ABSTRACT

In the Aircraft Design Project we have decided to design a super

bomber aircraft with a payload capacity of 2,00,000Kg. The aircraft

parameters like cruise velocity, cruise altitude, wing loading etc. And

weight estimation, airfoil selection, wing selection, landing gear

selection has been made with extreme care after a several comparison

with a few same types of aircrafts. . The adequate details have been

collected to make our calculation easier and to make design more

precision. The details have been collected from various sources which

are given in the bibliography.

Even though there are huge bomber aircrafts exist there such as

HJT-16, B-2 Spirit, Xian H-6 and Sukhoi Su-24M which having a

high payload capacity and Good Performance.

Page | 1 ADL
 SYMBOLS AND ABBBREVIATIONS
A : area

A1 : intake highlights area

Ath : throat area

APR : augmented power rating

AR : aspect ratio

AW : wetted area

a : speed of sound; acceleration

: Average acceleration at 0.7 V2

ac : aerodynamic centre

B :breadth, width

b :span

CR : CB root chord

CD : drag coefficient

CDi : induced drag coefficient

CDp : parasitic drag coefficient

CDpmin: minimum parasitic drag coefficient

CDw : wave drag coefficient

Cv : specific heat at constant volume

CF : overall skin friction coefficient; force coefficient

Cf : local skin friction coefficient; coefficient of friction

CL : lift coefficient

Cl: sectional lift coefficient; rolling moment coefficient

CLi : integrated design lift coefficient

Page | 2 ADL
CL : lift curve slope

CL : sideslip curve slope

Cm: pitching-moment coefficient

Cn: yawing-moment coefficient

Cp: pressure coefficient; power coefficient; specific heat at constant pressure

CT: thrust coefficient

CHT: horizontal tail volume coefficient

D : Drag

E : Endurance

e : Oswald efficiency

g : Acceleration due to gravity

G : Factor due to ground effect

JA, JT : Symbols

h : Height from ground

hOB: Obstacle height

k1: Proportionality constant

kuc : Factor depends on flap deflection

KA , KT : Symbols

L : Lift

L
: Lift-to-drag ratio at loiter
D loiter

L
: Lift-to-drag ratio at cruise
D cruise

M : Mach number of aircraft

mff : Mission segment fuel fraction

Page | 3 ADL
N : Time between initiation of rotation and actual

R : Range

Re : Reynolds Number

R/C : Rate of climb

S :Wing Area

Sa : Approach distance

Sab: Distance require to clear an obstacle after becoming airborne

Sf : Flare distance

Sg : Ground Roll

Sref.: Reference surface area

Swet..: Wetted surface area

T : Thrust

P : Power

Pcruise : Thrust at cruise

Ptake-off: Thrust at take-off

P
: Thrust-to-weight ratio at loiter
W
loiter

P
: Thrust-to-weight ratio at cruise
W
cruise

P
: Thrust-to-weight ratio at take-off
W
takeoff

Vcruise : Velocity at cruise

Vstall : Velocity at stall

VLO : Lift off Speed

VTD: Touch down speed

Page | 4 ADL
Wcrew : Crew weight

Wempty : Empty weight of aircraft

Wfuel : Weight of fuel

Wpayload : Payload of aircraft

W0 : Overall weight of aircraft

W
: Wing loading
S

: Density of air

: Dynamic viscosity

r:Co-efficient of rolling friction

: Tapered ratio

OB : Angle between flight path and take-off

: Turning angle

: Gliding angle

R/C: Rate of climb

Page | 5 ADL
 INTRODUCTION
Need for airplane design
An airplane is designed to meet the functional, operational and safety
requirements set by or acceptable to the ultimate user. The actual process of design is a
complex and long drawn out engineering task involving:

Selection of airplane type and shape

Determination of geometric parameters
Selection of power plant
Structural design and analysis of various components and
Determination of airplane flight and operational characteristics.

Over the year of this century, aircraft have evolved in many directions and
the design of any modern plane is a joint project for a large body of competent engineers and
technicians, headed by a chief designer. Different groups in the project specialize in the
design of different components of the airplane, such as the wing, fuselage etc.

A new experimental plane has to meet higher performance requirements

than similar planes already in service. Hence design laboratories involved in experimental
and research work are indispensable adjuncts to a design office. These laboratories as well as
allied specialized design offices and research institutions are concerned in helping the
designer to obtain the best possible solutions for all problems pertaining to airplane design
and construction and in the development of suitable components and equipment.

Airplane design procedure is basically a method of trial and error for the design
of component units and their harmonization into a complete aircraft system. Thus each trial
aims at a closer approach to the final goal and is based on a more profound study of the
various problems involved. The three phases of aircraft design are

Conceptual design
Preliminary design
Detailed design

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Phase of aircraft design

FIG: 1

FIG: 2

Page | 7 ADL
Conceptual design

Aircraft design can be broken into three major phases, as depicted in figure. Conceptual
design is the primary focus of this book. It is in conceptual design that the basic questions of
configuration arrangement, size and weight, and performance are answered.

The first question is can an affordable aircraft be built that meets the requirements? if not,
the customer may wish to relax the requirements.

Conceptual design is a very fluid process. New ideas and problems emerge as a design is investigated
in increasing detail. Each time the latest design is analyzed and sized, it must be redrawn to reflect the
new gross weight, fuel weight, wing size, and other changes. Early wind tunnel test often revel
problems requiring some changes to the configuration.

Preliminary design

Preliminary design can be said to begin when the major changes are over. The big
questions such as whether to use a canard or an aft tail have been resolved. The configuration
arrangement can be expected to remain about as shown on current drawing, although minor
revisions may occur. At some point late in preliminary design, even minor changes are
stopped when a decision is made to freeze the configuration.

During preliminary design the specialists in area such as structure landing gear and
control systems will design and analyze their portion of the aircraft. Testing is initiated in
areas such as aerodynamics, propulsion, structures, and control. A mockup may be
constructed at this point.

A key activity during preliminary design is lofting. Lifting is the mathematical

modeling of the outside skin of the aircraft with sufficient accuracy to insure proper fit
between its different parts, even if they are designed by different designers and possibly
fabricated in different location. Lofting originated in shipyards and was originally done with
long flexible rulers called splines. This work was done in a loft over the shipyard; hence
the name.

The ultimate objective during preliminary design is to ready the company for the detail
design stage, also called full-scale development. Thus, the end of preliminary design usually
involves a full scale development proposal. In todays environment, this can result in a
situation jokingly referred to as you-bet-your-company. The possible loss on an overrun
contrast o from lack of sales can exceed the net worth of the company! Preliminary design
must establish confidence that the airplane can be built in time and at the estimated cost.

Detailed design

Assuming a favorable decision for entering full scale development, the detail design phase
begins in which the actual pieces to be fabricated are designed. For example, during
conceptual and preliminary design the wing box will be designed and analyzed as a whole.

Page | 8 ADL
During detail design, that whole will be broken down in to individual ribs, spars and skins,
each of which must be separately designed and analyzed.

Another important part of detailed is called production design. Specialist determine

how the airplane will be fabricated, starting with the smallest and simplest subassemblies and
building up to the final assembly process. Production designers frequently wish to modify the
design for ease of manufacture; that can have a major impact on performance or weight.
Compromises are inevitable, but the design must still meet the original requirements.

It is interesting to note that in the Soviet Union, the production design is done by a
completely different design bureau than the conceptual and preliminary design, resulting in
superior reducibility at some expense in performance and weight.

During detail design, the testing effort intensifies. Actual structure of the aircraft is
fabricated and tested. Control laws for the flight control system arte tested on an iron-bird
simulator, a detailed working model of the actuator and flight control surfaces. Flight
simulator are developed and flown by both company and customer test pilot.

Detail design ends with fabrication of the aircraft. Frequently the fabrication Begins on
part of the aircraft before the entire detail-design effort is completed. Hopefully, changes to
already- fabricated pieces can be avoided. The further along a design progresses, the more
people are involved. In fact, most of the engineers who go to work for a major aerospace
company will work in preliminary on detail design.

Classification of airplanes design

Functional classification:
The airplane today is used for a multitude of activities in civil and
military fields. Civil applications include cargo transport, passenger travel, mail distribution,
and specialized uses like agricultural, ambulance and executive flying. The main types of
military airplane at the present time are fighters and bombers. Each of these types may be
further divided into various groups, such as strategic fighters, interceptors, escort fighters,
tactical bombers and strategic bombers. There are also special aircraft, such as ground attack
planes and photo-re-connaisance planes. Sometimes more than one function may be
combines so that we have multi-purpose airplanes like fighter-bombers. In addition to these,
we have airplanes for training and sport.

Page | 9 ADL
Classification by power plants:
Types of engines used for power plant:

Piston engines (krishak, Dakota, super constellation)

Turbo-prop engines ( viscount,friendship,An-102)
Turbo-fan engines (HJT 16, Boeing series, MIG-21)
Ramjet engines
Rockets (liquid and solid propellants) (X-15A)

Location of power plant:

Engine ( with propeller) located in fuselage nose (single engine)

(HT-2,Yak-9,A-109)
Pusher engine located in the rear fuselage (Bede XBD-2)
Jet engines submerged in the wing

1. At the root(DH Comet, Tu-104,Tu-16)

2. Along the span (Canberra, U-2, YF-12A)

Jet engines in nacelles suspended under the wing (pod

mountings) (Boeing 707,DC-8,Convair 880)
Jet engines located on the rear fuselage (Trident, VC 10 ,i1-62)
Jet engines located within the rear fuselage (Hf 24,
lighting,MIG-19)

Classification by configuration:

Airplanes are also classified in accordance with their shape and structural
layout, which in turn contribute to their aerodynamic, tactical and operational characteristics.
Classification by configuration is made according to:

Shape and position of the wing

Type of fuselage
Location of horizontal tail surfaces

Shape and position of the wing:

Braved biplane(D.H. Tiger moth)

Braced sesquiplane (An-2)
Semi-cantilever parasol monoplane (baby ace)
Cantilever low wing monoplane (DC-3,HJT-16,I1-18,DH Comet)
Cantilever mid wing monoplane (Hunter, Canberra)
Cantilever high wing monoplane (An-22,Brequet 941 Fokker
Friendship)
Straight wing monoplane (F-104 A)

Page | 10 ADL
 Swept wing monoplane (HF-24, MIG-21, Lighting)
Delta monoplane with small aspect ratio (Avro-707, B-58 Hustler,
AvroVulcan)

Type of fuselage

Conventional single fuselage design ( HT-2,Boeing 707

Twin- fuselage design
Pod and boom construction (Packet, Vampire)

Types of landing gear:

Retractable landing gear (DC-9,Tu-114,SAAB-35)

Non- retractable landing gear (pushpak, An-14, Fuji KM-2)
Tail wheel landing gear (HT-2,Dakota,Cessana J85 C)
Nose wheel landing gear (Avro-748, Tu-134,F-5A)
Bicycle landing gear (Yak-25,HS-P,112)

THE DESIGN
Design is a process of usage of creativity with the knowledge of science
where we try to get the most of the best things available and to overcome the pitfalls the
previous design has. It is an iterative process to idealism toward with everyone is marching
still.

Design of any system is of successful application of fundamentals of

physics. Thus the airplane design incorporates the fundamentals of aerodynamics, structures,
performance and stability & control and basic physics. These are based on certain degree of
judgment and experience. Every designer has the same technical details but each design
prevails its own individuality and the mode of the designer.

Here the preliminary design has been done of an executive Transport

Aircraft. The basic requirements are the safe, comfortable and economic transport mode with
reasonable time period of flight. Here comfort and safety are given primary importance.

Page | 11 ADL
 FIG: 3

Page | 12 ADL
 COMPARATIVE DATA SHEET
In the designers perspective it is necessary to compare the existing
airplanes that are of same type as that of our desired airplane. Their important parameters,
positive aspects to be considered and pitfalls to be overcome are taken into consideration.

Manufacturer AIRBUS BOEING BOEING McDON.

Type A340- 747- 777- /DOUG.
Model 600 400 300 MD-12LR

Initial service date 2002 1988 1998 -

Engine R-R P&W4062 R-R R-R/GE/PW
Manufacturer
Model / Type Trent 556 4056 Trent 895 CF6-80C2
No. of engines 4 4 2 4
SFC .54lb/lbf-hr .56lb/lbf-hr .575lb/lbf-hr .23lb/lbf-hr
Bypass ratio 36:03:01 5.0:1 38:04:01 5-5.31
Dry Weight 4835kg 4890kg 5942kg 4472.42kg
Diameter 2.5m 2.54m 3m 2.69m
Length 3.9m 4.41m 4.36m 4.26m
Static thrust (kN) 249.1 252.4 423.0 284.7
Accommodation:
Max. seats (single 475 660 550 660
class)
Two class seating 440 496 479
Three class seating 380 412 394 481
No. abreast 9 10 10 11/8
Hold volume (m) 187.74 171.00 200.50 126.40
Volume per 0.40 0.26 0.36 0.19
passenger
Mass (Weight) (kg):
Ramp 365900 397730 299600
Max. take-off 365000 396830 299370 430846
Max. landing 254000 285760 237685 291468
Zero-fuel 240000 242670 224530 273308
Max. payload 63000 61186 68570 85489
Max. fuel payload 29311
Design payload 36100 39140 45695
Design fuel load 151890 176206 197332
Operational empty 177010 181484 155960 187819

Page | 13 ADL
 Manufacturer AIRBUS BOEING BOEING McDON.
Type A340- 747- 777- /DOUG.
Model 600 400 300 MD-12LR

Weight Ratios:
Ops empty/Max. T/O 0.485 0.457 0.521 0.436
Max. Payload/Max. 0.173 0.154 0.229
T/O
Max. Fuel/Max. T/O 0.423 0.407 0.452
Max. Landing/Max. 0.696 0.720 0.794 0.677
T/O
Fuel (litres):
Standard 195620 204350 171170
Optional 216850
Fuselage:
Length (m) 69.57 68.63 72.88 58.82
Height (m) 5.64 8.10 6.20 8.51
Width (m) 5.64 6.50 6.20 7.47
Finess Ratio 12.34 10.56 11.75 7.87
Wing:
Area (m) 437.30 525.00 427.80 543.00
Span (m) 61.20 62.30 60.90 64.92
MAC (m) 8.35 9.68 8.75 9.80
Aspect Ratio 8.56 7.39 8.67 7.76
Taper Ratio 0.220 0.275 0.149 0.215
Average (t/c) % 9.40
1/4 Chord Sweep () 31.10 37.50 31.60 35.00
High Lift Devices:
Trailing Edge Flaps S2 S3 S2/S1 S2
Type
Flap Span/Wing Span 0.625 0.639 2.758
2
Area (m ) 78.7
Leading Edge Flaps Slats kruger Slats slats
Type
Area (m) 48.1

Manufacturer AIRBUS BOEING BOEING McDON.

Type A340- 747- 777- /DOUG.
Model 600 400 300 MD-12LR

Vertical Tail:
Area (m) 47.65 77.10 53.23 96.10
Height (m) 9.44 10.16 9.24 12.90
Aspect Ratio 1.87 1.34 1.60 1.73
Taper Ratio 0.350 0.330 0.290 0.345
1/4 Chord Sweep () 45.00 45.00 46.00 40.00
Tail Arm (m) 27.50 30.00 31.65 24.50

Page | 14 ADL
 Sv/S 0.109 0.147 0.124 0.177
SvLv/Sb 0.049 0.071 0.065 0.067
Horizontal Tail:
Area (m) 93.00 136.60 101.26 113.80
Span (m) 21.50 22.08 21.35 22.55
Aspect Ratio 4.97 3.57 4.50 4.47
Taper Ratio 0.360 0.265 0.300 0.326
1/4 Chord Sweep () 30.00 32.00 35.00 35.00
Tail Arm (m) 28.60 32.50 32.95 24.67
Sh/S 0.213 0.260 0.237 0.210
ShLh/Sc 0.729 0.874 0.891 0.528
Undercarriage:
Track (m) 10.70 11.00 11.00 11.59
Wheelbase (m) 32.50 25.60 25.80 26.84
Turning radius (m) 42.80 41.00
No. of wheels 2;12 2;16 2;12 2;16
(nose;main)
Main Wheel diameter 1.250 1.118
(m)
Main Wheel width 0.457
(m)
Nacelle:
Length (m) 6.10 5.64 7.30 7.27
Max. width (m) 3.05 2.90 3.20 3.10
Spanwise location 0.296/0.625 0.376/0.667 0.326 0.370/0.630

Manufacturer AIRBUS BOEING BOEING McDON.

Type A340- 747- 777- /DOUG.
Model 600 400 300 MD-12LR
Loadings:
Max. power load 366.32 393.06 353.87 378.33
(kg/kN)
Max. wing load 834.67 755.87 699.79 793.45
(kg/m2)
Thrust/Weight Ratio 0.2783 0.2593 0.2881 0.269
Take-off (m):
ISA sea level 3100 3310 3080
ISA +20C SL. 3550 3600 3540
ISA 5000ft 4250 4390
ISA +20C 5000ft
Landing (m):
ISA sea level. 2240 2130 1860 2577
ISA +20C SL. 2240 2130 1860
ISA 5000ft 2410
ISA +20C 5000ft 2410
Speeds (kt/Mach):

Page | 15 ADL
 V2 185
Vapp 144 153
Vno/Mmo 330/M0.86 365/M0.92 330/M0.87 /M0.85
Vne/Mme 365/M0.93 445/M0.97
CLmax (T/O) 1.92
CLmax (L/D @ MLM) 2.87 2.38
Max. cruise :
Speed (kt) 507
Altitude (ft) 35000
Fuel consumption 11370
(kg/h)
Long range cruise:
Speed (kt) 490
Altitude (ft) 35000
Fuel consumption 9950
(kg/h)

Manufacturer AIRBUS BOEING BOEING McDON.

Type A340- 747- 777- /DOUG.
Model 600 400 300 MD-12LR
Range (nm):
Max. payload 5700 6857 8000
Design range 7500 7100 5604
Max. fuel (+ payload) 7800 8310
Ferry range 8800
Design Parameters:
W/SCLmax 2857.63 3117.51
W/SCLtoST 3912.54 4579.90
Fuel/pax/nm (kg) 0.0460 0.0500
Seats x Range 3300000 3521600
(seats.nm)
TABLE: 1

Page | 16 ADL
DESIGNING OF BOMBER AIRCRAFT
REQUIRMENTS:

Passengers: 4
Range: 10,000 km
Pay load: 1,00,000 Kg
Cruise Mach: 0.895
Altitude: 35000ft
CALCULATION OF CRUISE VELOSITY
Temperature at 35000ft: 216k

Velocity of sound at 35000ft.=297.88m/s

V cruise = M * velocity of sound

=0.895*297.88

=266.667

=267m/s

MISSION PROFILE

Page | 17 ADL
 FIG: 4

0-1 Take-off

1-2 Climbing

2-3 Cruising

3-4 Descending

4-5 Loitering

5-6 Descending

6-7 Landing

SEGMENT DETAILS

MISSION
DESCRIPTI ALTITUD DISTANC TIME
SEGMEN ON E E
T

Page | 18 ADL
 0-1 GROUN 0 2Km 5min
DRUN

1-2 ASCENT 0-13Km 10Km 6min

2-3 CRUSING 13Km 9971Km 4hrs.

13 Km
3-4 LOITER 5km 20min

4-5 DECENT 13-0 Km 10 Km 5min

5-6 LANDING 0 2Km 2min

TABLE: 2

ESTIMATION OF WEIGHT
The weight of the aircraft (W) is the key factor in almost aircraft performance problems. The
gross weight is distributed in the following manner:

W = Wstruc + Wcrew + Wpass + Wfe + Wpp + Wf

Here,

Wstructureconsists of the wing, fuselage, under-carriage & the empennage and accounts for
about 32% of the gross weight, i.e., 0.32W.

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Wfixed equipmentincludes the passenger seats, food, baggage racks, lavatories, air-
conditioning, avionics and other passenger amenities. This adds to the weight by about
0.05W.

Wpowerplantis the weight of the engine and its systems. The initial assumption of engine
weight is assumed to be 0.055W which may be modified later to suit thrust requirements.

Wfuel is the weight contribution of the fuel to the total weight. It depends on the range also
includes the Reserve fuel that is used in case of an emergency. It adds to the gross weight by
a factor of 0.3W.

Wcrew + Wpassengersaccounts for the remaining weight. i.e., 0.275W. Taking passenger &
baggage weight into consideration, a maximum of 1800N per passenger is permissible. As for
a crew member, 1000N would suffice.

WARMUP AND TAKE OFF:

W1/W0=0.97

W0 =Takeoff weight

W1 = Weight at the end of take off

CLIMB:
W2/W1-0.985

W1 = Weight at the start of climb

W2 = Weight at the end of climb

CRUISE:
W3/W2= ( )

W2= Weight at the start of cruise

W3 = Weight at the end of cruise

RANGE: HEAD WIND CORRECTION

Gross safe range = Gross still in air range/1.5

=10000/1.5

=6666.667

Page | 20 ADL
Vcru = 266m/s

Vcr = 910.8km/hr.
Time=4.539 hr.

Head wind = 15m/s

= 54km/hr.

Additional distance = 4.539*54

=245.106km

TOTAL RANGE = FERRY RANGE+RANGE CORRECTION FOR THE HEAD

WIND

= 10000+245.106

=10245.106km

(L/D)cru =0.895*(L/D)max

TO FIND (L/D)max

Aspect ratio = 7.5

From the Wetted area ratio chart (chart 1)

For swept back wing Swet/Sref=6

2
Wetted aspect ratio = b /Swet

Page | 21 ADL
 Chart: 1 Wetted area ratios

Wetted aspect ratio = A/(Swet/Sref)

= 7.5/6

=1.25

From Maximum lift to drag ratio trends chart (chart-2)

(L/D)max = 17

For cruise,

(L/D) = 0.895*(L/D)max

=0.895*17

= 15.215

Page | 22 ADL
 Chart 2

W3/W2= ( )

= 0.69

W3/W2 =0.69

Page | 23 ADL
LOITER:
W3/W4

E = (1/ct)*(L/D) max*ln(W3/W4)
E = 30 min = 0.5 hr.

0.5 = (1/0.4)*17*ln(W3/W4)

0.5 = 42.5*ln(W3/W4)

Ln (W3/W4) = 0.0117647

0.0117647 = 1.011834
W4/W3 = 1/1.011834

= 0.978

W4/W3 = 0.978

LAND:
W5/W4= 0.959

W4 = Initial weight while landing

W3 = Final weight while landing

HALTING:
Wf/Wg = 1.06(1-Wh/Wg)

Wh/Wg =W5/W4*W4/W3*W3/W2*W2/W1*W1/W0

= 0.959*0.978*0.69*0.985*0.97

= 0.618

Wf/Wg = 1.06(1-0.618)

= 0.4046

Wf/Wg = 0.4046

Page | 24 ADL
WEIGHT RATIOS FOR DIFFERENT (L/D) cru VALUES
TABLE: 3

(L/D)m W1/ W2/ W3/ W4/ W5/ Wf/ (L/D)cru

ax ise
W0 W1 W2 W3 W4 Wg
11 0.97 0.985 0.54 0.978 0.959 0.502 9.526

12 0.97 0.985 0.57 0.981 0.959 0.530 10.392

13 0.97 0.985 0.59 0.982 0.959 0.554 11.258

14 0.97 0.985 0.626 0.984 0.959 0.576 12.124

15 0.97 0.985 0.634 0.985 0.959 0.595 12.99

16 0.97 0.985 0.654 0.986 0.959 0.613 13.856

17 0.97 0.985 0.677 0.991 0.959 0.630 14.722

17.43 0.97 0.985 0.684 0.989 0.959 0.637 15.094

EMPTY WEIGHT
Page | 25 ADL
We = Empty weight of the aircraft.

We/Wg = AWgC

A=1.02

C= -0.06

We/Wg = 1.02(Wg) ^-0.06

DIFFERENT Wg VALUES FOR VARIOUS (L/D)

TABLE: 4

Wf/Wg (L/D)max Wpay/Wg Wg We/Wg

0.5277 11 0.0108 550000 0.4615

0.4985 12 0.0401 551000 0.4614

0.4727 13 0.0666 555000 0.4613

0.4497 14 0.0891 557000 0.4612

0.4289 15 0.1101 560000 0.4610

0.4103 16 0.1291 565000 0.4607

0.3921 17 0.1475 569000 0.4605

0.3852 17.43 0.1543 571000 0.4604

TO FIND THE GROSS WEIGHT

Wg= Wpay + Wf + We
Page | 26 ADL
 1=Wpay/Wg + Wf/Wg + We/Wg

Wg= Wpay/(1- Wf/Wg We/Wg)

We/Wg = 1.02(Wg)^(-0.06)

Wg = Wpay/ {1-Wf/Wg-[1.02(Wg)^(-0.06)]}

FOR

(L/D) max = 17;

Wf/Wg = 0.3921

By substituting the values in above equation we get

We/Wg = 1.02(569000) ^ (-0.06)

= 0.4601

Wg = (Wcrew + Wpayload )/{1-Wf/Wg-[1.02(Wg)^(-0.06)]}

= (73800+10100) / (1-0.3921-0.4601)

=569199.46 kg

Wg = 569199.46

We/Wg = 1.02(569000) ^ (-0.06)

= 0.4601

Wpay/Wg = 83900/569199.46
Page | 27 ADL
 = 0.1474

Wpay/Wg + We/Wg + Wf/Wg =1

0.1474+0.461+0.3921 = 1.0005

1.0005 ~ 1

Page | 28 ADL
Wf/Wg (L/D)maxvs Wf/Wg Wf/Wg
0.6
0.55
0.5
0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0 (L/D)max
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

GRAPH: 1

(L/D)max Wf/Wg

11 0.5277

12 0.4985

13 0.4727

14 0.4497

15 0.4289

16 0.41025

17 0.39205

17.43 0.38518

TABLE: 5

Page | 29 ADL
 (L/D)maxVsWg
572500

570000

567500

565000

562500
Wg

560000

557500 Wg

555000

552500

550000

547500
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
(L/D)max

GRAPH: 2

(L/D)max Wg

11 550000

12 551000

13 555000

14 557000

15 560000

16 565000

17 569000

17.43 571000

TABLE: 6

Page | 30 ADL
 SELECTION OF WING LOADING BASED
ON LANDING SPEED/LANDING DISTANCE

Approach Velocity:

Va ~ 1.3(Vs) land
VTD ~ 1.15(Vs) land
Sland (feet) = 0.3{ Va (in knots)} 2
Vs = {2Wland/(S*CLmax*0*)} 0.5
= (2Pland/CLmax*0) 0.5

Pland = (CLmax* 0*Vs2)/2

=1.0, In the sea level unless otherwise prescribed landing altitude.

CLmax =3

Landing Distance, land (in ft.)=6725.72ft.

Approach Velocity.
Va = (Sland /.3).5=149.7299knots.

1 Knot=1.853km/hr.

=0.5148m/s

Va=77.08m/s

Stalling Velocity.
Vstall=Va/1.3

=59.2923m/s

Pland=(3*1.225*1*59.232)/2.

=6446.30N/m3.

Page | 31 ADL
Pland = 6446.30

Pland for Vs=6446.30N/m3.

Pland for Vs+10%=7816.445N/m3.

Pland for Vs-10% =5232.4966N/m3.

W/S = Pland*(WTO/Wland).

For Stalling Velocity of 59.8m/s.

Pland =(3*1.225*1*59.82)/2

=6570.97N/m2

S =Wg/Pland

= (569000*9.81)/6570.97

=849.476m2.

S = 849.476m2

Page | 32 ADL
 W/S vs Vs
110

100

90

80

70

60
Vs

50
Vs
40

30

20

10

0
0 2500 5000 7500 10000 12500 15000 17500 20000
W/S

GRAPH: 3

W/S Vs

4593.75 50

6615 60

9003.75 70

11760 80

14883.75 90

18375 100

TABLE : 7

Page | 33 ADL
 SELECTION OF WING LOADING BASED
ON MAXIMUM SPEED
For a High Subsonic Aircraft

Mmax = Mcric+0.04

=0.9+0.04

=0.94

So Maximum Velocity Vmax = 278.18m/s.

t`=Tvmax/W
t`=(.5**Vmax2*s*Cd)/W
0.5Vmax2=qmax; W/S=P
t`=(Cdqmax)/P

CD0=Cfe*Swet/S

Estimation Of Wetted Area:

CD0(approximate)=0.015

Log10Swet =C+d*log10WTO
WTO in lbs.& Swet in ft.2

Cfe= 0.0030

From reference 2 Table 3.5,Page 122

C=0.0199

d=0.778

Log10Swet = 0.0199+0.778*log10 (1254430.18*0.97)

=3.0625

Page | 34 ADL
Swet= 56780.57ft2

=5223.813m2

Cd0 = Cfe*(Swet/S)

=0.003*(6)

=0.018~0.015

Determination Of Drag:-
Drag is the resolved component of the complete aerodynamic force which is parallel to the
flight direction (or relative oncoming airflow). It must always act to oppose the direction of
motion.

It is the undesirable component of the aerodynamic force while lift is the desirable
component.

There are only two sources of aerodynamic force on a body moving through a fluid- the
pressure distribution and the shear stress distribution acting over the body surface.

Therefore there are only two general types of drag:

Pressure Drag: due to a net imbalance of surface pressure acting in the drag direction.

Friction Drag: due to the net effect of the shear stress acting in the drag direction.

Amount of drag generated depends on the Planform area (S), air density (), flight speed (V),
drag coefficient (CD) CD is a measure of aerodynamic efficiency and mainly depends upon
the Section shape, Planform geometry, angle of attack (), compressibility effects (Mach
number), and viscous effects (Reynolds number).

Cd=Cd0+KCl2.
Cd0 Parasite Drag Coefficient.

D0= D0wing+D0Fus+DoNac+D0HT+D0VT+D0ETC

CD0 =D0/ (0.5V2S)

K = 1/ (*A*)
e = 0.85

A = 7.5

Page | 35 ADL
K = 1/(*0.85*7.5)

K = 0.04993

Cd= Cd0+KCL2

= 0.4671

Estimation of drag polar

Configuration Cd0
Clean - 0.8 to 0.85
Take off flaps 0.01 to 0.02 0.75 to 0.8
Landing flaps 0.05 to 0.075 0.7 to 0.75
Landing gear 0.015 to 0.025 No effect
TABLE : 8

1. Clean configuration

CD clean = KCL2

= 0.04993*32

= 0.4494

2. Take- off flaps (gear up)

CD = CD0 + KCL2

e (1) = 0.8

CD0 (1) = (0.02+0.025)

Cd = 0.5225

2. Take- off flaps (gear up)

CD = CD0 + KCL2

e (2) = 0.8

Page | 36 ADL
CD0 (2) = 0.07

Cd = 0.5475

4. Landing flaps (gear up)

CD0 (3) = 0.095

e(3) = 0.75

Cd = 0.6043

5. Landing flaps (down up)

CD0 (4) = 0.1

e(4) = 0.75

Cd = 0.6093

Break up Drag Polar

CD = F1 + F2 (w/s) + F3 (w/s) 2

F1 = sum of the CD values of wing, stabilizers area.

F1 = Cfe * (Swet/s) wing*(1 + Sstabilizer/S)

= 0.003*(Swet/s) wing*(1 + Sstabilizer/S)

(Swet/s) wing = 6.0

( Sstabilizer/S) = 0.26

F1 = 0.003*3*(1+0.26)

F1 = 0.02275

F2 = (CD-F1)/ (w/s)

Page | 37 ADL
 = 0.4671-0.02275/6446.30

F2 =6.893*10-5

F3 = (*A**(0.5**V2max) 2)-1; {K/q2}

At 13km the density is 0.266kg/m3

F3 = (*7.5*0.85*(0.5*0.266*278.182)2)-1

F3 = 4.9337*10-10

dt`/dP = 0;{Recall thrust loading equation}

qmax*(-F1/P2+0+F3) = 0

Pvmax =

Pvmax= 6791.0220

Page | 38 ADL
 W/S vs Vmax
400

350

300

250
Vmax

200
Vmax
150

100

50

0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
W/S

GRAPH : 4

W/S Vmax

877.5039 100

1974.38 150

3510.016 200

5484.399 250

7897.535 300

10749.42 350

TABLE : 9

Page | 39 ADL
 SELECTION OF WING LOADING BASED
ON ABSOLUTE CELING
t `Hmax =Dmin/W
= 1/ (W/D) max
CL/ (L/D) max = (CD0/k) 0.5
(CD)(L/D) max = 2CDo
t `Hmax = 1/(L/D)max

q Hmax = 0.5*Hmax*Vmax2
t `H = Treq/W

= qHmax*( )

P= * +

CDo = 0.018; K = 0.04993; Hmax = 0.266

P =

P = 6179.579

For different values, we get the results as shown in the below table.

Page | 40 ADL
 W/S vs VHmax
400

350

300

250
VHmax

200
VHmax
150

100

50

0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
W/S

GRAPH : 5

W/S VHmax

789.55 100

1796.738 150

3194.22 200

4990.938 250

6179.508 278.18

7186.95 300

9782.238 350

TABLE: 10

Page | 41 ADL
 SELECTION OF WING LOADING BASED
ON RATE OF CLIMB
Vc = V (T D)/W

Vc = V

(t `R/C)r = (Vc/V) + 0.5*0*V2/P*CD0

CD = F1+F2P+F3P2

(t `R/C)r = (Vc/V) + q[F1/P+F2+F3P]

Dt`R/C/dP = 0

PR/C = (F1/F3)0.5

= q (F1A) 0.5

(t `R/C)r = (Vc/V) + q[ ]

W/S =

V(R/C) max = [ ]
( )

L/D = 17; T/W = 0.222; mean = (1.225+0.266)/2 = 0.7455

(VR/C) 2 = {0.222/ (3*0.7455 *0.018)}*W/S*[ ]

= 11.58W/S

Page | 42 ADL
 W/S vs V(R/C)max
350

300

250

200
V(R/C)max

150 V(R/C)max

100

50

0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
W/S

GRAPH: 6

W/S V(R/C)max

5397.236 250

5837.651 260

6295.337 270

6770.294 280

7262.522 290

7772.02 300

8298.79 310

8842.83 320

TABLE: 11

Page | 43 ADL
 COMPARATIVE GRAPH

W/S vs V(R/C)max
400

350

300

250
V(R/C)max

Vs
200
Vmax
VHmax
150
V(R/C)max

100

50

0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000 20000
W/S

GRAPH: 7

Page | 44 ADL
 COMPARATIVE TABLE
W/S Vs W/S Vmax W/S VHmax W/S V(R/C)max

4593.75 50 877.5039 100 789.55 100 5397.236 250

6615 60 1974.38 150 1796.738 150 5837.651 260

9003.75 70 3510.016 200 3194.22 200 6295.337 270

11760 80 5484.399 250 4990.938 250 6770.294 280

14883.75 90 7897.535 300 6179.508 278.18 7262.522 290

18375 100 10749.42 350 7186.95 300 7772.02 300

TABLE: 12&13

S. No. Design Parameter Value Unit

1. Aspect Ratio 7.5 (no unit)

2. Wing Span 79.75 m

3. Height 24.45 m

4. Length 72.73 m

5. Wing Area 849.47 m2

6. Max Speed 1001.448 km/hr

7. Cruise Speed 910.8 km/hr

8. Range 10300 km

9. Service Ceiling 43,028 ft

10. Rate of Climb 55.55 m/s

11. Max Take-Off Weight 569000 kg

12. Empty Weight 262000 kg

13. Payload 83900 kg

14. Crew Members 2 (no unit)

Page | 45 ADL
 FUSELAGE DESIGN
INTRODUCTION
The fuselage (from French fusel "spindle-shaped") is an aircraft's main body
section that holds crew and passengers or cargo. In single-engine aircraft it will
usually contain an engine, although in some amphibious aircraft the single
engine is mounted on a pylon attached to the fuselage which in turn is used as a
floating hull. The fuselage also serves to position control and stabilization
surfaces in specific relationships to lifting surfaces, required for aircraft stability
and maneuverability.

Common practice to modularise layout:

Crew compartment, power plant system, payload configuration, fuel

volume, landing gear stowage, wing carry-through structure, empennage,
etc.
Or simply into front, centre and rear fuselage section designs.

Functions of fuselage:
Provision of volume for payload.
Provide overall structural integrity.
Possible mounting of landing gear and power plant.
Once fundamental configuration is established, fuselage layout proceeds almost
independently of other design aspects.

PRIMARY CONSIDERATIONS
Most of the fuselage volume is occupied by the payload, except for:

Single and two-seat light aircraft.

Trainer and light strike aircraft.
Combat aircraft with weapons carried on outer fuselage & wing.
High performance combat aircraft.

Payload includes:
Passengers and associated baggage.
Page | 46 ADL
 Freight.
Internal weapons (guns, free-fall bombs, bay-housed guided weapons).
Crew (significant for anti-sub and early-warning aircraft).
Avionics equipment.
Flight test instrumentation (experimental aircraft).
Fuel (often interchangeable with other payload items on a mass basis).

Pressurisation:
If required, has a major impact upon overall shape.
Overall effect depends on level of pressurisation required.

Low Differential Pressurisation:

Defined as no greater than 0.27 bar (4 psi).
Mainly applicable to fighters where crew are also equipped with pressure
suits.
Cockpit pressurisation primarily provides survivable environment in case
of suit failure at high altitude.
Also used on some general aviation aircraft to improve passenger comfort
at moderate altitude.
Pressure compartment has to avoid use of flat surfaces.

Normal (High) Differential Pressurisation:

Usual requirement is for effective altitude to be no more than 11 km
(32000 ft) ISA for passenger transports.
Implied pressure differentials are:
o 0.37 bar (5.5 psi) for aircraft at 7.6 km (25,000 ft).
o 0.58 bar (8.5 psi) for aircraft at 13.1 km (43,000 ft).
o 0.65 bar (9.4 psi) for aircraft at 19.8 km (65,000 ft).
High pressure differential required across most of fuselage for passenger
transports so often over-riding fuselage structural design requirement.
Particular need to base outer shell cross-section on circular arcs to avoid
significant mass penalties.
Pure circular sections best structurally but double-bubbles sometimes
give best compromise with internal layout.

Page | 47 ADL
Fuselage Aerodynamics:
Aim is to achieve reasonably streamlined form together with
minimum surface area to meet required internal volume.
Both drag and mass heavily influenced by surface area.
Require absence of steps and minimum number of excrescences.
Fundamental differences between subsonic and supersonic
applications.
Concerned with: cross-section shape, nose shape & length, tail
shape/length, overall length.

Cross-Section Shape Subsonic Aircraft

Not too critical aerodynamically, but should:
o avoid sharp corners
o provide fairings for protuberances
Constant cross-section preferable for optimized volume utilization and
ease of manufacture.

Nose Shape
Should not be unduly bluff.
Local changes in cross-section needed to accommodate windscreen
panels.
Windscreen angle involves compromise between aerodynamics, bird-
strike, reflection and visibility requirements.
Windscreen panel sizes should be less than 0.5 m2 each.
Starting point for front fuselage layout is often satisfactory position for
pilots eye.
Reasonable nose length is about:
o 1.1 to 2.0 x fuselage diameter (subsonic).
o 4 x fuselage diameter (supersonic).

Tail Shape
Smooth change in section required, from maximum section area to ideally
zero.
Minimisation of base area especially important for transonic/supersonic
aircraft.

Page | 48 ADL
 Important parameter for determining tail upsweep angle is ground
clearance required for take-off and landing rotation.
Typically 12o to 15o.

FIG: 5

Typical tail section lengths are:

o 2.5 to 3.0 x diameter (subsonic)
o 6 to 7 x diameter (supersonic)

Centre Fuselage & Overall Length - Subsonic Aircraft

Theoretically minimum drag for streamlined body with fineness ratio
(length/diameter) of 3.
In reality, typical value is around 10, due to:
o Need to utilise internal volume efficiently.
o Requirement for sufficiently large moment arm for stability/control
purposes.
o Suitable placement of overall CG.

Wing Location - Aerodynamics Considerations

Mid-wing position gives lowest interference drag, especially well for
supersonic aircraft.
Top-mounted wing minimises trailing vortex drag, especially good for
low-speed aircraft.
Low wing gives improved landing gear stowage & more usable flap area.

From the above given locations of wings, the one chosen is the Low wing
configuration which gives improved landing gear stowage & more usable flap
area.

Empennage Layout
Vertical Surface
Single, central fin most common arrangement, positioned as far aft as
possible.

Page | 49 ADL
Horizontal Surface
Efficiency affected by wing downwash, thus vertical location relative to
wing important.
Usually mounted higher than wing except on high wing design or with
small moment arm low tail can give ground clearance problems.

Avionics & APU

Including navigation, communications and flight control/management
equipment.
Provision necessary for adequate volume in correct location with ease of
access.
Location of radar, aerials, etc also important
o Sensors often have to face forward/down in aircraft nose.
o Long range search & early warning scanners sometimes located on
fuselage.
Auxiliary power unit (APU) commonly located at extreme rear of
fuselage on transport aircraft.

TYPICAL FLIGHT DECK LAYOUT:

FIG: 6

FIG: 7

Page | 50 ADL
Fuselage sizing:
Length of the fuselage(lf)=aw0c
a 0.1 to1.8,c 0.5 to 0.25

Assuming a =0.2335

c =0.25

Where length of the fuselage (lf)

=0.2335*1254430.189*0.25

= 72753.56

=72.75 m

2D VIEW OF FUSELAGE

FIG: 9

Page | 51 ADL
 SELECTION OF AIRFOIL
The aircraft which is to be designed having a High Subsonic cruise speed say
Mach 0.85 which belongs to transonic speed, so that to avoid profile drag
SUPERCRITICAL AIRFOILS are chosen.

From the aerofoil data book various airfoils of required t/care taken and are
tabulated for maximum lift coefficient andminimum drag.

TABLE: 14

Page | 52 ADL
 TESTING OF AIRFOIL
Airfoils For Wing:
Airfoil at wing root is a NASA SC(2)0610 and at wing tip the airfoil is NASA SC(2)0606.

FIG: 10 The airfoil NASA SC(2)0610 created using JAVAFOIL software by entering the co-ordinates.

FIG: 11 The airfoil NASA SC(2)0610 imported to XFLR5 An Airfoil Testing software.

Page | 53 ADL
FIG: 12 Plots of Cl vs CD and Cl vs from XFLR5.(NASA SC(2)0610)

FIG: 13 The airfoil NASA SC(2)0606 created using JAVAFOIL software by entering the co-ordinates.

Page | 54 ADL
FIG: 14 The airfoil NASA SC(2)0606 imported to XFLR5 An Airfoil Testing software.

FIG: 15 Plots of Cl vs CD and Cl vs from XFLR5.(NASA SC(2)0606)

Page | 55 ADL
 COMBINED PLOT FOR ROOT AND TIP
AIRFOILS.

FIG: 16 Plots of Cl vs CD and Cl vs from XFLR5.(NASA SC(2)0610 & NASA SC(2)0606)

Airfoil for Horizontal Tail Plane.

Page | 56 ADL
Airfoil used in Horizontal Tail Plane is NASA SC(2)0710.

FIG: 17The airfoil NASA SC(2)0710 created using JAVAFOIL software by entering the co-ordinates.

FIG: 18 The airfoil NASA SC(2)0710 imported to XFLR5 An Airfoil Testing software.

Page | 57 ADL
FIG: 19Plots of Cl vs CD and Cl vs from XFLR5.(NASA SC(2)0710)

Airfoil for Vertical Tail Plane.

Airfoil used in Vertical Tail Plane is NASA SC(2)0010.

FIG: 20The airfoil NASA SC(2)0010 created using JAVAFOIL software by entering the co-ordinates.

Page | 58 ADL
FIG: 21 The airfoil NASA SC(2)0010 imported to XFLR5 An Airfoil Testing software.

FIG: 22Plots of Cl vs CD and Cl vs from XFLR5.(NASA SC(2)0010)

2-D VIEW OF THE WING

Page | 59 ADL
FIG: 23

VERTICAL TAIL
VERTICAL TAIL = 30.5*(t/c) wing
ASPECT RATIO =1.39
TAPER RATIO = 0.424
t/c = 8
VERTICAL TAIL =1.73*8

Page | 60 ADL
 = 13.66 m

LANDING GEAR SELECTION

In aviation, the undercarriage or landing gear is the structure (usually
wheels) that supports an aircraft and allows it to move across the
surface of the earth when it is not in flying. More importance is to be
given as it carries the entire load on the ground. Landing gear usually
includes wheels equipped with shock absorbers for solid ground, but
some aircraft are equipped with skis for snow or floats water, and
skids or pontoons (helicopter)
FUNCTIONS OF LANDING GEAR
carry aircraft max gross weight to take off runway

withstand braking during aborted take off

retract into compact landing gear bay

Damp touchdown at maximum weight.

TYPES OF GEAR ARRANGEMENTS
Wheeled undercarriage comes in two types: conventional or tail
dragger undercarriage, where there are two main wheels towards the
front of the aircraft and a single, much smaller, wheel or skid at rear;
tricycle undercarriage where there are two main wheels under the
wings and a third smaller wheel in the nose. most modern aircraft
have tricycle undercarriage. Sometimes a small tail wheel or skid is
added to aircraft with tricycle undercarriage arrangements.
RETRACTABLE GEAR
To decrease drag in flight some undercarriages retract into the wings
and/or fuselage with wheels flush against or concealed behind doors,
this is called retractable gear. It was in late 1920s and 1930s that such
retractable landing gear became common. This type of gear

Page | 61 ADL
arrangement increased the performance of aircraft by reducing the
drag.

FIG: 24

STEERING OF LANDING GEAR

The steering mechanism used on the ground with wheeled landing
gear varies by aircraft, but there are several types of steering.

RUDDER STEERING

DIRECT STEERING

TILLER STEERING
Maximum Takeoff Weight of the aircraft (from Weight Estimation) =
272.655t = 2672kN
TYRE SIZING
During landing and takeoff, the undercarriage supports the total
weight of the airplane. Undercarriage is of three types

Bicycle type

Tricycle type

Page | 62 ADL
 Tricycle tail wheel type

FIG: 25

Page | 63 ADL
2D VIEW DIAGRAM OF AIRCRAFT

FIG: 26

Page | 64 ADL
 ISOMETRIC VIEW DIAGRAM OF AIRCRAFT

Conclusion
The aircraft is designed and the parameters like cruise velocity, wing loading,
span etc... have been selected for our aircraft. The weight estimation had been
done to estimate the weight of our aircraft. The wings, airfoil, landing gear have
been selected for our aircraft. The performance calculations were also made to
estimate the performance. The aircraft parameters are in the optimum range and
design characteristics have been found to be satisfactory

Page | 65 ADL
REFERENCES
1. Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach 2ND Edition

Daniel P.Raymer

President, Conceptual Research Corporation

2. Airplane Design: Preliminary Sizing of Airplanes 3RD Edition

Dr. Jan Roskam

3. Lecture Notes on Aircraft Design, Department of Aerospace Engineering

I.I.T Madras, 2007
Tulapurkara.E.G

4. The Design of the Airplane

Darrol Stinton

5.Aircraft Design, Cambridge Aerospace Series

Ajoy Kumar Kundu

6. Aircraft Performance and Design 2ND Edition

John D. Anderson, Jr.

7.Janes All the Worlds Aircraft 1999-2000,

Janes information group ltd., Surrey,UK, 1999.
Jackson, P. (Editor)

8. Pilots Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge 2ND Edition

Federal Aviation Administration

9. Wikipedia

www.wikipedia.org

10. Airfoil Investigation Database

www.worldofkrauss.com

Page | 66 ADL