.

2008
2


1 R3 11
1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.4 , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

2 25
2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

3 29
3.1 , , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

4 33
4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

5 - F renet 49

6 53

7 57

8 63
8.1 , , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
8.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
8.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
8.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

9 67
9.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
9.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
9.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
9.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

10 77
10.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
10.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
10.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
10.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
10.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

3
4

11 87
11.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
11.2 ( ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
11.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
11.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
11.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

12 101
12.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
12.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
12.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
12.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
12.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

13 113

14 119
14.1 Kepler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
14.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

15 127
15.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
15.2 , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
15.3 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

16 137
16.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
16.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
16.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
16.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
16.5 - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

17 145
17.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
17.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

18 151
18.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
18.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
18.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
18.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
18.5 Bernoulli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

19 159
19.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
19.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
19.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
19.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
19.5 Lorentz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
19.6 Lorentz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
19.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166


1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.2 . . . . . . . 13
1.3 ~u, ~v ~u ~v . . . 17
1.4 . . . . . . 18
1.5 (r, , ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

3.1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.2 . 31
3.3 . . 31

4.1 f (x, y). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

4.2 C = C1 C2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.3 ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.4 (4.32) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.9 D 2 4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.11 C 1 C1 C2 C2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

5.1 F renet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

7.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
7.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
7.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
7.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
7.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
7.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
7.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

9.1 - x.
P Q v t . . . . . . . . . . 67
9.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
9.3 ~v0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
9.4 P Q. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
9.5 -
P . S1 S2 , ,
~u. P S1
~r1 S2 ~r2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
9.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

10.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

5
6

10.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
10.3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
10.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
10.5
R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
10.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
10.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

11.1 , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
11.2 C1 C2 Q P . . . . . 89
11.3 A B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
11.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
11.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
11.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
11.7
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
11.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

12.1 . . . . . . . . 101
12.2 . . . . . . . . . . . 103
12.3 m. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
12.4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
12.5 . . . . . . . . . . 105
12.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
12.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
12.8 - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
12.9 O
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

13.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
13.2 .
( 4 , 3 5 7
4 ) ( 4 , 4 ) . . 116

14.1 . . . . . . . . . . 122
14.2 -
m. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

15.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
15.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
15.3 O
O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
15.4 . . . . 130
15.5 z-. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
15.6 - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
15.7 . . . . . . . 134
15.8
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

16.1
.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
16.2 . . . . . 140
16.3 . . 141
16.4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
16.5 . . . . . . 143
 7

17.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
17.2 . . . . . 146
17.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
17.4 z-. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

18.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
18.2 - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
18.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
18.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
18.5
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
18.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

19.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
19.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
19.3 .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
19.4 . . . . 161
19.5 . 162
19.6
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
19.7 . . . 166
8


6.1 . . . . . . . . 56

13.1 s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

R3

1.

2. .

, , , -
, , , .
.

1.1
V = R3
K = R.
.

1.1.1 K ,

1. .

(1) , K ( + ) K.
(2) : + = + , , K.
(3) : ( + ) + = + ( + ), , , K.
(4) 0, 0 + = , K.
(5) K () K + () = 0.

2. .

(1) , K ( ) K.
(2) : =
(3) : ( ) = ( )
(4) 1 1 6= 0 1 = , K.
1 1


(5) K 6= 0 K = 1.

3.

(1) , , K ( + ) = + .

1.1.2 V K
V (K), :

11
12 1. R3

1. x, y V (x + y) V
x, y. :

( x + y = y + x ().
() (x + y) + z = x + (y + z) ().
() 0 V x + 0 = x, x V .
() x V (x) V , x
x + (x) = 0.

2. K, x V ( x) V
x. :

() ( x) = ( ) x.
() 1 x = x.

3.

() ( + ) x = x + x.
() (x + y) = x + y.

K = C V (C).

1.1.3
.

1.1.4 n- Rn Cn . n-
(x1 , x2 , , xn ) 1

(x1 , x2 , , xn ) + (y1 , y2 , , yn ) = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , , xn + yn )

(x1 , x2 , , xn ) = ( x1 , x2 , , xn ). (1.1)

1.1.5 [a, b]
.
C[a,b] .

: , .
,
.
.
. B
( (AB BA), (AB CD CD AB)
( AB CD CD EF AB EF ) AB CD

(1) AB, CD .

(2) AB, CD .

(3) .
B .


OA = {OB B : OA OB}. (1.2)

~0 e1 , e2 , e3 .
( ) R3
1 n- (x , x , , x ) (x , x , , x ) Rn
1 2 n 2 1 n
x1 6= x2 .
1.2. 13

(x, y, z), , ,
.
R3

(x1 , y1 , z1 ) + (x2 , y2 , z2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 , z1 + z2 ). (1.3)

~r1 + ~r2
~r2
~r1 .
~r1 + ~r2 .

~r2

~r1 + ~r2 ~r2

~r1

1.1: .

(x, y, z) = (x, y, z). (1.4)

: R
~r ~r, || k ~r k ~r > 0 < 0.

~r, R+
~r

1.2: .

1.1.6 .

~r1 = ~r2 x1 = x2 y1 = y2 z1 = z2 . (1.5)

1.2
( ) , (
) .
( ) .

1.2.1 R3 .
R3

< , >: R3 R3 R (1.6)

(i) < x, x > x R3

14 1. R3

(ii) < x, x >= 0 x = 0

(iii) < x, y >=< y, x > ()

(iv) < x, 1 y1 + 2 y2 >= 1 < x, y1 > +2 < x, y2 >, 1 , 2 R.

< x, y >= (x, y) = ~x ~y .

1.2.2
.

1.2.3

k k: R3 R+ (1.7)

k x k= < x, x > R3

(i) k x + y kk x k + k y k ( )

(ii) k x k= || k x k ( )

(iii) k x k> 0, x R3 {0} k x k= 0 x = 0

x, y R3 , R.
P3
1.2.4 R3 ~x ~y =
q i=1 xi yi k x k=
P3 2
i=1 xi .

1.2.5 Cauchy Schwarz

|~x ~y | k ~x k k ~y k . (1.8)

1.2.6 ~x, ~y R3 0
.

~x ~y =k ~x k k ~y k cos . (1.9)

. ~x ~y = 0
~x ~y (   ).
y
~
~x ~y =k ~y k ~x k~yk ~x k~y~yk
y
~
~x yk .
k~

1.2.7 .
C
F~
Z
W = F~ d~s. (1.10)
C

.
.

1.2.8

1 ~ ~
u= E D. (1.11)
8
( )
. .
1.2. 15

1.2.9 {~ei , i I}

0 i 6= j
(~ei , ~ej ) = ij = . (1.12)
1 i=j

{~xi , i I} { k~~xxii k , i I} .

1.2.10 2 .

k-
R3 k-
k + 1-.
R3

~i = ~e1 = ~ex = ex = (1, 0, 0), ~j = ~e2 = ~ey = ey = (0, 1, 0), ~k = ~e3 = ~ez = ez = (0, 0, 1). (1.13)

~r = (x, y, z)

~r = x(1, 0, 0) + y(0, 1, 0) + z(0, 0, 1) = x~i + y~j + z~k. (1.14)

~i, ~j, ~k R3 R3
:

k ~i k2 =k ~j k2 =k ~k k2 = 1 ~i ~j = ~j ~k = ~k ~i = 0. (1.15)

1.2.11 ~u = u1~i + u2~j + u3~k, ~v = v1~i + v2~j + v3~k R3 .

~u, ~v ~u ~v
     
 u2 u3 ~  u1 u3  ~  u1 u2  ~
~u ~v = 
 v2 i j+ k
v3  v1 v3  v1 v2 
= k ~u k k ~v k sin ~n (1.16)

 ~i ~j ~k
 

 
~u ~v =  u1 u2 u3 .
 (1.17)
 v1 v2 v3 

~
~n = k~uu~ ~
v
v k ~
u, ~v .
~u ~v .
~u ~v = ~0.

1.2.12

() ~u ~v = (~v ~u) ().

() ~u (~v + w)
~ = (~u ~v ) + (~u + w)
~ ()

() (~u ~v ) w
~ 6= ~u (~v w)
~ ( ).

:
2 {~ xk } Rn
x1 , , ~

xk = ~0, ci R
x1 + c k ~
c1 ~

c1 = = ck = 0
16 1. R3

3
(1) Levi Civita
3
X
(~u ~v )i = ijk uj vk
i,j,k=1
3
X
= ikj uj vk , ijk
i,j,k=1
3
X
= ijk vj uk ,
i,j,k=1
= (~v ~u)i . (1.18)

~ ~u ~v = ~u w
(2) ~u ~v , w, ~ = 0. ~u (~v + w)
~ = ~u ~v +~u w.
~
~v , w
~ ~u.

~u (~v + w)
~ = ~u (~v + w)
~ + ~u (~v + w)
~ k
= ~u (~v + w)
~ , ~u k (~v + w)
~ k
= ~u ~v + ~u w~ ,
= ~u ~v + ~u w
~ (1.19)

(3)

ijk ilm = jl km jm kl (1.20)

3
X 3
X 3
X
[(~u ~v ) w]
~i = ijk (~u ~v )j wk = ijk jlm ul vm wk
j,k=1 j,k=1 l,m=1
3
X 3
X
= (il km im kl )ul vm wk
j,k=1 l,m=1
= vi (~u w)
~ ui (~v w)
~ (1.21)

[~u (~v w)]

~ i = vi (~u w)
~ wi (~v ~u). (1.22)

1.2.13 -
~u, ~v .

: ~u

S = |~u|h = |~u||~v | cos = |~u ~v | (1.23)

2
3 ( )

Levi Civita, ijk ,

+1 i, j, k 1,2,3
ijk = 1 i, j, k 1,2,3
0 .

u~
(~ v )i = ijk uj vk
.
1.2. 17

~v
h

~u

1.3: ~u, ~v ~u ~v .

~i, ~j, ~k
~i ~i = ~j ~j = ~k ~k = ~0
~i ~j = ~k
~j ~k = ~i
~k ~i = ~j. (1.24)

( ) .
.
( ):
(i) ( ).
(ii)
.

1.2.14
.

1.2.15
A -
. (~r) = A~r
A (
). ~r = A~r
A ( )
.

ri = Sij rj = ij rj = ri , i, j = 1, 2, 3 (1.25)

( )
. S 1 (S = S 1 )
.
( ) ~r R3
(1.25). (S~u) (S~v ) = ~u ~v
S 2 = I.
axial .

~r .
.
.
.
-
.
~r xy-
~r ~r = (x, y, z). (1.26)
yz-
I
~r d~l x-.
H
. ~ = 2c
18 1. R3

(1.25) ~ = (x , 0, 0).
xz xy- ~ = (0, y , 0)
~ = (0, 0, z ) .

~ = (x , y , z ).


1 0 0
Pi = (detA)Aij Pj , (Aij ) = 0 1 0 . (1.27)
0 0 1

. .

L~ = ~r p~, N
~ = ~r F~ , Lorentz
F~L = q~v B.
~
.
F~ = q E
~ + F~L

1.2.16 ~u, ~v , w ~ R3
 
 u1 u2 u3 

~ = ~u (~v w)
[~u, ~v , w] ~ =  v1 v2 v3  (1.28)
 w1 w2 w3 

~u, ~v , w.
~

1.2.17
( ) ~u, ~v , w.
~

: ~v , w
~

~u

2 w
~
~v

1.4: .

 
V = hS = h|~v w|
~ = |~u||~v w|
~ sin
2
= |~u||~v w|
~ cos . (1.29)

~ 6= 0
[~u, ~v , w] (1.30)

1.2.18 :
1.3. 19

(i) ~u, ~v , w:
~

[~u, ~v , w]
~ = [w,
~ ~u, ~v ] = [~v , w,
~ ~u]. (1.31)

(ii) ~u, ~v , w
~ [~u, ~v , w]
~ = 0.
.
~ea , ~eb , ~ec R3 , ,

~v = ~v (~eb ~ec )~ea + ~v (~ec ~ea )~eb + ~v (~ea ~eb )~ec (1.32)

, , , .
(1.32) ~v = ~ea , ~eb , ~ec = 1/~ea (~eb ~ec ).

~eb ~ec ~ec ~ea ~ea ~eb

~eA = , ~eB = , ~eC = (1.33)
~ea (~eb ~ec ) ~ea (~eb ~ec ) ~ea (~eb ~ec )

{~ea , ~eb , ~ec }.

~ea ~eA = ~eb ~eB = ~ec ~eC = 1

~ea ~eB = ~ea ~eC = ~eb ~eA = ~eb ~eC = ~ec ~eA = ~ec ~eB = 0. (1.34)

[L] [L]1 .
~ R3
1.2.19 ~u, ~v , w

~u (~v w)
~ = (~u w)~
~ v (~u ~v )w
~ (~u ~v ) w
~ = (~u w)~
~ v (w
~ ~v )~u (1.35)

~u, ~v , w.
~

~u (~v w) ~ ~u) = ~0.

~ (~u ~v ) + ~v (w
~ +w (1.36)

1.2.20

F~ = ~ (~ ~r) (1.37)

~ .

1.3

. :
x =, y = z =.

1 (x, y, z) = , 2 (x, y, z) = , 3 (x, y, z) = (1.38)

.
(1.38)

x = f (1 , 2 , 3 ), y = g(1 , 2 , 3 ), z = h(1 , 2 , 3 ) (1.39)

f, g, h (
),
.
1 (x, y, z) = c1 , 2 (x, y, z) = c2 , 3 (x, y, z) = c3 , c1 , c2 , c3 ,

.
20 1. R3

-
.
{~ei , i = 1, 2, 3} -
. P

~r = x~i + y~j + z~k = f (1 , 2 , 3 )~i + g(1 , 2 , 3 )~j + h(1 , 2 , 3 )~k (1.40)

(1.40)

~r ~r ~r
d~r = d1 + d2 + d3 (1.41)
1 2 3
~
r ~r
k P . k = hk ~ek
  k
 ~r 
hk =  k . (1.41)

3
X
d~r = hk dk ~ek . (1.42)
k=1

hk .

3
X 3
X
ds2 = d~r d~r = gij di dj = h2k dk2 . (1.43)
i,j=1 k=1

~
r ~
r
gij = i
j
= 0, i 6= j gij
.
 
 ~r ~r ~r 
dV =  = |(h1 d1~e1 ) (h2 d2~e2 ) (h3 d3~e3 )|
1 2 3 
 
 (x, y, z) 
=   d1 d2 d3 = h1 h2 h3 d1 d2 d3 . (1.44)
(1 , 2 , 3 ) 
~
r
1.3.1 {~ei = i
, i = 1, 2, 3}
~
{~i = i , i = 1, 2, 3} .

.

(1 , 2 , 3 ) = (r, , ).
:

P = (r, , )

y

x

1.5: (r, , ).

p
(i) : r = x2 + y 2 + z 2 =
1.3. 21

(ii) z- :
!
z
= arc cos p =
x2 + y 2 + z 2

y


(iii) z-: = arc tan x =

x = r sin cos , y = r sin sin , z = r cos (1.45)

r 0, 0 < 2, 0 .
  s 2  2  2
 ~r  x y z
h1 =   = + + =1
r r r r
 
 ~r 
h2 =   = r sin

 
 ~r 
h3 =   = r. (1.46)

ds2 = dr2 + r2 sin2 d2 + r2 d2 (1.47)

dV = r2 sin drdd (1.48)

~r
(1) er =  r  = (sin cos , sin sin , cos ).
 ~r 
 r 
.
~r

(2) e =   = r(cos cos , cos sin , sin ). r = r1
 ~r 
 
= 1 . xy.
~r

(3) e =   = ( sin , cos , 0).
 ~r 
 
z-.

er d er d er d
e r = + + = sin e + e
r dt dt dt
e = er + cos e
e = sin er cos e . (1.49)

1.3.2 -
.
22 1. R3

~r = rer . (1.50)

d~r
~v = = rer + r sin e + re (1.51)
dt

   
1 d  2 2  1 d 2
~r = ( 2 r sin2 2 )er + r sin e + (r ) r sin cos 2 e . (1.52)
r sin dt r dt

= 2

~r = rer + re , ~r = ( 2 )er + (2r + r)e (1.53)

(, , z).
:
p
(i) z-: = x2 + y 2 = .
(ii) z-: = arc tan1 xy = .

(iii) xy-: z = .

x = cos , y = sin , z=z (1.54)

0, 0 < 2, < z < .

 
 ~r 
h1 =   = 1
r
 
 ~r 
h2 =   =

 
 ~r 
h3 =   = 1 (1.55)
z

ds2 = d2 + r2 d2 + dz 2 (1.56)

dV = dddz. (1.57)

~r

(1) e =   = (cos , sin , 0). xy-
 ~r 
 
z.
~r
(2) e =   = ( sin , cos , 0). z = z1
 ~r 
 
. xy.
1.4. , 23

~r
(3) ez =  z  = (0, 0, 1). ez
 ~r 
 z 
.

de e d e d e dz de dez
= + + = e , = e , =0 (1.58)
dt dt dt z dt dt dt

1.3.3
.

~r = e + zez . (1.59)

d~r
~v = = e + e + zez + z e z = e + e + zez (1.60)
dt

~r = ( 2 )e + ( + 2)e + zez . (1.61)

1.4 ,

( ).

. ( )
N
X
Ai = aij Aj , i = 1, , N (1.62)
j=1

xi
aij = (1.63)
xj

aij xi xj .

 
cos sin
(aij ) = . (1.64)
sin cos

x x
x x
() A = x A . dx =
x dx .

x x
() A = x A . x = x x
.

.
. N - n N n .


24 1. R3

PN xi xj kl
() Aij = k,l=1 xk xl A

xi xl
PN
() Ai
j =
k
k,l=1 xk xj Al

xk xl
PN
() Aij = k,l=1 xi xj Akl .

( ).
( ) .
. .
1.4.1
( )

F = A A (1.65)

= ( x ~ A = (, A)
, ) ~ .
0
 2

2.1
f~ A Rn Rm .

f~ : A Rn Rm (2.1)

~x = (x1 , , xn ) A, f~

f~(~x) = (f1 (~x), , fm (~x)) Rm .

f~ m > 1 m = 1. m = 1
n- f (~x) = f (x1 , , xn ).

2.1.1 f : U Rn R. f Rn+1
(x1 , , xn , f (x1 , , xn )) Rn+1 (x1 , , xn ) U .

f = {(x1 , , xn , f (x1 , , xn )) Rn+1 | (x1 , , xn ) U } (2.2)

2.1.2 f : U Rn R c R. c
~x U f (~x) = c. n = 2 c n = 3
.

c = {~x U | f (~x) = c} Rn . (2.3)

2.2
2.2.1 U Rn . U

~x0 U r > 0 |Dr (~x0 ) U (2.4)

Dr (~x0 ) = {~x U | k ~x ~x0 k< r}

( ) ~x0 r. U U .

. r > 0
~x0 ~x0 U .

2.2.2 ~x0 Rn r > 0, Dr (~x0 ) .

25
26 2.

2.2.3 A Rn . ~x Rn A ~x
A A (
A).

2.2.4 ~x A ~x A ~x
A. ~x A A
~x A.

2.2.5 ~x A ~x
A ~x A.

2.2.6
Dr (~x0 ) A Dr (~x0 ) Ac = .

2.2.7 f~ : A Rn Rm , A . ~x0 A
A N ~b Rm . f~(~x) ~b ~x ~x0

lim f~(~x) = ~b f~(~x) ~b ~x ~x0 (2.5)

x~
~ x0

U ~x0 ~x U A ~x 6= ~x0 f~(~x) N .

2.2.8 f~ : A Rn Rm , A . ~x0 A
A. lim~x~x0 f (~x) = ~b > 0 > 0 ~x A
0 <k ~x ~x0 k< k f (~x) ~b k< .

2.2.9 f~, ~g : A Rn Rm , A , ~x0 A

A, ~b, ~b1 , ~b2 Rm c R:

(i) limx~ ~x0 f~(~x) = ~b lim~x~x0 cf~(~x) = c~b, cf~ : A Rm ~x cf~(~x).

(ii) lim~x~x0 f~(~x) = ~b1 lim~x~x0 ~g (~x) = ~b2 lim~x~x0 (f~ + ~g)(~x) = ~b1 +~b2 (f~ + ~g) : A Rm
~x f~(~x) + ~g (~x).

(iii) m = 1, lim~x~x0 f (~x) = b1 lim~x~x0 g(~x) = b2 lim~x~x0 (f g)(~x) = b1 b2 (f g) : A Rm

~x f (~x)g(~x).
1 1 1
(iv) m = 1, lim~x~x0 f (~x) = b 6= 0 f (~x) 6= 0 ~x A limx~ ~x0 f (~
x) = b f : A Rm
1
~x f (~x) .

(v) f~(~x) = (f1 (~x), , fm (~x)) fi : A R, i = 1, , m f~

lim~x~x0 f~(~x) = (b1, , bm ) lim~x~x0 fi (~x) = bi , i = 1, , m.

2.2.10 f~ : A Rn Rm , A . ~x0 A. f~
~x0

lim f~(~x) = f~(~x0 ) (2.6)

x~
~ x0

f~ A ~x0 A.
.

2.2.11 f~, ~g : A Rn Rm , A , c R:

(i) f~ ~x0 cf~ (cf~)(~x) = c[f~(~x)].

(ii) f~, ~g ~x0 f~ + ~g (f~ + ~g )(~x) = f~(~x) + ~g(~x).

(iii) m = 1, f, g ~x0 f g (f g)(~x) = f (~x)g(~x).

2.3. 27

1
(iv) m = 1, lim~x~x0 f (~x) = f (~x0 ) 6= 0 f (~x) 6= 0 ~x A f
 
~x0 f1 (~x) = f (~ 1
x) .

(v) f~(~x) = (f1 (~x), , fm (~x)) f~ ~x0 -

fi , i = 1, , m ~x0 .
2.2.12 f~ : A Rn Rm . f~ ~x0 A
> 0 > 0
~x A k ~x ~x0 k< k f~(~x) f~(~x0 ) k< . (2.7)

2.3

.
, . .

f
2.3.1 f : U Rn R, U . x j
, j = 1, , n
j- n- ~x = (x1 , , xn )

f f (x1 , , xj + h, , xn ) f (x1 , , xn ) f (~x + h~ej ) f (~x)
(x1 , , xn ) = lim = lim (2.8)
xj h0 h h0 h
~ej = (0, , 1, , 0) 1 j- .
2.3.2 f : R2 R. f (x0 , y0 ) f f
x y
(x0 , y0 )
h i h i
f (x, y) f (x0 , y0 ) f
x (x 0 , y 0 ) (x x0 ) f
y (x0 , y 0 ) (y y0 )
0 (x, y) (x0 , y0 ). (2.9)
k (x, y) (x0 y0 ) k
f~ : U Rn Rm , U . f~
~x0 U ~x0
k f~(~x) f~(~x0 ) T~ (~x ~x0 ) k
lim =0 (2.10)
x~
~ x0 k ~x ~x0 k

f1 f1

x1 xn
f2 f2


~ ~ ~
x1 xn
T = Df (~x0 ) =
.. .. .. . (2.11)
. . .


fm fm
x1 xn ~
x0

2.3.3 f : R R (x0 , y0 ). R3
2

   
f f
z = f (x0 , y0 ) + (x0 , y0 ) (x x0 ) + (x0 , y0 ) (y y0 )
x y
!
f
= f (x0 , y0 ) + x (x x0 , y y0 ) (2.12)
f
y (x0 ,y0 )

f (x0 , y0 ).
2.3.4 f : U Rn R, U . f ~x0 U
~x0 .
2.3.5 f : U Rn R, U .
fi
x U f ~x.
xj ~
28 2.

2.4
2.4.1 f : U R3 R . (x, y, z)
R3
 
~ (x, y, z) = f , f , f .
grad f (x, y, z) = f (2.13)
x y z

~x
~v

~r(t) = ~x + t~v . (2.14)

2.4.2 f : U R3 R. f ~x
~v

d  f (~x + h~v ) f (~x)
f (~x + t~v ) = lim . (2.15)
dt t=0 h0 h

2.4.3 f : U R3 R .
. f ~x ~v
      
d 
~ (~x) ~v = f (~x) v1 + f (~x) v2 + f (~x) v3 .
f (~x + t~v ) = f (2.16)
dt t=0 x y z

2.4.4 f : U R3 R C 1 (x0 , y0 , z0 )
S f (x, y, z) = k = . f ~ (x0 , y0 , z0 )
: ~v t = 0 ~c(t) S
~c(0) = (x0 , y0 , z0 )

d 
~ ~v = 0.
f (~c(t)) = f (2.17)
dt t=0

2.4.5 S f (x, y, z) = k = .
S (x0 , y0 , z0 ) S

~ (x0 , y0 , z0 ) (x x0 , y y0 , z z0 ) = 0, f
f ~ (x0 , y0 , z0 ) 6= 0. (2.18)

~ .
f
f
f .

2.4.6 E ~ (x, y, z)
~ ~
E = .
F~ = U
~ (x, y, z).
 3

3.1 , ,
3.1.1 Rn ~r : [a, b] Rn . ~r
~r . ~r C 1 1 ~r C 1 .
~r(a), ~r(b) ~r . t
~r R3 ~r(t) = (x(t), y(t), z(t)) x(t), y(t), z(t)
~r.
3.1.2 ~r : [a, b] Rn ~r C 1 . ~r
Z b
l(~r) = k ~r (t) k dt (3.1)
a
qP
2
i (t)
~r (t) = d~sdt(t) = i=1 dxdt
Pn n
~ei k ~r (t) k= i=1 [xi (t)] . ~r (t)
.
l(~r)

. s(t)

Z t
s(t) = k ~r ( ) k d (3.2)
a

Z b
l(~r) = s (t)dt = s(b) s(a) (3.3)
a
R 
d t
s (t) = dt a
k ~r ( ) k d =k ~r (t) k.
Z b
l(~r) = k ~r (s) k ds (3.4)
a

 
 d~r(s)  ds
 ds  = ds = 1. (3.5)
 

.
1 ~r (t) C 1 x(t), y(t), z(t) C 1 x , y , z
t t t
~ r (t) C 1 x(t), y(t), z(t)
r. ~
C 1 [a, b]: a = t0 < t1 < < tN = b ~ r (t)
[ti , ti+1 ], 0 i N 1 C 1 .
.

29
30 3.

3.1.3 ~r ~r(t) = (2t, t2 , log t) t > 0. ~r

(2, 1, 0) (4, 4, log 2).
t = 1, t = 2 . ~r (t)
1 2
k ~r (t) k=
(2t + 1) (3.6)
t

Z 2 
1
l(~r) = 2t + dt = 3 + log 2. (3.7)
1 t
3.1.4 Rn F~ : A Rn Rn
~x , A, F~ (~x). f : A Rn R
.
F~ R3
F~ (x, y, z) = (F1 (x, y, z), F2 (x, y, z), F3 (x, y, z)) (3.8)
k
Fi , i = 1, 2, 3 . Fi C
F~ C k .
3.1.5 F~ , F~
~r(t) :
~r (t) = F~ (~r(t)) (3.9)
F~ ~r(t).
3.1.6
(1) F~ (x, y) = (y, x)
(2) F~ (x, y) = (x, y)
(3) F~ (x, y) = (x, x2 )

~r (t) = F~ (~r(t)) t
(1) dx
y = dy 2 2 2 2 2
x d(x + y ) = 0 x + y = c .
.

3.1:
.

(2) dx
x = dy c
y log(xy) = c xy = e .
.
(3) dx
x = xdy2 d( 12 x2 y) = 0 y = 1 2
2x + c.
c y.
3.2. 31

3.2: .

3.3: .

3.2
C 1 F~ R3 . curl F~ =
~ F~

 ~i ~ ~ 
 
 j k 
~ F~ =   (3.10)
 x y z 
 F F2 F3 
1

F~ = (F1 , F2 , F3 ).
3.2.1 C 2 f

~ (f
~ ) = ~0. (3.11)

:
 
 ~i ~j ~k  
2f 2f ~
 2
2f ~
 2
2f ~ ~
  
~ ~

  f f
f =  x y z  = i+ j+ k = 0 (3.12)
 f f f  yz zy zx xz xy yx
 x y z 

2

3
Fi
div F~ =
~ F~ =
X
. (3.13)
i=1
xi

F~ .
32 3.

3.2.2 C 2 f

div curl F~ =
~ (
~ F~ ) = 0. (3.14)

curl F~ curl F~ = ~0 . div F~

div F~ = 0 .
3.2.3

F~ (x, y, z) = 3x2 y~i + (x3 + y 3 )~j. (3.15)

(1) curlF~ .

(2) f F~ = f
~ .

(1) curlF~ = (3x2 3x2 )~k = ~0. .

(2)

F~ ~
= f
f ~ f ~ f ~
3x2 y~i + (x3 + y 3 )~j = i+ j+ k
x y z
1
f (x, y) = x3 y + y 4 + c. (3.16)
4
 4

4.1
4.1.1 f (x, y, z) ~r,
~r : I = [a, b] R3 C 1 t f (x(t), y(t), z(t))
I.
Z Z b Z b
f ds = f (x(t), y(t), z(t)) k ~r (t) k dt = f (~r(t)) k ~r (t) k dt. (4.1)
~
r a a

~r(t) C 1 f (~r(t)) , ~r f ds [a, b]

R
f (~r(t)) k ~r (t) k
Rb
. f = 1 l(~r) = a k ~r (t) k dt
.
~r xy- f (x, y).
f ~r f (x, y) 0
~r f (x, y) (x, y).

4.1.2 F~ R3 C 1 ~r : I = [a, b] R3 .
F~ ~r :
Z Z b
F~ d~s = F~ (~r(t)) ~r (t) dt. (4.2)
~
r a

~r F~ d~s F~ (~r(t)) ~r (t) .

R

Z Z b Z b h i
F~ d~s = F~ (~r(t)) ~r (t) dt = F~ (~r(t)) T~ (t) k ~r (t) k dt (4.3)
~
r a a

~r (t)
T~ (t) =
k ~r (t) k
f (~r(t)) = F~ (~r(t)) T~ (t)
~r 1 .

4.1.3 h : I I1 C 1 1-1 I = [a, b]

I1 = [a1 , b1 ]. ~r : I1 R3 C 1 .

~ = ~r h : I R3
(4.4)
1
~r ~
r (t1 ) = ~
r (t2 ) t1 = t2 ~
r
~
r (t) t.

33
34 4.

~r. ~r h(a) = ~r(a1 ) ~r h(b) = ~r(b1 )

~r h(a) = ~r(b1 ) ~r h(b) = ~r(a1 )
.

4.1.4 (i) F~ R3 C 1 ~r : I =
[a1 , b1 ] R3
~ : [a, b] R3 ~r.
~

Z Z
~
F d~s = F~ d~s. (4.5)

~ ~
r

(ii) ~r C 1 f
~r ~ ~r.
Z Z
f (x, y, z) ds = f (x, y, z) ds (4.6)
~
r
~

(iii) f : R3 R C 1 ~r : [a, b] R3 C 1 .

Z
~ d~r = f (~r(b) f (~r(a).
f (4.7)
~
r

4.1.5 f (x, y) = 2x y, x = t4 , y = t4 , 1 t 1. f
.

f f (x(t), y(t)) = t4 ~r (t) = (4t3 , 4t3 ) k ~r (t) k=

3
4 2|t| . f ~r
Z Z 1
f ds = f (x(t), y(t)) k ~r (t) k dt = 2. (4.8)
~
r 1

~r(t) = (x(t), y(t)) = (x(t), x(t)) xy-

f (x, y) = 2x y
(1, 1, 1)

(0, 0, 0)
y

x
(1, 1, 0)
~r : t (t4 , t4 , 0)

4.1: f (x, y).

. t [1, 1] (1, 1, 0)
(0, 0, 0) . f (x(t), y(t)) = 2x(t) y(t)
(1, 1, 1) (0, 0, 0)
~r
.

2
2 = 2 = 2 (4.9)
2
4.1. 35

4.1.6 ~r ~r(t) = (t2 , t, 3) t [0, 1]. y

~r.

f ~r
R
f (x, y, z)ds
< f >~r = R~r (4.10)
~
r
k ~r (t) k dt

R1
y(t) k ~r (t) k dt
0 5 51
< y >~r =
R1 = . (4.11)
0
k ~
r (t) k dt 6 5 + 3 log(2 + 5)

4.1.7 C 2xyzdx + x2 zdy + x2 ydz, C -

R
(1, 1, 1) (1, 2, 4).

C = C1 C2 Ci , i = 1, 2

z (1, 2, 4)

C2

C1
(1, 2, 1)
(1, 1, 1)
y

4.2: C = C1 C2 .

C1 : ~ (t) = (1, t, 1), t [1, 2]

C2 : ~ (t) = (1, 2, t), t [1, 4]. (4.12)

Z Z 2
2xyzdx + x2 zdy + x2 ydz = dt = 1
C1 1
Z Z 4
2 2
2xyzdx + x zdy + x ydz = 2 dt = 6. (4.13)
C2 1

Z Z
2xyzdx + x2 zdy + x2 ydz = 2xyzdx + x2 zdy + x2 ydz
C C C
Z 1 2 Z
= 2xyzdx + x2 zdy + x2 ydz + 2xyzdx + x2 zdy + x2 ydz
C1 C2
= 7 (4.14)

(1, 1, 1) (1, 2, 4)
F~ (x, y, z) = (2xyz, x2 z, x2 y)
.
36 4.

x2 + y 2 + z = 2
B

y
A

4.3: ;

4.1.8 (4.3)
,
.

F~ (x, y, z) = z 2~i + 3y 2~j + 2xz~k. (4.15)

A B;
F~ .
f F~ (x, y, z) = f
~ .

f f f
= z2, = 3y 2 , = 2xz. (4.16)
x y z

f
Z
f (x, y, z) = dx = z 2 x + h1 (y, z). (4.17)
x

(4.16) y

h1 (y, z)
Z
h1 (y, z) = dy = y 3 + h2 (z). (4.18)
y

f (x, y, z) = xz 2 + y 3 + h2 (z) (4.19)

h2 (4.19) (4.16). -
z

dh2 (z)
Z
dz = 0 h2 (z) = c = . (4.20)
dz

x2 +y 2 + z = 2
A B. A = (x, 0, 0) = ( 2, 0, 0) B = (0, 0, z) = (0, 0, 2).

Z Z (0,0,2)

F~ d~s = f~ (~r(t)) ~r (t)dt = (xz 2 + y 3 + c) = 0. (4.21)
~
r ~
r 
( 2,0,0)
4.2. 37

4.2
4.2.1 ~ : D R2 R3 . S
~ : S = (D).
~
~
(u, v) = (x(u, v), y(u, v), z(u, v)). (4.22)
C 1 ( x(u, v), y(u, v), z(u, v)
C 1 ) S C 1 -.

~ (u0 , v0 ) R3 . u0 ( htov0 )
~ ~ v0 )) .
t (u0 , t) ( (t,
(u~ 0 , v0 )
x y z x y z
T~v = (u0 , v0 )~i + (u0 , v0 )~j + (u0 , v0 )~k
T~u = (u0 , v0 )~i + (u0 , v0 )~j + (u0 , v0 )~k. (4.23)
v v v u u u

~ 0 , v0 ) T~u T~v  6 ~0. (u ~ 0 , v0 ) S

(u  =
(u0 ,v0 )
.

4.2.2 ~ : D R2 R3 (u ~ 0 , v0 )
~ 0 , v0 ) T~u , T~v . ~n = T~u T~v
(u
(x0 , y0 , z0 )
(x x0 , y y0 , z z0 ) ~n = 0 (4.24)
~n (u0 , v0 ).

~ i : Di R2 R3

(i) Di .
~ i C 1 1-1 Di .
(ii)
~ i .
(iii) Si
4.2.3 A(S)
Z
A(S) = k T~u T~v k dudv (4.25)
D
q
k T~u T~v k= (T~u T~v ) (T~u T~v ).

4.2.4 S ~ : D R2 S R3 ,
~
(u, v) = (x(u, v), y(u, v), z(u, v)). f (x, y, z) S,
f S
Z Z
f (x, y, z)dS = ~
f ((u, v)) k T~u T~v k dudv
S D
s 2  2  2
(x, y) (y, z) (z, x)
Z
= f (x(u, v), y(u, v), z(u, v)) + + dudv. (4.26)
D (u, v) (u, v) (u, v)
z = g(x, y) (4.26)
f (x, y, g(x, y))
Z Z
f (x, y, z)dS = dxdy (4.27)
S D cos
~ g~ g ~ ~
~n = (x, y, z) = x i y j+k
~
~k (x, y, g(x, y)). (4.26) cos = ~nk = k~
nk
1
q
g 2 g 2
.
[ x ] +[ y ] +1
38 4.

4.2.5 F~ S = (D).
~ F~
~

Z Z Z
F~ dS
~= F~ dS
~ (4.28)
~
~

Z Z  
F~ dS
~= F~ T~u T~v dudv (4.29)
~
D

T~u , T~v .

4.2.6
.

4.2.7 S ~ 1,
~ 2 -
~
. F S
Z Z
F~ dS
~= F~ dS.
~ (4.30)
~1
~2

~ S
S
~ ~
R
S F dS f .
~u T
T ~v
~n = ~u T
kT ~v k S.
Z Z Z  
F~ dS
~ = F~ dS
~= F~ T~u T~v dudv
~
S
Z  
D

= F~ ~n k T~u T~v k dudv

D
Z   Z
= F~ ~n dS = f dS, (4.31)
S D

f = F~ ~n.

4.2.8 R3

~ ) = (r cos , r sin , ),
(r, r [0, 1] [0, 4] (4.32)

(1)

(2) .

(3) (x0 , y0 , z0 ).

(4) (x0 , y0 , z0 ) ,
z (x0 , y0 , z0 )
(x0 , y0 , z0 ).

(1) (4.4)

(2) T~r T~ (t,

~ ) (r,
~ t)

x~ y ~ z ~
T~r = i+ j+ k = cos ~i + sin ~j
r r r
x~ y ~ z ~
T~ = i+ j+ k = r sin ~i + r cos ~j + ~k (4.33)

4.2. 39

12,5

10,0

7,5

5,0
1,0 1,0

0,5 2,50,5

0,0 0,0
0,0

0,5 0,5

1,0 1,0

4.4: (4.32) .

~n T~r T~

~n = T~r T~ = sin ~i cos ~j + r~k 6= ~0. (4.34)

~n 1
n = = sin , cos , r). (4.35)
k ~n k 1 + r2

(3) n 6= ~0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) ,


(x x0 , y y0 , z z0 ) n =0


(x0 ,y0 ,z0 )
(x x0 ) sin 0 (y y0 ) cos 0 + (z z0 )r0 = 0
xy0 yx0 + (z z0 )(x20 + y02 ) = 0. (4.36)

(4) ~a = (0, 0, z0 ) ~b = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) S

~l(t) = ~a + t(~b ~a) = tx0~i + ty0~j + z0~k = tr0 cos 0~i + tr0 sin 0~j + 0~k, t [0, 1]. (4.37)

~l(t) = t cos 0~i+

t sin 0~j + 0~k.
(x0 , y0 , z0 ).

p 4.2.9
z x2 + y 2 .
p
z < x2 + y 2
.
0 z-
Z Z 0
Az = 2 |y|ds = 2 sin d = 2(1 cos 0 ) (4.38)
~
0

A = A() Az = 2(1 + cos 0 ) (4.39)

40 4.

4.5: .

0 = 2 -xy
2.

Z Z 1
Az = 2 |y|ds = 2 r 2dr = 2 (4.40)
~
0

p
= 2 ds = dz 2 + dy 2 = dr2 + dr2 = 2dr.

4.2.10 (4.6)

y r2

y = mx + q
s

r1
a b x

4.6: .

() .
() .

() OAB
s1 0
1 2 1
Z Z
A(SOAB ) = rdrd = s 0 = s1 = ( ) (4.41)
0 0 2 1 2
1
0 = s1 2a. OCD

A(SOCD ) = (s + s1 ). (4.42)
4.2. 41

O
s1

A 0 B
s
2

C D
2

4.7: .

A(SABCD ) = A(SOCD ) A(SOAB ) = ( )s1 + s. (4.43)
OAB OCD
s1
= s1 = (s + s1 ). (4.44)
s1 + s
(4.44)
1
A(SABCD ) = ( + )s = ( + ) . (4.45)
2
s y = mb + q
p p
s = (x2 x1 )2 + (y2 y1 )2 = ( ) 1 + m2 . (4.46)

p
A(SABCD ) = ( 2 2 ) 1 + m2 . (4.47)

()
Z p p
A(SABCD ) = 2 |x| 1 + m2 dx = ( 2 2 ) 1 + m2 . (4.48)

4.2.11 R3
T (x, y, z) = 3x2 + 3z 2 . (4.49)
x2 + z 2 = 2, y [0, 2], = 1

~ = 6x~i 6z~k.
F~ = T (4.50)
(4.50) y-
Z Z
~ = (F~ n)dS
F~ dS (4.51)
S S

 
 er ey e


~ ~
 
~n = T Ty =  0 0 2  = 2er .
 (4.52)
 0 1 0 

Z Z 2 Z 2
F~ dS
~ = 12 dyd = 48. (4.53)
S 0 0
42 4.

4.8: .

4.3 -

Green ( ) C
R2 C.

4.3.1 ( Green) D R2
3 D ( ).
F~ = P~i + Q~j C 1 D.
Z Z Z
F~ d~s = (curlF~ ) ~kdA = ~ F~ ) ~kdA
( (4.54)
D D D

4.3.2 Green

F~ (x, y) = x2 (x y)~i + xy 2~j (4.55)

C D = {(x, y) R2 : 4 x2 + y 2 16}.

(4.55) Green. C D

r1

r2

C2
C1

4.9: D 2 4.

C1 C2 .
x(t) = ri cos t, y(t) = ri sin t, t [0, 2], i = 1, 2

dx = ri sin tdt, dy = ri cos tdt. (4.56)

4.3. 43

Z Z Z
P dx + Qdy = P dx + Qdy P dx + Qdy = 256 16 = 120. (4.57)
C C1 C2 2 2

Z   2 4
Q P
Z Z Z
2 2
dxdy = (x + y )dxdy = r3 dr d = 120. (4.58)
D x y D 0 2

4.3.3 ( ) D R2 3 D
. ~n D. ~r : [a, b] R2 ,
t ~r(t) = (x(t), y(t)) D ~n

(y (t), x (t))
~n = p (4.59)
[x (t)]2 + [y (t)]2

F~ = P~i + Q~j C 1 D.
Z Z
~
F ~nds = div F~ dA. (4.60)
D D

4.3.4 () F~ = x~i + y~j =

P (x)~i + Q(y)~j D = {(x, y) R2 : x2 + y 2 1}.

() F~ = 2xy~i y 2~j
x 2

2
+ yb = 1.


a

() x(t) = cos t, y(t) = sin t, t [0, 2],

dx = sin tdt, dy = cos tdt. (4.61)

Z Z Z 2
F~ ~nds = P dy Qdx = dt = 2 (4.62)
D C 0

Z Z 1 Z 1x2
~ F~ dA = 2
dydx = 2. (4.63)

D 1 1x2

()
q
2
Z Z Z a Z a)
b 1( x
F~ ~nds = ~ F~ dA =
q
2
(2y 2y)dydx = 0 (4.64)
D D a a)
b 1( x

Stokes ( )
C R3 S C .
4.3.5 ( Stokes ) S -
1-1 ~ : D R2 S. S
S, F~ C 1 S.
Z Z
~ F~ ) dS
( ~= F~ d~s. (4.65)
S S
44 4.

4.10: .

4.3.6 Stokes
Z
(y + z)dx + (x + z)dy + (x + y)dz (4.66)
C

C x + y 2 = 2y y = z.
2

C = D D = {(x, y) R3 : x2 + (y 1)2 1}.

F~ (x, y, z) = (y + z)~i + (x + z)~j + (x + y)~k (4.67)

~ F~ = ~0. Stokes

Z Z
~ F~ ) dS
( ~= F~ d~s = 0. (4.68)
D D

x(t) = cos t, y(t) = 1 sin t, z(t) = 1 sin t, t [0, 2]. (4.69)

Z Z 2
(y + z)dx + (x + z)dy + (x + y)dz = 2 (sin2 t cos2 t)dt = 0 (4.70)
C 0

Gauss

.
4.3.7 ( Gauss) IV .
. F~
.
Z Z
~ ~
( F )dV = F~ dS,
~ (4.71)

,
Z Z
div F~ )dV = (F~ ~n)dS. (4.72)

4.4. 45

F~ dS
~
R
4.3.8

F~ (x, y, z) = (2x + 3z)~i (xz + y)~j + (y 2 + 2z)~k (4.73)

S (3, 1, 2) 3.

(x 3)2 + (y + 1)2 + (z 2)2 = 9 (4.74)

~ F~ = 3. ,

Gauss
Z Z
F~ dS
~ = ~ F~ dV


Z 6 Z 1+9(x3)2 Z 2+9(x3)2 (y+1)2
= 3 dz dy dx
0 1 9(x3)2 2 9(x3)2 (y+1)2
Z 6
9 (x 3)2 dx = 108.


= 3 (4.75)
0

-
.
.
Z Z 3 Z 2 Z
div F~ dV = 3 r2 sin d d dr = 108. (4.76)
0 0 0

4.4
4.4.1 F~ C 1 R3 ,
. F~
(1) C,
Z
F~ d~s = 0 (4.77)
C

(2) C1 C2
Z Z
F~ d~s = F~ d~s. (4.78)
C1 C2

(3) F~ f , F~ = f
~ ( F~
f ).
~ F~ = ~0.
(4)

(1) (4) -
.
4.4.2

F~ = 3x2 (y + z) + y 3 + z 3 ~i + 3y 2 (x + z) + x3 + z 3 ~j + 3z 2 (x + y) + x3 + y 3 ~k.
     
(4.79)

(1) C F~ d~s C
R

A = (1, 1, 1) B = (2, 1, 2).

46 4.

1
0.5
y
0

-0.5

-1
2
1.75
z
1.5
1.25
1
1
1.25
1.5
x 1.75 2

4.11: C 1 C1 C2 C2 .

(2) F~ .

(1)

Fx Fy Fy Fz Fx Fz
= = 3(x2 + y 2 ), = = 3(y 2 + z 2 ), = = 3(x2 + z 2 ). (4.80)
y x z y z x
C
C 1

C
(1, 1, 1) 1 (1, 1, 1) ~1 (t) = (1, t, 1), t [1, 1]
C2
(1, 1, 1) (2, 1, 1) ~2 (t) = (t, 1, 1), t [1, 2]
C
(2, 1, 1) 1 (2, 1, 2) ~3 (t) = (2, 1, t), t [1, 2] (4.81)

Z Z Z Z 1 Z 2 Z 1
F~ d~s + F~ d~s + F~ d~s = 2
(6t + 2)dt + 2
(6t + 2)dt + (9t2 + 9)dt = 54 (4.82)
~
1 ~
2 ~
3 1 1 1

(2) F~

f
= 3x2 (y + z) + y 3 + z 3
x
f
= 3y 2 (x + z) + x3 + z 3
y
f
= 3z 2 (x + y) + x3 + y 3 (4.83)
z

f (x, y, z) = xy(x2 + y 2 ) + yz(y 2 + z 2 ) + xz(x2 + z 2 ). (4.84)

4.4.3 F~ C 1 R3 div F~ = 0 G
~ +
~ C 1

 
F~ =
~ G ~ +
~ = ~ G.
~ (4.85)
4.4. 47

4.4.4

~ = B~k.
B (4.86)

~
G ~ G
~ = B.
~

~ = 0. G
div B ~
~ G
~ =B
~

G2 G1
= B,
x y
G3 G2
= 0
y z
G1 G3
= 0. (4.87)
z x
yz- G1 (x, y, z) =

~ = Bx~j + c.
G (4.88)

xy- G3 (x, y, z) =

G2 G1 G2 G1
= 0, = 0, = B. (4.89)
z z x y

(4.89) G2 = G2 (x, y) G1 = G1 (x, y).

G2 (x) = cxB, G1 (y) = (c 1)yB, c = . (4.90)

~ = (c 1)yB~i + cxB~j.
G (4.91)

~
G

~ = 1 (y~i x~j)B + (c 1 )(y~i + x~j)B = 1 (B

G ~ ~r) + (c 1 )B ,
~ = xy. (4.92)
2 2 2 2
48 4.
 5

-
F renet

.
s(t) ~r(t) .

 
 d~r  ds
|~v | =   = . (5.1)
dt dt

. ~r : [a, b] R3 ~r (t) 6= ~0, t.

z ~
B

~
N
T~ ~r(t)

5.1: F renet.

~r (t) ~v
T~ (t) =
= (5.2)
k ~r (t) k |~v |

~r(t) ,
~r.

T~ T~ = 1 (5.3)

dT~ ~
2 T = 0. (5.4)
ds

49
50 5. - F REN ET

(5.4) T~ (s) T~ (s).

T~ (s)
~ (s) = 1
N = T~ (s) (5.5)
~
k T (s) k
 
 ~
. =  ddsT  . -
B ~
T~ (s), N
~ (s)

~ = T~ N
B ~ (5.6)

.
5.0.5 F renet
~
dT ~
(1) ds = N
~
dN ~ T~
(2) ds = B
~
dB ~
(3) ds = N
 
 B~ 
. =  dds  -
~ ~
T N .

1 1
= , = (5.7)

.
.
:
~
dN
(2) ds
~
dN
= aT~ + bN
~ + cB
~ (5.8)
ds
a, b, c . (5.8)
N ~

~
dN
= aT~ + cB
~ (5.9)
ds
~
dN ~ = 0. T~ N
~ = 0
ds N

dT~ ~ dN~ dN~

N + T~ = 0 T~ = . (5.10)
ds dt dt
(5.8) a =
~ dN~ = .
c = B ds

~ N
(3) B ~ = 0 s

~
dB ~
N ~ dN = 0
~ +B (5.11)
ds ds
~ = T~ N
B ~

~
dB dT~ ~
= ~ + T~ dN = ~0 + T~ ( B
N ~ T~ ) = N
~. (5.12)
ds ds ds
 51

2
F renet
Darboux

~ = T~ + B.
D ~ (5.13)

dT~ ~ T~ ,
~
dN ~ N
~,
~
dB ~ B.
~
=D =D =D (5.14)
ds ds ds
5.0.6 R3 1

.

~ > d2~r(t) ~ ~)
< ~a, B = m (T N
dt2
d2~r(t) 1 d~r(t) 1 d2~r(t)
= m 2
( d~r(t) )
dt k dt k dt k d2 ~
r (t)
dt2 k dt2
2
1 d~r(t) 1 d ~r(t) 1 d2~r(t)
= m r(t)
d~
( d2 ~
r(t) 2
d2 ~
r(t) 2
)
k dt k dt k dt2 k dt k dt2 k dt
= 0 (5.15)

5.0.7

d2~r d3~r
 
d~r
3 = (5.16)
ds ds2 ds 2

" !#
dT~ ~
 2
d ~r d3~r

d~r ~ dN d ~
3 = T + N
ds ds2 ds ds ds ds
!
d ~
T d ~
N
= T~
ds ds
= 2 T~ ((N~ B)
~ (N
~ T~ ))

= 2 T~ (N ~ = 2 = .
~ B) (5.17)
2

5.0.8 F renet ;

~r(t) = (r cos t, r sin t, 0). (5.18)

d~r d~r/dt ( sin t, cos t, 0)

T~ = = = r = ( sin t, cos t, 0) (5.19)
ds |d~r/dt| r

~ ~
~ = 1 dT = dT /dt = ( cos t, sin t, 0).
N (5.20)
ds ds/dt
1 = 0 .
52 5. - F REN ET

T~
~
N
~r(t)
t
x

5.2: .

= 1/ = r, r .
~ = T~ N
B ~

~ = e3
B (5.21)

~
dB ~ =0 =0
= B (5.22)
ds

.
~
dB/ds = ~0 .
 6

6.0.9
.

6.0.10

d2 y(x) dy(x) 2
2
+ x( ) + xy(x) = x3
 2 dx dx
u(x, y, z, t) 2 u(x, y, z, t) 2 u(x, y, z, t)

u(x, y, z, t)
+ + = (6.1)
x2 y 2 z 2 t

6.0.11 -
.

6.0.12 (
n-
).

6.0.13

d2 y(x) dy(x) 2
+ x( ) + xy(x) = x3
dx2 dx
d3 y(x) 2 dy(x) d2 y(x)
( ) + y(x) + y 2 = sin x (6.2)
dx3 dx dx2
.

6.0.14
,
.

6.0.15

d2 y(x dy(x) 2
2
+ x( ) + xy(x) = x3
dx dx
 2 3  7  2
d y(x dy(x 3 dy(x
+ 3y +y = 0 (6.3)
dx2 dx dx

53
54 6.

6.0.16
dn y(t)
F (t, y, y (1) , y (2) , , y (n) ) = 0, y (n) = (6.4)
dtn
F y, y (1) , y (2) , , y (n) .

a0 (t)y (n) + a1 (t)y (n1) + + an (t)y = g(t). (6.5)

6.0.17

a0 y (n) (t) + a1 y (n1) (t) + + an y(t) = 0 (6.6)

a0 , , an .

Bernoulli Euler 1743 .

n
R R
.

6.0.18 {f1 (x), , fk (x)} -

I I W ronskian .
:

c1 f1 (x) + c2 f2 (x) + + ck fk (x) = 0

df1 (x) df2 (x) fk (x)
c1 + c2 + + ck = 0
dx dx dx
..
.
dk1 f1 (x) dk1 f2 (x) dk1 fk (x)
c1 + c2 + + ck = 0 (6.7)
dxk1 dxk1 dxk1
c1 = = ck = 0 ( )
 
 f1 (x)
 f2 (x) fk (x) 

 df1 (x) df2 (x)
dfdxk (x) 
 dx dx 
W (f1 (x), , fk (x), x) =  ..
 .. .. ..  6= 0 (6.8)
 . . . .


 dk1 f1 (x) dk1 f2 (x) k1
fk (x)
d k1

 k1 k1

dx dx dx

I. . 2
6.0.19 {sin x, cos x}. .

W ronskian
 
 sin x cos x 
W =   = 6= 0 (6.9)
cos x sin x 

6.0.20 {ex , ex , cosh x}. -

.

W ronskian
 x 
 e
 ex cosh x 

W =  ex ex sinh x =0 (6.10)
ex

 ex cosh x 

.
ex + ex 2 cosh x = 0 ck 6= 0.
 55

-
n.

dk f (t)
= c(k)f (t) (6.11)
dtk
f (t) = ert r- .

ert a0 rn + a1 rn1 + + an1 r + an = 0 a0 rn + a1 rn1 + + an1 r + an = 0

(6.12)

ert 6= 0. r
.
k- rk , k = 0, 1, 2, , n. -

(1) : n r1 , r2 , , rn

y(t) = c1 er1 t + c2 er2 t + + cn ern t (6.13)

c1 , c2 , , cn . W ronskian
x = x0 = 0 W (f1 (x), , fk (x), x0 = 0) 6= 0.

W (f1 (x), , fn (x), x0 = 0) =

[(r2 r1 )(r3 r1 ) (rn r1 )] [(r3 r2 ) (rn r2 )] [(rn rn1 )] (6.14)

( V andermonde)
.

(2) : r
k .

(2) (n k)

y(t) = c1 + c2 t + + ck tk ert .


(6.15)

(2) (n k)

y(t) = c1 + c2 t + + ck tk ert + ck+1 erk+1 t + + cn ern t

(6.16)

(2) r n (ii).

(3) :

(3) a + ib, a ib

y(t) = eat (c1 sin bt + c2 cos bt) (6.17)

(3) k

y(t) = eat c1 + c2 t + + ck tk1 sin bt + ck+1 + ck+2 t + + c2k tk1 cos bt

(6.18)

a0 y (n) + y (n1) + + an y = F (t) (6.19)

56 6.

.. g(t)
1 tn {tn , tn1 , , t, 1}
2 eat {eat }
3 sin(at + b) cos(at + b) {sin(at + b), cos(at + b)}
4 tn eat {tn eat , tn1 eat , , teat , eat }
5 t sin(at + b) tn cos(at + b)
n
{tn sin(at + b), tn cos(at + b); ; sin(at + b), cos(at + b)}
6 eat sin(at + b) eat cos(at + b) {eat sin(at + b), eat cos(at + b)}
7 t e sin(at + b) tn eat cos(at + b)
n at
{t e sin(at + b), tn eat cos(at + b);
n at

; eat sin(at + b), eat cos(at + b)}

6.1: .

a0 , , an F t.

y(t) = yc (t) + yp (t) (6.20)

yc (t) yp (t)
.
.
:
F (t) = t2 et S = {t2 et , tet , et }
yp (t) = c1 et + c2 tet + c3 t2 et .
c1 , c2 , c3 .
6.0.21

d2 y(x)
y(x) = 3x + 2 sin x. (6.21)
dx2

r2 1 = 0 (6.22)

r1 = 1, r2 = 1.

yc (x) = c1 ex + c2 ex . (6.23)

yp (x) = d1 + d2 x + d3 sin x + d4 cos x. (6.24)

d1 , , d4 .

d2 yp (x)
yp (x) = d3 sin x d4 cos x (d1 + d2 x + d3 sin x + d4 cos x)
dx2
= d1 d2 x (d3 + d4 ) sin x + (d3 d4 ) cos x (6.25)

d1 = 0, d2 = 3, d3 = 1, d4 = 0.

y(x) = yc (x) + yp (x) = c1 ex + c2 ex 3x sin x (6.26)

 7

( ).
:

() = 2.

7.1: .

() < < 2.

7.2: .

() = .

() 0 < .

57
58 7.

7.3: .

7.4: .

.
d P1 = (x1 , y1 ) P2 = (x2 , y2 )

p
d = (x1 x2 )2 + (y1 y2 )2 . (7.1)

7.0.22
.
C(x0 , y0 ), r C.
P (x, y)
p
CP = r (x x0 )2 + (y y0 )2 = r (7.2)

7.0.23
.
.
F L . y
F L. x
F L = 2p.

F = (0, p), Q = (x, p) P = (x, y) (7.3)

PF = PQ
p p
x + (y p)2
2 = (y + p)2
x2 = 4py. (7.4)
 59

P = (x, y)
F = (0, p)
s
r x

d
Q = (x, p) L

7.5: .

x2 = 4py
x y. ,
,
r s
= , =
d d + r cos

s
r= , s = 2p. (7.5)
1 + cos
= P F/P Q = 1 . .
.
.
7.0.24
.
F1 = (c, 0) F2 = (c, 0).

d2
P = (x, y)

d1
x

F1 = (c, 0) F2 = (c, 0)

7.6: .

P F1 + P F2 = 2 (7.6)
60 7.

p p
(x + c)2 + y 2 + (x c)2 + y 2 = 2
x2 y2
+ = 1. (7.7)
2 b2

(7.7) . , b = 2 c2
> b > 0.
x =
y = b. ,
, F1 F2 P (7.6)

(1 2 )
r() = . (7.8)
1 + cos
: (
(7.10) x, y)
c
= (7.9)

c . (0, 1)
. c = 0
c = F1 F2 .
P F = 1 P D P D P .
.
P F1 = P D1 P F2 = P D2 .

- , .
P F P F ( )
().

PF = PD (7.10)

P
() = 1
() 0 < < 1
() > 1

7.0.25
.

F1 (c, 0), F2 (c, 0) 2,

p p
(x + c)2 + y 2 (x c)2 + y 2 = 2
x2 y2
2
2 = 1 (7.11)
b

( ) b = c2 2 .
/2 xy (7.11)
x y.

. y. (x) = ax + b y = b x2 2

dy b x b
a = lim = lim =
x dx a x x2 2 a
b = lim (y(x) ax) = 0. (7.12)
x
 61

y = ab x

F1 = (c, 0) F2 = (c, 0)
y = ab x

7.7: .

y. (x) = b x. x = .
= c .

(2 1)
r() = (7.13)
1 + cos
r,. = ( 1). r+,.
.
,
1
= B + A cos , A>0 (7.14)
r()

(1) : B > A
1
B= , A= .
(1 2 ) (1 2 )
1
(2) : A = B = .

(3) :
(3) : 0 < B < A
1
B= , A=
(2 1) (2 1)

(3) : A < 0 < B

1
B= , A=
(2 1) (2 1)

B < A r > 0, .

 
A  B 
= , = 2 . (7.15)
|B| A B2 


8.1 , ,
.
L, M T . SI (m),
(kg) (s). :
(Kelvin), (Ampere), (Candela)
(mole).

8.1.1
Sevres .

8.1.2 133 9.192.631.770

.

8.1.3 1/299792458
.

8.1.4 ( ) ( )
Avogadro, NA = 6.02 1023 ( ) /mole.

8.2

[M ],
[L] [T ].
.
.
( ). ,

 
d~r [L]
= =
dt [T ]
 
d~v [L]
= =
dt [T ]2
 
d~v [L]
= m = [M ] 2 (8.1)
dt [T ]

[Xi ] = 1 Xi . ,
.

g(X1 , , Xm ) = 0

63
64 8.

1 , , m i > 0, i =
1, , m

g(X1 , , Xm ) = 0 g(X1 , , Xm ) = 0, Xi = Xi . (8.2)

: , , .
T aylor
xm , m N .

8.2.1 a, t . n, m
x an tm ; ;

[x] [a]n [t]m

=
[L]n
[L] = [T ]m
[T ]2n
n = 1 m = 2 (8.3)

(8.3) x(t) = 21 at2 , x t

a, 12 .

d2 x(t)
= a =
dt2

1
x(t) = at2 + c1 t + c2 .
2
c1 , c2

dx(t) 
x(t = 0) = 0, =0
dt t=0


c1 = c2 = 0.

x = 1 x t = 2 t,

1 , 2 . a

[a] = 1 2
2 [a].

 
1 1
g(x, t, a) = x at2 = 1 x at2 = 0
2 2
x(t) = 21 at2 .

8.3
,
.
8.3.1
.
:
(1) .. 634 3 .
(2) .. 2008 4 .
8.4. 65

(3) , .. 0.000022
2.2 105 .
(4) , .. 5.00
3 0.020 2 .
(5)
200. 3 2 102 1 .
.
.
1-2 .
2.62 0.03, 12.0 1.5, 4 1.

. 69.432 + 1.1 = 70.5. 70.5
1.1
5 2. , ,
,
.. (2.80) (4.5039) = 12.6. 12.6
2.80.
.
0, 1, 2, 3, 4
. 6, 7, 8, 9 .
5
.

8.4
-
, 1026 m.
:
(i) .
, , , .
(ii) . .


.
.
.

.
.


.
66 8.
 9

9.1
. , x(t),
C -xt. P (xi , ti ) Q
(xf , tf ), t = tf ti x = xf xi .
9.1.1 x,
t

x xf xi x(ti + t) x(ti )
v = = , xf = x(tf ) = x(ti + t), xi = x(ti ). (9.1)
t tf ti t

x(m)
C

Q(xf , tf )

P (xi , ti )

t(s)

9.1: - x.
P Q v t

() () .
xf > xi (xf < xi ).
9.1.2 P Q
.
x = 0. x s
( ).
, , -
.
.
9.1.3 v ,
t t 0

x(t + t) x(t) dx
v lim = . (9.2)
t0 t dt

67
68 9.

x(t)
t. () x(t) () .
P (vi , ti )
Q (vf , tf ).

9.1.4 a v =
vf vi t = tf ti

v vf vi v(ti + t) v(ti )
a = = . (9.3)
t tf ti t

9.1.5 a ,
t t 0

v(t + t) v(t) dv
a lim = . (9.4)
t0 t dt
9.1.6 d ~v0
~v . :

1. .

2. .

3. ;

~v0 ~v

9.2: .

1. (9.1)

x(ti + t1 ) x(ti ) 1
v = = (v0 + v). (9.5)
t1 2
(9.5) t1 , x = d,

2d
t1 = . (9.6)
v0 + v

2. (9.3) (9.6)

v v0 v 2 v02
a = = . (9.7)
t1 2d

3. x .
t. d + x

2d 2x
t. = t1 + t2 = + . (9.8)
v0 + v v
9.2. 69

2(d + x)
t. = , (9.9)
v0
(9.8) x

v2 d
x= . (9.10)
v02 v2

9.2

v vf vi
a = a = = . (9.11)
t tf ti

vf = v, vi = v0 ti = 0,

v v0
a= v = v0 + at, a=. (9.12)
t


v0 + v
v = .
2
t = tf ti = t
 
v0 + v 1
x = vt = t, x x0 = (v + v0 )t. (9.13)
2 2

v = v0 + at v (9.13),
1
x x0 = v0 t + at2 . (9.14)
2
.

v 2 = v02 + 2a(x x0 ). (9.15)

9.2.1 .

, .

. 1971 David Scott
. ,
. ~g
9.80m/s2. :
. ,
.
.
( )
.
70 9.

.
a .
x y , a
g

v = v0 gt (9.16)
1
y y0 = (v + v0 )t (9.17)
2
1
y y0 = v0 t gt2 (9.18)
2
v2 = v02 2g(y y0 ) (9.19)

(9.17)
v2
. t1 = vg0 ymax = 2g0 .
Riemann.
x v(t). v t
t = tf ti t0 = ti < < tn = tf .

n
X
xn = v(i ) (ti ti1 ) (9.20)
i=1

i [ti1 , ti ]. , n , ti


Z tf
x = lim xn = v(t)dt. (9.21)
n ti

9.3
, .
,
.
(
) ~r(t). ~r : I R R3 C 2 1 .
. xy
ti ~ri tf ~rf
~r = ~rf ~ri = ~r(tf ) ~r(ti ).

9.3.1 ~v

~r ~rf ~ri ~r(ti + t) ~r(ti )

~v = = . (9.22)
t tf ti t

9.3.2 , ,
.
.

9.3.3 ~v ~v t
t 0
~r ~r(t + t) ~r(t) d~r
~v lim = lim = . (9.23)
t0 t t0 t dt
dk x(t)
1 r (t) R3 C n
~ dtk
k n N {0}.
9.3. 71

9.3.4 ~a , -
~v t

~v ~vf ~vi ~v (ti + t) ~v (ti )

~a = = . (9.24)
t tf ti t

( ),
( )
( ).

9.3.5 ~a t 0

~v (t + t) ~v (t) d~v
~a lim = . (9.25)
t0 t dt
9.3.6 .

er (t) = cos (t)i + sin (t)j

e (t) = sin (t)i + cos (t)j. (9.26)

< er , e >= 0, k er k=k e k= 1.

der (t)
= e r (t) = (t) sin (t)i + (t) cos (t)j = (t)e (t)
dt
e (t)
= e (t) = (t) cos (t)i (t) sin (t)j = (t)er (t). (9.27)
dt

 
~r = xi + y j = r cos i + r sin j = r cos i + sin j = rer (9.28)

d~r(t) d
~v (t) = = (r(t)er (t))
dt dt
= rer + re r
= rer + re
= ~vr + ~v (9.29)

r r.

d  
~a(t) = rer + re
dt
= (r r2 )er + (r + 2r)e . (9.30)

9.3.7
.
72 9.

~v0x
~v0
~v0y

~v0x x
R

9.3: ~v0 .

~r = xi + y j

d~r dx dy
~v = = i + j = vx i + vy j. (9.31)
dt dt dt
, ~a , ~v ~v0 = ~at.

~v = (v0x + ax t)i + (v0y + ay t)j = (v0x i + v0y j) + (ax i + ay j)t (9.32)

d~r d~r 1
Z Z
= ~v0 + ~at dt = (~v0 + ~at)dt ~r(t) = ~r0 + ~v0 t + ~at2 (9.33)
dt dt 2
~r0 t0 , ~r(t0 ) = ~r0 .
. :


.
.

(6.4 106 m).
~a = ~g

~ax = ~0, ~ay = ~g. (9.34)

.
t0 = 0 ~v0
x.

v0x = cos v0 , v0y = sin v0 (9.35)

~ax = ~0 v0x .
x = v0x t.

vy (t) = v0y gt = sin v0 gt, (9.36)

1 1
y(t) = v0y t gt2 = (v0 sin )t gt2 . (9.37)
2 2
9.3. 73

y
x
 
g
y(x) = tan x x2 , 0 < < . (9.38)
2v02 cos2 2

2
c2

c1
y(x) = c2 x2 + c1 x = c2 x + 1 , c1 , c2 > 0
2c2 4c2

c1 c2
( R2 , h) = ( 2c , 1 ) ( ) x (R, 0) = ( cc12 , 0)
2 4c2
( ). ( ) .
~v0 ~g (
). ,
vy = 0.
v0 sin
t1 = . (9.39)
g
(9.37)

v02 sin2
h = ymax = . (9.40)
2g
R 2t1

v02 sin 2
R = 2t1 v0x = (9.41)
g
(9.37) y = 0
t. = 4

v02
Rmax = . (9.42)
g
9.3.8 |~v | = r
.

v2
ar = . (9.43)
r
ti P ~vi . tf
Q ~vf .
~v
~a = . (9.44)
t
|~vi | = |~vf | = |~v | = v. t .
s ~vi , ~vf . ~v
.
v s
= (9.45)
v r

v s
a = . (9.46)
r t
74 9.

~vi
Q
P
s ~vf

r r

9.4: P Q.

t 0

v s v2
ar = lim = . (9.47)
r t0 t r
.

9.3.9 .

. (
) ( ).
eN (s) eT (s) ,

d|~v | v2
~a = ~aT + ~aN = eT eN . (9.48)
dt r
~aN eN (s).

d~v d
~a = = (veT (s))
dt dt
dv deT (s)
= eT + v (9.49)
dt dt
 
deT (s) deT (s) ds v  deT (s) 
= = keN v = eN , k=
 
dt ds dt r ds 
.

.
r = 1/k ~r ~r(s) . ~v
, r ar = 0.

9.4

.
. S1
S2 ~u .
P S1 ~r1 S2 ~r2 .
t0 = 0

~r2 (t) = ~r1 (t) ~ut. (9.50)

9.4. 75

S2

S1 ~r2
~r1

~ut

9.5:
P . S1 S2 , ,
~u. P S1 ~r1 S2 ~r2 .

~v2 (t) = ~v1 (t) ~u (9.51)

. -

d~u
~a2 (t) = ~a1 (t) = ~a1 (t). (9.52)
dt
P
.

9.4.1 -
v . b.
3
 2
u0 b
u(x) = u0 4 2 x (9.53)
b 2

x u0 .
;

y
w
~ ~u

~v x

9.6: .

2 (t ) 2 (t)
2 v2 = d~rdt
~ = d~rdt t = t .
3 ( )

. (9.53)
u(x) = c1 + c2 x + c3 x2 ci , i = 1, 2, 3 u(0) = u(b) = 0
u(b/2) = umax. = u0
76 9.

~v , ~u
w ~ .

dy
~ = ~v + ~u wx = v
w wy = u = (9.54)
dt
wy

y t  2 ! " " 3 3
##
u0 b u 4 b b
Z Z
0
dy = u0 4 2 vt dt y(x) = x 2 x + (9.55)
0 0 b 2 v 3b 2 8

x u x = vt.

2bu0
y(b) = (9.56)
3v
.
Lorentz
.
x ~v Lorentz
1 1 v
x = q (x vt), y = y, z = z, t = q (t x) (9.57)
1 v2
1 v2 c2
c2 c2

c
. N iels Bohr
.

.

.
 10

,
.
,
.
1010 m
c 3 108 m/s.

10.1
-
.
. . ,
, .
( ) .
10.1.1
.
.
,

1. .
Hooke, ,
.
2. .
, Coulomb ,
. .

.
10.1.2 m M , .
.

x : T1 cos = T2 cos y : T1 sin + T2 sin = T (10.1)

= 450
B1
T1 = T2 = (10.2)
2

77
78 10.

T~3

M T~2
T~1 45 0
B
450 ~2
B
T~2 A
T~
T~

~1
B
m

10.1: .

x : T2 cos = T3 cos (10.3)

y : T3 sin T2 sin B2 = 0 (10.4)

T2 sin + B2 2B2 2M
tan = =1+ =1+ . (10.5)
T2 cos B1 m

10.2
(1)
.

F~i = ~0 ~a = ~0 ~v = ~0 ~v =
X
(10.6)
i

10.2.1 -
.

-
. .

3.37 102 m/s2 4.4 103 m/s2
~g .

10.2.2 -
. .

~ = G mM ~er = m~g
B (10.7)
r2
2
m
G = 6.672 1011 Nkg 2 . ,
.
10.2. 79

(2)
1 .

F~i = m~a.
X
(10.8)
i

d~
p
F~i ==
X
. (10.9)
i
dt

10.2.3 SI N ewton (N )
1kg 1m/s2 .
kg m
1N 1 . (10.10)
s2

(3) -
i j j i.

F~ij = F~ji (10.11)

-
. .
.

d~
pi d~
pj d~vi d~vj mj k ai k
F~ij = F~ji = mi = mj = (10.12)
dt dt dt dt mi k aj k
1kg
. ,
.

d
(~ pj ) = ~0 p~i + ~pj =
pi + ~ (10.13)
dt

.
.

~
N

~ ~
B
N
~
B

10.2: .

B~ N
~ . B
~
~ ~ ~
B . N N
N~ , .
~
1 F

~ x (t0 ) .
x(t0 ), ~
80 10.

10.2.4
F~ . m1 , m2 m3 m1 <
m2 < m3 :
(1) .
(2) .
(3) .

m3
m2
m1
F~

~3
N
~1 ~2
N
N
~
Q ~
Q
F~ P~ P~

~1
B
~2
B
~3
B

10.3:
.

(1) .
F~
F
F = (m1 + m2 + m3 )a a = . (10.14)
m1 + m2 + m3

(2) .
-
. |P~ | = |P~ | |Q
~ | = |Q|.
~

m1 : F P = m1 a,
m2 : P Q = m2 a,
m3 : Q = m3 a (10.15)

Bi = Ni , i = 1, 2, 3. (10.16)

(3)
3
 m1  (m2 + m3 ) X
P = F m1 a = F 1 = F, M = mi (10.17)
M M i=1

m3
Q = P m2 a = F. (10.18)
M
10.2. 81

1. m.
2. ( -
).
3. .
.
, -
. .

. : ( ).
.

1.

f. . N (10.19)

. N . f. =
fmax = . N .
2.

f.. = . N (10.20)

. .
3. . , .
.
. < . .

|f |

f.,max = . N

f. . = . N
F

10.4: .

10.2.5 R
. R .
.

: B ~ , N
~
~
f. f. = . N .
xOy

x : f. cos + N sin = m 2 r, (10.21)

y : f. sin + N cos = mg (10.22)
82 10.

y
f~. N
~
R ~
2 N
f~.
R ~ x
B
~
B

10.5:
R.

r = R sin .

sin (g + 2 R cos )
. = . (10.23)
g cos 2 R sin2

= 600

(2g + 2 R) 3
. . = (10.24)
2g 3 2 R

10.3
. -
~a.
( )
.
-
. .
.
.

.
,
.
.
10.3.1 m
T .
. ~g :
~ .
(1) N
(2) .
(3) .

10.4. 83

~
N

~
B

10.6: .

~
(1) , B
N~ .

v2 2r
N sin = m , N cos = mg v = (10.25)
r T
r .
r = R sin
 2
2
N= mR. (10.26)
T
.
m~ar , ,
~ .
N
v2
N cos = B, N sin m = 0. (10.27)
r
(2) (10.27) N
 
gT gT
cos = 2 = cos1 . (10.28)
4 R 4 2 R
2
(3)

u 2 R 4
v
u !
p p
Fk = N sin = N 1 cos2 = N 2 m2 g 2 = m t g2. (10.29)
T

10.4

(10.2) .

v .
v ( )
.
2

Fk2 = B 2 + N 2 + 2BN cos( ) = N 2 B 2 .

84 10.

10.4.1 , -

~ = b~v
R (10.30)

~v b ,
. r b r.
m , , .
.


dv
mg bv = m
dt
dv b
= g v
dt m
v Z t
dv
Z
b

= dt
0 g m v 0
 
 b  b
ln 1
 v = t
gm  m
mg  bt
  t

v(t) = 1 e m = vt 1 e . (10.31)
b
vt .
.
. a = 0 = mg bvt . (10.31)
ln | | = ln ( ) v < mg
b = vt . = m/b
63%

10.4.2 ,

1
R= C. Av 2 (10.32)
2
C , . A
.

~
B,
~ ~
R F. .

~
R
F~.
~v
~
B

10.7: .

4r3
F. = m.. g = . V. g = . g. (10.33)
3
10.5. 85

, .

 
dv C. A
= g v2
dt 2m
Z v Z t
dv
  = g dt
C. A
v0 1
2mg v 2 0

Z v
du
2
= gt (10.34)
v0 1 u
q
C. A
u = v = 2mg .
Z    
du 1 1 1 1 1+u
Z
= + du = ln , 1 < u < 1. (10.35)
1 u2 2 1+u 1u 2 1u

u (1, 1) vmax = vt = 1 v < vt = 1 u = v < 1.

(10.34) (10.35)
   
1 + v 1 + v0
ln = ln + 2gt
1 v 1 v0
1 + v
= De2gt
1 v
t
!
D e
v(t) = vt t (10.36)
D + e
 
1+v0 1
D = 1v 0
= 2g .
r :
A = r2 V = 34 r3 , m = V r3 . vt r.

10.4.3 P , W F~
t
W W (t + ) W (t)
P = = (10.37)
t t
10.4.4 P t 0
W (t + t) W (t) dW
P = lim = (10.38)
t0 t dt

F~ ,
d~s
P = F~ = F~ ~v (10.39)
dt

10.5

. :
(i) .
1014 m .
(ii) . 100
. -

.
86 10.

(iii) .
. 109
.
.
(iv) . 1/r2 1038
. ,
.
.

. .

. ,
W, Z .
 11

, , , ,
.

.
.

11.1
m C P1
P2 F~ .

11.1.1 W F~

Z P2
WP1 P2 = F~ d~s, (11.1)
P1

d~s = ~eT ds ~eT = ~eT (x, y, z) .

~eT

dx dy dz
~eT (s) = ex + ey + ez . (11.2)
ds ds ds
t, d~s = ~eT ds
dt dt = ~
v dt

s
 2  2  2 q
dx dy dz
v= + + = vx2 + vy2 + vz2 . (11.3)
dt dt dt

, F~k F~ ,

Z t2 Z t2
WP1 P2 = ~
F ~v dt = F~k ~v dt. (11.4)
t1 t1

1.
2. .

87
88 11.

.
.
F~ d~s. Joule
N ewton .

Z P2 X !
WP1 P2 = F~i d~s. (11.5)
P1 i

11.1.2

F~ (x, y, z) = (2x y + z)ex + (x + y z 2 )ey + (3x 2y + 4)ez (11.6)

n R xy-.

(11.1) xy- ,

I I
W = F~ d~s = (Fx (x, y, 0)dx + Fy (x, y, 0)dy). (11.7)

dx = r sin d,
dy = r cos d, r = R, [0, 2n)
Fx (x, y, 0)dx + Fy (x, y, 0)dy = Fx (R cos , R sin )(R sin d)
+ Fy (R cos , R sin )(R cos d) (11.8)

Z 2n
2
W =R (1 sin cos )d = 2nR2 . (11.9)
0

11.2 ( ) -

F~ C 1 R3 .
11.2.1
:
(i) C ( ),
I
WC = F~ d~s = 0. (11.10)
C

11.1: , .

.
11.2. ( ) 89

C2

P C1

11.2: C1 C2 Q P .

(ii) C1 C2
Z Z
WC1 = WC2 F~ d~s = F~ d~s. (11.11)
C1 C2

. .

(iii) F~ U (~r, t)

F~ = U.
~ (11.12)

F~ U . U
F~
( Lienard W iechert ).
F~
U .
(iv)
~ F~ = ~0
(11.13)

-
.
.

, .
.
11.2.2 A = (1, 0, 0) B = (1, 1, 1)

F~ (x, y, z) = (z 2 , 2y, 2xz) (11.14)

.
(i) -
1

C1 : ~r1 (t) = (1, t, 0), t [0, 1],

C2 : ~r2 (t) = (1, 1, t), t [0, 1],
C3 : ~r3 (t) = (1, 1, 1) + t[(1, 0, 0) (1, 1, 1)] = (1, 1 t, 1 t), t [0, 1]. (11.15)

C3

C3 : ~r3 (t) = (1, 0, 0) + t(0, 1, 1), t [0, 1].

a ~b ~
1 ~ r (t) = ~a + t(~b ~a) = (1 t)~a + t~b
t [0, 1].
90 11.

B = (1, 1, 1)

C2
C3
y
A = (1, 0, 0)
C1

11.3: A B.

Ci ~vi

C1 : ~v1 (t) = (0, 1, 0),

C2 : ~v2 (t) = (0, 0, 1),
C3 : ~v3 (t) = (0, 1, 1). (11.16)

I Z Z Z
F~ ~v dt = F~ (1, t, 0) ~v1 dt + F~ (1, 1, t) ~v2 dt + F~ (1, 1 t, 1 t) ~v3 dt
C=C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3
Z 1 Z 1 Z 1
= 2tdt + 2tdt 4(1 t)dt = 1 + 1 2 = 0. (11.17)
0 0 0

(ii) F~ C1 C2 C3 .
Z Z
~
F d~s = 2, F~ d~s = 2. (11.18)
C1 C2 C3

(iii) U F~ = U
~ .

U U U
= z 2 , = 2y, = 2xz (11.19)
x y z

U (x, y, z) = (xz 2 + y 2 ) + c, c = . (11.20)

(iv)
 
 ex ey ez 
 ~

z  = 0. (11.21)

 x y
 z2 2y 2xz 

.
11.3. 91

11.3
m C P1 = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) P2 =
(x2 , y2 , z2 ) F~ . ,
,
Z P2 Z P2 Z P2
WP1 P2 = F~ d~s = ~ (~r) d~s =
U dU = U (x1 , y1 , z1 ) U (x2 , y2 , z2 ) = U1 U2 . (11.22)
P1 P1 P1

 
~ (~r) d~s = U (x, y, z) U (x, y, z) U (x, y, z)
U ex + ey + ek (dxex + dyey + dzez )
x y z
U U U
= dx + dy + dz = dU (x, y, z). (11.23)
x y z

, ,
P2 P2 P2
p2
 
d~
p d
Z Z Z
WP1 P2 F~ d~s = ~v dt = dt = T2 T1 (11.24)
P1 P1 dt P1 dt 2m
2
p
T = 2m . T1 > T2 W12 < 0
.

11.3.1
E(~r, ~r ) = T (~r ) + U (~r) E(~r, ~r ) .

: (11.22) (11.24), ,

T1 + U1 = T2 + U2 E1 = E2 . (11.25)

E(~r, ~r, t)

dE(~r, ~r, t) dT (~r ) dU (~r, t)

= +
dt dt dt
3
U (~r, t) dxi U (~r, t)
= F~ ~v +
X
+
i=1
xi dt t
  U (~r, t)
= F~ + U ~ ~v + (11.26)
t

, F~ (~r, t) = U
~ (~r, t), , U(~
r ,t)
t = 0,
. 2

11.3.2
.

W. = W . + W. = W . + U1 U2 W. = T2 T1 (11.27)

W . = (T2 + U2 ) (T1 + U1 ). (11.28)

2
Ti + Ui
. W .
.
92 11.

B
~v0

A
H
h 2
3h

11.4: .

11.3.3 ~v0 h .
A R. :
() ~v0 A.
() H .

~
() B
.
2
~ = m v er v =
p
B gR. (11.29)
R
, h
A
r
1 2 1 2 2 2
mv0 + mgh = mv + mg h v = v02 + gh. (11.30)
2 2 3 3
A (11.30)

 
2 2
v0,. = g R h (11.31)
3

() B .

 
1 2 R 4h
mv0,. + mgh = mgH H = 1+ . (11.32)
2 2 3R

11.3.4 h
. l,
k . ;

A B.
1
EA = EB mgh = mv 2 . (11.33)
2

Z D
WBD = F~ d~s = k mgl. (11.34)
B

11.4. 93

h C
B C
h

11.5: .

(i) |WBD | > EB

-
h
d= (11.35)
k

(ii) |WBD | < EB , h

WBD = EC EA h = h k l. (11.36)

11.4
.
11.4.1 m O
:
(i) m O (
).
(ii) r =k ~r k O.

F~ij = f (k ~rij k)eij . (11.37)

f (k ~rij ) k< 0 ( f > 0) ( ). -

:
()
Gmi mj
f (k ~rij k) = (11.38)
k ~rij k2

G = 6.67 1011 N m2 kg 2
.
() ( Coulomb)
kqi qj
f (k ~rij k) = (11.39)
k ~rij k2
1
k = 4 0
= 9.00 109 N m2 C 2 Coulomb
.
. ,
,
.
94 11.

() ( )
.

11.4.2 .

~ F~ (r) = ~0.
:
   
~ (g f~) = g
~ f~ + g ~ f~ (11.40)

   
~ F~ (r) =
~ (r) ~r + f (r)
~ (f (r)~r) = f ~ ~r (11.41)

12 P3
3
f (r) df (r) r df (r) j=1 (ij xj ) df (r)
X
= = x2 = , i = 1, 2, 3 (11.42)
xi dr xi dr xi j=1 j r dr

~ (r) ~r = 1 df (r) ~r ~r = ~0.

f (11.43)
r dr

~ ~r = ~0
(11.44)

.
2

11.4.3 :

(i) .

(ii) .

(iii)
.

(i) .

~ = ~r F~ = rer f (r)er = ~0. (11.45)

~
dL d d~r d~
p
= (~r p~) = p~ + ~r = ~v m~v + ~r F~ = ~ (11.46)
dt dt dt dt
~ ~ = .
dL
dt = ~0 L

(ii) .

~ = 0,
~r L ~ = (i)
L (11.47)

(xLx + yLy + zLz = 0) .

11.4. 95

(iii) ~r d~r
~r d~r.

~ k= 1 k ~r d~r k= 1 k ~r ~v k dt
k dS (11.48)
2 2

~
dS 1
k k = k ~r ~v k
dt 2
1
1
= k ~r ~v + ~vk k= k ~r ~v k, v = v r
2 2
1kLk~
= (11.49)
2 m
~ k= mrv = .
(i), k L

~
dS ~ k
1kL
= eL = . (11.50)
dt 2 m
2
11.4.4 m xy-
~r(t) = a cos tex + b sin tey (11.51)
a b a > b.
(i) .
(ii) .
(iii) .

(iv) A, B .
(v) A B.
(vi) .

y
B ~r
b
a A x

11.6: .

(i) (11.51)
x y
x = a cos t = cos t y = b sin t = sin t (11.52)
a b
, t,
 x 2  y 2
+ =1 (11.53)
a b
a b.
96 11.

(ii)
d~v d2~r
F~ = m = m 2 = m 2 (a cos tex b sin tey ) = m 2~r. (11.54)
dt dt
, -
r (
).
( Hooke) ( ).
(iii)
 
 ex ey ez 
~ F~ =   ~

 x y z  = 0. (11.55)
 m 2 x m 2 y 0 

.
(iv) (F~ = U
~ (x, y))
U (x, y)
= m 2 x
x
U (x, y)
= m 2 y. (11.56)
y
x
1
U (x, y) =m 2 (x2 + y 2 ) + c, c = . (11.57)
2

. B c
1 1
Umin. = UB = U (0, b) =m 2 b2 + c = 0 c = m 2 b2 . (11.58)
2 2
A, ,
1
m 2 (a2 b2 ).
Umax. = UA = U (a, 0) = (11.59)
2

v 2 = ~r ~r = 2 (a2 sin2 t + b2 cos2 t) = 2 (a2 + b2 r2 ) (11.60)

1 1
T = mv 2 = m 2 (a2 + b2 r2 ) (11.61)
2 2
Tmin = 21 m 2 b2 T Tmax. = 12 m 2 a2 .

(v) F~ A B
Z B
1
WAB = F~ d~s = UA UB = m 2 (a2 b2 ) (11.62)
A 2

(vi)
1 1
E = T +U = mv 2 + m 2 (r2 b2 )
2 2
1 1
= m (a sin t + b2 cos2 t) + m 2 (a2 cos2 t + b2 sin2 t b2 )
2 2 2
2 2
1 2 2
= m a = . (11.63)
2
~r = ~a ~r = ~b
.
11.5. 97

11.5
.

1
E = T + U (x) = mv 2 + U (x)
r 2
dx 2
v(t) = = (E U (x))
dt m
Z x
dx
t t0 = q . (11.64)
2
x0
m (E U (x))

U (x) x(t)
t.

.

~ (x) = dU (x) ex
U R : F~ = U (11.65)
dx

dU(x) x0 . U (x)

dx 
x0
. 
( ) (). xi dU(x) =

dx 
  2  xi
0 = F  . . d dx U(x)
> 0 xi

2
xi xi

 2  .
d dxU(x)
2 < 0 xi
xi
.
.

V
E5

E4

E3

E2

E1

xK xGxCxA xB xD xE xFxH x

11.7:
.

x. T = 21 mv 2 0 E U (x).
E1 xA xB .
.
x < xA x > xB
T + U (x) = E1 = U (xA ) T = U (xA ) U (x) < 0, x
/ [xA , xB ] (11.66)
98 11.

.
E2 CD F G.
.
.
E3 G H.
E4 K
. .
.
E5 -
. E5 U (x).
11.5.1
r Lehnnard Jones
a b
U (r) = 12
6 (11.67)
r r
a, b > 0. :
(i) .
(ii) .
(iii) .
(iv) r .
(v) r ;

(i)
 
dU a b
F~ = er = 12 13 6 7 er . (11.68)
dr r r

(ii)
  16
2a
F~ = ~0 r0 = . (11.69)
b
r1 = .
 r0

, dF 
dr  > 0.
r=r0

(iii)
b2
U (r0 ) = . (11.70)
4a
(iv) .
U r0 < r <
U 0 < r < r0 .
(v) .
 1
dF 26a 6
= 0 rF = (11.71)
dr 7b

2 
rF ddrF2  > 0.
r=rF
  13   76
12a 6b 7b 6
7b
F. = 7 = 12a 6b (11.72)
rF13 rF 26a 26a
11.5. 99

r1 r0 r2

E1

11.8: .
100 11.
 12

.
: ,
, ,
, .

12.1

.
, .
.
.
.
m .
l.
O. Hooke ( )

T~
F~

O ~
B
l x

12.1: .

F~ (~x) = xex (12.1)

x ( )
.
x0 ,

d2 x
 
dx
m 2 ~ex = xex , x(t = 0) = x0 , = 0. (12.2)
dt dt t=0

, ,

d2 x 1 d2 U (x) 
+ 2 x = 0, 2 = = . (12.3)
dt2 m dx 2 m

x=0

101
102 12.

r2 + 2 = 0. (12.4)

r1 = i r2 = r1 = i.

x(t) = c1 eit + c2 eit , c1 , c2 C c1 = c2

= (c1 + c2 ) cos t + i(c1 c2 ) sin t
= c1 cos t + c2 sin t = A cos(t + ), c1 , c2 R
 
c2
q
2 2 1
A = c1 + c2 , = tan . (12.5)
c1
c1 = c2 x(t) .
= n, n Z+ , x0 = A cos = (1)n A.
, , |x(t)| x0 , t
x(t + T ) = x(t). :
(i) . -
|A| = |x0 |.
(ii) t +
t = 0.
(iii) ,
x0 x0 x0 , .
r
2 m
T = = 2 (12.6)

rad/s.
t + + 2 = (t + T ) + .
(iv)
r
1 1
= = = . (12.7)
T 2 2 m

. -

.

.

 2
1 2 1 2 1 dx 1
E = T + U = mv + x = m + x2 . (12.8)
2 2 2 dt 2
t = 0 E = Ut=0 =
1 2
2 x0 .

dx(t) 1
v= = (x20 x2 ) 2 . (12.9)
dt
d arcsin u 1 du
, dt = 1u2 dt
sin(arcsin u) = u,
 
x(t) = x0 sin t + (2n + 1) . (12.10)
2


d2 x
+ 2 x = 0, 2 = . (12.11)
dt2 m
12.1. 103

T
V

O x0
x0 x

12.2: .

1
v = (x20 x2 ) 2
(x = 0) x = x0 .
.
.

12.1.1 m
1 2 , .
. .

1 m 2 1 2 m

12.3: m.

(i) : 1 x1
.

F~ = (1 + 2 )x1 ex = x1 ex . (12.12)

r r
m m
T = 2 = 2 . (12.13)
1 + 2

(ii) :
x1 = F1 x2 = F2 .

F F F 1 1 1
x = x1 + x2 = + = + (12.14)
1 2 1 2
.
.

r s
m m(1 + 2 )
T = 2 = 2 . (12.15)
1 2
104 12.

n , -

n
1 X 1
= (12.16)

i=1 i

v !
r u n
m u X 1
T = 2 = 2 m
t . (12.17)

i=1 i

12.2
.

dx
F~ (~v ) = ~v = ex (12.18)
dt
. , ,

d2 x dx
+ 2 + 2 x = 0, 2 = , 2 = . (12.19)
dt2 dt m m

2 + 2 + 2 = 0 (12.20)

= 4 2 2

(1) , > 0.
p p
1 = + 2 2 = + , = 2 2
2 = . (12.21)

x(t) = c1 e1 t + c2 e2 t = et (c1 et + c2 et ), > . (12.22)

c1 , c2 .
x0
x0 t
x(t) = e ( sinh(t) + a cosh(t)) .

(2) , = 0.

x(t) = (c1 + c2 t)et = et (c1 + c2 t). (12.23)

x(t) = x0 (1 + t)et

(3) , < 0.
p
x(t) = et (c1 sin bt + c2 cos bt), b= 2 2. (12.24)

 
x(t) = x0 et sin(bt) + cos(bt) .
b
12.2. 105

12.4: -
.

1 2
.
. 3

.
12.2.1 , m
l, .

r
g
F. = 2m l. (12.25)
l
(t = 0) = 0 (t = 0) = 0.
, T .

l T~

~
m F. ~
B
~v

12.5: .

~ T~ , F~.
B,
A .

v2
: T B cos = m
rl
d2 g d
: ml 2 = 2m l mg sin . (12.26)
dt l dt
sin

d2
r
g d g
+ 2 + = 0. (12.27)
dt2 l dt l
106 12.

r
2 g g
+2 + = 0 (12.28)
l l

r
g
1 = . (12.29)
l

g
(t) = (c1 + c2 t)e l t
(12.30)

r
g
c 1 = 0 , c2 = 0 (12.31)
l
.
r 
0 g gl t

g g d
(t) = 0 1 + t e l t = te . (12.32)
l dt l

ds d
v= =l . (12.33)
dt dt

 2 !
d
T =m l + g cos . (12.34)
dt

12.3

F~ (t) = F0 cos(t)ex . (12.35)

, ,

d2 x dx F0
2
+ 2 + 2 x = f0 cos(t), f0 = (12.36)
dt dt m
.

xp (t) = c1 cos(t) + c2 sin(t). (12.37)

xp (t)

f0 ( 2 2 )
c1 = ,
(2 2 )2 + 4 2 2
2f0
c2 = . (12.38)
( 2 )2 + 4 2 2
2

f0 2
xp (t) = p cos(t ), tan = , 0 . (12.39)
( 2 )2 + 4 2 2
2 2 2
12.3. 107

.
.

p
= 2 2 2 (12.40)

g() = (2 2 )2 + 4 2 2 (12.41)

.
dg()
= (2 2 + 2 2 ) = 0. (12.42)
d
p
= 0 = 2 2 2 .

d2 g()
= 122 4 2 + 8 2 (12.43)
d2
p
= 2 2 2

d2 g() 
 > 0. (12.44)
d2 = 2 2 2
.

f0
x0,max = p . (12.45)
2 2 2

12.3.1 m xy- F1x = m 2 x,

F2x = am 2 y, a > 0 x- Fy = m 2 y y-.
(i)

x(0) = y(0) = 0, x(0) = 0, y(0) = A (12.46)

(ii) .

(i)

x = 2 (x ay), x(0) = 0, x(0) = 0

y = 2 y, y(0) = 0, y(0) = A (12.47)

y(t) = A sin t. (12.48)

x = 2 (x aA sin t) (12.49)

x. (t) = c1 cos t + c2 sin t. (12.50)

x . (t) = df (t) cos t (12.51)

108 12.

f (t) x . .

x . = d(f 2 f ) cos t 2df sin t (12.52)

f = 0, 2df + aA = 0. (12.53)

1
f (t) = t d = aA. (12.54)
2

1
x(t) = x. (t) + x . (t) = c1 cos t + c2 sin t aAt cos t (12.55)
2

1
c1 = aA, c2 = 0 (12.56)
2
.
(ii)

(2n + 1)
tA
n = , n = 0, 1, 2, (12.57)
2
y- y(tA
n ) = A

1
x(tA
n ) = aA. (12.58)
2
x-
1
(x0n , yn0 ) = ( aAn(1)n , 0),
2
n
x0n = x(t0n ), yn0 = y(t0n ) t0n = , n = 0, 1, 2, . (12.59)

y(x)

y
A

21 aA

1 x
2 aA

12.6: .
12.4. 109

12.4
m l.
. s
. eT

l T~

~
B
m

12.7: .

d2 s d2 g
m eT = mg sin eT , s = l = sin . (12.60)
dt2 dt 2 l
( 5 ) sin (12.60)
r  r 
g g
(t) = c1 cos t + c2 sin t (12.61)
l l

c1 , c2 (t = 0) = 0 d


dt t=0 = 0.

r 
g
= 0 cos t (12.62)
l
q
T = 2 gl .

.
 2
1 d
E = ml2 + mgl(1 cos ). (12.63)
2 dt

E = mgl(1 cos 0 ). (12.64)

2 sin2 2 = 1 cos

r s    
d g 0
=2 sin2 sin2 . (12.65)
dt l 2 2

0 sin( 2 )
(12.65) t [0, T4 ] = sin


2 ,u=
s Z
l 1 du
T =4 . (12.66)
g 0 1 u 1 2 u 2
2
110 12.

1 < < 1 1/ 1 2 u2

1 2 u 2 34 u4
=1+ + + (12.67)
1 2 u 2 2 8
(12.66).

un+1 1 un+1
Z Z
n
u arcsin u du = arcsin u du (12.68)
n+1 n+1 1 u2

s Z s  2  2 !
l 2 d l 1 2 13 4
T =4 = 2 1+ + + . (12.69)
24
p
g 0 2
1 2 sin g 2

12.4.1 L M
h .
, .

12.8: - .

-
.
1 1
E. = E. . + E. . = M v 2 + mgL(1 cos ) + x2 (12.70)
2 2
ds
M >> m. . x = h tan v = dt = L d
dt (12.70)
 2
1 d 1
E. = M L2 + M gL(1 cos ) + h2 tan2 . (12.71)
2 dt 2
,

d2
 
dE. 1 2 tan
=0 2 + M gL sin + h = 0. (12.72)
dt dt M L2 cos2
tan
sin cos2 .

d2 1
M gL + kh2 = 0


+ (12.73)
dt2 M L2

r
1 M gL + kh2
= = . (12.74)
2 2 M L2
12.5. 111

12.5

.. O ..
d. O

K.M.
d sin

~
B

12.9: O
.

= Bd sin . (12.75)

d2 d2
 
mgd
= I mgd sin = I 2
2 + sin = 0 (12.76)
dt dt I

I . sin -

r
mgd
= (12.77)
I

= 0 cos(t + ). (12.78)

s
2 I
T = = 2 . (12.79)
mgd

.. . I = md2
.
112 12.
 13

m f (1/r) = C/r2
.
 
1
m~a = f ~er (13.1)
r
C .

.

1 d 2
~a = (r r2 )~er +
(r )~e . (13.2)
r dt

 
2 1
m(r r ) = f
r
d
(mr2 ) = 0. (13.3)
dt
.
L = mr2 1 .
L2
 
1 1
r 2 3 = f . (13.4)
m r m r
(13.4) r = r()
1
(r(t), (t)). u() = r()
dr dr d dr L
= =
dt d dt " d mr2
 2 #
d2 r L2 d2 r 2 dr
= (13.5)
dt2 m2 r4 d2 r d

du 1 dr
=
d r2 d
 2 2
d2 u d2 r d2 r d2 u

1 2 dr 2 dr
= 2 + = r2 . (13.6)
d2 r d2 r3 d d2 r d d2
1
~ = m~
L r (r~ e ) = mr 2 ~er ~
er + r ~ e

113
114 13.

(13.5) (13.6)
d2 r L2 d2 u
2
= 2 2. (13.7)
dt m d
(13.4)
d2 u m Cm
+ u = 2 2 f (u) = 2 . (13.8)
d2 L u L
, , , .

Cm
u() = A cos( + ) . (13.9)
L2
(
) x.
= 0.
1 Cm
= 2 + A cos . (13.10)
r() L
A
1 C 1 C
E = mv 2 + = m(r2 + r2 2 ) +
2 r "2 # r
 2   2
1 L dr C
= m + r2 + (13.11)
2 m2 r 4 d r

(13.10) (r. = 0),

1
2EL2 2

Cm
A(E, L) = 2 1 + 2 . (13.12)
L C m

" 1 #
2EL2 2

1 Cm
= 2 1 1+ 2 cos . (13.13)
r() L C m

(13.13) ( ) ,
, .
1 1 cos
= (13.14)
r s
, s QO. O
. cos
s


.
s. d

s
=0 r
0<<1 (1 2 )
=1 d
>1 (2 1)

13.1: s.

.
1
2EL2 2

= 1+ 2 (13.15)
C m
. :
 115

K Q P
U s r D
F2
C V x
M O F1

13.1: .

() (C > 0). > 1

.
() (C < 0). T > U . T < U 0 < < 1,
(13.13), . T = U = 1.
(=0)
C 2m
E=
2L2
.
13.0.1 :
(1)
1 1 cos
= . (13.16)
r s
(2)
s = (1 2 ), F V = (1 ) F U = (1 + ). (13.17)

(3)
c
= (13.18)

c . a b

p p
c = a2 b2 b = a 1 2 (13.19)

(1)
PF r s
= = =
PD d r cos d
1 1 cos
= . (13.20)
r s
s s
(2) = 0 r1 = F1 V = 1+ = r2 = F1 U = 1 .
F1 V + F2 V = 2 F2 V = F1 U r1 , r2 .
s = (1 2 ).
s (1 2 )
F1 V = = = (1 ). (13.21)
1+ (1 + )
116 13.

(3) (13.18)

c = CF1 = CV F1 V = (1 ) = . (13.22)

F CK
 2
2 2 2 2 ac
2 2 2
p
2
(CK) + (CF ) = (KF ) b + c = (KD) = a + = a2 c = a2 b 2 . (13.23)


c = a b = a 1 2 .

13.0.2

r2 = 2a2 cos(2). (13.24)

d2 u m 1
+ u = 2 2 f( ) (13.25)
d2 L u u

u = 1r .

1 1 du sin(2)
u() = = p , = 3 (13.26)
r() a 2 cos(2) d a 2(cos(2)) 2

! !
d2 u 1 3 sin2 (2) 2 1 3 1 1 3
= +p = p = 5 u. (13.27)
d2 a 2 (cos 2)
5
2 cos(2) a 2
5
(cos 2)
2 cos(2) a 2 (cos 2) 2

(13.25)

1 1 12L2a4
f ( ) = 12 L2 a4 u7 f (r) = . (13.28)
u m mr7
Cassini

13.2: .
( 4 , 3 5 7
4 ) ( 4 , 4 ) .

F1 F2 ()

d1 d2 = a2 |P F1 ||P F2 | = a2 . (13.29)
 117

|F1 F2 | = 2c a = c
. (c, 0) (c, 0) d21 = (xc)2 +y 2
d22 = (x + c)2 + y 2 .

d21 d22 = a4 (x2 + y 2 )2 22 (x2 y 2 ) = a4 c4 (13.30)

p
r2 = c2 cos(2) c4 cos2 (2) + (a4 c4 ). (13.31)

ac < 1
. a = c

r2 = 2a2 cos(2) (13.32)

a
c > 1 .
118 13.
 14

. 1687
.
14.0.3 ( )
.

m1 m2
F~21 = G 2 r12 (14.1)
r
G SI

N m2
G = 6.672 1011 . (14.2)
kg 2
Cavendish m
.
. M r,
.
.
. ,
m M r,
.
.
( )

.

mMe Me
mg = G 2
g=G 2 (14.3)
Re Re

Me , Re . (14.3)
. .

14.1 Kepler

.
.

119
120 14.

.
.. .
Kepler
Brahe :
(i) .
(ii) .
.
(iii)
( ) T 2 = kr3 = k3 .
.

dS 1
= r2 , L = mr2 . (14.4)
dt 2

(14.4)
S T
dS 1L
Z Z
dt = dt,
0 dt 2m 0
LT
S = . (14.5)
2m
1

q
x 2
b 1( )

r  x 2 1
1
Z Z Z
S= dydx = 2b 1 dx = 2b arcsin u = b. (14.6)

2
q
x 2 1
b 1( )

S (14.5) (14.6), T ,
b = 1 2 2
4 2 2 4
T2 = m (1 2 ). (14.7)
L2
.
C = Gmm L2 = Cms = Gm2 m (1 2 ) (14.7)

4 2 3
T2 = . (14.8)
Gm
m
m .

.

mm mv 2
G 2
= (14.9)
R R
2R
v = T

4 2 3
T2 = R . (14.10)
Gm
1 u = x , w = y
b
1 Z 2 Z 1
S = b rdrd = b.
0 0

2
p
b = a2 c2 = a2 (a)2 = a 1 2 .
14.2. 121

14.2
3
m m1 , ~g

F~
~g = . (14.11)
m
, .

m A B.

Z r
~ ~ mm1
F = U U (r) = F~ d~r = G (14.12)
r

U (r) m1
V (r) = = G . (14.13)
m r

~
~g = V. (14.14)

mi , i = 1, , n ~ri m ~r. -
, m
n
(~r ~ri )
F~ (~r) = Gm
X
mi . (14.15)
i=1
|~r ~ri |3

n
X mi
U (r) = Gm . (14.16)
i=1
|~r ~ri |

mi
~ri mj , j < i.
m1 , m2 , m3 ~r1 , ~r2 , ~r3 (
~ri , i = 1, 2, 3 )

W~r1 = W~r1 = U (r1 ) U () = 0

m1
W~r2 = W~r2 = m2 V (r2 ) = Gm2
|~r1 ~r2 |
 
m1 m2
W~r3 = W~r3 = m3 V (r3 ) = Gm3 + . (14.17)
|r~1 ~r3 | |r~2 ~r3 |

3   3 3
X m1 m2 m1 m3 m2 m3 1 X X mi mj
U= W~ri = G + + = G .
i=1
|~r1 ~r2 | |r~1 ~r3 | |~r2 ~r3 | 2 j=1
|~ri ~rj |
i6=j

.
= dm d
m

(~r )
Z
~
F (~r) = Gm ~er r d , R3 (14.18)
r ~r |2
|~

~ Coulomb
3 E

q1 q q
122 14.

4 .
= dm dm
dl = dS

~
r ~
r
. ~er r = |~r~r |
d m.
. 5

(~r )
Z
U (~r) = Gm d . (14.19)
r ~r |
|~

14.2.1 x- a -
L. ,
P y- b
.

y
2
1
b
r

x
a dm

14.1: .

dm dx
Z Z
~g = G er = G (cos ex sin ey ). (14.20)
r2 r2

b b
tan = dx = 2 d (14.21)
a+x sin

b
r= (14.22)
sin

dx 1
= d, [1 , 2 ]. (14.23)
r2 b
4 (~
r )
(14.18)
r )(~
(~ r)
Z Z
F~ = G er r d d.
~
|~
r~ r |2
5
1 r )(~
(~ r)
Z Z
U = G d d.
2 |~
r~ r |
14.2. 123

G
~g = ((sin 1 sin 2 )ex + (cos 1 cos 2 )ey )
b " ! ! #
1 1 1 a a+L
= G p ex + p ey (14.24)
2
a +b 2 2
(a + L) + b 2 b 2
a +b 2 (a + L)2 + b2

b 0 0 ~gy ~0

GL GM
~g = ~gx = ex = ex . (14.25)
a(a + L) a(a + L)

>> L
.
. 1 2 0.
~gx ~0

2G
~g = ~gy = ey . (14.26)
b
y.

14.2.2 m
R .

6
dl = Rd

O P

a

R
r0

14.2:
m.

dS = 2adl = 2R2 sin d. (14.27)

V (r)

d d
Z Z
2
V (r) = 2GR sin = 2GR2 sin p (14.28)
0 r 0
2 2
R + r0 2r0 R cos
6 dS = R2 sin dd

[0, ] [0, 2].

124 14.

7
.
2Rr0 2Rr0 2Rr0
u= 2 cos , u [ 2 , 2 ]
2
R + r0 R + r0 R + r02
2

du
Z
= 2 1 u + C (14.29)
1u

1
V (r) = 2GR2 (R + r0 (r0 R)) . (14.30)
Rr0

M
= . (14.31)
4R2


GM 1, r0 > R
V (r) = (R + r0 (r0 R)|r0 R|) , (r0 R) = . (14.32)
2Rr0 1, r0 < R
:
(1) r0 > R.
GM
V = . (14.33)
r0

(2) r0 < R. r [R r0 , R + r0 ].
GM
V = . (14.34)
R
-
.

. (14.33)
.
14.2.3 m :
() .
() .
.

1 GMp m
E= mv 2 (14.35)
2 Rp
Mp , Rp , G = 6.67 1011 N m2 /kg 2 , .
limr U (r) =
(GMp m) limr r1 = 0.
1 GMp m
mv 2 =
2 e Rp
s
2GMp
ve = . (14.36)
Rp
7 rdr = r R sin d r [r
0 0
R, r0 + R] .
14.2. 125

-
.
Me = 5.98 1024kg, Re = 6.37 106m, g = GM
R2e ve =
e
2gRe = 1.12 104 m/s.
ve = 618 km/s.
126 14.
 15

.

.
.

n
X
M= mi . (15.1)
i=1

dm dm dm
= , = , = (15.2)
dl dS d

Z
M= dm, R R2 R3 . (15.3)

15.0.4
.

~r1 = (x1 , y1 , z1 ), ~r2 = (x2 , y2 , z2 ), ~r3 = (x3 , y3 , z3 ). (15.4)

9 .
:

(x1 x2 )2 + (y1 y2 )2 + (z1 z2 )2 = c21

(x2 x3 )2 + (y2 y3 )2 + (z2 z3 )2 = c22
(x3 x1 )2 + (y3 y1 )2 + (z3 z1 )2 = c23 . (15.5)

3 6
.
.
2

~r1 = (x1 , y1 , z1 ), ~r2 = (x2 , y2 , z2 ). (15.6)

x21 + y12 + z12 = c21 = , x22 + y22 + z22 = c22 = (15.7)

127
128 15.

(x1 x2 )2 + (y1 y2 )2 + (z1 z2 )2 = c212 . (15.8)

3 3
.
.

15.1
~r1 , , ~rn m1 , , mn .

15.1.1 C

Pn n
mi~ri 1 X
~rc Pi=1
n = mi~ri . (15.9)
i=1 mi M i=1

z
m1

~r1
~r2 m2

y
mi
~ri
M
x

15.1: .

15.1.2 ( ) C

RRR
1 ~rd
ZZZ
~rc ~rdm = RRR , R3 (15.10)
M
d

R R2 , -

.
.
, .
.
AB .
CD.
.
~g .

~ = M~g
B (15.11)

. .

15.1. 129

A C
B

C A
K.M.
B

15.2: .

~rC ~rB . O
n
~ =
X
~B,O
~ = ~rB~ B ~ri mi~gi
i=1
n
!
X
= mi~ri ~g = M~rC ~g . (15.12)
i=1

~rB = ~rC .
O O
~vc . mi

y z
Pi
O ~ri
~ri
~rC
x O y

15.3: O
O .

Pi
~ri (t) = ~rc (t) + ~ri (t) ~rc (t) = ~ri (t) ~ri (t). (15.13)
(15.9)
n
X n
X n
X n
X
M~rc = mi~ri = mi (~rc + ~ri ) = M~rc + mi~ri mi~ri = ~0. (15.14)
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1

(15.14)
n
X d
(mi~ri ) = ~0 (15.15)
i=1
dt

.


n
d~rc 1 X
~vc = = mi~vi , (15.16)
dt M i=1
130 15.

n n
P~c = M~vc = p~i = P~ .
X X
mi~vi = (15.17)
i=1 i=1

. (15.16)
n
d~vc 1 X d~ pi

~c = = (15.18)
dt M i=1 dt

n n n n
d~
pi
F~i = F~i,. + F~i,j,. .
X X X X
M~ac = = (15.19)
i=1
dt i=1 i=1 i,j=1;i6=j

.
n
dP~
F~i,. = M~ac =
X
. (15.20)
i=1
dt

M ,
.

dP~
= M~ac = ~0 P~ = M~vc = (15.21)
dt
.
15.1.3 M .
.

(a, b)

c
~rc

O (a, 0) x

15.4: .

~rc
Z a Z cx Z a Z cx 
1 1~ 1 ~ 3
Z
~rc = ~rdm = ~rdydx = ~ ~
(xi + y j)dy dx = ( i + cj)ca . (15.22)
M M 0 0 M 0 0 M 3 6

M 2M
= = (15.23)
ab/2 ab
c = tan = ab .
2 ~ 1 ~
~rc = ai + bj. (15.24)
3 3
15.1. 131

15.1.4
(i) a h.
(ii) a
.
(iii) h1 .

(i) z-.
R R
1 zdV zdV
xC,1 = yC,1 = 0 zC,1 = R =
1
1
2
. (15.25)
1 dV 3 a h

z
A

B C
r

D
a a y
O
x

15.5: z-.

2 a Z h(1 ar )
2 2
Z Z Z
zdV = zrdzdrd = a h . (15.26)
1 0 0 0 12
xy- , z-

 r
z = h |AB| = h 1 (15.27)
a
ABC AOD.
1
zC,1 = h. (15.28)
4

.
(ii)
R R
2 zdV zdV
xC,2 = yC,2 = 0 zC,2 = R = 22 3 (15.29)
2 dV 3 a

2 a 0

Z Z Z Z
zdV = zrdzdrd = a4 . (15.30)
2 0 0 a2 r 2 4

3
zC,2 = a. (15.31)
8
132 15.

z
A

B C
r
D
a a y
O
x

15.6: - .

M1 M2 zC,1 = 14 h
zC,2 = 38 a
1 2 2 4
M1 zC,1 + M2 zC,2 V1 zC,1 + V2 zC,2 12 a h 4 a 1 h2 3a2
zC, = zC,1 2 = = = 1 2 2 3
= (15.32)
M1 + M2 V1 + V2 3 a h + 3 a
4 h + 2a

(iii) 2 = /1
xC,2 = yC,2 = 0,
h i
a1 2 2 2


M zC, M1, z1C, 4 a2 h2 + 4 a21 h21 3 a h1 h 3(h4 h41 )
zC,2 = = 1 =   = (15.33)
M M1, 2 2
3 (a h a1 h1 )
2
4 h a1 h 1

4(h3 h31 )
a

15.2 ,
L ~ O O m, ~r
~v
~ O = ~r ~p = m~r ~v .
L (15.34)
(15.34)
~O
dL d~
p
= ~r = ~O (15.35)
dt dt
O.
( ) m1 , , mn
O , ( )
O.
n
~ ., ~i
X
L = L
i=1

n n n
~ri F~i = ~ri F~i; . + F~i,j; . .
X X X X
~., = ~i,O = (15.36)
i=1 i=1 i=1 j,j6=i

, 1

n n ~ i,O ~ .,
X d~
pi X dL dL
~., = ~., = ~ri = = . (15.37)
i=1
dt i=1
dt dt
1
ri F
~ ~ij + ~ ~ji = (~
rj F ri ~ ~ij = ~
rj ) F ~ij = ~0
rij F
.
15.2. , 133

, ~., = ~0, .
. mi 2

n
dTi
= ~ri F~i; . + F~ij; . .
X
(15.38)
dt j=1

n n n
dT X dTi X
~ri F~i; . + ~ri F~ij; .
X
= = (15.39)
dt i=1
dt i=1 i,j=1,i6=j

[t1 , t2 ]
Z t2
dT
dt = T (t2 ) T (t1 )
t1 dt
n Z t2  n Z t2 
~ ~
X X
= Fi; . d~ri + Fij; . d~ri
i=1 t1 i,j=1,i6=j t1

= W. . + W. . . (15.40)
Ui; .
Uij; .
n Z t2  n Z t2 
F~i; . d~ri = ~ i Ui; . d~ri
X X
W. . =
i=1 t1 i=1 t1
n Z
X t2 
= dUi; . = (U. (t2 ) U. (t1 )) (15.41)
i=1 t1

n Z t2  n Z t2 
1 X
F~ij; . d~ri F~ji; . d~rj
X
W. . = +
2 t1 t1
i,j=1,i6=j j,i=1,i6=j
n Z t2 
1 X
~
= Fij; . (d~ri d~rj ) (15.42)
2 t1
i,j=1,i6=j

- . 1/2
i < j.

d~rij = d~ri d~rj F~ij; . =
~ ij Uij; . (15.43)

n
1 X
W. . = (Uij; . (t2 ) Uij; . (t1 )). (15.44)
2
i,j=1,i6=j

.
.

n n
X 1 X
U. = Ui; . + Uij; . (15.45)
i=1
2
i,j=1,i6=j

T (t1 ) + U (t1 ) = T (t2 ) + U (t2 ) = . (15.46)
2
dTi d~
pi d~
pi
vi
=~ ri
=~ ri F
=~ ~i .
dt dt dt
134 15.

15.2.1 m
M R. .
,
. = 0
.
dy y (

dy

R sin

dy

15.7: .

) dy.

y
R sin = R sin R . dB = gdy

h  y i
W = dB (y R sin ) = g y R sin dy (15.47)
R

Z R h  y i  2 
2
W = g y R sin dy = gR + cos 1 . (15.48)
0 R 2
-
1 1
M (R)2 + m(R)2 .
T = (15.49)
2 2
m
= 2R
mg(2 + 2 cos 2)
W = T 2 = (15.50)
2R(m + M )

15.3 -

O
n n n
~O = ~c + L
~ O +
X X X
L mi~ri ~vi = mi (~rc + ~ri ) (~vc + ~vi ) = L mi (~rc ~vi + ~ri ~vC ). (15.51)
i=1 i=1 i=1

n
X n
X
mi~ri = ~0 mi~vi = ~0 (15.52)
i=1 i=1
15.3. .. 135

~O = L
L ~C + L
~ O . (15.53)

:
.
(15.53)
~O
dL ~C
dL ~ O
dL ~C
dL ~ O dt
dL
~O = = + = + = ~C + ~O . (15.54)
dt dt dt dt dt dt
, t = t .

~O
dL
~O,. = . (15.55)
dt
-

~O
dL
~O,. = ~ O = .
= ~0 L (15.56)
dt

n n n
1X 1X X
TO = mi vi2 = mi (vc2 + 2~vc ~vi + vi2 ) = Tc + TO + ~vc mi~vi . (15.57)
2 i=1 2 i=1 i=1

n
X n
X
mi~vi = ~0 ~vc mi~vi = 0 (15.58)
i=1 i=1

TO = TC + TO . (15.59)
Pn
(15.59) M = i=1 mi
.
.
15.3.1 m1 m2 , m1 < m2 , L. -
, ,
.
.

b m2 .
..
m1
m2 b = (L b)m1 b = L. (15.60)
M
~vc,0 ,
m1 m2
.

v22 m1 m2
N = m2 = m2 b2 = L2 = L2 (15.61)
b m1 + m2
.
136 15.

m2
L
..

b
m1

15.8:
.
 16

O
. P ~r
s

s = r. (16.1)

rad.

16.0.2

(t + t) (t)
. (16.2)
t
rad/s s1 , .

16.0.3 t 0

(t + t) (t) d
lim = . (16.3)
t0 t dt
~
( ) -
.

16.0.4

(t + t) (t)
. (16.4)
t
rad/s2 s2 .

16.0.5
t 0
(t + t) (t) d
lim = . (16.5)
t0 t dt

~ ~
.
. ,
x, v a. , ,
x, v, a .

137
138 16.

. (16.5)
Z t Z
d
dt =
dt = 0 + t. (16.6)
0 0 dt

(16.3)
1
= 0 + 0 t + t2 . (16.7)
2
(16.6) (16.7)

2 = 02 + 2( 0 ). (16.8)

16.1
P s r.

~v = rer + re (16.9)

r = 0.
ds
~v = re = e = re (16.10)
dt
xy. (16.10)
~v = ~ ~r.
dv d
aT = =r = r (16.11)
dt dt

v2
ar = = r 2 . (16.12)
r

16.2


n n n
!
X 1X 2 1 X
T = Ti = mi vi = mi ri 2 .
2
(16.13)
i=1
2 i=1
2 i=1
Pn
i=1 mi ri2 I
n
X
I= mi ri2 . (16.14)
i=1

1 2
T = I (16.15)
2
.

Z Z
I= r2 dm = r2 d (16.16)

r .
16.2. 139

16.2.1 h,
M , R1 R2 .

h -
z- ( )
Z h Z 2 Z R2
h
Iz = r3 drddz = (R24 R14 ). (16.17)
0 0 R1 2

M M
= = (16.18)
V h(R22 R12 )

1
Iz = M (R12 + R22 ). (16.19)
2
16.2.2 (Steiner )
d

I = Ic + M d2 . (16.20)

:
O. dm ~r
Z Z Z Z Z
2 2 2
I= r dm = (~rc + ~r ) (~rc + ~r )dm = r dm + 2~rc ~r dm + rc dm = I + M d2 . (16.21)

1 1 1
Z Z Z Z
~rc = ~rdm =
(~r + ~rc )dm =
~r dm + ~rc ~r dm = ~0 (16.22)
M M M

~r
~r
~rc

16.1:
..

16.2.3 ( ) -
xy-. Ix , Iy Iz x, y z

Iz = Ix + Iy . (16.23)

: Iz
Z Z Z Z Z Z
2 2
Iz = r dm = x dm + y 2 dm = Ix + Iy . (16.24)

2
140 16.

16.2.4 a b
.
.
a
Z aZ b
1 1
Z Z
Ia = y 2 dm = y 2 dydx = ab3 = M b2 . (16.25)
0 0 3 3
b
1
M a2 .
Ib = (16.26)
3


1 1
M (b2 + a2 ) = M (a2 + b2 ).
Iz = Ix + Iy = Ia + Ib = (16.27)
3 3
. -

 2
a + b2

1
Ic = Iz M = M (a2 + b2 ). (16.28)
4 12

16.3
O
F~ .
16.3.1 ~ F~
~ = ~r F~ (16.29)
~r .
~r, F~
. d = r sin
F~
.

~
F~
~r

16.2: .

, N m SI. F~
F~k F~

~ = ~r (F~k + F~ ) = ~r F~ (16.30)
~r .
16.4. 141

16.4
m r
F~T .

F~T
m

~r

O x

16.3: .

FT = maT (16.31)

= rFT = rmaT . (16.32)

aT = r.

= mr2 = I. (16.33)

.

dm.
.

d = (r2 dm). (16.34)

Z Z
. = r2 dm = r2 dm = I. (16.35)

16.4.1 M R
. .

() .
() .
() h.

() F~
N~ - .
B ~ = M~g, N
~ T~
142 16.

m
m

16.4:
.

. , ,

~ = ~B~ + ~N~ + 2~T~ = 2~T~ . (16.36)

4T 1
= 2T R = I. = , I. = M R2 . (16.37)
MR 2
m

T
mg T = ma a = g (16.38)
m
a . (16.11)
a = aT ,
(16.38) T

mM g
T = (16.39)
4m + M

()

4mg
aT = R = . (16.40)
4m + M

() T. = 0.

 
1 1 1 1
T = T. T. = mv 2 + mv 2 + I 2 = m + M R2 2 . (16.41)
2 2 2 4

U = 2mgh. (16.42)

r
1 8mgh
U + T = 0 = . (16.43)
R 4m + M
16.5. - 143

16.5 -

O F~
P . d~s
 
dW = F~ d~s = Fk cos rd = (F sin )rd = d. (16.44)
2

F~

F~

d~s
P
d
~r

16.5: .

dW d
P = = = . (16.45)
dt dt
- .

d d d d
= I = I =I =I . (16.46)
dt d dt d
dW = d

1 2 1 2
Z
dW = Id W = I d = I I0 . (16.47)
0 2 2

.
144 16.
 17

. ,
.
.

17.1
M R .

(..) , ..
P
( ) .
.
P vQ = rQ P P
. IP ,

Q ~v

17.1: .

1
T = IP P2 . (17.1)
2
IP = Ic + M R2 ,

1 1
T = Ic P2 + M R2 P2 (17.2)
2 2
RP P .

1 1
T = Ic P2 + M vc2 . (17.3)
2 2

145
146 17.

ds d
vc = =R = Rc
dt dt
vc = RP P . P = c
..
vc .
P Q -
. P
P = vRc , P Q vQ = 2R = 2vc .
..
.. vc
.. , Q +c R P c R.

() P : vP = vc R = vc vc = 0

() C: vc = vc + 0 = vc .

() Q: vQ = vc + R = 2vc .

17.1.1 M R 0
.
; 0 .

M R

~vC
P F~.

17.2: .

vP,. = v. . = 0 R ( ..)
.

d F. R
F = F. R = I = (17.4)
dt I

g
= 0 2 t. (17.5)
R
.

dvc dvc
F. = M g = vc = gt (17.6)
dt dt
17.1. 147

vP = vc v. . (17.7)

0 R
vc v. = vC R = 0 t0 = . (17.8)
3g
vC = 0
= 0 .
t0 = 0

17.1.2 R M .
.
h :

() .

() .. .

() .. .

h
T~
P
M

~
B

17.3: .

T~ B~
.. ~g
. IP
P

1 3
IP = Ic + M R2 = M R2 + M R2 = M R2 . (17.9)
2 2
() P

P = BR = IP (17.10)

..

c = T R = Ic . (17.11)

(17.10) (17.11)

Ic 1
T = B = B. (17.12)
IP 3
148 17.

()

BR 2g
= = (17.13)
IP 3R

..

2
ac = R = g. (17.14)
3

()
r
4gh
vc2 = 2ac h vc = (17.15)
3
vc,. = 0 h = 0.

17.2
.
z-.

z
~

~
L

~ri
y
~vi
m

17.4: z-.

n n
~ =
X X
mi ri2 ~ ~ri (~ri


L mi~ri (~
~ri ) = ~) (17.16)
i=1 i=1

~ (B
A ~ A)
~ = A2 B
~ A(
~ A~ B).
~ (17.17)

~ri ~
,
n
~ =
X
L mi ri2 ~ = I~ Lz = Iz . (17.18)
i=1

, ,

Z Z Z 
~ =
L ~r (~
~r)dm = (r2 ~ ~r(~r ~ )d = r2 d ~ = I~ (17.19)

17.2. 149

~r~
. (17.19), ,

~z
dL
~. . = = I~
. (17.20)
dt

.

~
dL
~. . = ~ = .
= ~0 L (17.21)
dt

~ . = L
L ~ . (17.22)

, z, Lz = I

Ii i = If f = . (17.23)

. ,
. .
.
. ,

.
. ..
.
17.2.1 L = 2a M
~v0 . . v0
.

L.
L L L
2 5 2 8
Z Z Z Z Z Z Z
IL = r2 dm = r2 d = (x2 + y 2 )dxdydz = L = M L2 = M a2 . (17.24)
0 0 0 3 3 3
-
.

M dv0
L. = L. M dv0 = IL = (17.25)
IL
d = a. h1 h2 ..
.

U = M g(h2 h1 ) = M gd( 2 1). (17.26)

..
,

r
M 2 d2 v02 16
U = T. M gd( 2 1) = v0 = ag( 2 1). (17.27)
2IL 3
17.2.2
~
O .
150 17.

n n
~ =
X
X
mi ri2 ~ mi ri2 (x~ex + y ~ey + z ~ez ) (xi ~ex + yi~ey + zi~ez )(~ri ~ )


L ~ri (~ri ~
) =
i=1 i=1
n
~x + L
~y + L
~z
X
mi (ri2 x xi (~ri ~
))~ex + (ri2 y yi (~ri ~ ))~ey + (ri2 z zi (~ri


= ~ ))~ez = L
i=1
(17.28)

n
! n
! n
!
X X X
Lx = mi (yi2 + zi2 ) x + mi xi yi y + mi xi zi z = Ixx x + Ixy y + Ixz z
i=1 i=1 i=1
n
! n
! n
!
X X X
Ly = mi xi yi x + mi (x2i + zi2 ) y + mi y i z i z = Iyx x + Iyy y + Iyz z
i=1 i=1 i=1
n
! n
! n
!
X X X
Lz = mi xi zi x + mi y i z i y + mi (x2i + yi2 ) z = Izx x + Izy y + Izz z
i=1 i=1 i=1
(17.29)

3
X
Li = Iij j , i = 1, 2, 3. (17.30)
j=1

Iij 6 -
.

Z
Ixx = (y 2 + z 2 )(~r)d. (17.31)
R3

,
,

~vi = ~v. + ~ ~ri . (17.32)

n n
! n
1X 1 X 1X
T = mi vi2 = M v.
2
+ ~v. ~
mi~ri + mi (~ ~ri )2
2 i=1 2 i=1
2 i=1
n
1 2 1X
= M v. + mi (~ ~ri )2 (17.33)
2 2 i=1
Pn
, Li = j=1 Iij j ,
n n n
1X 1 X 1 ~ = 1
X
T. = mi (~ri (~
~ri )) = ~ ~ri ~pi = ~ L i Iij j . (17.34)
2 i=1 2 i=1
2 2 i,j=1

n
1 2 1 X
T = M v. + i Iij j . (17.35)
2 2 i,j=1
 18

.

.
.
Bernoulli
,
.

18.1
: , , .
,
.

. ,
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.

. .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

18.2

.
.

151
152 18.

.
.
A F . P

F
P = . (18.1)
A

F (A + ) F (A) dF
P = lim = . (18.2)
0 dA
SI P ascal
1P a = 1N/m2 . (18.3)

. A
dy. .

F~2

dy
~
B

F~1

18.1: .

F~1 = P A~j .
F~2 = (P + dP )A~j. .

dP
F1 F2 B = 0 P A (P + dP )A gAdy = 0 = g. (18.4)
dy
(18.4)
P2 P1 = g(y2 y1 ). (18.5)

P = P + gh (18.6)
P h
gh.
.
. P ascal
18.2.1 ( P ascal)
.
. F1
A1 F2 A2
F1 F2 A2
= F2 = F1 > F1 . (18.7)
A1 A2 A1
18.3. 153

18.3
18.3.1 ()
.

.
.
, .
a.
.

P = ga (18.8)

F
P = F = ( ga)A = gV. (18.9)
A
M = V

F = gV = M g = B (18.10)

B .
.

B = M g = V g (18.11)

F = M g = V g. (18.12)

V = V = V

F B = ( )V g. (18.13)

F = B V = V . (18.14)

(
) . .
18.3.2 d -
h . M .
, .
() Tl .
() Tu .
() Tl Tu . .

() B ~ , T~l F~. .

 
.
Tl = (M M. )g = ( . )V g = M g. (18.15)

154 18.

k , d
hh

, M

18.2: - .

() T~u - .

d2
T = B F. = ( . )V. g = ( . ) hg. (18.16)
4

. d2
 
Tu = Tl + T = M g + ( . ) hg. (18.17)
4

()

d2
Tl = M g, Tu = Tl + hg. (18.18)
4

18.4
. .

. .
.
.

.


(1) .
.
(2) . .
(3) . .
(4) . .

.
.
.
.
.
18.5. BERN OU LLI 155

.
t x1 = v1 t. A1
,

m1 = 1 V1 = 1 x1 A1 = 1 A1 v1 t. (18.19)

m2 = 2 A2 v2 t. (18.20)

, A1
A2 .

m1 = m2 1 A1 v1 = 2 A2 v2 (18.21)

A1 v1 = A2 v2 = (18.22)

.
.

18.4.1 d0
v0 . h .
.

~v0

r0

r1

~v1

18.3: .

h
q
vh = v02 + 2gh. (18.23)

r s
v0 2 v0
v0 A0 = vh Ah dh = d = d0 . (18.24)
vh 0
p
2
v0 + 2gh

18.5 Bernoulli
,
. Bernoulli (1700-1782)
. .
156 18.

x2

F~
A2
~v1
A1 ~v2

F~
y2
y1
x1

18.4: .

P1 , A1 P1 A1 .

W1 = F1 x1 = P1 A1 x1 = P1 V1 . (18.25)

P2 A2 t

W2 = P2 V2 . (18.26)

V1 = V2 = V t
.
.

W = (P1 P2 )V. (18.27)

- V

1 1
W = T + U (P2 P1 )V = m v22 m v12 + mg(y2 y1 ). (18.28)
2 2
m
= V

1 1
P1 + v12 + gy1 = P2 + v22 + gy2 . (18.29)
2 2
Bernoulli.

1
P + v 2 + gy = (18.30)
2
,
.

18.5.1 A M .
,
.

F. = (P2 P1 )A. (18.31)

18.5. BERN OU LLI 157

~v
F~
P1
T~

~
B
P2

18.5:
.

M
F. = B P2 P1 = g. (18.32)
A
Bernoulli -

1 1
P1 + v 2 = P2 P2 P1 = v 2 . (18.33)
2 2

s
2M g
v= . (18.34)
A
18.5.2 ,
~v0 .
H; ,
;

Bernoulli P1 = P2 = P.

~v0

A0
h ~v
A

18.6: .

1 2 1
v = v02 + gh v 2 = v02 + 2gh. (18.35)
2 2

v  2 !
u 2gh p 1 A
Av = A0 v0 v = u  2 2gh 1 + . (18.36)
2 A
t
0
1 AA0

u0x = v u0y = 0.

s
2(H h)
t. = (18.37)
g
158 18.

v
u h(H h)
x = u0x t. = 2u
t  2 . (18.38)
1 AA0

A0 A
 2 !
p 1 A
x 2 h(H h) 1 + . (18.39)
2 A0
 19

. p~ = m~v T = 21 mv 2
. -
.
,
.
.
Einstein
.
:

() . ,

.

() c = 31018m/s
.

19.1
.
.
(x, y, z, t).

.
S S
~v , . P .
(x, y, z, t)
(x , y , z , t ).

~r = ~r ~v t (19.1)

t = 0 .
R~ 0

~ 0.
~r = ~r ~v t + R (19.2)

, ,
S
S. .

159
160 19.

P
z ~r
S
x ~v t y

~r
z

S y
x

19.1: .

S ~r
t .
~r ~r

~r (t + t ) ~r (t )
  
~r ~r(t + t) ~r(t)
= = ~
v lim = lim ~v ~u = ~u ~v (19.3)
t t t t 0 t t0 t
~u ~u S S .
.
.
~v ,
~v + ~c.

19.2

.
(1) t1 x1 (2)
x2 t2 = t1 + x2 xc
1
.

. Einstein
.
. . A B
A, B . O O
. O

~v

O O
A B A B

A O B A O B

19.2: .

.
. O, O
. B O A .
.
.
19.3. 161

19.3
~v .

19.3: .
.

d .
t 2d
2d
t = = . (19.4)
c

v .

~v

O O O

S
vt

19.4: .

. t/2
vt/2. t
,
. t t

 2  2
ct vt 2d
= + d2 t = q = t . (19.5)
2 2 v2
c 1 c2

t
. t > t . -
,
, .
162 19.

19.4

. .
.
L .
t = L /v.
, v .
v.

1
L v2 2

t
L = vt = v = L=L 1 2 . (19.6)
c
L < L .
v .
V = x y z .
1 1
v2 2 v2 2
 

V = xyz = 1 2 x y z = 1 2 V . (19.7)
c c
.

~v

19.5: .

y = y z = z.
19.4.1 L v
x -.
.

y ~v
y
L
L

S x S x

19.6: .

Lx = L cos Ly = L sin . (19.8)

Lx = L cos Ly = L sin (19.9)

q
L= L2x + L2y . (19.10)
19.5. LOREN T Z 163

y-, ,

Ly = Ly (19.11)

x-

Lx
Lx = . (19.12)

2
Lx v2 v2
    

2
L = + Ly2 = 1 2 2
L cos + L sin = L 2 2
1 2 cos 2
c c
r
v2
L = L 1 cos2 . (19.13)
c2

Ly Ly
tan = = = tan . (19.14)
Lx Lx

> 1 > .

19.5 Lorentz
P .
O S O S
~v x. (x, y, z, t) S
(x , y , z , t ) S S
S Lorentz
S S ~v
xx -. t = t = 0 .

. S t
P ~r = ~ct. P

x2 + y 2 + z 2 = (ct)2 . (19.15)

x2 + y 2 + z 2 = (ct )2 . (19.16)

y z

y = y , z = z . (19.17)

S S SS = vt

x = (x vt) (19.18)

t = a(t bx) (19.19)

, a, b
S

v2 2 2
(2 a2 b2 c2 )x2 2(2 v a2 bc2 )xt + y 2 + z 2 = (a2 2 )c t (19.20)
c2
164 19.

S
v2
2 a2 b2 c2 = 1, 2 v a2 bc2 = 0, a2 2 = 1. (19.21)
c2

1 v
=a= q , b= . (19.22)
1 v2 c2
c2

S S

 v 
x = (x vt), y = y, z = z, t = t 2 x (19.23)
c
= q 1 . t S
2
1 vc2
t x S.
t = t .
~v ~v (x, y, z, t) (x , y , z , t )
 v 
x = (x + v ), y = y , z = z , t = t + 2 x (19.24)
c
v << c, v/c2 << 1 v 2 /c2 << 1 Lorentz -
.
Lorentz
 v 
x = (x vt), y = y, z = z, t = t 2 x , S S
c
 v 

x = (x + vt ), y = y , z = z , t = t + 2 x , S S (19.25)
c
y z
x-.
19.5.1 Lorentz -
.

S S t = t = 0
. P .
S S ~r ~r .
.
S

~v
~r = ~r + ~rk , ~rk = (~v ~r) . (19.26)
v2
S

~r = ~r

+ ~rk . (19.27)

~r = ~r (19.28)

1
~rk = (~rk ~v t), = q . (19.29)
v2
1 c2
19.6. LOREN T Z 165

~v
~r = ~r + (~rk ~v t) = ~r + ( 1)~rk ~v t = ~r + ( 1)(~v ~r) ~v t. (19.30)
v2

r2 = (ct )2 r2 + 2( 1)~r ~rk + ( 1)2~rk2 2 2 (~v ~rk )t + 2 v 2 t2 = (ct )2 . (19.31)

r2 = (ct)2 , ~r ~rk = rk2 ~rk ~v = ~r ~v .

 
(~v ~r)
t = t . (19.32)
c2

19.6 Lorentz
ux
S
dx
ux = (19.33)
dt

 v 
dx = (dx vdt), dt = dt 2 dx (19.34)
c

dx
dx vdt dt v ux v
ux = v = = . (19.35)
dt c2 dx v dx
1 c2 dt 1 cv2 ux

ux = c
cv
ux = =c (19.36)
1 cv2 c

Einstein.
. uy , uz

dy dy uy
uy = = = . (19.37)
dt (dt cv2 dx) (1 cv2 ux )

uy uy
uz uz . Lorentz ~v ~v
(ux , uy , uz ) (ux , uy , uz )

ux + v
ux = . (19.38)
1 + cv2 ux
19.6.1 -
n, v.
c/n . .

c nv
ux + v n +v c 1+
 
c
ux = = v = . (19.39)
1 + cv2 ux 1 + nc n 1+ v
nc

v c

v2
c    
 v  c 1 c 1
ux +v 1 = +v 1 2 +v 1 2 . (19.40)
n nc n n nc n n
166 19.

S
~v
~ux

19.7: .

19.7

, .

()
() m~u .

m0
p~ = q ~u = m0 ~u (19.41)
u2
1 c2

= m0 (19.42)

.
F~ p~
d~
p
F~ = (19.43)
dt
-

Z 2 Z 2
d q 0m ~
u d~s dt
W = F~ d~s =
1 1 dt 2
1 uc2 dt

Z u Z u
m0 ~u m0 u 2 m0 ~u
= ~u d q =q q d~u
u2 u 2 u 2
0 1 c2 1 c2 0 1 c2
r
m0 u 2 v2
= q + m0 c2 1 2 m0 c2 = (m m0 )c2 (19.44)
1 u
2 c
c2

u.

m0 c2
W =T = q m0 c2 . (19.45)
u2
1 c2

.

 1
   n1
2 12
X
2 +n1 2n r 1 Y
(1 x ) = x , = (r m) (19.46)
n n n! m=0
n=0
19.7. 167

1 u2 3 u4
 
2 1
T = m0 c 1 + 2
+ 4
m0 c2 m0 u 2 (19.47)
2c 8c 2

. mc2 E

mc2
E = T + m0 c 2 = q E 2 = p2 c2 + (m0 c2 )2 (19.48)
u2
1 c2

m = 0 E = pc.
eV
.

1eV = 1.60 1019 J (19.49)

19.7.1 -
~v .

E2
E 2 = c2 (p2 + m20 c2 ) p2 = m20 c2 . (19.50)
c2


E2 E2 E2 E2
p2 2
= p 2 2 p2x + p2y + p2z 2 = px2 + py2 + pz2 2 (19.51)
c c c c


x2 + y 2 + z 2 (ct)2 = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 (ct )2 (19.52)

E
x px , y py , z pz , t . (19.53)
c2
Lorentz
 
~v (~v ~r)
~r = ~r + ( 1)(~v ~r) 2 ~v t, t = t (19.54)
v c2

p~ E
p~ = ~
p + ( 1)(~v ~p) ~v 2 , E = (E ~v p~) . (19.55)
p2 c