Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Michael Lindgren
Division of Material Mechanics
Michael Lindgren
ISSN: 1402-1544
ISBN 978-91-7439-031-5
Lule 2009
www.ltu.se
Preface
This work has been carried out at Dalarna University. The nancial support
was provided by the Swedish Foundation for Knowledge and Competence De-
velopment (KK-stiftelsen), ORTIC AB, Jernkontoret and Dalarna University.
Dr Lars Ingvarsson, for sharing his great experience in roll forming with me.
All colleagues at Dalarna University and ORTIC AB, for their friendship and
for making the workplace a great place to be at.
Finally, I would like to thank my family, Jenny, Fanny and Sandra for always
being there.
Michael Lindgren
i
ii
Abstract
One of the rst questions to consider when designing a new roll forming line
is the number of forming steps required to produce a prole. The number
depends on material properties, the cross-section geometry and tolerance re-
quirements, but the tool designer also wants to minimize the number of form-
ing steps in order to reduce the investment costs for the customer. There are
several computer aided engineering systems on the market that can assist the
tool designing process. These include more or less simple formulas to predict
deformation during forming as well as the number of forming steps. In recent
years it has also become possible to use nite element analysis for the design
of roll forming processes.
The objective of the work presented in this thesis was to answer the fol-
lowing question:
How should the roll forming process be designed for complex geometries and/or
high strength steels?
iii
can be substantially increased by heating the bending zone. The heated area
will then become austenitic and ductile before the roll forming. Thanks to
the phenomenon of strain induced martensite formation, the steel will regain
the martensite content and its strength during the subsequent plastic strain-
ing. Finally, a new tooling concept for proles with variable cross-sections is
presented in paper 7.
The overall conclusions of the present work are that today, it is possible to
successfully develop proles of complex geometries (3D roll forming) in high
strength steels and that nite element simulation can be a useful tool in the
design of the roll forming process.
iv
The doctoral project has
resulted in following
The Thesis
This thesis consists of a survey and the following appended papers:
v
Author contribution to the publications
1. Single author
2. Single author
3. Single author
4. Single author
5. Single author
6. Writing and done all work in close co-operation with the co-authors
vi
Notation
Symbols
a Flange length
A Integration constant
b Web width
B Integration constant
BB The width of the at strip used to formed the nished prole
c Forming length
C Relative sliding velocity
DS Diameter of the shaft
D Tolerance distance or horizontal distance between the forming steps
E Youngs modulus
e Longitudinal engineering strain in the edge of the ange
ep Longitudinal peak strain in the edge of the ange
et Transverse longitudinal strain in the ange
ej Extra pass.
f Yield criterion
fs Tolerance factor.
Fn Normal force
Ft Tangential force
h The distance from the neutral layer to the inner side of the bend
hl The vertical distance from where the prole will hit the lower
tool to the roll gap between the upper and lower tool
HC , d Horizontal distance between two forming steps
H, g Height of the nished prole
I Second moment of inertia
kl Constants used in transverse bending
L Deformation length
LS Length of a shaft
n Number of forming steps
p Perpendicular moment arm
R1 Female tool radius
vii
r Distance from bend
r0 Radius to the neutral layer
s Parallel moment arm
sij Deviatoric Cauchy stress
sf Shape factor.
t The thickness of the material
Us Ultimate tensile strength.
VC The vertical distance between centre of upper and lower tool
vr Sliding velocity
Wb Plastic work due to transverse bending
Ws Plastic work due to longitudinal bending per unit volume
Wsl Plastic work due to longitudinal bending per unit length
Wt Total plastic work for one bending
Y, y Yield strength
z Coordinate in longitudinal direction
x Coordinate in transverse direction
X Distance between centre of the roll station and
there the prole will hit the lower tool
z Pre-punched hole
Bend angle for the active bend
1,2 Bend angle for the female tool
Bend angle increment
The derivate of the bend angle
d Total degree of formed angle.
Angle between the web and the innite small element
Bend angle for the inactive bend
Ls , x Longitudinal stretching of the ange
Lb Longitudinal bending of the ange
t Strain due to transverse bending in the bending zone
y Transverse strain of the ange
pij Plastic strain
Plastic parameter
Friction coecient
Eective stress
, xy Shear strain in the ange
Forming angle
viii
List of Figures
1.1 Roll formed products have many applications in the automotive
sector, buildings, domestic appliances etc. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
3.1 This gure shows the strain histories of the longitudinal web
strain and the longitudinal membrane ange strain for two form-
ing stations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.2 The denition of the parameters for the bend angle and the
bend angle increment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.3 Deformation length for one forming step. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.4 The prole will be reversely bent since the prole will be curved
down and then lifted up (hl) by the next roll station. . . . . . . 13
3.5 The forming angle method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.6 The ower method: the engineer starts with a nished prole
and progressively unfolds it to a at strip. . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.7 Front view and side view of the roll forming mill used in the
Algorithm, equation 3.6 to 3.11, [41]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
ix
3.8 u is the distance from the edge of a at strip to the edge of the
nished prole. In this case u is used to calculate the number
of forming steps, equation 3.11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.9 An element strip between two roll forming passes. . . . . . . . . 19
3.10 View in z-direction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.11 The bend angle is divided into three stages: stage one when the
angle does not change, stage two when the angle changes but
the strip is not in contact with the tool and stage three when
the strip is contact with the tool. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.12 The V-prole made of high strength steel and mild steel were
roll formed in four forming steps: 15o , 30o , 45o and 60o . The
V-prole made of high strength steel was straight after forming
but the prole made of mild steel was not. . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.13 Delta Flare is the dierence between the springback in the cen-
tre of the prole and the end of the prole. This is a plot for 4
dierent ultra high strength steels with various yield strength. . 25
3.14 To the left a C-prole is roll formed in 8 passes and to the right a
top-hat prole is roll formed in 5 passes. The C-prole is formed
mainly by bending whereas the top-hat prole is formed both
by bending and drawing [13]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.15 This gure shows three dierent ways of forming a 90o prole.
One way is to let the tools have the same radius in every form-
ing step and dierent arc length. Another way is to let the arc
length be the same in every forming step but decrease the tool
radius. These methods give dierent spring back and longitu-
dinal residual stresses in the bending zone. The constant arc
length is the method most commonly used. . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.16 The deformed sheet between roll stand (i) and roll stand (i+1).
The neutral layer of the sheet is described by the shape function,
Equation 3.32. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.17 Shape functions for dierent parameters (q). . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.18 To the left: the unfolded C-prole, the blank of sheet metal.
To the right: two dierent cross-sections of the C-prole. . . . . 33
3.19 A 3D roll-formed U-prole. Tension stress acts on the transition
zone where the U-prole is small and compression stress acts
on the transition zone where the prole is wider. . . . . . . . . 33
4.1 A universal, spindle type roll-forming mill where the lower tools
are driven with universal joint driven shafts. . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.2 Geometry of the tools used in the experiment. The tools have
a bend angle of 20o , 40o , 60o and 80o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
x
4.3 This gure shows only half of the U-channel because the sym-
metry and the rosette strain gage is bonded on the top surface
close to the edge of one ange. The longitudinal direction is
the same as x-direction and the transverse direction is same as
y-direction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.4 The roll load in z-direction was measured with two donut cells.
The torque sensor was used to measure the roll torque and it
was mounted between the lower tool and power transmission.
The equipment measured the forces of each forming step, one
by one. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.5 The spring back, width and depth between the dierent forming
steps were measured with a sliding caliper. . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.6 The picture shows the prototype resistance heating machine and
the steel strip which was fed through the machine by wheels
made of copper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.7 A sketch of the electrical circuit of the prototype resistance
heating machine. Wikstrom [56]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.8 The tools and the ower pattern. The V-section was roll formed
in 6 forming steps, from 15o to 120o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.9 The experimental equipment used for research and prototyping
of 3D roll formed proles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.10 The experimental equipment has 6 forming stands. Each stand
has 4 units (tool holders) that can rotate and translate. . . . . 44
4.11 View from the top: The prole is roll formed in six passes and
to do that the prole must go through the machine two times.
Forming stands number 1, 3 and 5 form the left side and forming
stands number 2, 4, and 6 form the right side. . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.12 View from the back. The geometry of the tools is the same for
all forming stands. The only dierence is that the tools for the
ange are moving up and closer to the tools that hold the web,
for example bend angles 30o and 60o . Tools with a constant
radius have been used, Chaing [9]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.13 The xture used. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
xi
5.5 The used tolerance distance D1 and D2 in paper 5 is 5 % of the
thickness. The bias factor is default 0 in MARC which means
that D1 = D2. In paper 5 is a bias factor of 0.25 used which
means D1 < D2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
xii
Contents
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Design of the roll forming process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Research Question and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3 Literature Survey 9
3.1 Experimental work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.1.1 Strain histories in roll forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.1.2 Longitudinal membrane strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.1.3 Deformation length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.1.4 Roll load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.2 Theoretical work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.2.1 Number of forming steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.2.2 Deformation types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.2.3 Deformation length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.2.4 Longitudinal membrane strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2.5 Geometrical restriction from the female tool . . . . . . . 22
3.2.6 Roll forming of high strength steel . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.2.7 Bending method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.3 Computer simulation of roll forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.4 3D roll forming, proles with variable cross-section . . . . . . . 32
4 Experimental setup 35
4.1 The roll forming experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.1.1 The roll forming machine and data acquisition equipment 35
4.1.2 The tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.1.3 Strain measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.1.4 Roll load and roll torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.1.5 Spring back . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
xiii
xiv Contents
5 Computational model 47
5.1 Nonlinear solution procedure and convergence criteria . . . . . 48
5.2 The geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5.3 Shell element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5.4 Material model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5.5 Contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Bibliography 61
Chapter 1
Introduction
Figure 1.1. Roll formed products have many applications in the automotive sector,
buildings, domestic appliances etc.
1
2 Introduction
When a new roll forming machine is designed the tool designer must decide
how many forming steps are required to form the prole. The number of steps
depends on the cross-section, tolerances, nish of the surface and material
properties. Today there are several computer aided engineering (CAE) sys-
tems, for example ORTIC System [27], COPRA RF [15], PROFIL [55], that
can support the tool designer in creating tools. CAE systems use more or
less simple formulas and rules of thumb for predicting the number of forming
steps and suggesting geometry of the tools. Some CAE programs also include
computerized simulation techniques, for example based on the nite dierence
method, Duggal[12], for investigating tool design proposed by the program.
The advantage of this type of analysis is that the simulation time can be very
short. A few years ago nite element analysis was not used for designing roll
forming processes or roll formed proles. Today, however, there are examples
of new proles successfully developed with the help of nite element simu-
lations. This research was devoted to nite element simulations as well as
experiments, and great eort was put into building experimental equipment.
The experiments were carried out in parallel with the building of nite element
models and simpler models.
How should the roll forming process be designed for complex geometries and/or
high strength steels?
Figure 2.1. The strip is formed in several steps, beginning with an undeformed strip
and ending with the nished prole, Lund et al. [41].
3
4 The roll forming process
All materials that can be bent, such as aluminium, steel, stainless steel, copper,
can also be roll formed and the material can be pre-painted or pre-coated. The
speed at which a prole can be produced varies between 15 m/min and 185
m/min, Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook [3], depending on the
tolerance of the cross-section, the material and how fast the machine can be
fed with raw material or how fast the nished product can be removed from
the run out table. The thickness of material that can be roll formed ranges
from 0.15 mm to 19 mm, Kolev [31]. The roll forming process is very robust
provided it is set up correctly, and the geometry of the proles produced shows
only small variations. However, the prole can have defects as bows, twist,
are, spring back and oil-canning, see Figure 2.3, if the roll forming process is
not well designed. Many defects depend on the number of forming steps being
too small, which gives residual stresses in the prole that cause unwanted
deformations.
Figure 2.2. The material in the ange will travel a longer distance than the material
in the bending zone. The dierence will cause strain (e) in the ange. In this gure
(H) represents the ange length, (L) the deformation length and (e) the strain in the
ange, Lund et al. [41].
Figure 2.3. Dierent defects that can occur in the nished prole if the roll forming
process is not well designed. From left: twist, are and oil canning, Ingvarsson [27].
2.2 3D roll forming 5
Today simulations are used more and more in the industry and especially so
in the automotive sector for industrial engineering, crash tests, sheet metal
forming and so on. The need of simulation also includes roll formed products.
Important advantages of the nite element analysis are that not only can it
provide the same information as computerized simulations, it also includes the
eect of lead gates, see Figure 2.4, and end eect of pre-cut material among
other things.
Figure 2.4. Lead gate is used to guide the prole into the tools and checked lead
gate is used to control the strip laterally.
In the last 10 years a number of research papers have been published where
more or less simplied simulation models have been compared with experi-
ments, for instance Hellborg [24], Bui and Ponthot [8], Sukmoo et al. [53] and
paper 5 in this work, Lindgren [37]. These studies show that the nite element
method is a very valuable tool in designing the roll forming process. Some of
the simplied models also show the possibility of shortening the simulation
time, for example by ignoring the friction between sheet and tooling. Today
there are commercial programs that can reduce the time spent on modelling
the process, COPRA RF [15]. In combination with increased computer capac-
ity this makes the nite element modelling a standard tool in designing the
roll forming process.
ample, the Budapest Arena is covered with about 4700 dierent, individually
shaped panels. The automotive industry has become interested in 3D roll
forming as a result of the methods exibility making it particularly suitable
for components made of high strength steels. However, the automotive in-
dustry demands design rules, simulations and prototypes to be convinced of
the benets. To meet their demands, probably one of the worlds rst 3D
roll-forming machines, with two translational and two rotational degrees of
freedom per axis, was built within this research work (see Chapter 4). Expe-
riences and results obtained are presented in depth in paper 7, Lindgren and
Ingmarsson [39], of this thesis. Examples of manufactured proles are shown
in Figure 2.5 and Figure 2.6. For the same purpose more or less advanced
experimental equipment have been built by other research institutes and uni-
versities also, including the Labein Tecnalia [46], the University of Technology
in Darmstadt [16], Takushoku University in Tokyo [44].
Figure 2.5. 3D roll formed proles in paper 7, Lindgren and Ingmarsson [39]. From
the top: a straight section, a hat-section with a waist on one side and nally a hat-
section conical in depth and width.
Today, only a few papers describe nite element simulations of 3D roll forming,
Gulceken et al. [18]. The main dierence between traditional roll forming and
3D roll forming is that modelling the 3D process requires much more work
since the motion of every tool must be exactly described. In the nal paper of
this thesis, Lindgren and Ingmarsson [39], a new tooling concept is described
where hat-proles with variable depth and width are roll formed. In parallel
with the tooling concept, a rst nite element model was developed and used
to simulate the process, Sagstrom [48], see Figure 2.7. These results are not
included in the thesis.
2.2 3D roll forming 7
Figure 2.6. U-proles roll formed in the experimental 3D roll forming machine.
Figure 2.7. a) 3D roll forming simulation of the tooling concept in Paper 7, Lindgren
and Ingmarsson [39]. b) The real tools which are modelled in a).
8 The roll forming process
Chapter 3
Literature Survey
In the case with a single roll station (0o o1 ) the strain increased almost
linearly with the bend angle, o1 .
9
10 Literature Survey
Figure 3.1. This gure shows the strain histories of the longitudinal web strain and
the longitudinal membrane ange strain for two forming stations.
When multiple roll stations were used (0o o1 0o ), where the rst and
last forming steps were at rolls, the longitudinal strain was reduced by
10 15 % more than in the case with a single station.
With multiple roll stations (0o o1 o2 ) the strain level was on the
same level as in the case (0o o1 0o ).
The level of peak strain depends on the bend angle increment =
(o2 o1 ) and not the roll angle used at the roll station.
Figure 3.2. The denition of the parameters for the bend angle and the bend angle
increment.
Chiang [9] investigated how ange length (a), web width (b) and bend angle
() eect the web strain and the longitudinal membrane strain in the ange of
3.1 Experimental work 11
a U-prole. A single roll station was used to study the bend angle, and the re-
sult obtained was similar to those obtained by Bhattacharyya and Smith. The
longitudinal strain increased almost linearly with the bend angle but the varia-
tion for the web strain was small. In the experiment with varying ange length
the longitudinal strain decreased when the ange length increased. When the
web width increased the longitudinal strain slightly decreased, see Table 3.1.
Table 3.1. The peak strain in the ange edge for various ange lengths and web
widths.
Web(b) Flange(a) Average peak strain (103 )
20 10 3.75
20 15 3.10
20 20 2.70
30 10 3.70
30 15 2.85
30 20 2.60
In an experiment Zhu [57] investigated the inuence of ange length (a), ma-
terial thickness (t), the bend angle () and bend angle increment () on the
longitudinal strain distribution. The results obtained were as follows:
Based on the good agreement they concluded that the deformation length
(L) depends on three variables: ange length (a), bend angle increment
() and material thickness (t), whereas it is independent of material
properties.
2t3 3 a 3hl EI
P =Y 2 + (3.2)
3 sin (D X)3
Their conclusions were as follows:
The experiments and equation 3.2 agreed quite well, the discrepancy
being 0 - 20 %.
The theory showed that the roll load depends on yield strength (Y ) of
the material, thickness (t), bend angle () and ange length (a).
The theory also showed that when multiple roll stations are used the
roll load depends on an extra load, the second term in equation 3.2 ,
This term includes the Youngs modulus (E) of the material, the second
moment of inertia (I) of the prole and machine data (D, hl, X).
Figure 3.4. The prole will be reversely bent since the prole will be curved down
and then lifted up (hl) by the next roll station.
of forming steps does not exist, Halmos [19], so below a number of dierent
approaches are described. A common method used to calculate the number of
forming steps is the forming angle method [3], see Figure 3.5. In the following
example the calculation of a simple section is described.
To determine the number of passes you take the height (g) of the nished
prole and the distance between the forming stands (d) and use the derived
equation 3.5 below. The method is based on the amount of forming per length.
That a conservative forming angle (C) is 1.5o can be kept in mind as rule of
thumb.
The following notation and equations 3.3 - 3.5 are used to calculate the num-
ber of forming steps:
c = g cot . (3.3)
3.2 Theoretical work 15
c = (n 1)d. (3.4)
3.3 and 3.4
g
g cot = (n 1)d n = cot + 1. (3.5)
d
If the prole has multiple bends the forming angle method must be applied
to every bend independently and then combine the bends where it is possible
and approximate how many passes that are needed to nish the prole.
Figure 3.6. The ower method: the engineer starts with a nished prole and
progressively unfolds it to a at strip.
In the ower method, [9] the tool engineer starts with a nished section and
gradually unfolds the prole to a at strip, see Figure 3.6. The way the prole
will be unfolded and the number of forming steps is up to the tool designer
to decide. However, a successful use of this method requires a great deal of
experience, and the method can be very time consuming when applied to more
complex shapes.
Figure 3.7. Front view and side view of the roll forming mill used in the Algorithm,
equation 3.6 to 3.11, [41].
A method to roughly estimate the machine design and number of forming step
for a prole is proposed in [41]. Figures 3.7 - 3.8 and the section below present
16 Literature Survey
The logic Algorithm, Equation 3.6 - 3.11 in [41] consists of the rules below
that should be fullled by a design. It is used to roughly estimate the machine
design.
LS 1.2BB . (3.6)
LS
DS min 30mm. (3.7)
7
75u
n> . (3.11)
HC
The drawback to this method is that thickness and yield strength of the ma-
terial used are not taken into account.
Figure 3.8. u is the distance from the edge of a at strip to the edge of the nished
prole. In this case u is used to calculate the number of forming steps, equation 3.11.
where
n = Number of forming steps.
Y = Yield strength.
H = Height of the prole.
t = Thickness of the material.
Us = Ultimate tensile strength.
d = Total degree of formed angle.
sf = Shape factor.
fs = Tolerance factor.
z = Pre-punched hole
ej = Extra pass.
The following assumptions were made to derive the deformation types, see
Figure 3.9 and Figure 3.10:
Bending only takes place in the fold line of the active bend.
Transverse sections of the strip remain plane and the prole is bent as
a beam. The latter means that cross-sections remain orthogonal to the
centreline along the prole.
With help of the innitesimal element of length dz, see Figure 3.9 and 3.10,
the following strain models were derived:
Longitudinal stretching
1 d
Ls = r2 ( )2 . (3.13)
2 dz
where (r) is the distance from the bend.
Longitudinal bending
d2 d
Lb = h(s( 2
p( )2 )). (3.14)
dz dz
where (h) is the distance from the neutral layer to the inner side of the bend,
(s) is parallel moment arm and (p) is the perpendicular moment arm.
Shear
d
= p( ). (3.15)
dz
Transverse bending
h
t = . (3.16)
r0
The conclusion drawn by Paton et al. [45] was that the shear strain is larger
than the longitudinal strain in sections with inactive bends and must therefore
be considered as a factor in the roll forming process. The shear strain is small
for a simple section such as a U-prole without inactive bends.
3.2 Theoretical work 19
Out of plane bending of the ange and the longitudinal bending of the
web are neglected.
1
Wb = Y t2 . (3.17)
4
where (Y) is the yield strength.
1 d
Ws = Y x2 ( )2 . (3.18)
2 dz
where (x) is coordinate in the transverse direction.
The function (z) that minimises the Equation 3.20 satises the Euler Equa-
tion 3.21
dF d F d2 3t
( ) 2 3 = 0. (3.21)
d dz dz 4a
a3 d 2
where F = F (z, , ) = t
4 + 6 ( dz )
The end conditions give the integration constants (A) and (B), (0) = 0,
(L) = , (0) = 0 and (L) = 0.
The end conditions and Equation 3.22 give the deformation length
8a3
L= . (3.23)
3t
3.2 Theoretical work 21
where () is the bend angle increment, (t) is the thickness of the material
and (a) is the ange length.
9 t2 2 2 0ra
e= ( )r z |0zL . (3.24)
32 a6
The peak strain and transverse strain be obtained from Equation 3.24 in model
(A). The peak strain for the ange edge, (r = a, z = L), is written:
3 t
ep = ( ). (3.25)
4 a
et = k1 r2 . (3.26)
9 t2 2
where k1 = 32 ( a6 )z
Chiang compared model (A) with an experiment and concluded that the model
overestimated the strain three times when approaching the roll station.
Model (B) based on geometry for the engineering strain in the ange edge is
written:
3t
e= 1+ (1 cos ) 1. (3.27)
4a
The model predicts that the strain is uniform in the deformation zone but gives
no information about the transverse strain. Compared with an experiment,
model (B) gave a closer approximation of the value of the peak strain than
model (A).
22 Literature Survey
Figure 3.11. The bend angle is divided into three stages: stage one when the angle
does not change, stage two when the angle changes but the strip is not in contact
with the tool and stage three when the strip is contact with the tool.
Zhu studied both horizontal and vertical rolls, but it is the study of horizontal
tool that is discussed here. Zhu developed models applicable to three cases:
b) the outer edge of the ange overlaps the roll at any position.
Only case a) is presented below since in practise case b) and c) are not utilized.
The model obtained for case a) is
a2 cos2 sin(2 )
z =L + 2aR1 a2 . (3.28)
cos2 2 cos 2
Zhu assumed that the derivative for equation 3.28 could be used to predict
forming severities at the point where the strip get in contact with the female
tool for the rst time. The derivative is
3.2 Theoretical work 23
d Lz
= . (3.29)
dz a2 sin 2
2 cos2 2
+ aR1 cos(
cos 2
2)
The theoretical work was compared with the experiment and the conclusions
were as follows:
A concept, the bend angle curve, was proposed and there was a good
agreement between the predicted bend angle distribution and the exper-
imental results.
Figure 3.12. The V-prole made of high strength steel and mild steel were roll
formed in four forming steps: 15o , 30o , 45o and 60o . The V-prole made of high
strength steel was straight after forming but the prole made of mild steel was not.
Ingvarsson calculated the longitudinal strain, equation 3.30 for the case with
the V-prole and compared it with the maximum elastic strain, equation 3.31,
for both mild and high strength steel used in the experiment [54]. The result
showed that in the case with mild steel the strain in the ange was larger than
the maximum elastic strain, and therefore both elastic and plastic strain were
present during the forming. In the case with high strength steel only elastic
strain was present. Plastic strain will give residual strain and in this case
the channel made of mild steel was curved. The conclusion drawn was that
it is advantageous to use high strength steel in roll forming since it will have
smaller plastic strain in the anges and as a result smaller residual strain as
well.
Y
eelastic =
. (3.31)
E
where E is Youngs modulus and Y is the yield strength for the material.
Sagstrom et al. [49] studied the inuence of roll forming on the tolerances of
pre-punched holes in a hat-prole made of dierent ultra high strength steels.
3.2 Theoretical work 25
Furthermore, the amount of springback and are for these steels was observed.
They concluded by measurements that the holes maintained their shape and
that they could be pre-punched, with high tolerances requirements, close to the
ange edges before the roll forming started. Their investigation also showed
that the are in the end of a prole will be smaller with increasing yield
strength, see 3.13, and a parameter for this phenomenon called Delta Flare
was introduced. The denition of Delta Flare is the dierence between the
springback at the end of a prole and the springback in the centre of the same
prole. A suggested explanation to decreasing are was that increasing yield
strength gives less residual stresses that could cause are in the proles.
Figure 3.13. Delta Flare is the dierence between the springback in the centre of
the prole and the end of the prole. This is a plot for 4 dierent ultra high strength
steels with various yield strength.
Galdos et al. [14] studied the inuence of material properties on the roll
forming process when a U-prole was formed. The main objectives were to
investigate the longitudinal strain, forming force, springback and longitudinal
bow for steels ranging from mild to ultra high strength steels. Both nite
element simulations and experiments were used in the study. Their conclu-
sion was that the maximum longitudinal peak strain decreases when the yield
strength increases. The experiment also showed that increasing yield strength
gives a slight, longitudinal bow, which possibly is the result of a smaller peak
strain in the prole.
when both bending and drawing are used to form the prole the spring back
will be smaller whereas the longitudinal residual stresses in the bending zone
will be larger, Ingvarsson [26], Lindgren [32]. In roll forming the eect of
drawing can be reduced depending on which bending method that is used,
see Figure 3.15. For example, if the most common method called constant
arc length is used, the thinning of the material will be reduced. This gives
less longitudinal residual stresses in the bending zone, than when the constant
radius-method is used. The latter method, on the other hand, gives more
stretch forming and thus a smaller spring back. Another method called the
variable radius and variable arc length- method, gives a large spring back but
small longitudinal residual stresses.
Figure 3.14. To the left a C-prole is roll formed in 8 passes and to the right a
top-hat prole is roll formed in 5 passes. The C-prole is formed mainly by bending
whereas the top-hat prole is formed both by bending and drawing [13].
U q
S(U ) = sin( ( ) ). (3.32)
2 HC
HC = (U2 U1 ). (3.33)
where HC is the horizontal distance between two forming stands and U is the
coordinate in longitudinal direction, Figure 3.16
3.3 Computer simulation of roll forming 27
Figure 3.15. This gure shows three dierent ways of forming a 90o prole. One
way is to let the tools have the same radius in every forming step and dierent arc
length. Another way is to let the arc length be the same in every forming step but
decrease the tool radius. These methods give dierent spring back and longitudinal
residual stresses in the bending zone. The constant arc length is the method most
commonly used.
The shape function has a built in parameter (q, q > 1), i.e. a low value of
q gives a surface with a curvature that gradually increases when the strip is
approaching the forming tools whereas a larger value describes a curvature
that increases slowly in the beginning and faster just before the tools, see Fig-
ure 3.17. To determine the value of (q) a minimization of the total power of
deformation in the strip between the forming stands is done through a math-
ematical procedure.
U = U1 U2 . (3.37)
28 Literature Survey
Figure 3.16. The deformed sheet between roll stand (i) and roll stand (i + 1). The
neutral layer of the sheet is described by the shape function, Equation 3.32.
where
The equations 3.34 - 3.37 are purely geometric descriptions of the 3D shape of
the deformed strip, which do not take into account the stresses. To calculate
stress and strain a steady-state deformation is assumed between roll stand (i)
and roll stand (i + 1). The strip is divided into a suitable number of elements
and a incremental theory of plasticity is used to calculated the stress and
strain in the strip. The details are given in Hallmos [19]. Kiuchi et al. [30]
developed a computed aided design system that includes the above mention
method. The system has successfully been used to design tools for circular
tubes.
Duggal et al. [12], [11] used the computer aided simulation program RF-
PASS in a study. The program is based on the mathematical model developed
by Kiuchi et al. [30] and a nite dierence method. The program uses an
elastic-plastic formulation and can be used for analysing multiple roll sta-
tions. In the study a simulation of a U-prole was compared with an exper-
iment done by Bhattacharrya and Smith [4]. Duggal et al. concluded that
the peak longitudinal strain deviated less then 2 % between the simulation
and the experiment. The longitudinal residual strains obtained from the RF-
PASS dropped more then measured strains, which can be explained by the
assumption of a sinusoidal shape for the movement of the sheet. RFPASS can
be used, at least for simple sections, to assist the tool designer. Furthermore,
other surface models than the sinusoidal shape function will be investigated
in future studies.
Han et al. [22] developed a B3 -spline nite strip method to simulate the roll
forming process. The displacement of the strip was modelled with two types
of shape functions. In the longitudinal direction the strip was modelled with
B3 -spline functions and in the transverse direction it was modelled with Her-
mitian cubic polynomials. Han et al. [22] introduced the updated-Lagrangian
method of the nite element theory to the nite strip method. The model
used accounted for large deformation strain and displacement. Prandtl-Reuss
plasticity ow theory and the von Mises yield criteria were also applied. Han
30 Literature Survey
et al. have written several articles, for example [20] and [21], where they de-
scribe how the method was used to analyse simple sections and parameters
that eect the design. The conclusion drawn was that the results from the
simulations agree with observations of roll forming in practise.
Rebelo et al. [47] compared the relative eectiveness of implicit and explicit
nite element analysis in metal forming. The simulated U-prole was mod-
elled with 4-node shells - 20 through the width and 40 through the length. The
strip was pulled through three roll stations and the rigid rolls rotated freely.
The material was modelled as an elastic-plastic material with a yield strength
of 229 MPa and with Youngs moduls of 206.7 GPa. The implicit nite ele-
ment analysis was almost three times faster (47 CPU hours) than the explicit
analysis (125 CPU hours). The conclusion was the implicit formulation has a
relative advantage, since the problem is rather one dimensional and therefore
has a small wave front.
Brunet et al. [7] developed a master 2D cross-section model with a slave
3D analysis. The 2D analysis was a generalised plane-strain analysis and for
the 3D analysis a thick shell element was used. The tools were modelled as
rigid surfaces and instead of rotating tools they were modelled as rigid surfaces
continuously moving from one forming station to the next station. The friction
between the sheet and the tools was modelled as Coulomb friction. Both the
3D and the 2D analyses included Hills anisotropic model of initial anisotropy
with isotropic hardening. The computed longitudinal deection was compared
with the measured deection in order to validate the model. Brunet et al.
concluded that there was a reasonable dierence between the model and the
experiment.
Heislitz et al. [23] used the explicit code PAM-STAMP to simulate roll
forming. The strip was pulled through the rolls with constant speed. The
rolls were not rotating and the friction between the strip and the rolls was
ignored. Two dierent elements were tried: 8-node brick elements and four
node shell elements. In the nal simulations, however, they used 8-node brick
element. The tools were modelled with rigid 4-node shell elements. The mass
density was increased with a factor 100 without inertia eects aecting the
result. The material model used was Swifts isotropic strain hardening and
Hookes law. The simulations were compared with an experiment and the
maximum deviation was about 10%. The conclusions from the simulations
were as follows:
Sukmoo et al. [53] used the nite element program (COPRA FEA-RF) to
simulate the roll forming of a U-prole and compared the deformation length
with an experiment described in literature. The FE-program COPRA FEA-
RF is a rigid-plastic nite element analysis that uses a combined 2D and a
3D algorithm. One conclusion from the study was that the work hardening
exponent has the most signicant eect on the forming length. Increasing
work hardening exponent gives increasing forming length. Sukmoo et al. also
concluded that it was a good agreement between the simulation results and
the experiment.
Alsamhan et al. [2] utilised the FE-code EPFEP3, which is a 3D implicit
elastic-plastic FE program, to developed a remeshing technique for simulating
roll forming. A dual mesh was used: one for storing the deformation history
and another for FE computational. The conclusion drawn from the simulation
was that the computational time was much less compared to a conventional
FE-model. The result from the simulation was also acceptable compared to
computations without remeshing.
Sheu [52] used LS-DYNA explicit nite element code to simulate a roll
formed U-channel. The study comprised the inuence of friction, corner ra-
dius, rolling speed and changing rate of bend angle on the ange angle de-
viation and the ange length deviation of a 90o U-prole. In the simulation
the front end of the strip was xed and the tools were moved towards the
strip with a given velocity curve. To minimise the number of trails, in this
case 9 trail runs, a reduced factorial design L9 (34 ) was used. The conclusion
drawn from this study was that the bend angle changing rate and rolling speed
are important factors for the bend angle deviation. As concerns the length
deviations all factors are equally important.
Salmani et al. [50] used ABAQUS implicit FE-package to investigate local-
ized edge buckling in a symmetric channel section when dierent bend angles
were used. Here only the model itself will be described. The tools were mod-
elled as rigid surfaces and they rotated to drive the strip forward. A friction
coecient of 0.2 was assumed. The strip was modelled with a four node
shell element and ve integration points through the thickness were used. An
elastic-plastic material model was implemented as a table in the software. A
comparison was made between the model and an experiment done by Bhat-
tacharyya and Smith [4]. The conclusion was that the deformation history in
the ange edge of the prole was similar to the deformation history in exper-
iment and the error between the membrane peak strain ranged from 0 to 12
% depending on the bend angle.
32 Literature Survey
Bui and Ponthot [8] used the in-house nite element code Metafor to sim-
ulate a roll formed U-prole and compared the result with experiments in
literature. The strip was modelled with a 8-noded brick element and with
renement of the mesh in the bending zone. The tools were modelled as rigid
surfaces. The mechanical behaviour of the material was described by Swift
isotropic strain hardening law. The speed of the rolls and the friction between
them and the sheet were studied. Coulomb friction = 0 and = 0.2 were
tested. The result showed that the friction did not inuence the springback
and the longitudinal strain to any great extent, and the speed inuenced the
result only moderately. Bui and Ponthot concluded that the nite element
models can be simplied especially for complex proles, for example by ig-
noring the friction and thereby saving computer simulation time. They also
concluded that the study conrmed the potential of the nite element simu-
lation in designing the roll forming process.
Figure 3.18. To the left: the unfolded C-prole, the blank of sheet metal. To the
right: two dierent cross-sections of the C-prole.
Figure 3.19. A 3D roll-formed U-prole. Tension stress acts on the transition zone
where the U-prole is small and compression stress acts on the transition zone where
the prole is wider.
Groche et al. [17] also developed a semi-empirical model for designing 3D roll
formed U-channels. The model was based on mechanics of buckling of plates
and nite element analyses. The model focused on the compressed area in the
ange of a U-prole with variable cross-section, see Figure 3.19, and it can be
used for feasibility checks without simulation or experimental tests.
34 Literature Survey
Guleceken et al. [18] used COPRA RF [15] coupled with the nite element
module MSC.Marc to simulate the 3D roll-forming process. The main objec-
tive was to study how the exible roll forming process can be modelled and
simulated. The simulated U-channel was modelled with a number of 1274 full
integrated 8-noded hexahedral volume elements. An elastic-plastic material
model where the swift extended power law describes the material hardening
was used. In addition, Von Misses yield criteria and the associated ow rule
were applied. The surface of the tools was modelled using rigid shells. To
control the rotating tools the load control option in the MSC.Marc was used.
The simulation time was only 3-4 CPU hours since the model was relatively
rough. The result showed that the dimensions of the simulated part were close
to the dimensions of the desired prole.
Chapter 4
Experimental setup
The experimental equipment developed and built for the work presented in
the appended papers 4 to 7, is described below.
35
36 Experimental setup
Figure 4.1. A universal, spindle type roll-forming mill where the lower tools are
driven with universal joint driven shafts.
a thickness of 1mm are 19.8, 9.9, 6.6 and 4.95 mm respectively. The tools
were designed for materials with a thickness of 1 mm but they were used for
materials with thicknesses up to 1.47 mm when roll torque and roll load were
measured. The results imply that the material in the ange will be squeezed
when the bend angle increases. To avoid this phenomenon, with material
thicker than 1 mm the upper tool for a bend angle of 80o was also used as an
upper tool for a bend angle of 60o . The roll pitch radius for the upper and
lower tools was 75 mm.
The lower tools in the two rst forming steps had guides, see Figure 4.2, to
align the material with the machine. These guides inuence the longitudinal
and transversal strain in the strip.
The surface nish of the tools is RZ = 1m, and an abundance of lubrica-
tion was applied to have a similar low friction coecient between the dierent
materials and the tools.
Figure 4.2. Geometry of the tools used in the experiment. The tools have a bend
angle of 20o , 40o , 60o and 80o .
Figure 4.3. This gure shows only half of the U-channel because the symmetry and
the rosette strain gage is bonded on the top surface close to the edge of one ange.
The longitudinal direction is the same as x-direction and the transverse direction is
same as y-direction.
The grids, 45o /90o /135o , were placed with 2.4 mm in longitudinal direction
(x-direction) between each, to make them follow the same path during the
forming process. The position of the sheet was measured with an encoder,
and with the help of the position the strain measurement results from the
dierent grids were adjusted in time to make them measure the same point in
the process.
The strain in longitudinal and transverse direction was determined with
strain transformation, Dahlberg [10], equation (4.1).
38 Experimental setup
The equation (4.1) and the measurements in 45o /90o /135o give the equation
(4.2) and the equation (4.3) for the longitudinal and transverse strain.
y(transverse) = 90 . (4.3)
Figure 4.4. The roll load in z-direction was measured with two donut cells. The
torque sensor was used to measure the roll torque and it was mounted between the
lower tool and power transmission. The equipment measured the forces of each form-
ing step, one by one.
4.1 The roll forming experiment 39
The roll torque was measured with a torque sensor from Burster, which can
measure up to 75 Nm. It was mounted in the universal joint shaft between
the lower tool and the power transmission, see Figure 4.4.
The measurement of the load and torque was made in one forming step at
a time. For example the bend angle 20o was measured when the rst feeder
roll and the roll for a bend angle of 40o also were engaged with the strip, for
measurement of 40o are the rolls for bend angle 20o and 60o engaged at the
same time.
The load and torque are dependent on the tolerance between the thickness
of the roll formed material and the roll gap between upper and lower tools.
The roll gap was adjusted to be 10 % to 15 % wider than the thickness of the
material in order to avoid the material to be squeezed between tools causing
very high load and torque. The roll gap was checked with a feeler gage. This
method also takes into account shaft deection and bearing slackness.
The prole will experience some spring back after each forming step and then
deform more and more as it approaches the next step. However, between
springback and deformation, the prole will have a shape that does not change
provided the distance between the forming steps is large enough. In the present
experiments this occurred about 100 mm to 150 mm before and after the
forming step depending on material properties and geometry conditions of the
prole.
The width (y-direction) and depth (z-direction) of the prole were mea-
sured, see Figure 4.5, between the forming steps in the area where the shape
does not change. This was done with a sliding caliper, and a measurement
tolerance of about 0.1 mm.
Figure 4.5. The spring back, width and depth between the dierent forming steps
were measured with a sliding caliper.
40 Experimental setup
Figure 4.6. The picture shows the prototype resistance heating machine and the
steel strip which was fed through the machine by wheels made of copper.
4.2 Partial heating experiment 41
The prototype resistance heating machine and a sketch of the electrical cir-
cuit are shown in Figure 4.6 and Figure 4.7. The machine consists of a pro-
grammable logical control (P LC) system where the rotation speed of the heat-
ing wheels can be adjusted. The power used to heat up the material was con-
trolled by a thyristor that was controlled by a trigger signal from the PLC.
The transformer increases the current in the material. The voltage over the
material can be varied between 5 and 7 V (voltage) by adjusting the trans-
former. For all experiments 7 V, a speed of 1 m/min and a contact pressure of
5 Bar between the wheels and the sheet were used. The diameter of the wheels
was 122.5 mm and the width of the contact zone was 4 mm. Three dierent
powers called P 10, P 20 and P 30 adjusted by the thyristor were investigated;
the results described Paper 6, Lindgren et al. [38].
Figure 4.7. A sketch of the electrical circuit of the prototype resistance heating
machine. Wikstrom [56].
The roll forming machine in the experiment was the same as that described in
section 4.1.1, see Figure 4.1. A V-section was roll formed in six forming steps:
15o , 30o , 60o , 90o , 105o and 120o . The prole had an inner radius of 0.4 mm
and the material was 0.7 mm thick, see Figure 4.8. The forming velocity was
3.5 m/min and the forming load about 500 N. The diameter of the upper tools
was 140 mm and of the lower tools 100 mm. The tools were designed with the
constant radius method , Chaing [9], which means all forming steps had the
same inner radius.
42 Experimental setup
Figure 4.8. The tools and the ower pattern. The V-section was roll formed in 6
forming steps, from 15o to 120o .
servo control axis, two translations and two rotations axis. A unit can be
moved up and down, in and out and rotate, and the speed of the tools can
be controlled individually. To control the servo-axis the position of the sheet
metal is measured by encoders.
The desired cross-section (depth and width) can be created in a CAD-
program and read by the control system. Depending on the tooling the ma-
chine can produce for example U-proles, C-proles, hat-proles etc. with
variable cross-sections.
Figure 4.9. The experimental equipment used for research and prototyping of 3D
roll formed proles.
Figure 4.10. The experimental equipment has 6 forming stands. Each stand has 4
units (tool holders) that can rotate and translate.
Figure 4.11. View from the top: The prole is roll formed in six passes and to do
that the prole must go through the machine two times. Forming stands number 1,
3 and 5 form the left side and forming stands number 2, 4, and 6 form the right side.
the tools for the left and right side are the same for both the 30o and 60o . The
dierence between the passes is that the tools that hold the ange have moved
up closer to the tools that hold the web. The ower pattern is a function of
the length of the section. This exibility makes it possible to use as many
passes as the cross-section requires without making more tools. It also makes
it possible to produce a section not only of variable width but also of variable
4.3 3D Roll forming experiment 45
Figure 4.12. View from the back. The geometry of the tools is the same for all
forming stands. The only dierence is that the tools for the ange are moving up and
closer to the tools that hold the web, for example bend angles 30o and 60o . Tools
with a constant radius have been used, Chaing [9].
Computational model
Details about the nite element models described in paper 1-3 and paper 5
are presented in the following chapter. The roll forming process was modelled
with the implicit FE package MARC/MENTAT [43], see Figure 5.1. Large
displacement and large additive strains were taken into account in an Updated-
Lagrangian approach. Nonlinear plastic material behaviour as well as contacts
with friction contributed to the nonlinearities in the models.
Figure 5.1. The nite element model described in paper 5, Lindgren [37].
47
48 Computational model
Figure 5.2. The geometry of the tools and the corresponding ower pattern described
in paper 5.
5.2 The geometry 49
Figure 5.3. Four forming stands were used. The two rst stands were used as a belt
feeder, the other two forming stands have the same bend angle.
pij = = . (5.2)
ij sij
where is a plastic parameter to be determined by the consistency condition
that f 0 during plastic ow.
The tensile test data for the materials used in paper 5, see Figure 5.4. The
stress versus plastic strain was implemented as a table in the nite element
program. The work hardening slope is described in Marc with a piecewise lin-
ear representation in a table. Heating was ignored in all models and therefore
the ow stress at room temperature was sucient. In the studies presented in
paper 1-3 material data were implemented in same way as described above.
5.5 Contact 51
Figure 5.4. The tensile test data for the materials used in paper 5.
5.5 Contact
The friction between the prole and the tools was modelled as a type of
Coulomb friction. MARC uses
2 vr
Ft = Fn arctan( ). (5.3)
C
where
vr = Sliding velocity
C = Relative sliding velocity, in the study is C = 0.01
Fn = Normal force
Ft = Tangential force
= Friction coecient, in the study = 0.085
The tools were modelled as rigid bodies and the material was deformable.
MARC uses a method called direct constraint method for this contact situa-
tion. During the procedure, the node seldom hits the surface of the rigid body
exactly. In order to make this situation easier a contact tolerance around the
rigid surface is given. MARC detects contact if a node in the deformable ma-
terial comes inside this contact tolerance area (D) and it is default 25 % of
the thickness of the smallest shell element used, see Figure 5.5. The contact
tolerance is also default symmetrically (D1 = D2) placed around the surface
of the rigid body. Greater tolerance gives less accuracy when calculating and
52 Computational model
a smaller tolerance means that MARC will have more problems discovering
contact, which causes higher computational costs. In this thesis a tolerance
of 4 - 5 % of the shell thickness was used. As a result of rotating tools, many
nodes are in almost contact in the roll forming process. This means that many
contact separations can occur thereby causing an extended calculation time.
In order to avoid this it is possible to displace the tolerance distance closer to
the surface of the rigid body using a bias factor which means that D1 < D2.
The default is a bias factor of 0 which means that D1 = D2 but in this thesis
a bias factor of 0.25 was used.
Figure 5.5. The used tolerance distance D1 and D2 in paper 5 is 5 % of the thickness.
The bias factor is default 0 in MARC which means that D1 = D2. In paper 5 is a
bias factor of 0.25 used which means D1 < D2.
Chapter 6
6.1 Paper 1
Finite element model of roll forming of a U-channel prole
This article describes the design of a nite element model for simulating roll
forming of a U-channel prole, whereafter the results from one simulation are
compared with previous knowledge on the process as described in literature.
The simulation starts with an undeformed strip and ends with the nished
U-channel. The model includes friction and the tools used are rigid rotating
surfaces, which is an improvement to other models in literature. The strip
was modelled with thick shell elements, which take into account transverse
shear stress. An elastic-plastic material model was used, the hardening was
isotropic. The von Mises yield surface was used and the associated ow rule
was applied.
The conclusion from the simulation is that this model of the roll forming
process works very well, but whereas the simulation time is acceptable for
research purposes it is still too long for industrial use. The results obtained
agree well with existing knowledge about the process, and the model can be
used to further investigate important parameters. Thereby, the model can be
used to improve existing design rules.
6.2 Paper 2
Cold roll forming of a U-channel made of high strength steel
Paper 2 looks into changes of the longitudinal peak membrane strain at the
edge of the ange and of the deformation length when yield strength increases.
This was done by nite element analyses using the simulation model presented
in paper 1. The results show that longitudinal peak membrane strain decreases
and deformation length increases when the yield strength is increased.
53
54 Summary of appended papers
6.3 Paper 3
An improved model for the longitudinal peak strain in the ange of
a roll formed U-channel developed by FE-analyses
In this study factorial design and nite element analysis were combined to
investigate which parameters aect the longitudinal peak membrane strain
and the deformation length. The results were used to create simple models
which predict the strain and the length. The models were also compared with
the result from paper 1 and paper 2 and they agree well. The conclusion is
that these simple models can easily be implemented in a CAE system and
improve the design of U-channel roll forming lines. The same approach can
also be used to develop design rules for forming other proles.
6.4 Paper 4
Experimental investigation of the roll load and roll torque when
high strength steel is roll formed
Paper 4 presents an experimental investigation of roll loads and roll torque
when mild steel and high strength steel are roll formed. The roll load was
measured with load cells and the roll torque with a torque sensor mounted
between the lower tool and the power transmission.
The results obtained will increase the understanding of the specic condi-
tions for roll forming steel with increasing yield strength. They can be used to
validate nite element models and support the machine designer in the choice
of power unit and dimensioning the shaft on which the tools are mounted.
The conclusion from this study is that load and torque increase with t2.1
(t = thickness of the material) and Y 0.57 (Y = yield strength of the material).
The power needed in a forming step for production speed (30 40 m/min) is
about 0.5 kW when conditions are similar to those in the study.
6.5 Paper 5 55
6.5 Paper 5
Validation of nite element simulation of roll forming
Finite element simulation is commonly used for studying sheet metal forming
but not in the case of roll forming. In this study the nite element model of
roll forming (paper 1) was validated with experiments. Measurements of roll
loads, roll torque, geometry and strain history in the ange of a U-channel
were compared with computed results.
The agreement between measurements and simulations were good except
for the spring-back, which was larger in the experiments than in the simulation.
The conclusion is that nite element simulations will increasingly be used
to analyse roll forming but it will not replace the computer aided engineering
(CAE) programs in the future. Today a CAE program can be used to give an
initial proposal to how many forming steps a prole needs. The program also
proposes the design of the steps. Still it requires a toolmaker with experience
to decide if the proposed tool design is good enough. Here is where the nite
element simulations can support the toolmaker before taking a decision for
manufacture the tools.
6.6 Paper 6
Roll forming of partially heated cold rolled stainless steel
Today you can nd roll formed details in many dierent products, such as
buildings, household appliances and vehicles. The industry tends to use more
and more high strength steel in order to save weight. The disadvantage of
these materials is that they can be dicult to form due to reduced ductility.
Partially heating the steel is one way of increasing ductility in the forming
areas.
This study shows that partial heating substantially increases the ductility
of high strength steel and makes it possible to roll form large bend angles.
When roll forming, the material will work hardening almost to the as-received
condition in the outer and inner radius of the bending zone. The neutral
layer will work hardening moderately. Furthermore, the heating power decides
what bend angle will be obtained. Finally, the partially heated material shows
three dierent regions: one unaected region, one transition region and nally
a recrystallized region. Recrystallization starts in the centre and grows with
higher power input.
56 Summary of appended papers
6.7 Paper 7
3D roll forming of hat-prole with variable depth and width
The use of roll-formed products in the automotive sector, in furniture and
buildings and so on, increases every year due to the low part-production cost
and the complicated cross-sections that can be produced today. Until recent
years one disadvantage of roll forming has been that only proles with con-
stant cross-sections in the longitudinal direction could be made. About eight
years ago, however, ORTIC AB developed a machine in which it was possible
to produce proles with variable cross-sections (3D roll-forming) for the build-
ing industry. Experimental equipment was recently built for researching and
prototyping proles with variable cross-sections for the automotive industry.
The objective of the study presented here was to investigate a new tooling
concept that makes it possible to roll-form hat-sections, made of ultra high
strength steel, with cross sections variable in depth and width. The results
show that, under conditions similar to those in the study, the new tooling
concept makes it is possible to produce 3D roll-formed sections with close
tolerances.
Probably one of the rst 3D roll-forming machines in the world, with two
translational and two rotational degrees of freedom per axis, was built and
used in the study. Based on a specic tooling concept, hat-proles with cross-
sections variable in depth and width were produced using simple, cylindrical
shaped rolls.
Three dierent types of proles have been identied in the study: type
1 which are completely straight, type 2 which are conical proles and
type 3 which are proles with transitions zones. The rst two types
give similar residual stresses in the longitudinal direction and they are
easy to produce. Type 3 proles get residual stresses that can give wavy
edges as well as distortion of the web and ange. This kind of proles
therefore requires a carefully designed process.
Chapter 7
The experimental and numerical work described in this thesis started with
simple geometry, a U-prole, and standard steel. Initial experiments and mod-
elling progressed to investigating roll forming of high strength steels, which
ultimately led to the design of a machine for 3D roll forming, see paper 7,
Lindgren and Ingmarsson [39], in thesis.
How should the roll forming process be designed for complex geometries and/or
high strength steels?
The subsequent discussion, including the main conclusions from this work,
aims to answer the question posed above.
57
58 Discussions and conclusions
ence between the two forming operations is that in bending plain strain can
be expected whereas in roll forming there is a more three dimensional strain-
state. Lundberg and Melander [40] have compared air bending to roll forming
with the help of nite element simulations. As a part of their study a damage
criterion was proposed, which exhibited a higher damage factor for air bend-
ing than for roll forming. They concluded that this could explain why high
strength steel can be roll formed but not air bent to the same small minimum
bending radius.
One way of getting around such problems as the minimum bend radius or
the increased forming force and springback is to use partially heated mate-
rial. The results presented in paper 6, Lindgren et al. [38], show that it is
possible to substantially increase the formability by using austenitic stainless
steel, e.g. AISI 301, in a cold rolled condition and increase the ductility in
the forming areas by partial heating. Furthermore, the heated areas will be
deformation hardened and regain some of the strength during the roll forming.
It was steel that had an initial high fraction of martensite. The heated region,
that became austenitic, regained the martensitic structure during the plastic
straining. Paper 2, Lindgren [35] shows that the longitudinal strain decreases
when the yield strength increases. It is true that the springback also will in-
crease, but this can be reduced by partial heating so that the strip can easily
enter the next forming step. The results from these two studies indicate that
it would be possible to roll form a prole with just a few forming steps without
introducing residual strain, for example in the ange of a V- or U-prole, that
could cause quality problems.
The 3D roll forming process has great potential when combining its ex-
ibility with the advantages of traditional roll forming. With only one set of
tools it is possible to produce proles with varying cross sections in a highly
productive process including high material utilization and low tooling costs.
Research concerning traditional roll forming is limited compared to many other
research areas. However, research on 3D roll forming is still in its cradle. Be-
side the things we need to know when designing a traditional roll forming
machine, such as the number of forming steps, the tool design and springback,
it is equally important to know the limitations of radius changes in both depth
and width when designing a 3D roll forming machine or a prole. In order to
start investigating these factors a 3D roll forming machine was built within
this research, which proved it possible to produce hat-proles of variable depth
and width with a new tooling concept, see paper 7, Lindgren and Ingmarsson
[39]. Thanks to the simple shape of the new tools it is also possible to roll
form a prole of varying thickness without changing the tools. This tooling
concept has been patented by ORTIC [1]. Furthermore, two dierent pro-
les were identied in the study: conical proles and proles with transitions
zones. Conical proles get residual stresses in the longitudinal direction sim-
60 Discussions and conclusions
ilar to those in straight proles and they are easy to produce. Proles with
transitions zones get residual stresses that can give wavy edges and distortion
of the web and ange, which means that a particularly careful design of the
process is required.
Conclusion
In order to answer the research question initially posed, this study, as it pro-
gressed, was divided in three parts: modelling, high strength steels and 3D
roll forming. However, when designing a roll forming process these research
areas go hand in hand. On the basis of research of others and from the present
work, the following overall conclusions can be drawn:
Listed below are some suggestions about future work in the above mentioned
areas in order to further improve the competitiveness of the roll forming pro-
cess and enable the development of new, advanced products:
[7] M. Brunet, B. Lay, and P. Pol. Computed aided design of roll forming of
channel sections. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 60:209214,
1996.
[8] Q.V. Bui and J.P. Ponthot. Numerical simulation of the cold roll-forming
processes. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 202:275282, 2008.
[9] K.F. Chaing. Cold roll forming. Masters thesis, Aukland, Aukland, New
Zeeland, 1984.
[11] N. Duggal. Process simulation of roll forming and roll pass design. Mas-
ters thesis, Ohio state University, 1995.
61
[12] N. Duggal, M. A. Ahmetoglu, G. L. Kinzel, and T. Altan. Computed
aided simulation of cold roll forming - a computer program for simple
section proles. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 59:4148,
1996.
[13] T.K. Eckhardt. Cold roll forming, theory and application. Bulletin
709/872, page 24.
[15] Data M Sheet Metal Solution GmbH. COPRA RF. internet, 2009.
[19] G.T. Halmos, editor. Roll Forming Handbook. Number 67 in Forming and
Forging. Talylor and Francis Group, New York, USA, 1 edition, 2006.
[21] Z. W. Han, C. Liu, W. P. Lu, L. Q. Ren, and J. Tong. Spline nite strip
analysis of forming parameters in roll forming a channel section. Journal
of Materials Processing Technology, 2004. Article in Press.
[22] Z. W. Han, L. Q. Ren, C. Liu, and W. P. Lu. Modelling of cold roll forming
of steel strip. Material Science and Technology, 17:415418, April 2001.
62
[24] S. Hellborg. Finite element simulation of roll forming. Masters thesis,
Linkoping University, Linkoping, Sweden, 2007.
[35] M. Lindgren. Cold roll forming of a u-channel made of high strength steel.
Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 186:7781, 2007.
[36] M. Lindgren. An improved model for the longitudinal peak strain in the
ange of a roll formed u-channel developed by fe-analyses. Steel research
international, 78(1):8287, 2007.
63
[38] M. Lindgren, U. Bexell, and L. Wikstrom. Roll forming of partially heated
stainless steel. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 209:3117
3124, 2009.
64
[51] R.S. Senanayake, I.M. Cole, and S. Thiruvarudchelvan. The application of
computational and experimental techniques to metal deformation in cold
roll forming. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 45(1-4):155
160, September 1994.
[52] J. Sheu. Simulation and optimization of the cold roll forming process. In
Simulations and Applications. NUMIFORM, 2004.
[57] S. Zhu. Theoretical and experimental analysis of roll forming. Phd thesis,
Ackland, Ackland, New Zeeland, 1993.
65
PAPER 1
Summary
Cold roll-forming (CRF) is a highly productive process and therefore an interesting metal forming
process. CRF products can be found in many applications like buildings, furniture and vehicles.
However, it is a geometric complex process and therefore the knowledge that has been obtained
through simple models is limited. The use of FE models to simulate sheet metal forming processes
in general is common but not in case of CRF. Finite element models can be used to enhance the
understanding of the process and as design tools. They can also be used to create simpler design
rules.
The objectives of this study are to create a model that can be used to predict the longitudinal
membrane strain in the flange and to analyse the contact between the tools and the strip. This strain
is important as it determines the number of forming steps needed to form the profile.
The created finite element model accounts for friction and elasto-plastic deformations of the strip.
The rotating tools are assumed to be rigid. The strip is modelled with thick shell elements and the
simulations start from an undeformed strip to a finished U-channel.
1 Introduction
In cold roll forming (CRF) the sheet is continuously and progressively formed in several forming
stands from sheet metal to a finished cross section, Figure 1. The number of forming steps needed
to obtain a wanted cross-section is the first choice when designing a CRF machine. They depend on
the wanted cross-section, thickness and the material. Other important parameters are spring back,
deformation length and longitudinal membrane strain in the flange. The longitudinal membrane
strain develops as the profile is successively formed. The material in the edge of flange will travel a
longer distance 'L than the material in the bending zone between the forming stands, Figure 2.
This strain should not be plastic in order to avoid wave edge or another defect on the finished
profile. If plastics strains are present, then more forming stands are needed.
Today there are several computer programs available on the market that can support the design of
CRF machines. The programs are based on thumbs of rules and simplified formulas. However,
only limited conclusions can be drawn based on these programs due to the complex geometry of the
formed strip and the simplifications in their design rules. The finite element method can be used to
increase the knowledge of the roll forming process.
1
M. Lindgren
L + 'L
Rolling direction
Flange
Figure 1. The strip is successively formed in Figure 2. The material in the edge of the flange
several steps, from an undeformed strip to a will travel a longer way 'L than the material in
profile, from [1]. the bending zone.
2 Previous work
Rebelo et al. [2] studied implicit and explicit finite element formulation used in metal forming
process simulations. The advantage of explicit formulation is that the analysis cost increases in
direct proportion to the size of the mesh. Whereas in the implicit formulation it increases with the
square of the wave front times the degrees of freedom. They concluded that in roll forming the
wave front is small due to the problem being very one dimensional. Therefore the simulation was
faster with implicit formulation when CRF was simulated.
McClure and Li [3] simulated roll forming with the ABAQUS software and compared the result
with experiments from Bhattacharrya and Smith [4]. The model ignored friction between the tools
and a horizontal force was applied in the leading edge to pull the material through the roll stations.
The obtained membrane strain was similar to the experiments by the latter.
Heislitz et al. [5] used the code PAM-STAMP to simulate the roll forming process. The strip was
pulled through the rolls with a constant speed, without friction and without rotating tools. The
explicit FEM code was used. They tried both eight node brick element and shell element and they
also concluded that re-meshing reduced the simulation time when they used shell elements. They
concluded that at the current status of development, the simulation of roll forming by using PAM-
STAMP is not very efficient due to the required CPU.
Brunet et al. [6] tried a specially developed FEM code, PROFIL. It used a master 2D cross-section
analysis with a slave 3D shell analysis between two or four successive roll stands. The tools were
modelled as rigid surfaces and they were not rotating. The forming of one thin channel, one thick
channel and a circular tube were simulated. The calculated peak strain in the flange overestimated
the experimental values with 10-30%.
Alsamhan et al. [7,8] have developed a re-meshing technique to simulate CRF. The result from the
simulation showed that re-meshing can reduce the computer simulation time.
2
M. Lindgren
To simulate the CRF process the geometry was generated with the ORTIC CAE system [10]. The
tools are then modelled as rigid surfaces in the FE program.
The strip is 1.502 mm thick, the width is 31.8 mm and the length is 1000 mm. To obtain a steady
state condition three rolls shall be engaged in the same time, therefore the chosen length of the
model. Due to the symmetry, only one half of the geometry is modelled.
The strip is modelled with 2750 thick shell elements. The elements size is 4*1 mm in the bending
zone and in other regions the elements size is 4*4 mm.
The strip is modelled with a bilinear thick shell element type number 75 [9]. This is a four node
element that calculates membrane strains and the curvatures at the middle surface. The element can
also account for transverse shear strains. The element can be used in curved shell analysis and due
to the simple formulation the element is not so expensive [9]. Therefore is the shell element 75
attractive for the CRF simulations. Three layers of integration points are used in the thickness
direction.
The initial angular speed of the tools is 10 rad/s which gives the strip a speed of 0.6 m/s. The speed
is increased by 0.5% in every forming stand in order to counteract buckling between the stands.
Dogal 350 YP
550
500
450
Stress
400
350
300
0 5 10 15
Plastic strain %
Figure 3. Flower pattern for the used Figure 4. Stress - strain curve for Dogal 350 YP.
geometry, six forming stands are used. The
forming steps are from 0 - 90 degrees in
steps of 15 degrees.
3
M. Lindgren
3.3 Contact
In roll forming the tools are lubricated to minimise the wear on the tools and the strip. The
lubrication type is boundary lubrication. This is assumed to correspond to a friction coefficient of
0.1. The friction model is Coulomb friction.
The clearance between the tools is 1.5 mm and the strip is 1.502 mm thick. That gives a contact
pressure of 280 MPa.
The longitudinal membrane strains in the edge of the strip increase between the stands then drop
just before the contact between the upper and lower tools, Figure 5. This result is similar to earlier
papers that have been written about FE simulations of CRF [3], [5].
0.4
0.35
Longitudinal membrane strain [%]
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
-0.05
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Displacement in longitudinal direction [m]
Figure 5. The longitudinal membrane elastic - plastic strain in the edge of the strip
in six forming stands. Constant forming steps are used (15 - 30 - 45 - 60 - 75 - 90).
4
M. Lindgren
When the strip is in contact with the lower tool for the first time the strain will drop from a
maximum value and compress until the contact zone between the upper and lower tools is reached.
This is in agreement with what Bhattacharyya and Smith observed [4].
It has been known that the tool radius influences the membrane strains in the flange. A smaller
radius gives a more severe forming as the material will not roll smoothly into the tool. Zhu [11]
obtained a model for the lower tool geometry and proposed a bend angle curve for the lower tool.
The derivative of the bend angle curve at the point where the strip is in contact with the lower tool
for the first time, shows how severe the forming is.
The tool radius is included in his model and it predicts more severe forming when the lower tool
radius decreases. Zhu also concluded that the peak strains will decrease when constant forming
steps are used. This agrees with the result from the simulation in this study, Figure 5.
5 Conclusion
A model of the CRF process, which includes friction and rotating tools, has been successfully
implemented. The simulation time is acceptable for research but still too long for industrial use.
The results from the simulations agree well with existing knowledge about the process. The model
can be used to further investigate important parameters as flange length, thickness of the material,
Youngs modules, yield strength and contact conditions. Thereby, the model can be used to improve
existing design rules.
6 Acknowledgements
The author thanks ORTIC AB, Knowledge foundation, Jernkontoret and Dalarna University for
their technical and financial support.
7 Reference
[1] Lars Ingvarsson, Rullprofilering teknik och ekonomi, Aktuell produktion nr 3 1991 39 - 42
[2] N. Rebelo, J.C. Nagtegaal, L.M. Taylor, R. Passman, Comparison of implicit and explicit
finite element methods in the simulation of metal forming processes, ABAQUS User
Conf., Newport, RI, 1992
[3] C.K. McClure, H. Li, Roll forming simulation using finite element analysis, Manuf. Rev.
8 (1995) 114.
[4] D. Bhattacharyya, P.D. Smith, The Development of Longitudinal Strain in Cold Roll
Forming and its Influence on Product Straightness, First Inter. Conf. on Tech. of Plasticity,
Tokyo, The Japan Soc. For Tech. of Plasticity, 422-427, 1984.
[5] F. Heislitz, H. Livatyali, M.A. Ahmetoglu, Simulation of roll forming process with the 3-D
FEM code PAM-STAMP, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 59, 1996, 59-67
[6] M. Brunet, S. Mguil, P. Pol, Modelling of a roll forming process with a combined 2D and
3D FEM code, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 80-81 (1998) 213 219
[7] A. Alsamhan, P. Hartely, I. Pillinger, The computer simulation of cold-roll-forming using FE
methods and applied real time re-meshing techniques, J. Mater. Process. Technol., 2003
[8] A. Alsamhan, I. Pillinger, P. Hartely, The development of real time re-meshing technique
for simulating cold-roll-forming using FE methods, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 2004
[9] MARC, Element Library Volume B, Marc Analysis Research Corporation,USA
[10] ORTIC CAE SYSTEM, Datoriserad rullformnings - teknik, Srtryck, Verkstderna nr 1 1983
[11] S.D. Zhu, Theoretical and experimental analysis of roll forming, PhD thesis, Feb. 1993,
Auckland New Zealand
5
PAPER 2
Errata
replace the text should be
Page 1 (77) mlg@du.se mld@du.se
Notation in the text for bend
angle Y
Notation in the text for
degree 8
Journal of Materials Processing Technology 186 (2007) 7781
Abstract
Cold roll forming is a bending process where the bending occurs gradually in several forming steps from an undeformed strip to a nished
prole. The process is very interesting for the sheet metal industry due to the high speed in which the prole can be produced. High strength steel
has, in recent years, become more common in cold roll forming. These materials have advantages but also disadvantages that affect the design of
the process.
Simple models in literature [K.F. Chiang, Cold roll forming, ME Thesis, University of Auckland, August 1984] predict that the longitudinal
peak membrane strain in the ange of a prole is independent of the material properties. However, Ingvarsson [L. Ingvarsson, Forenklad teori
for rullforming av elementar v-prol, jamforelse mellan normalt och hoghallfast stal, VAMP 15- rullforming 23 april 2001] compared mild and
ultra high strength in a roll forming experiment and the conclusion was that the material properties will affect the nished prole. This paper is a
fundamental study performed in order to understand the observation by Ingvarsson [L. Ingvarsson, Forenklad teori for rullforming av elementar
v-prol, jamforelse mellan normalt och hoghallfast stal, VAMP 15- rullforming 23 april 2001].
The objectives of this study are to investigate the change in the longitudinal peak membrane strain at the ange edge and the deformation length
when the yield strength increases. These are important since they can be used to determine the number of forming steps and the distance between
them when designing the cold roll forming machine. The result from the simulations show that the longitudinal peak membrane strain decreases
and the deformation length increases when the yield strength is increased.
2007 Published by Elsevier B.V.
Keywords: Cold roll forming; High strength steel; Finite element analysis
1. Introduction rial have been investigated and compared with nite element
analysis in this study.
In cold roll forming a prole is formed in several forming
steps from an undeformed strip to a nished prole (Fig. 1). The 2. Notations
forming process is geometrically complicated due to the fact that
the forming does not only occur in the tools but also between The notations are given below and in Fig. 2:
each forming stand. When creating the tools the tool designer
must decide how many forming steps the prole demands. The L, deformation length;
number of steps is dependent on the shape of the cross-section, a, ange length;
tolerance, thickness and the material properties. t, thickness of the strip;
It is important to minimise the number of steps as this reduces Y, bend angle;
the cost of the cold roll forming machine. Then the process can r, distance from the bending zone;
be a competitive alternative also for smaller production volumes. z, distance from where the bending starts;
Therefore the knowledge of how high strength steel affects the e, the longitudinal membrane engineering strain at the ange.
number of forming steps is important.
Existing relations between the longitudinal peak membrane 3. Background
strain, deformation length and the yield strength of the mate-
The prole is formed in several steps and that will cause lon-
gitudinal strain in the ange. The strain develops as the material
E-mail address: mlg@du.se. in a ange of a prole will travel a longer distance than the
Fig. 2. One half of the U-channel. The strip is formed by a bend angle (Y8) in the contact zone between the rolls. It will cause a longitudinal membrane strain (e) in
the ange.
M. Lindgren / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 186 (2007) 7781 79
Table 1
Series of experiments where the forming steps are 08 (feeder roll)108108 and
08 (feeder roll)208208, when seven different yield strengths are used
08108108 08208208
200 MPa
400 MPa
600 MPa
800 MPa
1000 MPa
1200 MPa
1400 MPa
Fig. 4. The ctive tensile test data for seven different materials. They have been implemented in the nite element program as a table.
80 M. Lindgren / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 186 (2007) 7781
Fig. 6. The behaviour for the longitudinal peak membrane strain is similar to
Fig. 5. When the virgin yield strength increases the longitudinal peak membrane the case with a forming step of 108. But now is the curve for the elastic and
strain will decrease. When the plastic strain goes to zero the total strain will plastic longitudinal peak membrane strain displaced to a higher level of virgin
atten out and the strain is purely elastic. yield strength.
Acknowledgements
References
Fig. 8. The simulations are compared with the model Chiang derived, Eq. (3),
[1] S.M. Panton, S.D. Zhu, J.L. Duncan, Geometric constraints on the forming
and one can see that they do not agree well.
path in roll forming channel sections, Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. 206.
[2] D. Bhattacharyya, P.D. Smith, C.H. Yee, L.F. Collins, The prediction of
deformation length in cold roll forming, J. Mech. Work. Tech. 9 (1984)
The model for the peak strain, Eq. (3), has the additional assump-
181191.
tion that the ange edge remains straight during the deformation. [3] K.F. Chiang, Cold roll forming, ME Thesis, University of Auckland, August
1984.
7. Conclusions [4] L. Ingvarsson, Forenklad teori for rullforming av elementar v-prol,
jamforelse mellan normalt och hoghallfast stal, VAMP 15- rullforming 23
april 2001.
The simulations show that the longitudinal peak membrane
[5] M. Brunet, S. Mguil, P. Pol, Modelling of a roll-forming process with a
strain decreases, the deformation length increases for materi- combined 2D and 3D FEM code, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 8081 (1998)
als with higher yield strength. This information has not been 213219.
possible to obtain from simple models as in Eqs. (1)(3). [6] M. Farzin, M.S. Tehrani, E. Shameli, Determination of buckling limit of
Decreasing longitudinal peak membrane strain gives less strain in cold roll forming by nite element analysis, J. Mater. Process.
Technol. 125126 (2002) 626632.
residual stresses in the ange of the prole and quality prob-
[7] M. Lindgren, Finite element model of roll forming of a U-channel prole,
lems as wave edges, longitudinal curvature, end are, etc. will To be presented at International Conference on Techn. of Plasticity, Verona,
decrease. It will make it possible to use fewer forming steps 2005.
for proles made of high strength steel. However, high strength [8] MARC, Element Library, vol. B, Marc Analysis Research Corporation,
steel has larger spring back that has to be accounted for. This is USA.
PAPER 3
Errata
replace the text should be
Page 4 (85) A study of Figure 5 indicates A study of Figure 5 indicates
that five variables should be that five variables should be
included, the thickness, bend included, the thickness, bend
angle, flange length, yield angle, flange length, yield
strength and the tool radius, strength and the tool radius,
Equation (7) Equation (8)
Page 1 (86) Equation (6) and Equation Equation (7) and Equation
(9), are determined so the (10), are determined so the
model fits the results from model fits the results from
the simulations done in the the simulations done in the
factorial design. factorial design.
Metal Forming
An Improved Model for the Longitudinal Peak Strain in the Flange of a Roll
Formed U-Channel developed by FE-Analyses
Michael Lindgren
Material Science, Dalarna University, 78188 Borlnge, Sweden, mld@du.se
Today one can find cold roll forming (CRF) products in many applications, for example vehicles, furniture and in the building industry. Though
CRF is a well known sheet metal process, it is still not entirely understood due to the geometrically complex forming. There are several com-
puter aided engineering (CAE) programs on the market that can assist the tool maker when designing a new CRF machine. However, they
are often based on simple formulas when predicting the stress and the strain in the strip.
The main objective of this study is to improve formulas for the longitudinal peak membrane strain and the deformation length when a U-chan-
nel is formed. These are important since they can be used to determine the number of forming steps and the distance between them. A two-
level factorial design is done using the finite element analysis to investigate which parameters affect the peak strain and the deformation
length. The parameters are then used to build models for the peak strain and the deformation length.
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Abstract
The cold roll forming process is a highly efcient process used to produce proles for many applications, for example vehicles, buildings,
domestic machines, etc. Therefore, its market share is increasing every year. Many of the above products are already today made of high strength
steel and the usage of these materials will likely continue to increase.
The objectives of this project are to nd how the roll load and roll torque are inuenced by the yield strength of the material. Full-scale experiments
have been performed. U-channels made of different materials from mild to ultra high strength steels have been formed. The roll torque is measured
during the process using a torque sensor mounted between the tool and the power transmission. Used power is also calculated with help of the
motor current. The roll load is measured with load cells mounted on both side of the roll forming tool.
The experimental result will increase the understanding of the specic conditions for roll forming steels with increasing yield strength. The
result can be used to support the roll machine designer to choose machine elements and power unit for these applications. Furthermore, the result
can also be compared with nite element simulations in order to improve and validate simulation models.
2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Cold roll forming; High strength steel; Roll torque; Roll load
1. Introduction not been the case for the roll forming processes due to limited
computer capacity. Only in recent years has this became possi-
Roll forming is a bending operation where the bending occurs ble [46], and today roll forming computer aided engineering
in several forming steps from an undeformed strip to a nished system [7], can offer simplied nite element models for simu-
prole. Every forming step consists of a pair of forming tools that lations. From these models the roll load and roll torque can be
rotate and drive the strip forward during the forming. Today one received and compared with measurement and thereby validated.
can nd roll formed products in many different elds as build- Bhattacharyya et al. [8] suggested an analytic model for the
ings, vehicles, furniture, etc. The use of the process increases roll load in a single roll station, Eq. (1), when a U-channel was
continuously due to the efciency of the process. formed:
Despite the fact that roll forming is a common sheet metal
forming process and used worldwide there are relatively few 2t 3 3 a
publications about the process. The explanation may be the com- F =s (1)
3 sin()
plexity of the deformation behaviour in the process despite its
visual simplicity. There are numerous factors which can inu- where t is the thickness, s the yield strength, a the ange length
ence the roll forming design, for example unlimited variation and is the bend angle.
of the shape of the prole. Nevertheless, some researchers have The model was compared with measurements for mild steel
developed simple models [1,2], and in a newly released book and aluminium for different thickness and bend angle. The
Halmos [3] described how this process can be used successfully. conclusion was that the error between the model and the mea-
Finite element simulations have been used a long time in surements was within 020%.
sheet metal forming to develop forming tools. However, this has The current work is an investigation of the roll forming of a
U-channel of different sheet metals, ranging from mild to ultra
high strength steel. Roll load and roll torque have been measured
E-mail address: mld@du.se. during the forming. The results from these measurements can
0924-0136/$ see front matter 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2007.03.041
M. Lindgren / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 191 (2007) 4447 45
be used to validate nite element models, can support the roll Table 1
machine designer to choose machine elements and power unit The materials that have been tested are Docol, DC01 (carbon steel) and HyTens,
SS2333 (stainless steel)
when the strength of the material increases.
Material Thickness (mm) RP0.2 (MPa)
2. Experimental details
DC01 1.46 193
Docol 800DP 1.48 533
2.1. The roll forming mill Docol 1200M 1.46 1129
Docol 1200M 1.22 1119
A standard roll forming mill [3] (Fig. 1) is used to investigate the roll load and HyTens 1200 1.0 1018
roll torque. The mill has six forming stands and universal joint driven shafts are SS2333 1.0 301
used to run the tools. The power unit is a 15 kW frequency controlled three-phase HyTens X 1.0 286
motor. No driven top shafts are used.
3.1. Models
Fig. 2. The roll load and roll torque is measured for three different experiments. The used material in the gure is Docol 1200 M, thickness 1.46, at the bend angle
60 .
the analytic model for the load as in Eq. (1), Bhattacharyya et The three-phase power (Pengine ) used to forming the sheet
al. [8]. can be calculated as:
3.2. Power Pengine = 3U I cos() (4)
The motor current is measured during the forming of Docol where U = 400 V, I = 0.6 0.1 A and cos() = 0.83.
1200 M, thickness 1.46 mm. All forming passes are engaged at Which gives a power of:
the same time and the current increases during the forming with
0.6 0.1 A. PEngine = 0.345 0.057 kW (5)
Table 2
Seven different materials have been formed with the bend angles 20 , 40 , 60 and 80
Material Bend angle (degrees) Mean value Standard deviation
The forming load and the forming torque are measured for all cases.
M. Lindgren / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 191 (2007) 4447 47
TTotal = 30.1 + 54.1 + 45.7 + 61.3 = 191 Nm, [1] S.M. Panton, S.D. Zhu, J.L. Duncan, Fundamental deformation types and
sectional properties in roll forming, Int. J. Mech. Sci. 26 (8) (1994) 725
= 2.156 rad/s (7) 735.
[2] M. Kiuchi, T. Koudabashi, Proceeding of the 3rd International Conference
on Rotary Metal Working Processes, IFS Ltd and North Holland, September
Which gives a power of: 1984, pp. 423436.
[3] G.T. Halmos, Roll Forming Handbook (Manufacturing Engineering and
PTorque = 0.411 kW (8) Materials Processing), CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2006, ISBN
0-8247-9563-6.
4. Conclusion [4] C.K. McClure, H. Li, Roll forming simulation using nite element analysis,
Manuf. Rev. 8 (1995) 114.
[5] M. Brunet, S. Mguil, P. Pol, Modeling of a roll forming process with a
The results from the experiments can be used to validate combined 2D and 3D FEM code, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 8081 (1998)
and calibrate nite element models. Calculated force will agree 213219.
fairly well with the measured load provided the material model is [6] M. Lindgren, Finite element model of roll forming of a U-channel prole, in:
correct. The material model can be calibrated by separate mate- Presented at International Conference on Technology of Plasticity, Verona,
Italy, 2005.
rial testing. Then the friction coefcient can be adjusted until
[7] PROFIL, Rollform Design Software, UBECO, www.ubeco.com.
the torque also agrees well. A lubricant is used in abundance [8] D. Bhattacharyya, P.D. Smith, S.K. Thadakamalla, I.F. Collins, The predic-
and the surface nish is RZ = 1 m which should give a friction tion of roll load in cold roll forming, J. Mech. Work. Technol. 14 (1987)
coefcient between 0.05 and 0.1 for Coulomb friction. 363379.
Eqs. (2) and (3) give the torque and force required for the [9] K.F. Chaing, Cold roll forming, M.E. Thesis, University of Auckland,
August, 1984.
bending in a forming step as a function of thickness, material
PAPER 5
M. Lindgrenc
c
National Postgraduate School of Metal Forming
Dalarna University
Department of Material Science
SE-781 88, Borlnge, Sweden
e-mail: mld@du.se
Keywords: Roll Forming, Roll Load, Roll Torque, Finite Element Simulation
ABSTRACT. Roll forming is a common sheet metal forming process and it is used for
producing profiles to vehicles, buildings, furniture etc. The use of the process increases every
year due to the high production speed that can be used, 10 - 40 meters per minute is common.
Though roll forming is a well known sheet metal process it is still not entirely understood due
to the geometrically complex process. The use of finite element simulation in sheet metal
forming in general is common but not in the case of roll forming, due to the profile can have a
complicated cross-section and up to 40 forming steps can be needed and the simulations time
can be several days. However, the computers have become faster and the demand for finite
element simulations increases from the industry. The objectives with this study is to compare
finite element simulations with experimental data for the roll load, roll torque, strains and
spring back when a U-channel is roll formed.
M. Lindgren
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background
Roll forming is a bend operation but the bending occurs in several steps from an
undeformed sheet to a finished profile. The rate of production is very high and in most cases
one can also find secondary operations in a roll forming line such as punching, slitting,
notching etc.
Roll forming is a complex process and experience is required in order to be successful with
the machine and the tool design. Today one can find computer aided engineering programs,
for example [1-2], that can assist the designer and get a proposal for the tool design. The
programs use more or less simple formulas to calculate the number of forming steps, the
strain and spring back in the profile during the forming [10]. In the past few years some
computer aided engineering programs can also offer simplified finite element models.
The objectives with this study are to validate a finite element model by comparing it with
earlier published experimental results [9]. The focus is on roll load and torque, strains and
spring back during the roll forming.
1.2. Previous work
Rebelo et al. [3] studied sheet metal forming with the help of finite element analysis and
they compared implicit and explicit finite element formulations when simulating roll forming.
They concluded that implicit formulation was faster then explicit due to roll forming having a
small wave front and the problem is assumed one dimensional.
McClure and Li [4] simulated roll forming with ABAQUS. The model ignored friction
between the tools and the profile. A horizontal force was applied in the leading edge to pull
the profile through the roll stations. The membrane strain in the profile was compared with
experiments available in literature. The strain in the profile was similar to the experiment.
Sukmoo et al. [5] used COPRA FEA-RF to simulate roll forming and compared the
forming length with an experiment available in literature. The finite element model used a
combined 2D and a 3D algorithm. A rigid-plastic material model was used. The conclusion
from the simulation was that increased work hardening exponent gives increased forming
length. It was also good agreement between the simulation result and the experiment.
Lindgren [6] modelled the roll forming process with the finite element program
MSC.MARC. The tools were modelled as rigid surfaces and they rotated to drive the profile.
A Coulomb friction model was used with the friction coefficient 0.1. The profile was
modelled with thick shell elements. An elastic-plastic material model was used. The result
from the simulation was similar to earlier papers that have been written about finite element
simulations.
Chiang [7] used the strain gage technique to measure the strain history in the profile. The
strain gage was bounded onto both the top and bottom surface at the edge of the profile. The
recorded result was used to calculate the membrane strain in the edge of the profile. One of
the conclusions was that the membrane strain increases rapidly when approaching the tools
and the maximum value is right before the centre of the tools. In the study cold rolled mild
steel was used.
Bhattacharyya et. al. [8] developed a semi-empirical model for calculating the forming
load when a U-channel was formed. The model was compared with measurements for mild
steel and aluminium with a different thickness and a different bend angle. The error between
the measurement and the model was about 0-20%.
Lindgren [9] measured the roll load and the roll torque with a load cell and a torque sensor
when a U-channel was formed. The used steels had a thickness from 1 mm to 1.46 mm and a
yield strength from 193 MPa to 1129 MPa. The conclusion was that about 0.5 kW was needed
2
M. Lindgren
in every forming step for normal production speed and under conditions similar to those in the
study. It was also concluded that the roll load and torque required for a bending in a single
forming step can be approximated as a function of material virgin yield strength, thickness
and geometry.
2. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
2.1. The roll forming machine and tools
A standard roll forming machine [10] is used to form the U-channel. The machine has six
forming stands and universal joint driven shafts run the tools, the top shafts are not driven.
Five forming steps are used to form the U-channel, 20, 40, 60, 80 and 97.
Measurements are performed between the forming steps. The geometry for the used tools is
shown in Figure 1. The horizontal distance between the forming stands is 450 mm. The roll
load and the roll torque will be very large if the clearance between the lower and upper tools
is too small. To avoid this, the roll gap is about 10% larger then the thickness of the formed
material, this is checked with a feeler gage.
The velocity of the profile that is used during the measurements is 3.375 m/min. A
lubricant is used in abundance and the surface finish for the tools is RZ = 1 m.
Figure 1. The geometry of the used roll forming tools during the strain measurement experiment.
From the left, bend angle 20, 40, 60 and 80.
3
M. Lindgren
Figure 2. One half of the U-channel with localiser of the strain gage rosette indicated.
Figure 3. The spring back is measured with a sliding caliper. The width in y-direction and depth in z-
direction of the profile after every forming step is compared with finite element simulation.
4
M. Lindgren
Figure 4. The extrapolated tensile test data for the materials SS2333 and HyTens 1200 are
implemented in the finite element program as a table.
5
M. Lindgren
Figure 5. Measured and computed longitudinal and transverse strains. The used material is HyTens
1200.
Figure 6. Measured and computed longitudinal and transverse strains. The used material is SS2333.
6
M. Lindgren
measured for the worst case. The measured results [9] are mean values of three different
measurements and the standard deviations between these measurements are 200 N to 400 N
(error bars in the figure).
Figure 7. Measured and computed roll load versus bend angle for HyTens 1200
Figure 8. Measured and computed roll load versus bend angle for SS2333
The agreement between the finite element simulation and the experiment for the roll torque
is within 25% for HyTens 1200 and 47% for SS2333, Figure 9-10. The roll torque is
dependant both on the roll load and the friction between the sheet and the tools so the
experimental result can vary more between the different measurements. The standard
deviation for the measurements is between 0.7 Nm to 1.7 Nm (error bars in the figure).
7
M. Lindgren
Figure 9. Measured and computed roll torque versus bend angle for HyTens 1200.
Figure 10. Measured and computed roll torque versus bend angle for SS2333.
8
M. Lindgren
Figure 11. Measured and computed width and depth is compared between every forming step. The
used material is HyTens 1200.
The ultra high strength steel, HyTens 1200, Figure 11, shows satisfying agreement
between simulation and experiment for the forming step one and two. The difference
increases for the third and fourth step. The final error in the simulations is about 1 2 degrees.
The same results are shown for SS2333 in Figure 12. The agreement between the
simulation and the experiment is better than in the case of HyTens 1200 and the error in the
bend angle is about 0.5 1.0 degrees for the last step.
Figure 12. Measured and computed width and depth is compared between every forming step. The
used material is SS2333.
9
M. Lindgren
5. CONCLUSION
Results from the simulations have been compared with experimental results. The
simulations and experiments agree satisfactorily for the longitudinal strain, transverse strain,
roll load and torque for both HyTens 1200 and SS2333. The spring back agrees decently for
SS2333 but for the HyTens 1200 is the difference about 1 2 degrees, which is not
acceptable if the model will be used to design the forming process.
Finite element simulations will not replace the computer aided engineering (CAE)
programs in the future, but it will be a useful complement to the CAE programs. Today a
CAE program can be used to give an initial proposal to how many forming steps a profile
needs. The program also proposes the design of the steps. Still it requires an engineer with
experience to decide if the proposed tool design is good enough and if not, modify it. The
toolmaker also has to design guides on the tools so that the materials can be lead in to the
tools properly. Here is where the finite element simulations can support the toolmaker before
taking a decision for manufacture the tools.
6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author thanks ORTIC AB, Swedish Knowledge Foundation, Jernkontoret and Dalarna
University for their technical and financial support.
7. REFERENCE
1. Ubeco, Profile-Roll forming design software.
2. Data M software, COPRA-Roll forming.
3. N. Rebelo, J. C. Nagtegaal, L. M. Taylor, R. Passman: Comparsion of implicit and
explicit finite element methods in the simulation of metal forming processes, ABAQUS
User Conference, Newport, RI, (1992).
4. C. K. McClure, H. Li: Roll forming simulation using finite element analysis,
Manufacturing Review 8 (1995) 114-119.
5. H. Sukmoo, L. Seungyoon, K. Naksoo: A parametric study on forming length in roll
forming, Journal of Materials Processing Technology 113 (2001) 774-778.
6. M. Lindgren: Finite Element Model of Roll Forming of a U-channel, International
Conference on Technology of Plasticity, Verona, (2005).
7. K. F. Chiang: Cold roll forming, M. Sc. Thesis, University of Auckland (1984).
8. D. Bhattacharyya, P. D. Smith, S. K. Thadakamalla, I. F. Collins: The Prediction of Roll
Load in Cold Roll Forming, Journal of Mechanical Working Technology 14 (1987) 363
379.
9. M. Lindgren: Experimental Investigations of the Roll Load and Roll Torque When High
Strength Steel is Roll Formed, Journal of Materials Processing Technology 191 (2007)
4447
10. G. T. Halmos Roll Forming Handbook, first ed. (2005), CRC Talylor & Francis, New
York.
11. MSC.MARC., Element Library Volume B, Marc Analysis Research Corporation,
USA.
12. K. Hoffmann: An Introduction to Measurements using Strain Gages, Hottinger Baldwin
Messtechnik GmbH, Darmstadt (1989).
10
PAPER 6
Review
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Today you will nd roll formed details in many different products, for example buildings,
Received 2 July 2007 household appliances and vehicles. The industry, in order to save weight, tends to use more
Received in revised form and more high strength steel. The disadvantage with these materials is that they can be
18 July 2008 difcult to form due to reduced ductility. A way to increase the ductility in the forming
Accepted 29 July 2008 areas is by partially heat the steel.
It is shown that partial heating substantially increases the ductility of high strength steel
and make it possible to roll form large bend angles. When roll forming, the material will
Keywords: work hardening almost to the as-received condition in the outer and inner radius of the roll
TRIP steel formed prole. Furthermore, the heating power decides the bend angle obtained. Finally,
High-strength steel the mechanical properties after heating and roll forming are discussed.
Roll forming 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Partial heat treatment
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3118
2. Experimental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3118
2.1. Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3118
2.2. Furnace experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3118
2.3. Partial heating experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3118
2.4. Roll forming experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3119
2.5. Sample preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3119
3. Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3120
3.1. Furnace experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3120
3.2. Partial heating experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3120
3.3. Roll forming experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3121
4. Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3122
5. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3123
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3123
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3123
Corresponding author. Tel.: +46 23 778741; fax: +46 23 778601.
E-mail address: mld@du.se (M. Lindgren).
0924-0136/$ see front matter 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2008.07.041
3118 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s p r o c e s s i n g t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 9 ( 2 0 0 9 ) 31173124
1. Introduction
3. Results
different power input, is that the higher power input the wider
is the middle region and the hardness in the centre and near
the surface approaches the same hardness values. For the P20
sample, see Fig. 10b, the hardness is 250270 HV0.5 in the centre
and 300320 HV0.5 at the near surface. For the P30 sample the
hardness is 260 HV0.5 in both the centre and at near surface
and the middle region is around 2.2 mm wide, see Fig 10c.
Fig. 11 shows LOM images of etched cross-sections of the
partially heated material for the P10, P20 and P30 settings,
respectively. It can be seen that the heating zone starts in the
centre of the material and grow towards the surface when the
power increases, which also is apparent from the hardness
proles in Fig. 10.
Figs. 12 and 13 show LOM images of the microstructure in
the transition and in the middle regions, respectively, for the
P30 sample. It can be seen that the material has started to
recrystallize in the transition region although the austenite
grains are barely visible. In the middle region the material is Fig. 10 Hardness proles from the power settings (a) P10,
fully recrystallized and the characteristic structure of austen- (b) P20 and (c) P30 in the centre and at the near surface
ite grains is seen. region of cross-sections of partially heated material.
3122 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s p r o c e s s i n g t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 9 ( 2 0 0 9 ) 31173124
4. Discussion
Acknowledgements
references
Halmos, G.T., 2005. Roll Forming Handbook, rst ed. CRC Talylor Petit, B., Gey, N., Cherkaoui, M., Bolle, B., Humbert, M., 2007.
& Francis, New York. Deformation behavior and microstructure/texture evolution
Johannsen, D.L., Kyrolainen, A., Ferreira, P.J., 2006. Inuence of of an annealed 304 AISI stainless steel sheet. Experimental
annealing treatment on the formation of nano/submicron and micromechanical modelling. Int. J. Plast. 23, 323341.
grain size AISI 301 Austenitic stainless steels. Metall. Mater. Spencer, K., Embury, J.D., Conlon, K.T., Vron, M.T., Brchet, Y.,
Trans. A 37, 23252338. 2004. Strengthening via the formation of strain-induced
Mszros, I., Prohszka, J., 2005. Magnetic investigation of the martensite in stainless steels. Mater. Sci. Eng. A. 387389,
effect of -martensite on the properties of austenitic 873881.
stainless steel. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 161, 162168. Trillo, E.A., Beltran, R., Maldonado, J.G., Romero, R.J., Murr, L.E.,
Mumtaz, K., Takahashi, S., Echigoya, J., Kamada, Y., Zhang, L.F., Fisher, W.W., Advani, A.H., 1995. Combined effects of
Kikuchi, H., Ara, K., Sato, M., 2004. Magnetic measurements of deformation (strain and strain state), grain size, and carbon
the reverse martensite to austenite transformation in a rolled content on carbide precipitation and corrosion sensitization
austenitic stainless steel. J. Mater. Sci. 39, 19972010. in 304 stainless steel. Mater. Charct. 35, 99112.
PAPER 7
cORTIC AB
Rgker 47, Borlnge, SE-781 93, Sweden
Lars-Olof Ingmarsson
SWEREA IVF AB
Argongatan 30, SE-431 22, Mlndal, Sweden
Abstract
The use of roll-formed products in automotive, furniture, buildings etc. increases every year due to the low
part-production cost and the complicated cross-sections that can be produced. The limitation with
roll-forming until recent years is that one could only produce profiles with a constant cross-section in the
longitudinal direction. About eight years ago ORTIC AB [1] developed a machine in which it was possible to
produce profiles with a variable width (3D roll-forming) for the building industry. Experimental equipment
was recently built for research and prototyping of profiles with variable cross-section in both width and
depth for the automotive industry. The objective with the current study is to investigate the new tooling
concept that makes it possible to roll-form hat-profiles, made of ultra high strength steel, with variable
cross-section in depth and width. The result shows that it is possible to produce 3D roll-formed profiles with
close tolerances.
Keywords: 3D roll-forming, Variable cross-section, Flexible roll-forming, Profile, Ultra high strength steel.
1. Introduction
1.1 Background
Roll-forming is a sheet metal forming process where the forming occurs with rolls in several steps, often
from an undeformed sheet to a product ready to use. This is a highly productive process and the speed by
which the profiles can be formed is between 5-60 m/min depending on a second operation such as welding,
punching, etc that often is done in the same line. The use of the process increases due to the possibility to
produce complex products in material as ultra high strength steel.
The limitation with the process until eight years ago was that only a profile with constant cross-section
was possible to produce. At that time ORTIC AB [1] developed a method, 3D roll-forming, that could
produce panels to buildings where the cross-section was variable in the longitudinal direction, Figure 1.
Figure 2. A 3D roll-formed U-profile. Tension stress acts in transition zone where the U-profile is small and compression stress in the
transition zone where the profile is wider.
2. Experimental procedure
Figure 3. View from the top. The profile is roll-formed in six passes and to do that the profile must go through the machine two laps.
Forming stand number 1, 3 and 5 formed the left side and forming stand number 2, 4, and 6 formed the right side.
Figure 4. View from the back. The geometry of the tools is same for all forming stands. The only difference between, for example,
bend angles 30 and 60 is that the tools for the flange are moving up and closer to the tools that hold the web. Tools with constant
radius have been used, Lindgren et. al.[10].
The horizontal distance between the forming stands is 400 mm. The production speed that is used during
the tolerance tests is 2.6 m/min. A simple input and run out table is used and the profiles are hand fed both
the first and the second lap. First all profiles with the same cross-section go through their first roll-forming
lap. Then is the control program switch to the second lap and all profiles of same cross-section are finished.
Figure 6. Points (light dots) on the flanges (F), at the sides (S) and in the bottom (B) are measured and this is done in eleven
different cross-sections in the longitudinal direction.
Eleven different cross-sections in the longitudinal direction have been measured, five cross-sections in the
middle part of the hat-profile and three cross-sections in the ends, Figure 6. The distance between the
cross-sections is 100 mm. In every cross-section eleven points are measured, two on respective flange, two
on respective side and three points in the web, notations for the points see Figure 6.
3.1 Result
In the study 50 hat-profiles of each type, Figure 7, have been measured. The results from these
measurements are compared to see if the new tooling concept works and can produce profile with same
tolerances both for straight ones and ones with variable depth and width.
The variations between the measured points are presented with a range and standard deviation plot, Figure
8 Figure 10. The surfaces in these plots are a function of position of the measured points (light dots) in
Figure 6. In this figure the coordinate system is also defined for the profiles.
Figure 7. The produced hat-profiles. The top profile is straight, the middle one has a waist on one side and the bottom is a conical
profile in both depth and width.
In Figure 8 the range, the difference between the maximum and minimum value, and the standard
deviation are presented for the straight hat-profile. The result shows that most points are below 1.2 mm in
range and a standard deviation of 0.3 mm or less. The maximum value is on the right flange, 1.46 mm, with a
standard deviation of 0.26 mm. The web has less variation than the flanges and the maximum value is 0.78
mm with a standard deviation of 0.19 mm. It can also be seen that the profiles have low variation in the
points, (B7,-600) and (B5, -600), this is where the profiles are fixed to the measurement fixture.
Figure 8. To the left is the range and to the right is the standard deviation for each point in longitudinal direction of the straight
hat-profile. The coordinate system, x = longitudinal direction, y = measured point, see Figure 6.
The result for the conical hat-profiles in depth and width, Figure 9, shows that the range for most of the
points is below 1.2 mm and with a standard deviation less than 0.3 mm. The highest value (range) is 1.52
mm with a standard deviation is 0.31 mm. This point is located in the left flange in the beginning of the
profile.
In Figure 10 the range and standard deviation are presented for the hat-profile with a waist on one side.
The range is less than 1.2 mm and the standard deviation is less than 0.3 mm for almost every point. The
maximum value is on the right flange in the beginning of the profile. The value is 1.67 mm and the standard
deviation 0.33 mm.
Figure 9. To the left is the range, the difference between the maximum and minimum value, and to the right the corresponding
standard deviation for the hat-profile with conical width and depth. The coordinate system, x = longitudinal direction, y = measured
point, see Figure 6.
Figure 10. The measured result for the hat-profile with a waist on one side is presented. To the left is the range, the difference
between the maximum and minimum value, and to the right is the corresponding standard deviation. The coordinate system, x =
longitudinal direction, y = measured point, see Figure 6.
3.2 Discussion
The focus in the current study is to investigate the new tooling concept and see if the cross-section
tolerances are similar for different types of 3D roll-formed profiles.
It can be expected to be more difficult to fulfil tolerance requirements when forming conical profiles than
for straight profiles. However, the study shows that the tolerances are at the same level, Figure 8 and Figure
9. The range for most points is under 1.2 mm with a standard deviation of less than 0.3 mm. This means that
only translation of the tools does not make it more difficult to fulfil the tolerances.
Comparing the result of the forming of the profile of the third type with the straight profile show that the
tolerances are also in this case about the same in level, Figure 8 and Figure 10. The difference, apart from
that the tools translate and rotate in all directions, is that the profile will get residual stresses after forming
completely different from profile 1 and 2. This is due to complex material flow in this forming process and it
may warp the web and the flange, Figure 11. In the study the goal was to get a flange that was in the same
plane throughout the complete profile. To do that the length of the leg has been made longer in this area, see
Figure 12.
Figure 11. The complex material flow warps the web and the flange so the flange is not on the same plane in the longitudinal
direction.
Figure 12. In the study was a goal to get the flange in the same plane in the longitudinal direction. To do that the leg of the profile
was made longer in the warping zone. This is possible with the new tooling concept.
The tool concept requires one to hold on to the flange and the web in each forming station, Figure 4. To
be able to do so the flange has to have a certain width so that the material does not slip away from the tool
which would lead to variations of the width of the flange. During the test it has been noted that a width of at
least 10 mm is needed to avoid this problem.
4. Conclusion
Probably one of the first 3D roll-forming machines in the world with two translational and two rotational
degrees of freedom per axis has been built and used in the current study. Based on a specific tooling concept
hat-profiles with variable cross-section in depth and width has been produced using simple cylindrical
shaped rolls.
5. Reference
[1] ORTIC AB, (www.ortic.se)
[2] BEMO SYSTEM, (www.bemo.com)
[3] L. Ingvarsson: Innovativa stlprodukter-praktikfall baserad p rullformningstekniken, In: Proc. Stl
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Acknowledgements
The author wishes to thank ORTIC AB, Swedish Knowledge Foundation, Jernkontoret, Dalarna University,
SSAB, VOLVO, SAAB, Bendiro and Swerea/IVF for their technical and financial support.