Charles Darwin

For other people named Charles Darwin, see Charles in nature.[9] In 1871 he examined human evolution and
Darwin (disambiguation). sexual selection in The Descent of Man, and Selection in
Relation to Sex, followed by The Expression of the Emo-
[2] tions in Man and Animals (1872). His research on plants
Charles Robert Darwin, FRS FRGS FLS FZS
was published in a series of books, and in his nal book,
(/drwn/;[3] 12 February 1809 19 April 1882) was an
English naturalist, geologist and biologist, best known The Formation of Vegetable Mould, through the Actions of
[4]
(1881), he examined earthworms and their eect
for his contributions to the science of evolution.[I] He Worms [18][19]
established that all species of life have descended over on soil.
time from common ancestors,[5] and in a joint publication Darwin has been described as one of the most inuen-
with Alfred Russel Wallace introduced his scientic the- tial gures in human history,[20] and he was honoured by
ory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from burial in Westminster Abbey.[21]
a process that he called natural selection, in which the
struggle for existence has a similar eect to the articial
selection involved in selective breeding.[6] 1 Biography
Darwin published his theory of evolution with compelling
evidence in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species,
1.1 Early life and education
overcoming scientic rejection of earlier concepts of
transmutation of species.[7][8] By the 1870s, the scientic
See also: Charles Darwins education and Darwin-
community and much of the general public had accepted
Wedgwood family
evolution as a fact. However, many favoured competing
explanations and it was not until the emergence of the
modern evolutionary synthesis from the 1930s to the Charles Robert Darwin was born in Shrewsbury, Shrop-
1950s that a broad consensus developed in which natu- shire, on 12 February 1809, at his familys home, The
ral selection was the basic mechanism of evolution.[9][10] Mount.[22] He was the fth of six children of wealthy so-
In modied form, Darwins scientic discovery is the uni- ciety doctor and nancier Robert Darwin and Susannah
fying theory of the life sciences, explaining the diversity Darwin (ne Wedgwood). He was the grandson of two
of life.[11][12] prominent abolitionists: Erasmus Darwin on his fathers
side, and Josiah Wedgwood on his mothers side.
Darwins early interest in nature led him to neglect
his medical education at the University of Edinburgh; Both families were largely Unitarian, though the Wedg-
instead, he helped to investigate marine invertebrates. woods were adopting Anglicanism. Robert Darwin, him-
Studies at the University of Cambridge (Christs College) self quietly a freethinker, had baby Charles baptised
encouraged his passion for natural science.[13] His ve- in November 1809 in the Anglican St Chads Church,
year voyage on HMS Beagle established him as an emi- Shrewsbury, but Charles and his siblings attended the
nent geologist whose observations and theories supported Unitarian chapel with their mother. The eight-year-old
Charles Lyell's uniformitarian ideas, and publication of Charles already had a taste for natural history and col-
his journal of the voyage made him famous as a popular lecting when he joined the day school run by its preacher
author.[14] in 1817. That July, his mother died. From September
1818, he joined his older brother Erasmus attending the
Puzzled by the geographical distribution of wildlife and
nearby Anglican Shrewsbury School as a boarder.[23]
fossils he collected on the voyage, Darwin began detailed
investigations and in 1838 conceived his theory of natural Darwin spent the summer of 1825 as an apprentice doc-
selection.[15] Although he discussed his ideas with several tor, helping his father treat the poor of Shropshire, be-
naturalists, he needed time for extensive research and his fore going to the University of Edinburgh Medical School
geological work had priority.[16] He was writing up his (at the time the best medical school in the UK) with
theory in 1858 when Alfred Russel Wallace sent him an his brother Erasmus in October 1825. He found lec-
essay that described the same idea, prompting immediate tures dull and surgery distressing, so neglected his stud-
joint publication of both of their theories.[17] Darwins ies. He learned taxidermy in around 40 daily hour-long
work established evolutionary descent with modication sessions from John Edmonstone, a freed black slave who
as the dominant scientic explanation of diversication had accompanied Charles Waterton in the South Ameri-
can rainforest.[24]

1
2 1 BIOGRAPHY
Painting of seven-year-old Charles Darwin in 1816.
In Darwins second year at the university he joined the
Plinian Society, a student natural-history group featuring
lively debates in which radical democratic students with
materialistic views challenged orthodox religious con-
cepts of science.[25] He assisted Robert Edmond Grant's
investigations of the anatomy and life cycle of marine in-
vertebrates in the Firth of Forth, and on 27 March 1827
presented at the Plinian his own discovery that black
spores found in oyster shells were the eggs of a skate
leech. One day, Grant praised Lamarck's evolutionary
ideas. Darwin was astonished by Grants audacity, but
had recently read similar ideas in his grandfather Eras-
mus journals.[26] Darwin was rather bored by Robert
Jameson's natural-history course, which covered geology
- including the debate between Neptunism and Plutonism.
He learned the classication of plants, and assisted with
work on the collections of the University Museum, one
of the largest museums in Europe at the time.[27]
Darwins neglect of medical studies annoyed his father,
who shrewdly sent him to Christs College, Cambridge,
to study for a Bachelor of Arts degree as the rst step to-
wards becoming an Anglican country parson. As Darwin
was unqualied for the Tripos, he joined the ordinary de-
gree course in January 1828.[28] He preferred riding and
shooting to studying. His cousin William Darwin Fox
introduced him to the popular craze for beetle collect-
ing; Darwin pursued this zealously, getting some of his
nds published in James Francis Stephens' Illustrations
of British entomology. He became a close friend and fol-
lower of botany professor John Stevens Henslow and met
other leading parson-naturalists who saw scientic work
as religious natural theology, becoming known to these
dons as the man who walks with Henslow. When his
own exams drew near, Darwin focused on his studies and
was delighted by the language and logic of William Pa-
ley's Evidences of Christianity[29] (1794). In his nal ex-
amination in January 1831 Darwin did well, coming tenth
out of 178 candidates for the ordinary degree.[30]
Darwin had to stay at Cambridge until June 1831. He
studied Paleys Natural Theology or Evidences of the
Existence and Attributes of the Deity (rst published in
1802), which made an argument for divine design in na-
ture, explaining adaptation as God acting through laws
of nature.[31] He read John Herschel's new book, Pre-
liminary Discourse on the Study of Natural Philosophy
(1831), which described the highest aim of natural phi-
losophy as understanding such laws through inductive rea-
soning based on observation, and Alexander von Hum-
boldt's Personal Narrative of scientic travels in 1799-
1804. Inspired with a burning zeal to contribute, Dar-
win planned to visit Tenerife with some classmates af-
ter graduation to study natural history in the tropics. In
preparation, he joined Adam Sedgwick's geology course,
then travelled with him in the summer for a fortnight, in
order to map strata in Wales.[32][33]
1.2 Voyage of the Beagle
For more details on this topic, see Second voyage of HMS
Beagle.
After a week with student friends at Barmouth, Darwin
Plymouth
Azores
Cape Verde
Tenerife
Galapagos Cocos
Callao
Bahia (Keeling) Isl.
Lima Rio de
Valparaiso
Janeiro
Montevideo Cape Town
Mauritius
King George's
Sydney
Falkland
Islands
Sound
Hobart
The voyage of the Beagle, 18311836
returned home on 29 August to nd a letter from Henslow
proposing him as a suitable (if unnished) naturalist for
a self-funded supernumerary place on HMS Beagle with
captain Robert FitzRoy, emphasising that this was a po-
sition for a gentleman rather than a mere collector. The
ship was to leave in four weeks on an expedition to chart
the coastline of South America.[34] Robert Darwin ob-
jected to his sons planned two-year voyage, regarding it
as a waste of time, but was persuaded by his brother-in-
law, Josiah Wedgwood II, to agree to (and fund) his sons
participation.[35] Darwin took care to remain in a private
capacity to retain control over his collection, intending it
for a major scientic institution.[36]
1.2 Voyage of the Beagle 3

After delays, the voyage began on 27 December 1831; it

lasted almost ve years. As FitzRoy had intended, Dar-
win spent most of that time on land investigating geology
and making natural history collections, while the Beagle
surveyed and charted coasts.[9][37] He kept careful notes
of his observations and theoretical speculations, and at
intervals during the voyage his specimens were sent to
Cambridge together with letters including a copy of his
journal for his family.[38] He had some expertise in ge-
ology, beetle collecting and dissecting marine inverte-
brates, but in all other areas was a novice and ably col-
lected specimens for expert appraisal.[39] Despite suer-
ing badly from seasickness, Darwin wrote copious notes
As HMS Beagle surveyed the coasts of South America, Darwin
while on board the ship. Most of his zoology notes are
theorised about geology and extinction of giant mammals.
about marine invertebrates, starting with plankton col-
lected in a calm spell.[37][40]
On their rst stop ashore at St Jago in Cape Verde, Dar-
bridgeable gap between humans and animals.[51] A year
win found that a white band high in the volcanic rock
on, the mission had been abandoned. The Fuegian they
clis included seashells. FitzRoy had given him the rst
had named Jemmy Button lived like the other natives, had
volume of Charles Lyell's Principles of Geology, which
a wife, and had no wish to return to England.[52]
set out uniformitarian concepts of land slowly rising or
falling over immense periods,[II] and Darwin saw things Darwin experienced an earthquake in Chile and saw signs
Lyells way, theorising and thinking of writing a book on that the land had just been raised, including mussel-beds
geology.[41] When they reached Brazil, Darwin was de- stranded above high tide. High in the Andes he saw
lighted by the tropical forest,[42] but detested the sight ofseashells, and several fossil trees that had grown on a
slavery, and disputed this issue with Fitzroy.[43] sand beach. He theorised that as the land rose, oceanic
islands sank, and coral reefs round them grew to form
The survey continued to the south in Patagonia. They
atolls.[53][54]
stopped at Baha Blanca, and in clis near Punta Alta
Darwin made a major nd of fossil bones of huge ex- On the geologically new Galpagos Islands, Darwin
tinct mammals beside modern seashells, indicating recent looked for evidence attaching wildlife to an older cen-
extinction with no signs of change in climate or catas- tre of creation, and found mockingbirds allied to those
trophe. He identied the little-known Megatherium by a in Chile but diering from island to island. He heard
tooth and its association with bony armour, which had at that slight variations in the shape of tortoise shells showed
rst seemed to him to be like a giant version of the armour which island they came from, but failed to collect them,
[55][56]
on local armadillos. The nds brought great interest when even after eating tortoises taken on board as food.
they reached England. [44][45] In Australia, the marsupial rat-kangaroo and the platypus
seemed so unusual that Darwin thought it was almost as
On rides with gauchos into the interior to explore geology
though two distinct Creators had been at work.[57] He
and collect more fossils, Darwin gained social, political
found the Aborigines good-humoured & pleasant, and
and anthropological insights into both native and colonial
noted their depletion by European settlement.[58]
people at a time of revolution, and learnt that two types of
rhea had separate but overlapping territories.[46][47] Fur- The Beagle investigated how the atolls of the Cocos
ther south, he saw stepped plains of shingle and seashells (Keeling) Islands had formed, and the survey supported
[54]
as raised beaches showing a series of elevations. He read Darwins theorising. FitzRoy began writing the of-
Lyells second volume and accepted its view of centres cial Narrative of the Beagle voyages, and after read-
of creation of species, but his discoveries and theoris- ing Darwins diary he proposed incorporating it into the
[59]
ing challenged Lyells ideas of smooth continuity and of account. Darwins Journal was eventually rewritten as
extinction of species.[48][49] a separate third volume, on natural history.[60]
Three Fuegians on board had been seized during the rst In Cape Town, Darwin and FitzRoy met John Her-
Beagle voyage, then during a year in England were edu- schel, who had recently written to Lyell praising his
cated as missionaries. Darwin found them friendly and uniformitarianism as opening bold speculation on that
civilised, yet at Tierra del Fuego he met miserable, de- mystery of mysteries, the replacement of extinct species
graded savages, as dierent as wild from domesticated by others as a natural in contradistinction to a mirac-
animals.[50] He remained convinced that, despite this di- ulous process.[61] When organising his notes as the ship
versity, all humans were interrelated with a shared origin sailed home, Darwin wrote that, if his growing suspicions
and potential for improvement towards civilisation. Un- about the mockingbirds, the tortoises and the Falkland
like his scientist friends, he now thought there was no un- Islands fox were correct, such facts undermine the sta-
bility of Species, then cautiously added would before
4 1 BIOGRAPHY

undermine.[62] He later wrote that such facts seemed the Megatherium, a near complete skeleton of the un-
to me to throw some light on the origin of species.[63] known Scelidotherium and a hippopotamus-sized rodent-
like skull named Toxodon resembling a giant capybara.
The armour fragments were actually from Glyptodon,
1.3 Inception of Darwins evolutionary a huge armadillo-like creature as Darwin had initially
theory thought.[66][45] These extinct creatures were related to liv-
ing species in South America.[67]
For more details on this topic, see Inception of Darwins
In mid-December, Darwin took lodgings in Cambridge
theory.
to organise work on his collections and rewrite his Jour-
When the Beagle reached Falmouth, Cornwall, on 2 Oc-
nal.[68] He wrote his rst paper, showing that the South
American landmass was slowly rising, and with Lyells
enthusiastic backing read it to the Geological Society of
London on 4 January 1837. On the same day, he pre-
sented his mammal and bird specimens to the Zoological
Society. The ornithologist John Gould soon announced
that the Galapagos birds that Darwin had thought a mix-
ture of blackbirds, "gros-beaks" and nches, were, in fact,
twelve separate species of nches. On 17 February, Dar-
win was elected to the Council of the Geological Society,
and Lyells presidential address presented Owens nd-
ings on Darwins fossils, stressing geographical continuity
of species as supporting his uniformitarian ideas.[69]
Early in March, Darwin moved to London to be near this
work, joining Lyells social circle of scientists and experts
such as Charles Babbage,[70] who described God as a pro-
grammer of laws. Darwin stayed with his freethinking
brother Erasmus, part of this Whig circle and a close
friend of the writer Harriet Martineau, who promoted
Malthusianism underlying the controversial Whig Poor
Law reforms to stop welfare from causing overpopula-
tion and more poverty. As a Unitarian, she welcomed
the radical implications of transmutation of species, pro-
moted by Grant and younger surgeons inuenced by
Georoy. Transmutation was anathema to Anglicans de-
fending social order,[71] but reputable scientists openly
While still a young man, Charles Darwin joined the scientic
discussed the subject and there was wide interest in John
elite.
Herschel's letter praising Lyells approach as a way to nd
[61]
tober 1836, Darwin was already a celebrity in scientic a natural cause of the origin of new species.
circles as in December 1835 Henslow had fostered his Gould met Darwin and told him that the Galpa-
former pupils reputation by giving selected naturalists a gos mockingbirds from dierent islands were separate
pamphlet of Darwins geological letters.[64] Darwin vis- species, not just varieties, and what Darwin had thought
ited his home in Shrewsbury and saw relatives, then hur- was a "wren" was also in the nch group. Darwin had not
ried to Cambridge to see Henslow, who advised him on labelled the nches by island, but from the notes of others
nding naturalists available to catalogue the collections on the Beagle, including FitzRoy, he allocated species to
and agreed to take on the botanical specimens. Darwins islands.[72] The two rheas were also distinct species, and
father organised investments, enabling his son to be a on 14 March Darwin announced how their distribution
self-funded gentleman scientist, and an excited Darwin changed going southwards.[73]
went round the London institutions being fted and seek-
By mid-March, Darwin was speculating in his Red Note-
ing experts to describe the collections. Zoologists had a
book on the possibility that one species does change into
huge backlog of work, and there was a danger of speci-
another to explain the geographical distribution of liv-
mens just being left in storage.[65]
ing species such as the rheas, and extinct ones such as the
Charles Lyell eagerly met Darwin for the rst time on strange Macrauchenia, which resembled a giant guanaco.
29 October and soon introduced him to the up-and- His thoughts on lifespan, asexual reproduction and sexual
coming anatomist Richard Owen, who had the facilities reproduction developed in his B notebook around mid-
of the Royal College of Surgeons to work on the fos- July on to variation in ospring to adapt & alter the race
sil bones collected by Darwin. Owens surprising results to changing world explaining the Galpagos tortoises,
included other gigantic extinct ground sloths as well as
1.4 Overwork, illness, and marriage
In mid-July 1837 Darwin started his B notebook on Transmu-
tation of Species, and on page 36 wrote I think above his rst
evolutionary tree.
mockingbirds and rheas. He sketched branching descent,
then a genealogical branching of a single evolutionary
tree, in which It is absurd to talk of one animal being
higher than another, discarding Lamarcks independent
lineages progressing to higher forms.[74]
1.4 Overwork, illness, and marriage
See also: Charles Darwins health
While developing this intensive study of transmutation,
Darwin became mired in more work. Still rewriting his
Journal, he took on editing and publishing the expert re-
ports on his collections, and with Henslows help obtained
a Treasury grant of 1,000 to sponsor this multi-volume
Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle, a sum equivalent
to about 82,000 in 2015.[75] He stretched the funding to
include his planned books on geology, and agreed to un-
realistic dates with the publisher.[76] As the Victorian era
began, Darwin pressed on with writing his Journal, and
in August 1837 began correcting printers proofs.[77]
5
Darwins health suered under the pressure. On 20
September he had an uncomfortable palpitation of the
heart, so his doctors urged him to knock o all work
and live in the country for a few weeks. After visiting
Shrewsbury he joined his Wedgwood relatives at Maer
Hall, Staordshire, but found them too eager for tales of
his travels to give him much rest. His charming, intelli-
gent, and cultured cousin Emma Wedgwood, nine months
older than Darwin, was nursing his invalid aunt. His
uncle Josiah pointed out an area of ground where cin-
ders had disappeared under loam and suggested that this
might have been the work of earthworms, inspiring a
new & important theory on their role in soil formation,
which Darwin presented at the Geological Society on 1
November.[78]
William Whewell pushed Darwin to take on the duties of
Secretary of the Geological Society. After initially de-
clining the work, he accepted the post in March 1838.[79]
Despite the grind of writing and editing the Beagle re-
ports, Darwin made remarkable progress on transmuta-
tion, taking every opportunity to question expert natu-
ralists and, unconventionally, people with practical ex-
perience such as farmers and pigeon fanciers.[9][80] Over
time, his research drew on information from his relatives
and children, the family butler, neighbours, colonists and
former shipmates.[81] He included mankind in his specu-
lations from the outset, and on seeing an orangutan in the
zoo on 28 March 1838 noted its childlike behaviour.[82]
Darwin chose to marry his cousin, Emma Wedgwood.
The strain took a toll, and by June he was being laid up
for days on end with stomach problems, headaches and
heart symptoms. For the rest of his life, he was repeat-
edly incapacitated with episodes of stomach pains, vomit-
ing, severe boils, palpitations, trembling and other symp-
toms, particularly during times of stress, such as attending
6 1 BIOGRAPHY

meetings or making social visits. The cause of Darwins favourable ones to be destroyed. The result of
illness remained unknown, and attempts at treatment had this would be the formation of new species.
little success.[83] Here, then, I had at last got a theory by which
On 23 June, he took a break and went geologising in to work...[89]
Scotland. He visited Glen Roy in glorious weather to see
the parallel roads cut into the hillsides at three heights. By mid December, Darwin saw a similarity between
He later published his view that these were marine raised farmers picking the best stock in selective breeding, and a
beaches, but then had to accept that they were shorelines Malthusian Nature selecting from chance variants so that
of a proglacial lake.[84] every part of newly acquired structure is fully practical
Fully recuperated, he returned to Shrewsbury in July. and perfected,[90] thinking this comparison a beautiful
Used to jotting down daily notes on animal breeding, he part of my theory.[91] He later called his theory natural
scrawled rambling thoughts about career and prospects on selection, an analogy with what he termed the articial
two scraps of paper, one with columns headed Marry selection of selective breeding.[9]
and Not Marry. Advantages included constant com- On 11 November, he returned to Maer and proposed to
panion and a friend in old age ... better than a dog any- Emma, once more telling her his ideas. She accepted,
how, against points such as less money for books and then in exchanges of loving letters she showed how she
terrible loss of time.[85] Having decided in favour, he valued his openness in sharing their dierences, also ex-
discussed it with his father, then went to visit Emma pressing her strong Unitarian beliefs and concerns that
on 29 July. He did not get around to proposing, but his honest doubts might separate them in the afterlife.[92]
against his fathers advice he mentioned his ideas on While he was house-hunting in London, bouts of illness
transmutation.[86] continued and Emma wrote urging him to get some rest,
almost prophetically remarking So don't be ill any more
my dear Charley till I can be with you to nurse you. He
1.4.1 Malthus and natural selection
found what they called Macaw Cottage (because of its
gaudy interiors) in Gower Street, then moved his mu-
Continuing his research in London, Darwins wide read-
seum in over Christmas. On 24 January 1839, Darwin
ing now included the sixth edition of Malthus's An Es-
was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS).[2][93]
say on the Principle of Population, and on 28 Septem-
ber 1838 he noted its assertion that human population, On 29 January, Darwin and Emma Wedgwood were mar-
when unchecked, goes on doubling itself every twenty ve ried at Maer in an Anglican ceremony arranged to suit the
years, or increases in a geometrical ratio, a geometric Unitarians, then immediately caught the train to London
progression so that population soon exceeds food supply and their new home.[94]
in what is known as a Malthusian catastrophe. Darwin
was well prepared to compare this to de Candolle's war-
ring of the species of plants and the struggle for existence 1.5 Geology books, barnacles, evolution-
among wildlife, explaining how numbers of a species kept ary research
roughly stable. As species always breed beyond available
resources, favourable variations would make organisms For more details on this topic, see Development of Dar-
better at surviving and passing the variations on to their wins theory.
ospring, while unfavourable variations would be lost. Darwin now had the framework of his theory of natural
He wrote that the nal cause of all this wedging, must selection by which to work,[89] as his prime hobby.[95]
be to sort out proper structure, & adapt it to changes, so His research included extensive experimental selective
that One may say there is a force like a hundred thousand breeding of plants and animals, nding evidence that
wedges trying force into every kind of adapted structure species were not xed and investigating many detailed
into the gaps of in the economy of nature, or rather form- ideas to rene and substantiate his theory.[9] For fteen
ing gaps by thrusting out weaker ones.[9][87] This would years this work was in the background to his main occupa-
result in the formation of new species.[9][88] As he later tion of writing on geology and publishing expert reports
wrote in his Autobiography: on the Beagle collections.[96]

In October 1838, that is, fteen months af-
ter I had begun my systematic enquiry, I hap-
pened to read for amusement Malthus on Pop-
ulation, and being well prepared to appreci-
ate the struggle for existence which everywhere
goes on from long-continued observation of the
habits of animals and plants, it at once struck
me that under these circumstances favourable
variations would tend to be preserved, and un-
When FitzRoys Narrative was published in May 1839,
Darwins Journal and Remarks was such a success as the
third volume that later that year it was published on its
own.[97] Early in 1842, Darwin wrote about his ideas to
Charles Lyell, who noted that his ally denies seeing a
beginning to each crop of species.[98]
Darwins book The Structure and Distribution of Coral
Reefs on his theory of atoll formation was published in
May 1842 after more than three years of work, and he
1.6 Publication of the theory of natural selection
Darwin in 1842 with his eldest son, William Erasmus Darwin
then wrote his rst pencil sketch of his theory of natu-
ral selection.[99] To escape the pressures of London, the
family moved to rural Down House in September.[100]
On 11 January 1844, Darwin mentioned his theorising
to the botanist Joseph Dalton Hooker, writing with melo-
dramatic humour it is like confessing a murder.[101][102]
Hooker replied There may in my opinion have been a
series of productions on dierent spots, & also a grad-
ual change of species. I shall be delighted to hear
how you think that this change may have taken place,
as no presently conceived opinions satisfy me on the
subject.[103]
Darwins sandwalk at Down House was his usual Thinking
Path.[104]
By July, Darwin had expanded his sketch into a 230-
page Essay, to be expanded with his research results if
he died prematurely.[105] In November, the anonymously
published sensational best-seller Vestiges of the Natural
7
History of Creation brought wide interest in transmuta-
tion. Darwin scorned its amateurish geology and zoology,
but carefully reviewed his own arguments. Controversy
erupted, and it continued to sell well despite contemptu-
ous dismissal by scientists.[106][107]
Darwin completed his third geological book in 1846.
He now renewed a fascination and expertise in marine
invertebrates, dating back to his student days with
Grant, by dissecting and classifying the barnacles he
had collected on the voyage, enjoying observing beau-
tiful structures and thinking about comparisons with al-
lied structures.[108] In 1847, Hooker read the Essay and
sent notes that provided Darwin with the calm critical
feedback that he needed, but would not commit himself
and questioned Darwins opposition to continuing acts of
creation.[109]
In an attempt to improve his chronic ill health, Darwin
went in 1849 to Dr. James Gully's Malvern spa and
was surprised to nd some benet from hydrotherapy.[110]
Then, in 1851, his treasured daughter Annie fell ill,
reawakening his fears that his illness might be hereditary,
and after a long series of crises she died.[111]
In eight years of work on barnacles (Cirripedia), Dar-
wins theory helped him to nd "homologies" showing
that slightly changed body parts served dierent functions
to meet new conditions, and in some genera he found
minute males parasitic on hermaphrodites, showing an
intermediate stage in evolution of distinct sexes.[112] In
1853, it earned him the Royal Society's Royal Medal, and
it made his reputation as a biologist.[113] In 1854 he be-
came a Fellow of the Linnean Society of London, gain-
ing postal access to its library.[114] He began a major re-
assessment of his theory of species, and in November
realised that divergence in the character of descendants
could be explained by them becoming adapted to diver-
sied places in the economy of nature.[115]
1.6 Publication of the theory of natural se-
lection
For more details on this topic, see Publication of Darwins
theory.
By the start of 1856, Darwin was investigating whether
eggs and seeds could survive travel across seawater
to spread species across oceans. Hooker increasingly
doubted the traditional view that species were xed, but
their young friend Thomas Henry Huxley was rmly
against the transmutation of species. Lyell was intrigued
by Darwins speculations without realising their extent.
When he read a paper by Alfred Russel Wallace, On
the Law which has Regulated the Introduction of New
Species, he saw similarities with Darwins thoughts and
urged him to publish to establish precedence. Though
Darwin saw no threat, on 14 May 1856 he began writ-
ing a short paper. Finding answers to dicult questions
held him up repeatedly, and he expanded his plans to
8 1 BIOGRAPHY

rieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection. On the

Charles Darwin, aged 46 in 1855, by then working towards pub-
lication of his theory of natural selection. He wrote to Hooker
about this portrait, if I really have as bad an expression, as
my photograph gives me, how I can have one single friend is
surprising.[116]
evening of 28 June, Darwins baby son died of scarlet
fever after almost a week of severe illness, and he was
too distraught to attend.[120]
There was little immediate attention to this announce-
ment of the theory; the president of the Linnean Society
remarked in May 1859 that the year had not been marked
by any revolutionary discoveries.[121] Only one review
rankled enough for Darwin to recall it later; Professor
Samuel Haughton of Dublin claimed that all that was
new in them was false, and what was true was old.[122]
Darwin struggled for thirteen months to produce an ab-
stract of his big book, suering from ill health but get-
ting constant encouragement from his scientic friends.
Lyell arranged to have it published by John Murray.[123]
On the Origin of Species proved unexpectedly popular,
with the entire stock of 1,250 copies oversubscribed when
it went on sale to booksellers on 22 November 1859.[124]
In the book, Darwin set out one long argument of de-
tailed observations, inferences and consideration of an-
ticipated objections.[125] In making the case for common
descent, he included evidence of homologies between hu-
mans and other mammals.[126][III] Having outlined sexual
selection, he hinted that it could explain dierences be-
tween human races.[127][IV] He avoided explicit discussion
of human origins, but implied the signicance of his work
with the sentence; Light will be thrown on the origin of
man and his history.[128][IV] His theory is simply stated
in the introduction:

a big book on species titled Natural Selection, which As many more individuals of each species
was to include his note on Man. He continued his re- are born than can possibly survive; and as, con-
searches, obtaining information and specimens from nat- sequently, there is a frequently recurring strug-
uralists worldwide including Wallace who was working gle for existence, it follows that any being, if
in Borneo. In mid-1857 he added a chapter heading; it vary however slightly in any manner prof-
Theory applied to Races of Man, but then left out this itable to itself, under the complex and some-
topic. On 5 September 1857, Darwin sent the American times varying conditions of life, will have a bet-
botanist Asa Gray a detailed outline of his ideas, includ- ter chance of surviving, and thus be naturally
ing an abstract of Natural Selection, which omitted human selected. From the strong principle of inheri-
origins and sexual selection. In December, Darwin re- tance, any selected variety will tend to propa-
ceived a letter from Wallace asking if the book would gate its new and modied form.[129]
examine human origins. He responded that he would
avoid that subject, so surrounded with prejudices, while At the end of the book he concluded that:
encouraging Wallaces theorising and adding that I go
much further than you.[117] There is grandeur in this view of life,
Darwins book was only partly written when, on 18 June with its several powers, having been originally
1858, he received a paper from Wallace describing nat- breathed into a few forms or into one; and that,
ural selection. Shocked that he had been forestalled, whilst this planet has gone cycling on accord-
Darwin sent it on that day to Lyell, as requested by ing to the xed law of gravity, from so sim-
Wallace,[118][119] and although Wallace had not asked for ple a beginning endless forms most beautiful
publication, Darwin suggested he would send it to any and most wonderful have been, and are being,
journal that Wallace chose. His family was in crisis with evolved.[130]
children in the village dying of scarlet fever, and he put
matters in the hands of his friends. After some discus- The last word was the only variant of evolved in the
sion, Lyell and Hooker decided on a joint presentation rst ve editions of the book. "Evolutionism" at that
at the Linnean Society on 1 July of On the Tendency of time was associated with other concepts, most commonly
Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Va- with embryological development, and Darwin rst used
1.7 Responses to publication
the word evolution in The Descent of Man in 1871, be-
fore adding it in 1872 to the 6th edition of The Origin of
Species.[131]
1.7 Responses to publication
During the Darwin familys 1868 holiday in her Isle of Wight cot-
tage, Julia Margaret Cameron took portraits showing the bushy
beard Darwin grew between 1862 and 1866.
For more details on this topic, see Reaction to On the
Origin of Species.
The book aroused international interest, with less con-
troversy than had greeted the popular Vestiges of the
Natural History of Creation.[133] Though Darwins ill-
ness kept him away from the public debates, he eagerly
scrutinised the scientic response, commenting on press
cuttings, reviews, articles, satires and caricatures, and
corresponded on it with colleagues worldwide.[134] The
book did not explicitly discuss human origins,[128][IV] but
included a number of hints about the animal ancestry
of humans from which the inference could be made.[135]
The rst review asked, If a monkey has become a man
what may not a man become?" and said it should be
left to theologians as it was too dangerous for ordinary
readers.[136] Amongst early favourable responses, Hux-
leys reviews swiped at Richard Owen, leader of the scien-
tic establishment Huxley was trying to overthrow.[137] In
April, Owens review attacked Darwins friends and con-
descendingly dismissed his ideas, angering Darwin,[138]
but Owen and others began to promote ideas of supernat-
urally guided evolution. Patrick Matthew drew attention
to his 1831 book which had a brief appendix suggesting
9
An 1871 caricature following publication of The Descent of
Man was typical of many showing Darwin with an ape body,
identifying him in popular culture as the leading author of evo-
lutionary theory.[132]
a concept of natural selection leading to new species, but
he had not developed the idea.[139]
The Church of England's response was mixed. Darwins
old Cambridge tutors Sedgwick and Henslow dismissed
the ideas, but liberal clergymen interpreted natural se-
lection as an instrument of Gods design, with the cleric
Charles Kingsley seeing it as just as noble a concep-
tion of Deity.[140] In 1860, the publication of Essays and
Reviews by seven liberal Anglican theologians diverted
clerical attention from Darwin, with its ideas including
higher criticism attacked by church authorities as heresy.
In it, Baden Powell argued that miracles broke Gods
laws, so belief in them was atheistic, and praised Mr
Darwins masterly volume [supporting] the grand princi-
ple of the self-evolving powers of nature.[141] Asa Gray
discussed teleology with Darwin, who imported and dis-
tributed Grays pamphlet on theistic evolution, Natural
Selection is not inconsistent with natural theology.[140][142]
The most famous confrontation was at the public 1860
Oxford evolution debate during a meeting of the British
Association for the Advancement of Science, where the
Bishop of Oxford Samuel Wilberforce, though not op-
posed to transmutation of species, argued against Dar-
wins explanation and human descent from apes. Joseph
Hooker argued strongly for Darwin, and Thomas Hux-
ley's legendary retort, that he would rather be descended
from an ape than a man who misused his gifts, came to
symbolise a triumph of science over religion.[140][143]
10 1 BIOGRAPHY

Even Darwins close friends Gray, Hooker, Huxley and

Lyell still expressed various reservations but gave strong
support, as did many others, particularly younger natu-
ralists. Gray and Lyell sought reconciliation with faith,
while Huxley portrayed a polarisation between religion
and science. He campaigned pugnaciously against the
authority of the clergy in education,[140] aiming to over-
turn the dominance of clergymen and aristocratic ama-
teurs under Owen in favour of a new generation of profes-
sional scientists. Owens claim that brain anatomy proved
humans to be a separate biological order from apes was
shown to be false by Huxley in a long running dispute par-
odied by Kingsley as the "Great Hippocampus Question",
and discredited Owen.[144]
Darwinism became a movement covering a wide range of
evolutionary ideas. In 1863 Lyell's Geological Evidences
of the Antiquity of Man popularised prehistory, though his
caution on evolution disappointed Darwin. Weeks later
Huxleys Evidence as to Mans Place in Nature showed that
anatomically, humans are apes, then The Naturalist on the
River Amazons by Henry Walter Bates provided empiri-
cal evidence of natural selection.[145] Lobbying brought
Darwin Britains highest scientic honour, the Royal So-
ciety's Copley Medal, awarded on 3 November 1864.[146] By 1878, an increasingly famous Darwin had suered years of
illness.
That day, Huxley held the rst meeting of what became
the inuential "X Club" devoted to science, pure and
free, untrammelled by religious dogmas.[147] By the end
of the decade most scientists agreed that evolution oc-
curred, but only a minority supported Darwins view that
the chief mechanism was natural selection.[148]
The Origin of Species was translated into many languages,
becoming a staple scientic text attracting thoughtful at-
tention from all walks of life, including the working
men who ocked to Huxleys lectures.[149] Darwins the-
ory also resonated with various movements at the time[V]
and became a key xture of popular culture.[VI] Cartoon-
ists parodied animal ancestry in an old tradition of show-
ing humans with animal traits, and in Britain these droll
images served to popularise Darwins theory in an un-
threatening way. While ill in 1862 Darwin began growing
a beard, and when he reappeared in public in 1866 car-
icatures of him as an ape helped to identify all forms of
evolutionism with Darwinism.[132]

1.8 Descent of Man, sexual selection, and

botany

See also: Orchids to Variation, Descent of Man to

Emotions, and Insectivorous Plants to Worms

Despite repeated bouts of illness during the last twenty-

two years of his life, Darwins work continued. Having
published On the Origin of Species as an abstract of his
Letter from Charles Darwin to John Burdon-Sanderson
theory, he pressed on with experiments, research, and
writing of his big book. He covered human descent
from earlier animals including evolution of society and of
1.9 Death and funeral 11

mental abilities, as well as explaining decorative beauty in panded in his 1872 book The Expression of the Emotions
wildlife and diversifying into innovative plant studies. in Man and Animals, one of the rst books to feature
Enquiries about insect pollination led in 1861 to novel printed photographs, which discussed the evolution of hu-
studies of wild orchids, showing adaptation of their ow- man psychology and its continuity with the behaviour of
ers to attract specic moths to each species and ensure animals. Both books proved very popular, and Darwin
cross fertilisation. In 1862 Fertilisation of Orchids gave was impressed by the general assent with which his views
his rst detailed demonstration of the power of natural se- had been received, remarking that everybody
[155]
is talk-
lection to explain complex ecological relationships, mak- ing about it without being shocked. His conclusion
was that man with all his noble qualities, with sympathy
ing testable predictions. As his health declined, he lay on
his sickbed in a room lled with inventive experiments which feels for the most debased, with benevolence which
extends not only to other men but to the humblest living
to trace the movements of climbing plants.[150] Admir-
ing visitors included Ernst Haeckel, a zealous proponent creature, with his god-like intellect which has penetrated
into the movements and constitution of the solar system
of Darwinismus incorporating Lamarckism and Goethe's
idealism. [151]
Wallace remained supportive, though he in- with all these exalted powersMan still bears in[156]
his bodily
[152] frame the indelible stamp of his lowly origin.
creasingly turned to Spiritualism.
Darwins book The Variation of Animals and Plants un- His evolution-related experiments and investigations led
der Domestication (1868) was the rst part of his planned to books on Orchids, Insectivorous Plants, The Eects of
big book, and included his unsuccessful hypothesis of Cross and Self Fertilisation in the Vegetable Kingdom, dif-
pangenesis attempting to explain heredity. It sold briskly ferent forms of owers on plants of the same species,
at rst, despite its size, and was translated into many lan- and The Power of Movement in Plants. His botanical
guages. He wrote most of a second part, on natural se- work was interpreted and popularised by various writ-
lection, but it remained unpublished in his lifetime.[153] ers including Grant Allen and H. G. Wells, and helped
transform plant science in the late C19 and early C20. In
his last book he returned to The Formation of Vegetable
Mould through the Action of Worms.

1.9 Death and funeral

See also: Darwin from Insectivorous Plants to Worms

In 1882 he was diagnosed with what was called "angina

Punch's almanac for 1882, published shortly before Darwins

death, depicts him amidst evolution from chaos to Victorian gen-
tleman with the title Man Is But A Worm.
Lyell had already popularised human prehistory, and
Huxley had shown that anatomically humans are apes.[145]
With The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex
published in 1871, Darwin set out evidence from numer-
ous sources that humans are animals, showing continuity
of physical and mental attributes, and presented sexual
selection to explain impractical animal features such as
the peacock's plumage as well as human evolution of cul-
ture, dierences between sexes, and physical and cultural
racial characteristics, while emphasising that humans are
all one species.[154] His research using images was ex-
Tombs of John Herschel and Charles Darwin. Westminster
Abbey.
pectoris" which then meant coronary thrombosis and dis-
ease of the heart. At the time of his death, the physicians
diagnosed anginal attacks, and heart-failure.[157]
He died at Down House on 19 April 1882. His last
words were to his family, telling Emma I am not the
least afraid of death Remember what a good wife you
have been to me Tell all my children to remember how
good they have been to me, then while she rested, he
repeatedly told Henrietta and Francis Its almost worth
12 2 LEGACY

while to be sick to be nursed by you.[158] He had ex-
pected to be buried in St Marys churchyard at Downe,
but at the request of Darwins colleagues, after public and
parliamentary petitioning, William Spottiswoode (Pres-
ident of the Royal Society) arranged for Darwin to be
honoured by burial in Westminster Abbey, close to John
Herschel and Isaac Newton. The funeral was held on
Wednesday 26 April and was attended by thousands of
people, including family, friends, scientists, philosophers
and dignitaries.[159][21]
2 Legacy
scientic consensus that it was the basic mechanism of
evolution, founding the basis for population genetics and
the modern evolutionary synthesis, with J.B.S. Haldane
and Sewall Wright, which set the frame of reference for
modern debates and renements of the theory.[10]
2.1 Commemoration
Main article: Commemoration of Charles Darwin
See also: List of things named after Charles Darwin and
List of taxa described by Charles Darwin

During Darwins lifetime, many geographical features

were given his name. An expanse of water adjoining
the Beagle Channel was named Darwin Sound by Robert
FitzRoy after Darwins prompt action, along with two or
three of the men, saved them from being marooned on
a nearby shore when a collapsing glacier caused a large
wave that would have swept away their boats,[162] and the
nearby Mount Darwin in the Andes was named in cele-
bration of Darwins 25th birthday.[163] When the Beagle
was surveying Australia in 1839, Darwins friend John
Lort Stokes sighted a natural harbour which the ships
captain Wickham named Port Darwin: a nearby settle-
ment was renamed Darwin in 1911, and it became the
capital city of Australias Northern Territory.[164]
More than 120 species and nine genera have been named
after Darwin.[165] In one example, the group of tanagers
related to those Darwin found in the Galpagos Islands
became popularly known as "Darwins nches" in 1947,
fostering inaccurate legends about their signicance to his
work.[166]
Darwins work has continued to be celebrated by nu-
merous publications and events. The Linnean Society
of London has commemorated Darwins achievements
In 1881 Darwin was an eminent gure, still working on his con- by the award of the DarwinWallace Medal since 1908.
tributions to evolutionary thought that had an enormous eect on Darwin Day has become an annual celebration, and in
many elds of science. Portrait by John Collier. 2009 worldwide events were arranged for the bicentenary
of Darwins birth and the 150th anniversary of the publi-
Darwin had convinced most scientists that evolution as cation of On the Origin of Species.[167]
descent with modication was correct, and he was re-
garded as a great scientist who had revolutionised ideas. Darwin has been commemorated in the UK, with his
Though few agreed with his view that natural selection portrait printed on the reverse of 10 banknotes printed
has been the main but not the exclusive means of modi- along with a hummingbird and HMS Beagle, issued by
[168]
cation, he was honoured in June 1909 by more than 400 the Bank of England.
ocials and scientists from across the world who met in A life size seated statue of Darwin can be seen in the main
Cambridge to commemorate his centenary and the fti- hall of the Natural History Museum in London.[169]
eth anniversary of On the Origin of Species.[160] During
this period, which has been called "the eclipse of Darwin- A seated statue of Darwin, unveiled 1897, stands in front
ism", scientists proposed various alternative evolutionary of Shrewsbury Library, the building that used to house
mechanisms which eventually proved untenable. Ronald Shrewsbury School, which Darwin attended as a boy. An-
Fisher, an English statistician nally united Mendelian ge- other statue of Darwin as a young man is situated in the
netics with natural selection between 1918 and his 1930 grounds of Christs College, Cambridge.
book The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection,[161] giv- Darwin College, a postgraduate college at Cambridge
ing the theory a mathematical footing and bringing broad University, is named after the Darwin family.[170]
4.1 Religious views 13

Unveiling of the Darwin Statue outside the former Shrewsbury In 1851 Darwin was devastated when his daughter Annie died.
School building in 1897 By then his faith in Christianity had dwindled, and he had
stopped going to church.[177]

3 Children
freethinkers, and his baptism and boarding school were
The Darwins had ten children: two died in infancy, and Church of England.[23] When going to Cambridge to
Annie's death at the age of ten had a devastating eect become an Anglican clergyman, he did not doubt the
on her parents. Charles was a devoted father and uncom- literal truth of the Bible.[29] He learned John Herschel's
monly attentive to his children.[13] Whenever they fell ill, science which, like William Paley's natural theology,
he feared that they might have inherited weaknesses from sought explanations in laws of nature rather than mir-
inbreeding due to the close family ties he shared with his acles and saw adaptation of species as evidence of
wife and cousin, Emma Wedgwood. He examined this design.[31][32] On board the Beagle, Darwin was quite
topic in his writings, contrasting it with the advantages of orthodox and would quote the Bible as an authority on
crossing amongst many organisms.[171] Despite his fears, morality.[178] He looked for centres of creation to
most of the surviving children and many of their descen- explain distribution,[55] and related the antlion found
dants went on to have distinguished careers (see Darwin- near kangaroos to distinct periods of Creation.[57]
Wedgwood family).[172] By his return, he was critical of the Bible as history,
Of his surviving children, George, Francis and Horace and wondered [178]
why all religions should not be equally
became Fellows of the Royal Society, [173]
distinguished valid. In the next few years, while intensively spec-
as astronomer, [174]
botanist and civil engineer, respec- ulating on geology and the transmutation of species, he
tively. All three were knighted. [175]
Another son, gave much thought to religion and openly discussed this
Leonard, went on to be a soldier, politician, economist, with his wife Emma, whose beliefs also came from inten-
[92]
eugenicist and mentor of the statistician and evolutionary sive study and questioning. The theodicy of Paley and
biologist Ronald Fisher. [176] Thomas Malthus vindicated evils such as starvation as a
result of a benevolent creators laws, which had an overall
good eect. To Darwin, natural selection produced the
good of adaptation but removed the need for design,[179]
4 Views and opinions and he could not see the work of an omnipotent deity
in all the pain and suering, such as the ichneumon wasp
4.1 Religious views paralysing caterpillars as live food for its eggs.[142] He still
viewed organisms as perfectly adapted, and On the Origin
For more details on this topic, see Religious views of of Species reects theological views. Though he thought
Charles Darwin. of religion as a tribal survival strategy, Darwin was reluc-
Darwins family tradition was nonconformist tant to give up the idea of God as an ultimate lawgiver. He
Unitarianism, while his father and grandfather were was increasingly troubled by the problem of evil.[180][181]
14 5 EVOLUTIONARY SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

Darwin remained close friends with the vicar of Downe, termarriage within a caste of those who are naturally
John Brodie Innes, and continued to play a leading part in gifted, Darwin foresaw practical diculties, and thought
the parish work of the church,[182] but from around 1849 it the sole feasible, yet I fear utopian, plan of procedure
would go for a walk on Sundays while his family attended in improving the human race, preferring to simply publi-
church.[177] He considered it absurd to doubt that a man cise the importance of inheritance and leave decisions to
might be an ardent theist and an evolutionist[183][184] and, individuals.[190] Francis Galton named this eld of study
though reticent about his religious views, in 1879 he wrote "eugenics" in 1883.[VIII]
that I have never been an atheist in the sense of denying
the existence of a God. I think that generally ... an
agnostic would be the most correct description of my state 5 Evolutionary social movements
of mind.[92][183]
The "Lady Hope Story", published in 1915, claimed that
Darwin had reverted to Christianity on his sickbed. The
claims were repudiated by Darwins children and have
been dismissed as false by historians.[185]

4.2 Human society

Darwins views on social and political issues reected his

time and social position. He grew up in a family of Whig
reformers who, like his uncle Josiah Wedgwood, sup-
ported electoral reform and the emancipation of slaves.
Darwin was passionately opposed to slavery, while seeing
no problem with the working conditions of English fac-
tory workers or servants. His taxidermy lessons in 1826
from the freed slave John Edmonstone, who he long re-
called as a very pleasant and intelligent man, reinforced
his belief that black people shared the same feelings, and
could be as intelligent as people of other races. He took
the same attitude to native people he met on the Beagle
voyage.[186] These attitudes were not unusual in Britain
in the 1820s, much as it shocked visiting Americans.
British society became more racist in mid century,[24] but
Darwin remained strongly against slavery, against rank-
ing the so-called races of man as distinct species, and
against ill-treatment of native people.[187][VII] He valued
European civilisation and saw colonisation as spreading
its benets, with the sad but inevitable eect that sav-
age peoples who did not become civilised faced extinc-
tion. Darwins theories presented this as natural, and were
cited to promote policies that went against his humanitar-
ian principles.[188]
He thought mens eminence over women was the outcome
of sexual selection, a view disputed by Antoinette Brown
Caricature from 1871 Vanity Fair
Blackwell in The Sexes Throughout Nature.[189]
Darwin was intrigued by his half-cousin Francis Galton's Further information: Darwinism, Eugenics, and Social
argument, introduced in 1865, that statistical analysis of Darwinism
heredity showed that moral and mental human traits could
be inherited, and principles of animal breeding could ap-
ply to humans. In The Descent of Man, Darwin noted Darwins fame and popularity led to his name being asso-
that aiding the weak to survive and have families could ciated with ideas and movements that, at times, had only
lose the benets of natural selection, but cautioned that an indirect relation to his writings, and sometimes went
withholding such aid would endanger the instinct of sym- directly against his express comments.
pathy, the noblest part of our nature, and factors such Thomas Malthus had argued that population growth be-
as education could be more important. When Galton yond resources was ordained by God to get humans to
suggested that publishing research could encourage in- work productively and show restraint in getting fami-
 15

lies, this was used in the 1830s to justify workhouses tion of coral atolls, and as a biologist who had published
and laissez-faire economics.[191] Evolution was by then the denitive work on barnacles. While On the Origin of
seen as having social implications, and Herbert Spencer's Species dominates perceptions of his work, The Descent
1851 book Social Statics based ideas of human freedom of Man and The Expression of the Emotions in Man and
and individual liberties on his Lamarckian evolutionary Animals had considerable impact, and his books on plants
theory.[192] including The Power of Movement in Plants were innova-
Soon after the Origin was published in 1859, critics de- tive studies of great importance, as was his nal work on
rided his description of a struggle for existence as a The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of
Worms.[196][197]
Malthusian justication for the English industrial cap-
italism of the time. The term Darwinism was used
for the evolutionary ideas of others, including Spencers
"survival of the ttest" as free-market progress, and Ernst 7 See also
Haeckel's racist ideas of human development. Writers
used natural selection to argue for various, often con- Creation-evolution controversy
tradictory, ideologies such as laissez-faire dog-eat dog
European and American voyages of scientic explo-
capitalism, racism, warfare, colonialism and imperialism.
ration
However, Darwins holistic view of nature included de-
pendence of one being on another"; thus pacists, social- Harriet (tortoise)
ists, liberal social reformers and anarchists such as Peter
Kropotkin stressed the value of co-operation over strug- History of biology
[193]
gle within a species. Darwin himself insisted that so- History of evolutionary thought
cial policy should not simply be guided by concepts of
struggle and selection in nature.[194] List of coupled cousins
After the 1880s, a eugenics movement developed on List of multiple discoveries
ideas of biological inheritance, and for scientic jus-
tication of their ideas appealed to some concepts of Multiple discovery
Darwinism. In Britain, most shared Darwins cautious Portraits of Charles Darwin
views on voluntary improvement and sought to encour-
age those with good traits in positive eugenics. Dur- Tinamou egg
ing the "Eclipse of Darwinism", a scientic foundation Universal Darwinism
for eugenics was provided by Mendelian genetics. Nega-
tive eugenics to remove the feebleminded were popular
in America, Canada and Australia, and eugenics in the
United States introduced compulsory sterilization laws, 8 Notes
followed by several other countries. Subsequently, Nazi
eugenics brought the eld into disrepute.[VIII] I. ^ Darwin was eminent as a naturalist, geologist,
biologist, and author; after working as a physicians as-
The term "Social Darwinism" was used infrequently from
sistant and two years as a medical student was educated
around the 1890s, but became popular as a derogatory
as a clergyman; and was trained in taxidermy.[198]
term in the 1940s when used by Richard Hofstadter to at-
^
tack the laissez-faire conservatism of those like William II. Robert FitzRoy was to become known after the voy-
Graham Sumner who opposed reform and socialism. age for biblical literalism, but at this time he had con-
Since then, it has been used as a term of abuse by those siderable interest in Lyells ideas, and they met before
opposed to what they think are the moral consequences the voyage when Lyell asked for observations to be made
of evolution.[195][191] in South America. FitzRoys diary during the ascent of
the River Santa Cruz in Patagonia recorded his opin-
ion that the plains were raised beaches, but on return,
newly married to a very religious lady, he recanted these
6 Works ideas.(Browne 1995, pp. 186, 414)
III. ^ In the section Morphology of Chapter XIII of On
For more details on this topic, see Charles Darwin the Origin of Species, Darwin commented on homologous
bibliography. bone patterns between humans and other mammals, writ-
ing: What can be more curious than that the hand of
Darwin was a prolic writer. Even without publication a man, formed for grasping, that of a mole for digging,
of his works on evolution, he would have had a con- the leg of the horse, the paddle of the porpoise, and the
siderable reputation as the author of The Voyage of the wing of the bat, should all be constructed on the same pat-
Beagle, as a geologist who had published extensively on tern, and should include the same bones, in the same rel-
South America and had solved the puzzle of the forma- ative positions?"[199] and in the concluding chapter: The
16
framework of bones being the same in the hand of a man,
wing of a bat, n of the porpoise, and leg of the horse
at once explain themselves on the theory of descent with
slow and slight successive modications.[200]
IV. 1 2 3
In On the Origin of Species Darwin mentioned
human origins in his concluding remark that In the dis-
tant future I see open elds for far more important re-
searches. Psychology will be based on a new foundation,
that of the necessary acquirement of each mental power
and capacity by gradation. Light will be thrown on the
origin of man and his history.[128]
In Chapter VI: Diculties on Theory he referred to
sexual selection: I might have adduced for this same pur-
pose the dierences between the races of man, which are
so strongly marked; I may add that some little light can
apparently be thrown on the origin of these dierences,
chiey through sexual selection of a particular kind, but
without here entering on copious details my reasoning
would appear frivolous.[127]
In The Descent of Man of 1871, Darwin discussed the
rst passage: During many years I collected notes on
the origin or descent of man, without any intention of
publishing on the subject, but rather with the determina-
tion not to publish, as I thought that I should thus only
add to the prejudices against my views. It seemed to me
sucient to indicate, in the rst edition of my 'Origin of
Species,' that by this work 'light would be thrown on the
origin of man and his history;' and this implies that man
must be included with other organic beings in any gen-
eral conclusion respecting his manner of appearance on
this earth.[201] In a preface to the 1874 second edition,
he added a reference to the second point: it has been said
by several critics, that when I found that many details of
structure in man could not be explained through natural
selection, I invented sexual selection; I gave, however, a
tolerably clear sketch of this principle in the rst edition
of the 'Origin of Species,' and I there stated that it was
applicable to man.[202]
V. ^
See, for example, WILLA volume 4, Charlotte
Perkins Gilman and the Feminization of Education by
Deborah M. De Simone: Gilman shared many basic ed-
ucational ideas with the generation of thinkers who ma-
tured during the period of intellectual chaos caused by
Darwins Origin of the Species. Marked by the belief that
individuals can direct human and social evolution, many
progressives came to view education as the panacea for
advancing social progress and for solving such problems
as urbanisation, poverty, or immigration.
^
VI. See, for example, the song A lady fair of lineage
high from Gilbert and Sullivan's Princess Ida, which de-
scribes the descent of man (but not woman!) from apes.
VII. ^ Darwins belief that black people had the same es-
sential humanity as Europeans, and had many mental sim-
ilarities, was reinforced by the lessons he had from John
Edmonstone in 1826.[24] Early in the Beagle voyage, Dar-
win nearly lost his position on the ship when he criticised
9 CITATIONS
FitzRoys defence and praise of slavery. (Darwin 1958, p.
74) He wrote home about how steadily the general feel-
ing, as shown at elections, has been rising against Slavery.
What a proud thing for England if she is the rst European
nation which utterly abolishes it! I was told before leaving
England that after living in slave countries all my opin-
ions would be altered; the only alteration I am aware of is
forming a much higher estimate of the negro character.
(Darwin 1887, p. 246) Regarding Fuegians, he could
not have believed how wide was the dierence between
savage and civilized man: it is greater than between a wild
and domesticated animal, inasmuch as in man there is a
greater power of improvement, but he knew and liked
civilised Fuegians like Jemmy Button: It seems yet won-
derful to me, when I think over all his many good quali-
ties, that he should have been of the same race, and doubt-
less partaken of the same character, with the miserable,
degraded savages whom we rst met here."(Darwin 1845,
pp. 205, 207208)
In the Descent of Man, he mentioned the similarity of
Fuegians and Edmonstones minds to Europeans when
arguing against ranking the so-called races of man as
distinct species.[203]
He rejected the ill-treatment of native people, and for ex-
ample wrote of massacres of Patagonian men, women,
and children, Every one here is fully convinced that this
is the most just war, because it is against barbarians.
Who would believe in this age that such atrocities could
be committed in a Christian civilized country?"(Darwin
1845, p. 102)
VIII. 1 2
Geneticists studied human heredity as
Mendelian inheritance, while eugenics movements sought
to manage society, with a focus on social class in the
United Kingdom, and on disability and ethnicity in the
United States, leading to geneticists seeing this as imprac-
tical pseudoscience. A shift from voluntary arrangements
to negative eugenics included compulsory sterilisation
laws in the United States, copied by Nazi Germany as
the basis for Nazi eugenics based on virulent racism and
"racial hygiene".
(Thurtle, Phillip (17 December 1996). the creation of
genetic identity. SEHR. 5 (Supplement: Cultural and
Technological Incubations of Fascism). Retrieved 11
November 2008.Edwards, A. W. F. (1 April 2000). The
Genetical Theory of Natural Selection. Genetics. 154
(April 2000). pp. 14191426. PMC 1461012 . PMID
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Wilkins, John. Evolving Thoughts: Darwin and the
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but it is also eloquent, imaginatively evocative, and rhetor-
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11 External links
The Complete Works of Charles Darwin Online
Darwin Online; Darwins publications, private pa-
pers and bibliography, supplementary works includ-
ing biographies, obituaries and reviews
Darwin Correspondence Project Full text and notes
for complete correspondence to 1867, with sum-
maries of all the rest, and pages of commentary

Works by Charles Darwin at Project Gutenberg

Works by or about Charles Robert Darwin at
Internet Archive
Works by Charles Darwin at LibriVox (public do-
main audiobooks)

Darwin Manuscript Project

Archival material relating to Charles Darwin. UK

National Archives.

Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Darwin, Charles

Robert". Encyclopdia Britannica (11th ed.). Cam-
bridge University Press.
View books owned and annotated by Charles Dar-
win at the online Biodiversity Heritage Library.
Digitised Darwin Manuscripts in Cambridge Digital
Library
24 12 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

12 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

12.1 Text
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12.1 Text 25

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Aardvark, Jandalhandler, Beao, Aspstren, Wikididact, Kgrad, FoxBot, TrickyM, TobeBot, Trappist the monk, Animalparty, Comnenus,
Standardfact, Bladyniec, BeckenhamBear, Livingrm, Dinamik-bot, Vrenator, Amiodarone, Leondumontfollower, Begoon, 30daysinAK,
Le Docteur, WikiTome, JV Smithy, Innotata, Tbhotch, Roastalle2009, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, RjwilmsiBot, Bento00, Saruha, Khin2718,
Scieberking, Androstachys, DASHBot, Mukogodo, EmausBot, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, Gfoley4, Look2See1, Ncsr11, John beta,
26 12 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Dwalin, TuHan-Bot, AgRince, Bad Gopher Gear, JSquish, ZroBot, John Cline, PBS-AWB, Playdagame6991, Dondervogel 2, Dez9999,
H3llBot, SporkBot, Someone65, LarkinToad2010, Libertaar, Bumfake, TheAlmightyBob42, MonoAV, Lucidhappyguy, Lewis274, Trig-
ger Twiggy, Striker2712, Rangoon11, Ben120480, DASHBotAV, AGXD095, Senecasd, San9663, Kleopatra, LM2000, ClueBot NG,
Tanbircdq, CocuBot, Wendyroseberry, Jhenderson8, Movses-bot, Wcwarren, Slowking4, XxXDylanWillard, Hazhk, Bernie44, StKyrie,
Ronald B. Grant, JamesChambers666, Girly Brains, North Atlanticist Usonian, Susan+49, Pragmaticstatistic, Manutd999, Tholme, Ps-
baucom, Neptunes Trident, MKar, ArtifexMayhem, John Cummings, Timmoreland, Graham11, Kendall-K1, Salmonne, Michael Bar-
era, Beastcuber, Cadiomals, Iamthecheese44, Glevum, DeliciousMeatz, Harizotoh9, MrBill3, JMtB03, Wernot, Cormag100, Salvador-
cases, BattyBot, R3venans, Imwikir, HugoCarval, Toploftical, Cloptonson, ChromaNebula, Gilborrego, Khazar2, JYBot, Tow, Dexbot,
Reverend Mick man34, Thrillbillkillstill, Lugia2453, VIAFbot, Jamesx12345, Gautamh, Sukanta Sarkar, GranChi, Arctictis, Chandler
wiland, Lomicmenes, Royroydeb, FallingGravity, I am One of Many, Luismanu, AmericanLemming, Inglok, Irisbox, EvergreenFir,
Crispulop, Duckduckstop, Vinny Lam, OccultZone, Robevans123, Esquin, Thephil12312, Monkbot, Zacwill, Digidarg, SalopianTank01,
AsteriskStarSplat, Mndata, Rationalobserver, Cynulliad, Exorix Adfjk, Tetra quark, KasparBot, JorisEnter, JJMC89, FindingJohnCorn-
ford, HughMorris15, Bringem Young, Choclatedan, Knmccor, HalloweenNight, Stan Giesbrecht, TheGoodIndian, InternetArchiveBot,
Mekhane, GreenC bot, UnidentiedHuman721, HistofSciJnlFollower, Bender the Bot, Enoch J Brown, Westinjg, Sheila Ki Jawani, Hot
British and Anonymous: 1562

12.2 Images
File:1878_Darwin_photo_by_Leonard_from_Woodall_1884_-_cropped_grayed_partially_cleaned.jpg Source: https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/1878_Darwin_photo_by_Leonard_from_Woodall_1884_-_cropped_grayed_
partially_cleaned.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Woodall 1884 Original artist: Leonard Darwin
File:Annie_Darwin.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Annie_Darwin.jpg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: Lukas Fenner, Matthias Egger, and Sebastien Gagneux Annie Darwins death, the evolution of tuberculosis and the need for systems
epidemiology, Int. J. Epidemiol. (2009) 38(6): 1425-1428 doi:10.1093/ije/dyp367 (archive); where reproduced with permission from the
English Heritage Photo Library, which asserts copyright Original artist: Unknown photographer, uploaded by en:User:Duncharris
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jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
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Charles-Darwin-and-William-Darwin%2C-1842.png License: Public domain Contributors: Karl Pearson (1914-30) The life, let-
ters and labours of Francis Galton, IIIa, Cambridge: University press, p. 341 OCLC: 873074079. Original artist: Unknown
File:Charles_Darwin_1816.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/Charles_Darwin_1816.jpg License:
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garet Cameron
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nal artist: ?
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domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: Charles Darwin
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tributors: UBC Library Digital Collections Original artist: Charles Darwin
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cense: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Tedgrant at English Wikipedia
File:Editorial_cartoon_depicting_Charles_Darwin_as_an_ape_(1871).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
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inal artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
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Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
12.3 Content license 27

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sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
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Conrad_Martens.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: English Wikipedia (13:42, 15 October 2005. User:Dave souza 1235x821
(73563 bytes) (HMS Beagle in the seaways of Tierra del Fuego, painting by Conrad Martens during the voyage of the Beagle (1831-1836),
from The Illustrated Origin of Species by Charles Darwin, abridged and illustrated by Richard Leakey ) Original artist: Conrad Martens
(1801 - 21 August 1878)
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tributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable
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domain Contributors: Vanity Fair 30 September 1871
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licence CC-BY-SA. Original artist: Smhur
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Contributors: This is a cropped version of Image:Wikinews-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Simon 01:05, 2 August 2006 (UTC)
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Simon.
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