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CHAPTER 5
An appraisal of fats and fatty acids
D.L. Palmquist
Department of Animal Sciences, OARDC, The Ohio State University,
Wooster, OH 44691, USA

The use of supplemental dietary fat in commercial poultry diets has been wide-
spread since research in the 1960s demonstrated improved growth, feed effi-
ciency, egg size and yield, and hatchability in poultry fed diets supplemented with
fat (Fedde et al., 1960; Renner and Hill, 1960, 1961; Young, 1961; Young and
Garrett, 1963; Artman, 1964; Lewis and Payne, 1966). The characteristics of
dietary fat sources needed for maximum utilization and energy value also have
been the focus of considerable research (Garrett and Young, 1975; Wiseman,
1984; Sell et al., 1986; Wiseman and Lessire, 1987; Hyughebaert et al., 1988;
Ketels and DeGroote, 1989; Wiseman and Salvador, 1991; Wiseman et al.,
1991). In addition to their recognized value as a dense source of energy, supple-
mental fats are excellent sources of essential fatty acids, enhance the absorption
of fat-soluble vitamins, increase the palatability of the diet, reduce dustiness of the
feed, and act as a lubricant to reduce wear of pellet mills (Bisplinghoff, 1992).
This paper will not address the issue of utilization, but will discuss sources
of feed fats and the evaluation of their quality.

SOURCES OF FEED FATS

Two factors are of utmost importance with regard to the choice of feed fats, cost
and metabolizable energy content, which is a function of digestibility and
absorption. In early studies, investigators used tallow which is poorly utilized and
has a relatively low energy value (Fedde et al., 1960; Young, 1961). It was
found subsequently that the saturated fatty acids in tallow were poorly absorbed
and that by adding linoleic acid the utilization of tallow was improved to more
than the predicted value of the mixture (Young and Garrett, 1963; Lewis and
Payne, 1966). With the development of vegetable oil processing, acidulated
soapstocks (mainly unesterified fatty acids removed during refining) became
economical fat sources, either alone or blended with rendered fats (Bisplinghoff,
1992; Rouse and Petas, 1998). Research showed that unesterified saturated
fatty acids were poorly absorbed, but that their utilization could be improved if
they were combined with unsaturated fats (Young and Garrett, 1963). The
apparent metabolizable energy (AME) of fats decreased linearly with increasing
unesterified fatty acid content and this was particularly evident in young broiler
chickens (1.5 weeks compared with 7.5 weeks) (Wiseman and Salvador, 1991).

CAB International 2002. Poultry Feedstuffs: Supply, Composition and Nutritive Value
(eds J.M. McNab and K.N. Boorman) 87
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88 D.L. Palmquist

As the understanding of the requirements for maximum absorption has

developed, the focus has been to use fats of the lowest possible cost, taking into
consideration limitations for minimum concentrations of linoleic acid and maxi-
mum levels of unesterified fatty acids.
Today, many supplemental fats are by-products of the rendering industry
(Lilburn, 1996) and fall into one of the categories shown in Table 5.1
(Bisplinghoff, 1992). Note that each category, with the exception of poultry oil,
may contain fat from non-specified sources. Generally fats are categorized by
titre, a measure of the solidification temperature of fat. Fats with a titre of 40
or above are considered to be tallow, whereas those with lower titre are classi-
fied as grease, regardless of the source. Examples of fatty acid profiles of these
and other dietary fats are shown in Table 5.2.
Occasionally, unique fat sources will find a place in the industry. Ortiz et al.
(1998) reported that fatty acids in de-hulled full-fat sunflower seed (incorporated
up to 240 g kg1 diet) were efficiently utilized (90% absorption by broilers).
Rising et al. (1986) showed that fatty acids of calcium soaps of tallow were
absorbed by laying hens 91% as well as the fatty acids of tallow alone. Calcium
soaps are an excellent pellet binder as well as a source of energy and calcium for
laying hens. Recently, much attention has been directed toward increasing the n-
3 fatty acid content of poultry meat and eggs by feeding fat supplements with
high n-3 fatty acid content such as linseed (Caston and Leeson, 1990; Cherian
and Sim, 1992; Scheideler and Froning, 1996; Leeson et al., 1998). Of particu-
lar interest is the increased content of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA; 20:5 n-3) and
docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; 22:6 n-3) found in fish oil (Hammershj, 1995) or
in an algae extract (Herber-McNeill and van Elswyk, 1998). Dietary fish oil can
cause off-flavours in meat and Lpez-Ferrer et al. (1999) found that replacing
fish oil with linseed oil or rapeseed oil (Canola) for the final 1 or 2 weeks of
feeding, or for the entire feeding period progressively decreased the content of
fish oil fatty acids and improved the sensory quality of broiler meat.

Table 5.1. Common types of feed fats produced by renderersa.

Category Description

Feed grade animal fat Primarily rendered beef and pork material; could include other ani-
mal sources
Poultry fat Rendered solely from poultry, often used within an integrated
industry
Choice white grease Primarily from rendered pork products, but may contain beef and
poultry fat if specifications are met
Tallow Primarily from rendered beef or other ruminant tissue
Yellow grease Primarily recycled restaurant grease (hydrogenated vegetable fats)
but may contain other fats of dark colour or high unesterified fatty
acid content
Blended animal and May contain blends of all types of animal fat, vegetable oil,
vegetable fat acidulated soapstock, restaurant grease
aBisplinghoff (1992).
 Poultry f_s - Chap 05
An appraisal of fats and fatty acids

29/5/02
Table 5.2. Typical fatty acid profile of feed fats.

Fatty acid (g kg1 of total fatty acid)

14:0 16:0 16:1 17:0 18:0 18:1 18:2 18:3 20:0 20:1 20:5 22:1 22:6

11:21 AM
Category n-7 n-9 n-6 n-3 n-9 n-3 n-9 n-3 IV

Tallowa 30 250 25 15 215 420 30 50

Choice white grease (lard)a 15 270 30 5 135 434 105 5 65
Poultrya 15 210 65 110 400 180 10 84

Page 89
Yellow greasea 19 150 15 10 90 480 200 30 89
Soybeana 115 40 245 530 70 125
Maizea 163 25 290 550 65 125
Rape-high erucic acida 33 2 15 214 142 70 7 123 389 144
Rape-low erucic acid (Canola)b 43 3 17 591 228 82 5 20 9 132
Sunflowerc 60 64 284 581 1 6 3 118
Flax (linseed)d 59 2 34 162 167 575 200
Fish (menhaden)e 105 215 142 34 103 12 151 1 65 126
aRouse and Petas (1998); bLeeson (1984); cOrtiz et al. (1998); dKuksis (1978); eOpstvedt (1985).

IV = iodine value.

89
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90 D.L. Palmquist

MEASURE OF FAT QUALITY

Fatty Acid Profile

The first measure of fat quality is to determine the profile of fatty acids (known
as fat structure in the industry) in order to characterize the extent of saturation
and unsaturation. In todays technology, this is accomplished easily by direct
extraction/transesterification to form the methyl esters that can then be
analysed by gasliquid chromatography (Sukhija and Palmquist, 1988). This
procedure simultaneously determines the amount of fatty acids in the sample.
The fatty acid profile of restaurant grease has changed considerably in
recent years. Public concern about the relationship between saturated fats
and health resulted in pressure on fast-food chains to move away from tal-
low, the fat of highest quality for deep-fat frying. Table 5.3 shows that
restaurant grease has become more unsaturated since 1987, and decreasing
standard errors of means for individual fatty acids suggest that fats used by
different chains are becoming more similar. The fats used most extensively
now are hydrogenated vegetable oils, and this is reflected in the decreasing
proportions of 16:0 and increasing proportions of trans fatty acids.
Formation of trans isomers is also greater when the more-unsaturated fats
are heated. It appears that processors, fat users, or both, have learned about
quality control, judging from lower values for both initial peroxide values
and peroxide values after oxygen treatment (AOM) in 1998 compared with
1994. Some adjustment in profiles is indicated also by the slightly lower
iodine value in 1998, suggesting that the move to unsaturated frying oils
had gone too far in 1994.

Table 5.3. Changes in fatty acid composition of restaurant grease from four leading fast-food
chains in the USA (based on Rouse and Petas, 1998).

Fatty acid (g kg1)

Parameter 1987 1994 1998
14:0 21.0 12.6 6.5 6.1 5.7 3.9
16:0 213 37.7 135 19.5 138 14.7
16:1 29.5 9.0 11.0 6.7 12.2 6.6
18:0 123 34.7 98.0 31.0 99.2 7.2
c18:1 450 59.5a 410 30.2 389 24.1
t18:1 165 35.5 170 43.4
c18:2 108 58.5 110 84.5 105 41.1
t18:2 35.0 15.1 35.0 12.0
18:3 14.5 5.4 5.5 4.7 1.0 0
IV 63.1 11.6 79.2 14.0 75.7 5.3
IPV 2.0 1.3 0.9 0.2
AOM 47.9 5.3 23.0 3.8
aTrans isomers not separated.

IV, iodine value; IPV, initial peroxide value, meq kg1; AOM, peroxide value, meq kg1, after
bubbling oxygen for 20 h.
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An appraisal of fats and fatty acids 91

Unesterified Fatty Acids

Known in the industry as free fatty acids, the proportion of unesterified fatty
acids can influence absorbability, as noted above. In higher-quality fats (tallow,
choice white grease), the concentration of unesterified fatty acids is a measure
of the history of the fat; a high proportion of unesterified fatty acids suggests
that the fat has been abused (i.e. excess water content, heat or long storage).
The content of unesterified fatty acids is not a measure of abuse in blended
fats, which contain varying amounts of acidulated soapstock.

Moisture, Impurities and Unsaponifiables (MIU)

The measure MIU should not exceed 2% in high quality fats. Not only does this
non-fat material dilute the energy value, it also may be detrimental in specific
ways. Moisture (M) contributes to fat hydrolysis, increasing the unesterified fatty
acid content with the subsequent formation of sludge in holding tanks. Insoluble
impurities (I) include any material not soluble in petroleum ether. These can
cause clogging of screens and nozzles during transport. Insoluble impurities may
include hair, hide, bone, plastic ear tags, etc. The unsaponifiable (U) matter
includes ether-soluble, non-fatty acid material, such as sterols, hydrocarbons,
fatty alcohols and pigments (Bisplinghoff, 1992). Potentially serious unsaponifi-
able materials are the polymers caused by oxidative degradation (see below),
and in future, olestra, an indigestible sucrose polyester of vegetable oil which
could become a problem if its use in frying oils becomes more prevalent.

Iodine Value

The iodine value (IV) is a simple and rapid measure of the total unsaturation of
a fat. It is defined as the grams of iodine that will be absorbed by 100 g of fat
(one unsaturated bond absorbs one mole of iodine). Oleic acid, for example,
has an IV of 90. The IV is used often by industry to indicate the fatty acid pro-
file (Rouse and Petas, 1998). However, IV provides no information about the
fatty acid profile of the fat.

Other Considerations

Any feed fat should be certified free of pesticide and PCB residues, and stabi-
lized with the addition of an approved feed or food-grade antioxidant (Rouse
and Petas, 1998). Suggested industry quality specifications for blended feed
fats are shown in Table 5.4. Fats should be stabilized sufficiently to pass the
AOM stability test. The latter refers to 20 hours of bubbling oxygen under
defined conditions. To be acceptable, a fat should emerge with no greater than
20 meq peroxide kg1, having had an initial peroxide content of less than 5
meq peroxide kg1 fat. The 20 h AOM test is a measure of stability for storage,
whereas the initial peroxide test indicates prior abuse and present quality of the
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92 D.L. Palmquist

Table 5.4. Suggested quality specifications for feed fats (Rouse and Petas, 1998).

Blended fat categories (%)

Feed grade Animal/ Vegetable

Animal Poultry animal vegetable soapstock

Total fatty acids, minimum 90 90 90 90 90

Free fatty acids, maximum 15 15 15 15a 50
Moisture, maximum 1 1 1 1 1.5
Impurities, maximum 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 1
Unsaponifiable, maximum 1 1 1 3.5 4
Total MIU, maximum 2 2 2 5 6
aWhen blended feed fats contain acidulated soapstock this specification can be adjusted to

allow for higher unesterified fatty acid found in this fat.

fat. There is debate in the industry as to whether the AOM test is a measure of
quality (Bisplinghoff, 1992). Fats intended for use in poultry diets should con-
tain no cottonseed soapstock or other cottonseed by-products and should be
certified negative for chick oedema factor as determined by the modified
Lieberman-Burchard test (Rouse and Petas, 1998). Fats should contain no
more than trace amounts of nickel, a common catalyst for hydrogenation of
vegetable oils, or other heavy metals.

QUALITY CONTROL LABORATORY ASPECTS

Quality control of blended feed fats, with a special view of UK practices, was
described competently by Edmunds (1990). He showed that the MIU of
blended fats generally increased as unsaturation of the oil increased (Table 5.5),
and could be variable, thus causing the energy value of the fat to vary. He
described the low repeatability of measuring the unsaponifiable fraction, which
contains the oxidized and polymerized fatty acids (Table 5.6). He concluded
that the MIU, plus oxidized and polymerized fatty acids (non-elutable material,
NEM) are useful indicators of fat quality, but consitute four non-specific and
highly-variable assays. He proposed that NEM should be determined indirectly,
as the difference between total mass and total fatty acids. Values he reported
for NEM are shown in Table 5.7. A simple and rapid procedure for determining
both the fatty acid content and profile by gasliquid chromatography has been
used in our laboratory for many years (Sukhija and Palmquist, 1988).
Edmunds (1990) cautioned that correcting for NEM would undervalue the
energy of fats according to the amount of glycerol in the fat. In pure triacylglyc-
erol, this amounts to 10% of the weight (5% of the energy), whereas unesteri-
fied fats contain no glycerol. Thus, he advocated an additional measure to
determine glycerol content.
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An appraisal of fats and fatty acids 93

Table 5.5. Unsaponifiable matter found in common feed fat raw materials (Edmunds, 1990).

Unsaponifiable matter (g kg1)

Material mean SD n

Crude soybean oil 52 6

Recovered vegetable oil 74 36
Palm acid oil 15 4 6
Tallow 28 20
Fish acid oil 21 5 4
Palm fatty acid distillate 23 11 5
Mixed soft acid oil 3 14 21
Soy/sunflower acid oil 64 27 25

SD, standard deviation; n, number of samples.

Table 5.6. Repeatability of slip point (SP), free fatty acid (FFA), unsaponifiable matter (US),
oxidized fatty acids (OFA) and moisture determinations on a sample of blended feed fat within
a laboratory (Edmunds, 1990).

FFA US OFA Moisture

SP(C) (g kg1) (g kg1) (g kg1) (g kg1)

n 10 10 10 10 5
Mean 268 364 19.7 8.6 6.2
SD 5.9 2.5 2.4 1.5 6
CV (%) 22 7 122 174 95

Table 5.7. Non-elutable material (NEM) values found in feed fat raw materials. Samples were
assayed using 17:0 (free acid) as an internal marker. All data are corrected for any background
17:0 (Edmunds, 1990).

NEM (g kg1)

Material mean SD n

Palm acid oil 40 12 9

Palm fatty acid distillate 50 14 5
Crude soybean oil 52 1 3
Tallow 70 13 59
Recovered vegetable oil 86 29 91
Fish acid oil 102 41 6
Mixed soft acid oil 105 32 37
Soy/sunflower acid oil 124 28 22

SD = standard deviation; n = number of samples.

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94 D.L. Palmquist

COMMERCIAL STANDARDS FOR FAT QUALITY

A quality control chart, developed as a guideline for determining the types and
frequencies of analyses for commercial fat use, is shown in Table 5.8. These
analyses are used in addition to individual requirements that may be specified
by individual users. Typical specifications by three large commercial users of
blended fats in the USA are shown in Table 5.9.

SUMMARY
Blended fats are an important and economical source of energy and essen-
tial fatty acids for poultry. Information is available to determine the optimal
combinations of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids and maximum unes-
terified fatty acids. When these are established, fat users must insist on ade-
quate and regular quality control to ensure that a consistent and safe
product is supplied.

Table 5.8. A quality control chart to guide number and frequency of analyses for commercial
fats (Rouse and Petas, 1998).

Type of fat Frequency code

1. Animal fat tallow/grease A Every sample

2. Poultry fat B 1 of 2
3. Blended feed grade animal fat C 1 of 5
4. Blended animal and vegetable fats D Every sample composite of 3
5. Vegetable soapstocks E Check each supplier periodically

Type of fat

Analysis AOCS methoda 1 2 3 4 5

Moisture Ca 2A-45 A A A A A
Impurities Ca 3-46 A A A A A
Unsaponifiable TKLa-64T C C B B A
Total fatty acid G3-53 C C B B A
Free fatty acid CA 52-40 B B A A A
PCBs pesticides D D D D D
Stability
Initial peroxide Cd 8-53 A A A A A
AOM test Cd 12-57 A A A A A
Gossypolb Halphen test E E E E E
Iodine value Cd 1-25 A A A A A
Fat structure Ce 1-62 E E E E E
aAOCS (1997).
bPoultry use only.
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An appraisal of fats and fatty acids 95

Table 5.9. Typical purchase specifications by major users in the US fat industry (Rouse and
Petas, 1998).

User 1
Ingredient requirements Minimum Maximum
Moisture, % 0.5
Impurities, % 0.5
Unsaponifiable, % 1.0
Total MIU, % 2.0
Total fatty acids, % 90.0
Free fatty acids, % 15.0
Iodine value 75.0 80.0
AOM stability, meq kg1 20.0
Fatty acid composition
Linoleic acid, % 15.0 20.0
Oleic acid, % 50.0
Colour and special characteristics
Colour Tan to brown
Odour Typical, not rancid
Special considerations
Certified free of pesticide residues and PCB
All fats stabilized with feed or food grade antioxidant

User 2
Specifications Acceptance Desired
Unloading temperature,F 165 140
FFA, % 16 5
Total fatty acids, % 92 93
Moisture, % 1 0
Unsaponifiable, % 1 0
MIU, % 2 0
Linoleic acid, % 16 15
Chick oedema factor Neg. Neg.
Odour Free from rancid or putrid odour
Contamination Free from visual contamination

User 3
Total fatty acid, % 90 minimum
Free fatty acid, % 30 maximum
Moisture, % 1.0 maximum
Impurities, % 0.5 maximum
Unsaponifiable, % 2.5 maximum
Iodine value 85 3
Linoleic acid, % 23 minimum
Stearic acid, % 12 maximum
Gossypol Trace
Inorganic elements Trace
AOM stability 20 h
Chick oedema factor Negative
PCB/pesticides Below FDA tolerances
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96 D.L. Palmquist

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The discussions and review of the manuscript by Dr M.S. Lilburn, The Ohio
State University, and materials provided by Mr Raymond H. Rouse, of Rouse
Marketing, Inc., Cincinnati, Ohio, are very much appreciated.

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