolute maximum of the frequency
of the system.

At the boundary of the first Brillouin zone, k=/a:

(1 + 2 ) (1 + 2 )2 4 .
( ) = sin 2 ( )
1 2 1 2 2 2 1 2 2

(1 + 2 ) (1 + 2 )2 41 2
=
1 2 1 2 2 2

Page 30 of 80
The binomial formulae come in handy here:

(1 + 2 ) 1 2 + 2 2 + 21 2 41 2
=
1 2 1 2 2 2

2 2
=
1 2

The solutions depend on the spring constant and either the smaller or the larger mass. The
solution based on the larger mass is the maximum of the acoustic branch, the solution based on
the smaller mass the minimum of the optical branch. Note that there is a gap between the two
branches where there are no frequencies for any value of the wave number. This is the phonon
band gap.

For the acoustic branch, the two types of atoms oscillate in phase, effectively "riding" the same
wave. This is the same pattern that a sound wave in a fluid medium would follow. On the other
hand, the two types of atoms oscillate with opposite phase in the case of the optical branch. If the
two types of atoms have opposite charges as well as different masses, the wave causes a charge
separation because the positive charges are always displaced in the opposite direction to the
negative charges. This is the kind of wave which can be excited using electromagnetic radiation,
hence the name optical branch. This terminology is even used if the atoms aren't actually
charged.

In the next section, we will consider the implications of phonons for the heat capacity of a solid.

Page 31 of 80
Questions

1. Find the occupation probability for a state 0.110 eV below the chemical potential at T=50,
300 and 1200 K. Repeat the calculation for a state 0.110 eV above the chemical potential.

2.
a. Find an expression for the chemical potential as a function of temperature if the fermi
level lie in a single free electron band.
b. Estimate the chemical potential relative to the Fermi energy for sodium. First take the
temperature to be 50 K , then 390 K. The latter temperature is close to the melting point.

Page 32 of 80
3. In a simplified model, assume germanium has a single valence band and a single conduction
band with a gap 0.670 eV. The effective masses are = 0.370 0 and =
0.550 0 , respectively, where 0 is the free electron mass. Calculate,
a. The fermi energy relative to the top of the valence band

Solution
1 1
Take = 0 and = 0.670 . Then = ( + ) = (0 + 0.670) = 0.335
2 2

b. The chemical potential at 300 K, relative to the Fermi energy

Solution

3 3 0.370
= ln ( ) = 8.62 105 ln ( )
4 4 0.550

= 7.69 103

c. The occupation probability at 300 K for a state at the bottom of the conduction band and

Solution

Since, , the probability that a state with energy is occupied is,

5 300)
( ) = () = (0.6700.335+0.008)/8.6210

= 1.74 106

Page 33 of 80
 d. The probability at 300 K that a state at the top of valence band is empty.

e. The electron concentration in the conduction band at 300K.

4. Aluminum has a molar mass of 26.98 g/mol and a mass density of = 2.70 g/cm. Calculate
the electron density under the assumption that each atom contributes 3 valence electrons to
the free electrons. Calculate the Fermi energy and the Fermi temperature of aluminum.
2 2
5. The energy-wave vector dispersion relation for free electrons is, = . From this
2
calculate the energy density of states D(E) for 1-, 2-, and 3-dimensions.

Answer

The density of states for free electrons in 1, 2, and 3 dimensions is given in the table below.

6. For a metal at a temperature of T = 0 K, the conduction electrons at the bottom of the band
have an energy E = 0 and the conduction electrons with the highest energy have an energy
E = Ef. Assuming that the density of states is given by D(E) = 3nE/(2EF3/2), what is the
average energy of the conduction electrons?
7. The chemical potential of a metal is weakly temperature dependent so it can be estimated by
calculating the Fermi energy. A monovalent metal has a bcc lattice and a lattice constant of
a = 0.1 nm. Derive the expression for the Fermi energy using the free electron model and use
it to estimate the chemical potential in this case

Page 34 of 80
8. CsI has a simple cubic Bravais lattice with a Cs atom at (0,0,0) and an I atom at (0.5 0.5
0.5) Which of the Figures below is the phonon dispersion curve for CsI? Explain your
reasoning!

9. For a two-dimensional non-interacting free electron gas it is possible to find an analytic

expression for the temperature dependence of the chemical potential. Show that

10.
11. Sommerfeld showed that for metals, only the states near the Fermi surface contribute to
most observable quantities. He used the following expansion for integrals involving the
Fermi function f(E).

This is known as the Sommerfeld expansion. Here the relationship between H(E) and
K(E) is,

The density of states for a free electron gas in two dimensions is,

Page 35 of 80
What is the heat capacity for a free electron gas in two dimensions?

Page 36 of 80
 Chapter Two
Semiconductors
2.1. Introduction
- Carriers are the entities that transport charge inside a material and hence give rise to
electrical currents.
- In metals the most commonly encountered type of carrier is the electron,
- Within semiconductors one again encounters the familiar electron, plus a second equally
important type of carrierthe hole. Electrons and holes are the focal point of this chapter,
wherein we examine carrier related concepts, models, properties, and terminology.

2.2. Bonding model

Covalent bonding;

- An isolated Si or Ge has four valence electrons

- in going from isolated atoms to the collective crystalline state, Si atoms share one of their
valence electrons with each of the four nearest neighbors.
- This covalent bonding gives rise to the bonding model.

Figure 1.

2.3. Energy model

2.3.1. Formation of Energy Bands

Figure 2a below shows the radial probability density function for the lowest electron energy state
of the single, noninteracting hydrogen atom, and Figure 2b shows the same probability curves for
two atoms that are in close proximity to each other. The wave functions of the two atom electrons
overlap, which means that the two electrons will interact. This interaction or perturbation results
in the discrete quantized energy level splitting into two discrete energy levels, schematically shown
in Figure c. The splitting of the discrete state into two states is consistent with the Pauli Exclusion
Principle.

Page 37 of 80
 Figure 2.

- pushing the atoms together, the initial quantized energy level will split into a band of
discrete energy levels as shown schematically in Figure 3.
- The Pauli Exclusion Principle states that the joining of atoms to form a system (crystal)
does not alter the total number of quantum states regardless of size. However, since no two
electrons can have the same quantum number, the discrete energy must split into a band of
energies in order that each electron can occupy a distinct quantum state.

Figure 3

- In an isolated Si atom, ten of the 14 electrons are tightly bound to the nucleus and unlikely
to be perturbed by normal atom-atom interaction
- The remaining 4 are rather weakly bound and if unperturbed occupy four of the eight
allowed energy states.
- During the crystallization, the energy states of the 10 innermost bound electrons can be
ignored since these electrons are not significantly perturbed by normal interatomic forces.
- The energy levels of the 4 valence electrons are modified as summarized in the figure 4
below.
- bringing the atoms closer and closer together, the atomic forces lead to a progressive spread
in the allowed energies.
- The spread in energies giver rise to closely spaced sets of allowed states known as energy
bands.
- At interatomic distance, the distribution of allowed states consists of two bands separated
by an energy gap. The upper band is referred to as conduction band and lower one the

Page 38 of 80
 valence band. The electrons occupy the lower band. The valence band is almost completely
filled and conduction band almost completely empty for semiconductors at 0 K.
- Electrons in these bands, in crystalline state of the semiconductor are not associated with a
particular atom, they belong to the crystal as a whole.

Figure 4

2.3.2. Charge carriers

Note;

(a) that there are no carriers or possible correct flow if the bonding model has no broken bonds.
the valence band electrons actualy move about in the crystal. How is it then that no current
can arise from this group of electrons?
(b) When a SiSi band is broken and the associated electron is free to wander around the
lattice, the released electron is a carrier. Equivalently, in terms of the energy band model,
elevation of valence band electrons into the conduction band creates carriers; that is,
electrons in the conduction bands are carriers.
(c) in addition to releasing an electron, the breaking of a SiSi bond also creates a missing
bond or void in the bonding structure. This missing bond can move like a bubble of air in
a liquid. Its referred to as a hole, and only unique for semiconductors.

Page 39 of 80
 2.3.3. Band energy and material classifications
Using the energy gap model, materials can be classified as insulators, semiconductors or metals
where;

- Insulators; very wide band gap and few electrons in valence band
- Semiconductors; thermal agitation is sufficient to create enough charge carriers (electrons
and holes).
- Metals; Band very narrow or the two bands overlaps.

Page 40 of 80
 2.4. Extrinsic Semiconductors
Semiconductors doped with foreign atoms to alter their intrinsic electron and hole
concentrations. Doped semiconductors: Semiconductors, which contain impurities (foreign
atoms) incorporated into the crystal structure of the semiconductor. Sources of impurities: Either
(a) Added on purpose to provide free carriers in the semiconductor OR (b) Incorporated
unintentionally, due to lack of control during the growth of the semiconductor. Free carriers are
generated when impurity atoms give off electrons or holes.
- Donors
Donor Impurity Atom donates an electron to the conduction band without creating a hole in the
valence band; resulting material is an n-type semiconductor. The donor energy level is filled
prior to ionization. Ionization causes the donor to be emptied, yielding an electron in the
conduction band and a positively charged donor ion.
- Acceptors
Acceptor Impurity Atom generates a hole in the valence band without generating an electron in
the conduction band; resulting material is an p-type semiconductor. The acceptor energy is empty
prior to ionization. Ionization of the acceptor corresponds to the empty acceptor level being filled
by an electron from the filled valence band. This is equivalent to a hole given off by the acceptor
atom to the valence band.

Page 41 of 80
2.4.1. Charge carriers terminologies

2.5. Drift Current

Page 42 of 80
2.6. Density of state functions

Page 43 of 80
 2.6.1. Mathematical Derivation for free electrons

Solving the S.W.E. in 3-D by separation of variables technique gives,

2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2
= = + + = ( + 2 + 2 ) 2
2 2
The distance between 2 quantum states in the kx direction is given by

2
+1 = 2 {( + 1) ( ) } = . .3

Generalizing the result in 3-D, the volume of a single quantum state is

2 3 (2)3
= ( ) = 4

Now we can determine the density of states in k-space. The number of states available for a
given magnitude of wave vector (k) is found by constructing a spherical shell of radius (k)
thickness dk. The volume of the shell in k-space is,

4
= ( 3 ) = 4 2 6
3
So the differential density of quantum states in k-space can be written as,

() = 2. 4 2 .7
(2)3

Page 44 of 80
Where 2 rep the spin (2S+1)

We can now write the density of states as a function of energy E.

Recall,

2 2
1
= = 2 9
2
1
= 2

1
= .10
2

Therefore substituting for 2 and in equation 7, we have,

3 2 1
( ) = ( ) . .11
3 2 2

Since = 2

43 3
( ) = 3
(2)2 11

Divide by = 3 we have

4 3
( ) = ( 2 ) 2 12
3
Which is the density of states as a function of energy E.

As E decreases the number of available quantum states decreases.

Page 45 of 80
2.6.2. Density of states functions in semiconductors
We extend the discussion to semiconductors. For free electrons

2 2 2
= = . .13
2 2
For an electron in the conduction Band,

2 2
= + . .14
2

Where, is the effective electron mass, is the bottom edge of conduction band.

Therefore,

2 2
= .15
2

Using equation 15 we can generate the results of equation 12 to have,

4 3
)2
( ) = ( 2 .16
3

Page 46 of 80
Page 47 of 80
2.7. Distribution function and fermi energy

Page 48 of 80
Questions

i. Determine the total number of energy states in GaAs between and at T =

300 K. (Take = 0.48 = 9.11 1031
Solution
For electrons in the valence band,
4 3
)2
( ) = ( 2 .17
3

Page 49 of 80
The number of states, N,

= ( )

Which implies that,

4 3
= ( ) = 3
(2 )2

4 3
= 3 (2 )2

4 3 2 3
= 3
(2 )2 . ()2
3

The density of electrons in conduction band will be given by,

= ( ) () . .1

Page 50 of 80


( ) > , ( ) = 0

The density of sates at the bottom of the conduction band is given by,

4 3
)2 (
1
( ) = ( 2 ) 2 . .2
3

1
( ) = 3

exp( ) + 1

Apply Equations 3, 2 into 1. We have,

4 3 1 1
= (2 )2 ( )2 . . . .4
3
exp( ) + 1

If , , then the 1, in the denominator can be ignored.

4 3 1
= 3 (2 )2 ( )2 . exp( ). . .5

+
exp( ) = exp( ) = exp( ) exp( ) . .6


4 3 1
= 3 (2 )2 exp( ) ( )2 . exp( ). . .7

Putting = , =

Therefore,

4 3 3 1
= 3 (2 )2 exp( )( )2 ()2 . . . .7

0

The integral is a standard integral and

1
1 2
( )2 . . =
2
0

Page 51 of 80
 3
2 2
= 2( 2
) exp( )8

The density of holes in the valence band we use , 1 ()

= ( ) () . .1

1
Similarly , exp( )
exp( )+1

Therefore 1 () exp( )

+
exp( ) = exp( ) = exp( ) exp( )

Since < 1 ()decreases exponentialy.

4 3
)2 (
1
( ) = ( 2 ) 2 .2
3
.

4 3 1
= 3 (2 )2 ( )2 . exp( ) . .4

Let = , = =

4 3 1
= 3 (2 )2 exp( ) ( )2 . exp() . .5

4 3 3 1
= 3 (2 )2 exp( )( )2 ( )2 . exp() . .6

0

1
1 2
( )2 . . =
2
0

Page 52 of 80
 1
4 3 3 2
= 3 (2 )2 ( )2 exp( )
2
3
2 2
= 2 ( ) exp( ) . .7
2

IN an intrinsic semiconductor =
3 3
2 2 2 2
2( ) exp( ) = 2 ( ) exp( )
2 2
3 3
( )2 exp( ) = ( )2 exp( )

3
2 2
exp( ) = ( )

2 3
= ln
2

+ 3
= + ln
2 4

When =

+
=
2

Page 53 of 80
Page 54 of 80
Question/Worked example

Calculate the number of electronshole pair per cc in an intrinsic silicon at 37 degrees Celsius. The
value of its energy gap is 1.12 electron volts. The number of electrons-hole pairs per cc in
germanium crystal is 2.5 1013 at 27 degrees Celsius and the value of energy gap in germanium
is 0.72 eV ( = 1.38 1023 /)

Wo

Page 55 of 80
2.8. Impurity semiconductors and thermal ionization of impurities

Page 56 of 80
2.8.1. Donor type impurities

2.8.2. Acceptor type impurities

Page 57 of 80
Page 58 of 80
2.9. Impurity states and fermi energy

Page 59 of 80
Page 60 of 80
Questions
1. In a given n-type silicon material the donor concentration is 1 atom per 2 108 silicon
atoms. Assuming that the effective mass of the electron is equal to its true mass, find the
value of the temperature at which the fermi level coincides with the edge of the conduction

band, given that the density of atoms in silicon equals to 5 1028 .
3

Solution
The donor concentration will be calculated first. There is 1 atom per 2 108 silicon atoms, there
will be,
5 1028 20

= 2.5 10
2 108 3
20 3
Thus density of donor atoms = 2.5 10 .
We know that Fermi level will coincide with edge of conduction band if = , ,

= = exp ( ) = =

With,
3
2 2
= 2 ( )
2

Page 61 of 80
 3
2 3
= 4.82 1021 ( ) 2 3

Give that = , then,
3
= 4.82 1021 2 3
3
Therefore, = 2.5 1020 = 4.82 1021 2 = 0.14
2. A model for the low-temperature properties of glass proposes that in the random network
of bonds there are many places where atoms have two alternating local, metastable
equilibrium configurations separated by an energy difference

Energy

Local configuration
coordinate

These two-level centers are assumed to be interacting and it is also assumed that the low-
frequency linear vibrations around either configuration are described by ordinary phonons.
a. Find the leading contribution to the low temperature specific heat. Assume is a
random variable with a flat probability distribution ( ).
b. In what other system is the temperature dependent on the specific heat similar to
that found in (a) above ? Estimate the relative magnitude of the results. Assume for
part (a) that the density of levels for the tow-levels centers is 1 state/(ev atom).
c. In one form of crystalline carbon the low-temperature lattice specific heat is found
to be proportional to 2 . What does this say about the structure of this form of
carbon? Explain your answer.

Solution
a. Low frequency linear vibrations are described by ordinary phonons, the specific heat
will have the usual phonon term proportional to 3 . Let is calculate the specific heat
( ) due to one two-levels center i.e. a system of tow energy levels separated by
an energy . We choose the zero of energy so that we may write the two energies in
a s symmetric version,
1 1
1 = , 2 = . .1
2 2

Page 62 of 80
 The internal energy is,
1 1

2 2 2 2
=
=
= tanh
2 2
2 2
1
=

Which is the usual result for a two-level system.
The specific heat is,
2 2
( ) = = sech2 3
4 2
We need to integrate the specific heat over the distribution of energies
( ) ( ). To find the average value, CONTINUE TYPING

Page 63 of 80
Page 64 of 80
Page 65 of 80
 Chapter Three
Superconductivity
3.1. Drude theory of conductivity in metals

Page 66 of 80
Page 67 of 80
Page 68 of 80
3.2. Introduction to Conductivity
In superconductors something dramatic happens as shown in the fig below.

Page 69 of 80
Page 70 of 80
Page 71 of 80
The superconductive state results from attractive interactions between pairs of conducting
electrons; the motions of these paired electrons become coordinated such that scattering by thermal
vibrations and impurity atoms is highly inefficient. Thus, the resistivity, being proportional to the
incidence of electron scattering, is zero.

Question
For a superconducting material at a temperature below the critical temperature , the critical
field () depends on temperature according to the relationship,
2
( ) ( )
= 0 (1 2 )

i. Using = 3.72 and (0) = 0.0305 , calculate the critical magnetic fields
for Tin at 1.5 K.
ii. To what temperature must tin be cooled in a magnetic field of 20,000 A/m for it to be
superconductive?
iii. Using the data in the table below. Calculate the critical magnetic fields for lead at 2.5.
and 5.0 K.
iv. To what temperature must lead be cooled in a magnetic field of 15, 000 A/m for it to
be superconductive?

Page 72 of 80
3.3. Type I and Type II

On the basis of magnetic response, superconducting materials may be divided into two
classifications designated as type I and type II. Type I materials, while in the superconducting
state, are completely diamagnetic; that is, all of an applied magnetic field will be excluded from
the body of material, a phenomenon known as the Meissner effect, which is illustrated in Figure
20.28. As H is increased, the material remains diamagnetic until the critical magnetic field is
reached. At this point, conduction becomes normal, and complete magnetic flux penetration takes
place. Several metallic elements including aluminum, lead, tin, and mercury belong to the type I
group.

Type II superconductors are completely diamagnetic at low applied fields, and field exclusion is
total. However, the transition from the superconducting state to the normal state is gradual and
occurs between lower critical and upper critical fields, designated 1 and 2 respectively. The
magnetic flux lines begin to penetrate into the body of material at 1 and with increasing applied
magnetic field, this penetration continues; at 2 field penetration is complete. For fields between
1 and 2 the material exists in what is termed a mixed stateboth normal and superconducting
regions are present.

Page 73 of 80
3.4. Meissner-Ochsenfeld effect.

Page 74 of 80
3.5. Perfect diamagnetism

Page 75 of 80
Page 76 of 80
Page 77 of 80