High Voltage

Special Issue: Lightning and Lightning Protection

ISSN 2397-7264
Two basic leader connection scenarios Received on 3rd February 2016
Revised on 24th March 2016
observed in negative lightning attachment Accepted on 1st April 2016
doi: 10.1049/hve.2016.0002
process www.ietdl.org

Weitao Lu 1, 2 , Qi Qi 1,2, Ying Ma 1,2, Luwen Chen 3, Xu Yan 3, Vladimir A. Rakov 4, Daohong Wang 5,
Yijun Zhang 1, 2
1
State Key Laboratory of Severe Weather, Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences, Beijing, Peoples Republic of China
2
Laboratory of Lightning Physics and Protection Engineering, Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences, Beijing, Peoples Republic of China
3
Institute of Tropical and Marine Meteorology, China Meteorological Administration, Guangzhou, Guangdong, Peoples Republic of China
4
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
5
Department of Electrical, Electronic and Computer Engineering, Gifu University, Gifu, Japan
E-mail: wtlu@camscma.cn

Abstract: High-speed video images of 24 downward negative lightning flashes terminating on tall structures in Guangzhou
are selected to analyse the connecting behaviour of the downward and upward leaders during the attachment process
preceding the first return stroke. Three types of leader connecting behaviour have been observed: Type I, the tip of
downward leader (DL) to the tip of upward connecting leader (UCL), which accounts for 42% of all the events (10/24);
Type II, the DLs tip to the lateral surface of UCL, which accounts for 50% (12/24); and Type III, the combination of
Types I and II, which accounts for 8% (2/24). For the two cases of Type III behaviour, each case had two junction points
(one with Type I and the other with Type II behaviour) between the downward and upward leaders. Therefore, Types I
and II can be viewed as the two basic types of the leader connecting behaviour during the attachment process in
negative lightning. No attachment process exhibited the connection of the UCLs tip to the lateral surface of DL. The
presence of multiple DL branches and their integrated effect on the development of positive UCL/UCLs are likely to be
the main reasons for the Type II behaviour.

1 Introduction
The lightning attachment process is one of the least understood
lightning processes. Understanding of the lightning attachment
process is vital for improving lightning protection techniques [1,
2]. Dwyer and Uman compiled a list of the top 10 unanswered
questions in lightning research in [3], in which the third one is
What is the physical mechanism of leader attachment to elevated
objects on the ground and to the at ground? What are the
characteristics of upward connecting leaders from those objects or
from the ground?.
Recent availability of advanced instrumentation for the optical
imaging of lightning enabled new insights into the lightning
attachment process. Wang et al. gave in [4] the well-known
streaked image sketch of the attachment process of the dart leader/
return-stroke sequence based on optical signals from
rocket-triggered lightning captured by the automatic lightning
progressing feature observation system. The system had a time
resolution of about 100 ns and a spatial resolution of about 3.6 m.
A new high-speed electro-optical system for studying lightning
attachment process, named lightning attachment process
observation system (LAPOS) [5], has been developed by Wang
et al. and used to observe the attachment process of both
rocket-triggered [6, 7] and natural [8] lightning. In [8], Wang et al.
found that all strokes in three natural lightning ashes initiated at a
point above ground and propagated bidirectionally from that point,
similar to the return strokes of rocket-triggered lightning. Jiang
et al. [9] analysed the grounding process of 37 natural downward
negative lightning ashes, and inferred that the upward connecting
leaders (UCLs) tend to be induced by downward leader (DL)
branches having brighter luminosity and lower channel tip height
above ground. Warner [10] presented high-speed video
observations (up to 11,000 frames per second, fps) of six
downward negative stepped leaders and associated non-connecting
and connecting upward leaders from tall towers in Rapid City,
South Dakota, USA. Lu et al. analysed the attachment processes
of two downward negative lightning ashes in [11] and the
characteristics of 45 unconnected upward leaders that occurred in
19 downward negative ashes terminating on tall structures in
Guangzhou in [12]. Three-dimensional propagation characteristics
of the leaders in the lightning attachment process were studied by
using the two-station optical observation data [13, 14].
As the DL and the UCL approach each other, it is generally
thought that the DLs tip and the UCLs tip will come in contact
with each other [1517]. However, Lu et al. presented a negative
lightning ash in which the attachment process exhibited an
unexpected behaviour [18]. The connection of the DLs tip to the
lateral surface of the UCL was rst reported. Are there any other
scenarios leading to the contact of the DL and the UCL? Our
paper will attempt to answer this question by analysing 24
negative lightning ashes terminating on tall structures observed in
Guangzhou, China, during 20092014.
2 Experiment
A eld experiment, mainly focusing on the observation of lightning
ashes terminating on tall structures, has been conducted since 2009
in Guangzhou, Guangdong, China, at the Tall-Object Lightning
Observatory in Guangzhou (TOLOG). Detailed information about
the experiment and the instruments installed at the TOLOG can be
found in [12, 18]. Three high-speed cameras, two Photron
FASTCAM SA5 (HC-1 and HC-2) and one Photron FASTCAM
SA3 (HC-3), were installed to capture the high-speed optical
images of lightning ashes. They were operated at sampling rates
of 10,000 fps (frame exposure time of 99,754 ns and dead time of
246 ns), 50,000 fps (frame exposure time of 19,754 ns and dead
time of 246 ns), and 1000 fps (frame exposure time of 998,684 ns

High Volt., 2016, Vol. 1, Iss. 1, pp. 1117

This is an open access article published by the IET and CEPRI under the Creative Commons 11
Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/)
Fig. 1 Tall structures as seen from the TOLOG
a A photo taken on July 12, 2014
b Plan view of the positions of the tall structures higher than 300 m, labelled A through H. A and C were erected in 2009, D, E, and F in 2010, H in 2012, and B and G in 2014

and dead time of 1316 ns), respectively. The higher the sampling
rate, the smaller the eld of view (FOV) of the high-speed camera.
Two multi-channel LAPOSs were installed and the output of one
channel of one of the LAPOSs was used for triggering all three
high-speed cameras. The GPS time of the triggering signal (with
an uncertainty of 30 ns) was provided by a GPS synchronisation
system manufactured by the Beijing Taifu Te Electronic
Technology Company.
The tall structures in the FOV of HC-3 are shown in Fig. 1. It is
known that the higher the structure, the earlier the UCL can be
initiated from the top of the structure and the farther the UCL can
extend. If the length of the UCL is not long enough, it is hard to
capture it by our high-speed cameras, making it almost impossible
to study the leader connecting behaviour during the attachment
process. In this paper, only ashes to the eight structures higher
than 300 m, labelled AH in Fig. 1, are analysed. All of the
ashes observed at the TOLOG are labelled as FYYsn, where
YY denotes the last two digits of the year and sn denotes the
sequential number of the ash in year YY.
3 Analysis and results
larger than the numbers given in Table 1 for the following reasons:
the high-speed cameras need some time (dead time between
triggers) to save images to computers for each event and ashes that
occurred during the dead time could not be captured; the FOVs of
the high-speed cameras were not xed during the experiment and
sometimes some structures were out of the FOVs; sometimes the
visibility was very low (mostly caused by heavy rain) and some
ashes even in the FOVs could not trigger our systems.
Although a total of 56 ashes were captured, the high-speed
images of 32 ashes are not suitable for the analysis of the
connecting behaviour of the DL and the UCL during the
attachment process for the following two reasons. The rst one is
the lack of clear images of the lightning channel (part or whole)
due to the low visibility or the cloud obscuration, which is the
reason for nine ashes to A, one ash to B, two ashes to C, two
ashes to D, and one ash to F. The second reason is the
relatively low sampling rate of the high-speed camera HC-3,
which is the reason for 17 ashes to these tall structures.
Overall, there are 24 ashes to six structures that can be used to
analyse the leader connecting behaviour during the attachment
process preceding the rst return stroke. The results show that the
connecting behaviour can be grouped in three types.

During 20092014, a total of 56 lightning ashes with terminations on 3.1 Type I: Tip-to-Tip
the structures AH were captured by our high-speed cameras. All of
them were downward negative ashes. The number of ashes that Among the 24 ashes, 10 (42%) exhibited the connection of the DLs tip
struck each structure is given in Table 1. It should be noted that the to the UCLs tip (Tip-to-Tip, Type I). One event is presented here. Figs. 2
actual numbers of ashes terminated on structures AH should be and 3 show selected frames of the high-speed images of ash F1263. It
can be seen that under the inuence of the DL with many branches, there
Table 1 Number of tall-object lightning flashes observed at the TOLOG were three long upward leaders initiated from structures A, C, and D. For
during 20092014 the three upward leaders, although each tip moved to a higher altitude
Structure Height End of Number Number of
than that of the lowest tip of the nearby DL branch in the
construction of flashes that two-dimensional (2D) image (Fig. 2a), only the upward leader initiated
year flashes can be from A made contact with a branch of the DL (Fig. 2b). From the
observed used to high-speed images captured by HC-1 (Fig. 2) and HC-2 (Fig. 3), it can
analyse the
leader
be determined that the DL and the UCL of F1263 exhibited the
connecting Tip-to-Tip connection, which is also evidenced by the smooth shape
behaviour of the lightning channel near the junction point (which is between the
tips of the DL and the UCL seen in Figs. 2a and 3d).
A 610 m (2009) 2009 19 8
600 m (after 2009)
B 530 m 2014 9 2
C 440 m 2009 12 7
3.2 Type II: DLs Tip to the lateral surface of UCL
D 360 m 2010 9 5
E 310 m 2010 3 0 The non-Tip-to-Tip connecting behaviour during the lightning
F 305 m 2010 3 1 attachment process was rst reported in [18]. It can be clearly seen
G 305 m 2014 1 1 from Fig. 4 (Fig. 2f in [18]) that the connection occurred between
H 300 m 2012 0 0
total 300610 m 20092014 56 24 DLs tip and the lateral surface of UCL, with the junction point
being over 67 m below the UCLs tip. In ash F1111, it is found

High Volt., 2016, Vol. 1, Iss. 1, pp. 1117

12 This is an open access article published by the IET and CEPRI under the Creative Commons
Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/)
Fig. 2 Two frames of the high-speed images of ash F1263 captured by HC-1 with a sampling rate of 10,000 fps
a Last frame preceding the rst return stroke
b Sixth frame after the rst return stroke

that the effect of the DL on the UCL is signicant, especially during
the nal 160 s preceding the beginning of return stroke, during
which the UCLs speed quickly increase from the order of 105 m/s
to the order of 106 m/s and the UCLs luminosity exhibits fast
increase too. On the other hand, the effect of the UCL on the DL
appears to be negligible until the distance between the leaders
decreases to less than approximately 60 m. After that, the DL
bends sharply toward the UCL and both the speed and the
luminosity of the DL show signicant increasing trend; the ratio of
the DLs speed and the UCLs speed exhibits an overall trend to
decrease and can be signicantly less than 1, which means the
UCLs speed can signicantly exceed that of the DL.
Three additional events that terminated on structures A, C, and D
and exhibited Type II connecting behaviour are shown in Figs. 57,

Fig. 3 Six frames of the high-speed images of ash F1263 captured by HC-2 with a sampling rate of 50,000 fps. The exposure duration of each frame is given.
Time 0 is set at the onset of the rst return stroke, occurring just after the end of the exposure of frame (e)
a 0.10 to 0.08 ms
b 0.08 to 0.06 ms
c 0.06 to 0.04 ms
d 0.04 to 0.02 ms
e 0.02 to 0.00 ms
f 0.58 to 0.60 ms

High Volt., 2016, Vol. 1, Iss. 1, pp. 1117

This is an open access article published by the IET and CEPRI under the Creative Commons 13
Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/)
Fig. 4 76-frame composite image of ash F1111 acquired using HC-2
operating with a sampling rate of 50,000 fps. The image is inverted for a
better view. Adapted from [18]
respectively. For all of the three ashes, the 2D length of the UCL
part above the junction point is longer than 100 m. Although
sometimes HC-1 cannot be used to identify the Type II behaviour,
due to its relatively low sampling rate (e.g. for F1111 in [18]),
examples of HC-1 records of ashes showing Type II behaviour
are seen in Figs. 6 and 7. It can be seen from the high-speed
images of the return stroke channels in Figs. 5b, 6b and 7b, that in
each ash the channel near the junction point makes an abrupt, at
almost right angle, turn.
50% (12) of the 24 ashes exhibit the connection of the DLs tip to
the lateral surface of UCL (Type II). In the 2D images, 11 (92%) of
the 12 ashes showing Type II leader connecting behaviour have
return stroke channels with abrupt turns near the junction point,
like that seen in Figs. 5b, 6b and 7b. Only one event had the
return stroke channel without an abrupt turn near the junction
point, which may be caused by the 2D perspective. We believe
that the abrupt turn near the junction point can be used as a
criterion to distinguish Type II and Type I connecting behaviour,
even in still images.
3.3 Type III: combination type (Type I + Type II)
Fig. 8 shows three frames of HC-2 images of ash F1248, which
terminated on structure C. It can be seen that there were two
upward leaders initiated from the top of C and both of them made
contact with the DL in this ash. The left UCL made contact with
the DL a little earlier than the right UCL. The rst (lower-left)
attachment process exhibits Type II connecting behaviour and the
second (upper-right) one exhibits Type I.
Besides ash F1248, there is another ash, F1264, which exhibits
Type III connecting behaviour and is also combination of Type I and
Type II. Two frames of the high-speed images of F1264 are shown in
Fig. 5 Two frames of the high-speed images of ash F1443 captured by HC-2 with a sampling rate of 50,000 fps
a Last frame preceding the rst return stroke
b Ninth frame after the rst return stroke
14 This is an open access article published by the IET and CEPRI under the Creative Commons
Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/)
Fig. 6 Two frames of the high-speed images of ash F1247 captured by
HC-1 with a sampling rate of 10,000 fps. The brightness and contrast of
this gure are enhanced for a better view
a Last frame preceding the rst return stroke
b Sixth frame after the rst return stroke
Fig. 9. F1264 caused three long upward leaders initiated from
structures A, C, and D, of which only A was struck. Upward
leaders from C and D did not make connection with the DL. The
upward leader from A had two branches. The left branch did not
make contact with the DL, while the right branch experienced two
contacts with the DLs branches. The rst (higher) attachment
process exhibited Type I connecting behaviour and the second
(lower) one exhibited Type II.
3.4 On potential misclassification of leader connecting
behaviour
Two frames of the HC-1 images of ash F1222 are shown in Fig. 10.
The termination of this ash was on structure D, which is 360 m
high. In this ash, it looks like that the UCL directly attaches to a
branch of the DL above its tip, i.e. to its lateral surface. In the
HC-1 images, there is no discernible DL branch initiated at the
prospective junction point before the rst return stroke. The 2D
length of the UCL in ash F1222 is longer than 530 m. In
Fig. 10a, the last frame before the rst return stroke, the height
difference between the tips of the UCL and the DL branch that
came in contact with the UCL is over 360 m. The 2D channel
length of the DL branch (making connection to the UCL) below
the junction point is approximately 495 m.
The question is whether the apparent leader connection in F1222
(the UCLs tip to the lateral surface of DL) can be misclassied. Two
events, similar to F1222, can help answer this question. Flash F1421
High Volt., 2016, Vol. 1, Iss. 1, pp. 1117
Fig. 7 Two frames of the high-speed images of ash F1258 captured by HC-1 with a sampling rate of 10,000 fps
a Last frame preceding the rst return stroke
b Third frame after the rst return stroke

Fig. 8 Three frames of the high-speed images of ash F1248 captured by HC-2 with a sampling rate of 50,000 fps
a 0.04 to 0.02 ms
b 0.02 to 0.00 ms
c 0.28 to 0.30 ms

Fig. 9 Two frames of the high-speed images of ash F1264 captured by HC-1 with a sampling rate of 10,000 fps. In (a), the rst connection occurred at JP1 and
the second connection did not occur yet (note a small gap near the bright channel). Most pixels in the frame subsequent to (a), which is not shown here, are
saturated. The return stroke channel in (b), which is the fourth frame after the rst return stroke, shows that there exists a second connection (at JP2)
between a branch of the DL and the lateral surface of the UCL
a 0.10 to 0.00 ms
b 0.30 to 0.40 ms

High Volt., 2016, Vol. 1, Iss. 1, pp. 1117

This is an open access article published by the IET and CEPRI under the Creative Commons 15
Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/)
Fig. 10 Two frames of the high-speed images of ash F1222 captured by HC-1 with a sampling rate of 10,000 fps. We believe that the leader connecting
behaviour was of Type I, although this could not be seen due to the relatively low sampling rate
a Last frame preceding the rst return stroke
b 12th frame after the rst return stroke

was captured by HC-1 and HC-2. Due to the relatively low sampling
rate, the HC-1 records of F1421 cannot adequately resolve the
connection behaviour of the leaders during the attachment process.
Indeed, three frames of HC-2 records of F1421, shown in Fig. 11,
reveal a scenario that is different from the apparent one from the
HC-1 record. The junction point was actually between the tip of
UCL and the tip of a short DL branch that can be seen only in
Fig. 11b. The other case, Flash F1417 (not shown here), also has a
short DL branch (facilitating connection to the UCL tip) prior to
the rst return stroke. Hence, both F1417 and F1421 actually
exhibit Type I connection behaviour.
Among the 24 ashes analysed in this paper, 22 (92%) had
upward leader/leaders with the tip higher than the lowest tip of
the DL (in the 2D images) before the nal connection, 12
exhibited Type I connecting behaviour (the DLs tip to the lateral
surface of UCL), and only one ash, F1222, exhibited
questionable connecting behaviour with the UCLs tip to the
lateral surface of DL, seen only in the HC-1 record. Considering
the relatively low sampling rate of the HC-1 and different
scenarios seen in HC-1 and higher sampling rate HC-2 records
for F1421 (Fig. 11), we believe that F1222 actually had the Type
I connection behaviour.
4 Conclusions
High-speed video camera records, with sampling rates up to 50,000
fps, of 24 negative lightning ashes terminating on tall structures in
Guangzhou are examined. The diversity of the connecting behaviour
between the downward negative and upward positive leaders during
the attachment process preceding the rst return stroke is revealed.
Two basic types of leader connecting behaviour during the
attachment process are found: one is the DLs tip to the UCLs
tip (Tip-to-Tip, Type I) and the other one is the DLs tip to the

Fig. 11 Three frames of the high-speed images of ash F1421 captured by HC-2 with a sampling rate of 50,000 fps. The brightness and contrast of (a) and (b)
are enhanced for a better view. As seen in (b) and (c), the leader connecting behaviour was of Type I
a and b Last two frames preceding the rst return stroke
c 11th frame after the rst return stroke

High Volt., 2016, Vol. 1, Iss. 1, pp. 1117

16 This is an open access article published by the IET and CEPRI under the Creative Commons
Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/)
lateral surface of UCL (Type II). Among the 26 attachment
processes identied in the 24 ashes (two of them contained two
separate attachment processes), 12 (46%) exhibited Type I and 14
(54%) exhibited Type II. Therefore, at least for attachment
processes preceding the rst return strokes of the negative
lightning ashes terminating on structures higher than 300 m in
Guangzhou, Type II connecting behaviour is more common than
Type I.
The presence of multiple downward leader branches or multiple
upward leaders is likely to be the main reason for the Type II
leader connecting behaviour. It is interesting that while the Type II
(the DLs tip to the lateral surface of UCL) behaviour is very
common, there are no reliable observations of the UCLs tip to
the lateral surface of DL behaviour. This disparity is likely to be
related to the differences in mechanisms of positive and negative
leaders. More detailed analysis of the data and modelling work are
still needed to better understand the lighting attachment process.
5 Acknowledgments
This work was supported in part by the National Natural Science
Foundations of China under grant no. 41475003; by the National
Key Basic Research Program of China under grant no.
2014CB441405; by the Basic Research Fund of Chinese Academy
of Meteorological Sciences under grant no. 2014R015; and by the
GRF grant no. 14.B25.31.0023.
6 References
1 Rakov, V.A., Uman, M.A.: Lightning: physics and effects (Cambridge University
Press, New York, USA, 2003)
2 Uman, M.A.: The art and science of lightning protection (Cambridge University
Press, New York, USA, 2008)
3 Dwyer, J.R., Uman, M.A.: The physics of lightning, Phys. Rep., 2014, 534,
pp. 147241
High Volt., 2016, Vol. 1, Iss. 1, pp. 1117
This is an open access article published by the IET and CEPRI under the Creative Commons
Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/)
4 Wang, D., Rakov, V.A., Uman, M.A., et al.: Attachment process in
rocket-triggered lightning strokes, J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 1999, 104, (D2),
pp. 21432150
5 Wang, D., Watanabe, T., Takagi, N.: A high speed optical imaging system for
studying lightning attachment process. Proc. Seventh Asia-Pacic Lightning
Conf., Chengdu, China, 2011
6 Wang, D., Takagi, N., Gamerota, W.R., et al.: Initiation processes of return strokes
in rocket-triggered lightning, J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 2013, 118, pp. 98809888,
doi: 10.1002/jgrd.50766
7 Wang, D., Gamerota, W.R., Uman, M.A., et al.: Lightning attachment processes
of an anomalous triggered lightning discharge, J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 2014,
119, pp. 15241533, doi: 10.1002/2013JD020787
8 Wang, D., Takagi, N., Gamerota, W.R., et al.: Lightning attachment processes of
three natural lightning discharges, J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 2015, 120,
pp. 10,63710,644, doi: 10.1002/2015JD023734
9 Jiang, R., Qie, X., Wang, Z., et al.: Characteristics of lightning leader propagation
and ground attachment, J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 2015, 120, pp. 11,98812,002,
doi: 10.1002/2015JD023519
10 Warner, T.A.: Upward leader development from tall towers in response to
downward stepped leaders. 30th Int. Conf. on Lightning Protection, Power and
Energy Society, Cagliari, Italy, 2010
11 Lu, W., Zhang, Y., Chen, L., et al.: Attachment processes of two natural
downward lightning ashes striking on high structures. 30th Int. Conf. on
Lightning Protection, Power and Energy Society, Cagliari, Italy, 2010
12 Lu, W., Chen, L., Zhang, Y., et al.: Characteristics of unconnected upward leaders
initiated from tall structures observed in Guangzhou, J. Geophys. Res., 2012, 117,
p. D19211, doi: 10.1029/2012JD018035
13 Gao, Y., Lu, W., Ma, Y., et al.: Three-dimensional propagation characteristics of the
upward connecting leaders in six negative tall-object ashes in Guangzhou, Atmos.
Res., 2014, 149, pp. 193203, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2014.06.008
14 Lu, W., Gao, Y., Chen, L., et al.: Three-dimensional propagation characteristics of the
leaders in the attachment process of a downward negative lightning ash, J. Atmos.
Sol.-Terr. Phys., 2015, 136, pp. 2330, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jastp.2015.07.011
15 Dellera, L., Garbagnati, E.: Lightning stroke simulation by means of the leader
progression model. I. Description of the model and evaluation of exposure of
free-standing structures, IEEE Trans. Power Deliv., 1990, 5, (4),
pp. 20092022, doi: 10.1109/61.103696
16 Rizk, F.A.M.: Modeling of lightning incidence to tall structures. I. Theory, IEEE
Trans. Power Deliv., 1994, 9, (1), pp. 162171, doi: 10.1109/61.277673
17 Mazur, V., Ruhnke, L.H., Bondiou-Clergerie, A., et al.: Computer simulation of a
downward negative stepped leader and its interaction with a ground structure,
J. Geophys. Res., 2000, 105, (D17), pp. 22,36122,369, doi: 10.1029/2000JD900278
18 Lu, W., Chen, L., Ma, Y., et al.: Lightning attachment process involving
connection of the downward negative leader to the lateral surface of the upward
connecting leader, Geophys. Res. Lett., 2013, 40, pp. 55315535, doi: 10.1002/
2013GL058060
17