Automatic cephalometric landmarks detection
approach for photo anthropometry analysis in facial
images
Sibgrapi paper ID: 44
AbstractThe facial landmarks can be used in many research
areas as: biometric facial recognition, 2D and 3D facial recon-
struction and in others several areas in forensic science (or
forensics). In the forensic science, the use of facial landmarks,
specifically in the forensic medicine are, pay attention of the
scientific community and forensics experts, especially focused
on the analysis of the cephalometric landmarks. Previous works
demonstrated that the descriptive adequacy of these anatomical
references for an indirect application (photo anthropometric
description) increased the marking precision of these points, con-
tributing to a greater reliability of these analyzes. However, most
of them are performed manually and all of them are subjectivity
inherent to the examiners. In this sense, the purpose of this
work is the development and validation of automatic techniques
to detect cephalometric landmarks from digital images of frontal
faces. The proposed approach uses a combination of computer
vision techniques and image processing to achieve accuracy
scores, using a F1-score as a evaluate technique, about 100%
when compared with a group of human manual cephalometric
landmarks markers and to others state-of-art facial landmarks
frameworks.
I. I NTRODUCTION
Facial landmarks can be used in many research areas as:
biometric facial recognition [1], 2D and 3D facial reconstruc-
tion [2] and in others several areas in forensic science (or
forensics). In the forensic science, the use of facial landmarks,
specifically in the forensic medicine are, pay attention of the
scientific community and forensics experts, especially focused
on the analysis of the cephalometric landmarks.
The forensic analysis to identify persons, for example, is
a complex process which can be used in various methods
executed by the forensic agent such as DNA test, papiloscopy
and dental analysis, as described in [3]. In regards using facial
images for human identification, most of these techniques
use a specialist and manual approach to achieve an expected
result and depends on the experience, expertise and experts
commitment during the tests [4], [5]. On facial images, dif-
ferent issues can interfere with the quality, as illumination,
camera position to the person, image resolution, face position
and three-dimensional information lossy in two-dimensional
images [6].
Nowadays, with the advancement of computing power, im-
provement of programming languages and the effective arrival
of the high-resolution images, using digital image processing
in order to improve and/or automate forensic processes came
to increase the accuracy of work to be carried out by the
forensic expert. Several examples of these applications can be
found in the literature is the use of X-ray images [7], three-
dimensional models analyzes craniofacial [8], [9], reconstruc-
tion [10] and facial pose from listing [11], among others.
Among the various imaging techniques, pattern recognition
and computer vision can be adapted to aid the forensic expert
in their activities. This paper discusses the use of photo
anthropometry, using automated techniques for identifying
facial cephalometric points from frontal view of images. In the
current contribution, we aim to address an implementation of
an efficient prototype for automatic detection of cephalometric
landmarks in frontal face images.
This paper is organized as follows: In Section II, the main
works about facial cephalometric landmarks with special at-
tention to photo anthropometry found in the scientific literature
are presented. Section III shows the proposed method and
all processing details for identifying and extracting these
landmarks in the image; In Section IV the experimental results
are exposed; and Sections V and VI presents the discussion
and conclusions, respectively.
II. R ELATED W ORKS
The facial cephalometric landmarks are traditionally pro-
duced from direct analysis or indirect surveys of X-ray im-
ages, commonly used in lateral cephalometric standard for
orthodontic planning [12]. Generally the process of identify-
ing individuals requires that the settings of these points are
obtained with a high degree of precision in its location on
the face region. From the extraction of the correct location of
these points it is possible to identify the individual, in addition
to extracting relevant information that may characterize this
individual in a specific population, and may correlate it to a
particular geographical region of the country [13], [14].
The first computational techniques for digital image pro-
cessing, pattern recognition and computer vision were de-
veloped in mid-1964 and had the purpose of correcting the
distortions present in the images transmitted by the American
space probe Ranger 7, which was the first spacecraft to
successfully transmit images of the lunar surface to Earth [15].
In the late 60s and early 70s digital computers began to be used
in medical image processing in remote sensing capabilities and
astronomy. Since then, the area has attracted great interest.
However, there is a big gap in the use of these techniques in
the forensic field, mainly due to multidisciplinary involved.
The main goal is focused on the development and en-
hancement of digital image processing techniques, pattern
recognition and computer vision to aid in the characterization
and identification of individuals for forensic purposes. In this
context we include: i) Automating the process of obtaining
stable cephalometric landmarks and other information that can
be used in the process of identification and characterization
of individuals; ii) Facilitate the creation of protocols for
characterization of populations from obtaining cephalometric
landmarks; iii) Improve the forensic expert techniques in the
field of facial photo anthropometry.
Currently, forensic experts from the Federal Police daily
use SAFF 2D
R (Sistema de Anlise Facial Forense por Ima-
gens 2D) software. This was developed by Expertise Service
in Audiovisual and Electronics of the National Institute of
during
Criminalist in the Federal Police department, and it is used
in manual extraction process of cephalometric points using
frontal face images [16], [17].
A. Photo Anthropometry
The research on identifying and extracting facial features,
also known as landmarks, is not a recent field of scientific
R tool by forensic experts of the Federal Police
studies [18]. Researchers increasingly use these landmarks to
extract information from the faces in the images. As studies
R tool where we have left a model with
using the landmarks we can discuss: identification and facial
recognition [19], [20], facial modeling using 3D images [21],
tracking [22], cephalometric points identification [23], age
estimation [24].
The process on forensic science use the physical attribute
of age estimation as an important area. These procedures are
realized on dead bodies using many techniques whether they
are invasive or not, like analyze skeletal remains, dental arcade,
etc. However, in living persons, the procedure is restricted in
some techniques, for example, X-ray analysis of the handle
(carpal radiography) or panoramic radiography of teeth region
in a dental examination. In either case the estimation of age is
based on analysis of bone development and teeth respectively.
For such tests the procedure should be careful not to interfere
with the physical integrity [17].
The estimation process of age using metrics body pro-
portions is an alternative that can be applied in both living
people and in corpses. In this context anthropometry is the
quantitative study of metric characteristics of an individual,
while the allometry 1 allows the estimation of age using these
features. This process is low cost by not requiring any specific
equipment as the other methods mentioned above. Also, this
is non-invasive and does not expose the individual no risk as
in X-ray examinations.
The photo anthropometry allows the analysis of the above
features using photographs by anthropometric methods. Using
photo anthropometry, [16] presents a qualitative methodology
of cephalometric points in facial images of the front standard.
In her work, the variabilities were defined in the measurement
process of photo anthropometric points, also have a contribu-
tion, the definition in its accuracy limits methodology for each
point.
1 Allometry is the study of different patterns of growth of organs.
Fig. 1. Graphic interface of software SAFF 2D
R marking manually
of the cephalometric landmarks. The image used in the process was taken
from [25].
As a goal, the methodology mentioned above, focuses on
the precise identification of the points in the front standard
photos of individuals. This is because the current process used
to SAFF 2D
is entirely manual and prone to errors. In Figure 1 you can
view the SAFF 2D
the points that must be identified by the expert on the right
facial image.
In this model, [16] explored the identification of 24 facial
points in digital facial images to distinctive facial features
among individuals hampers the manual process of identifying
points. In this case the software the user can click on an
erroneous region pictured interfering with the accuracy of
the metrics of a given metric. The exploited using methods
of geometric shapes in specific regions which assists in the
identification of other points. Lines and circles are marked
based on other potentially more simple points to be identified.
The author [17] using the approach proposed by [16],
defined metrics in their work using cephalometric 28 points for
the estimation of age and gender. These points were based on
work in anthropometry area studies of facial points that define
their locations [26]. The correlations found between certain
sets of cephalometric points allows the estimation of age and
gender using images of 2D facial norm.
The method of correlation using the distances between
the cephalometrics points has used in other studies in the
estimation process of other information on individuals [27],
[28]. [17] has used a parameter measurement of changes in
different face of the proposed in [28]. The calculation of
iridium diameter is used is obtained by the arithmetic mean of
the difference in distance between the points iridion laterale
and iridion mediale both eyes. This result is used in the
calculation base of the other points, not a fixed factor as
discussed in other works.
Several studies have been proposed for automatic identifi-
cation of facial points, which shows the interest and research
in the area. The authors [29][31] contributed solid research
showing concrete models for the advancement of studies on the
landmarks. The technique proposed by [29] to find the pupil
 INPUT OUTPUT
Face
Ground
Image Eyes Landmark Statistical Images and
Truth
Images Processing Mouth Detector Analysis Points
Test
Nose

CSV Points
Ground
Truth
Database Haar Cascade Landmarks Landmarks
Detectors Trainning Set Ground
Truth Statistical
Information

Fig. 2. Flowchart of the proposed automatic cephalometric landmark detec-

tion.

location is the analysis of the vector field of image gradients,

the concept that they use was not proposed by them, though the
mathematical formulation of the problem is your authorship.
In 1992 [31] proposed a technique that dynamically, it can
adjust the image characteristics in his work he demonstrates
the search and adaptation of template for the eyes and mouth.
The representing the eye describes his geometric shapes and
the positioning of each of these forms, after setting the
archetype of the human eye in the form of template, then
the same parameters are set to begin adaptation process of
template to the eye of the individual. The adaptation process
is quite costly, since it is allowed that all the parametrized vari-
ables suffer variations until termination. The authors [30] use
machine learning technique Support Vector Machine (SVM)
to identify the facial landmarks.
III. P ROPOSED M ETHODOLOGY
Our proposed methodology is described in Figure 2 and all
processing stages are explained in subsections below.
A. Image database
Frontal face images were acquired of 1,000 individuals from
5 different age groups (6, 10, 14, 18, and 22 years old), being
500 females and 500 males. 5 age groups were divided equally
with 200 images from each, being half of each gender also.
Images were all standard, taken with white background, no
glasses or expressions, using a camera with focal length at
35mm, 1.5m distance of the object, 24bits color and resolution
of 480x640 pixels. All images was previously selected in
according to ICAO 9303 normative [32] and excluding any
facial issue that it can interfere in the manual/automatic
process.
B. Cephalometric landmarks
[17] has mapped manually 28 cephalometric points from
each image from all 1000 images using SAFF-2D software
used by experts in forensics. These landmarks have features,
that can be found in pair as: Entocanthion, Exocanthion,
Iridion laterale, Iridion mediale, Pupil, Zygion, Alare, Gonion,
Cheilion, Crista philtri. Others can be found on faces midline
as: Glabella, Nasion, Subnasale, Labiale superius, Stomion,
Labiale inferius, Gnathion, Midnasal.
Fig. 3. All 28 cephalometric landmarks adopted in this work: 1. Glabella (g);
2. Nasion (n); 3. Subnasale (sn); 4. Labiale superius (ls); 5. Stomion (sto);
6. Labiale inferius (li); 7. Gnathion (gn); 8. Midnasal (mid); 9. Entocanthion
(en); 10. Exocanthion (ex); 11. Iridion laterale (il); 12. Iridion mediale (im);
13. Pupil (pu); 14. Zygion (zy); 15. Alare (al); 16. Gonion (go); 17. Cheilion
(ch); 18. Crista philtri (cph), image adapted from [25].
C. Training set
In order, we have modified the landmark training iden-
tification algorithm presented in [33]. In [33], the training
process used all face region and landmark points from an
external ground truth file collected manually by an expert. For
each trained photo has a specific ground truth file describing
each landmark and its position (vertical and horizontal) in
the image. From these files and photos, the training process
identify a face-bounded region in each photo and all landmark
points to create a new training set file.
In our proposed solution, we modified the training process
in three specifics regions detected in a face: eyes, mouth
and nose. Our complete photo data-set has 1000 images
and 1000 ground truth files. A cross-validation procedure,
described in [34], was performed for classification problem,
separating randomly 700 photos for training set and 300
photos for testing, to validate the automatic process. As
a result from training process, we achieve 4 specialized
landmark point detection output trained sets: Eyes training
set (includes Glabella, Nasion, Midnasal, Entocanthion, Exo-
canthion, Iridion laterale, Iridion mediale, Zygion and Pupil
landmark points); Mouth training set (includes Labiale su-
perius, Stomion, Labiale inferius, Cheilion,Gonion, Gnathion
and Crista philtri landmark points); Face training set (inclues
Zygion, Gonion and Gnathion landmark points); Nose training
set (includes Subnasale and Alare landmark points). All trained
landmark points have their face position highlighted in the
Figure 3.
D. Automatic landmark detection
The main goal is identify automatically the cephalometric
landmarks in frontal face images and propose a method-
ological approach to validation of achieved results. The pro-
totype presented in this work was developed using C/C++
language and OpenCV framework [35] for computer vision
and image processing techniques. The proposed approach can
be described in 6 (six) main stages, as follows: Input files,
Image processing, Landmark detection, Ground truth analysis,
Statistical analysis and Results. The Figure 2 shows these
stages. A brief description of all them are shown below.
1) The user defines directorys path where all images that
will be processed is stored and then defines the file (a
Comma-separated values file - CSV file or a Databank
connection information) contemning the ground truth
information to evaluated all detected landmarks.
2) For each face image is applied a pre-processing tech-
niques on the image to boost features and it increases
the automated process to identify the cephalometric
landmarks. The next step the Haar-Cascade face detec-
tion technique [36] allows to identify specific bounded
regions of interest on the image as face, eyes, mouth and
nose. The eye alignment in according to face is achieved
from the analysis of vector field of image gradients, as
proposed in [29].
3) From the segmented regions achieved in the previous
step (face, eyes, mouth and nose), we apply a specialized
training set by region to find all landmarks by region.
4) After detected all points on face, the accuracy is eval-
uated by compare the points from the ground truth
file. In this step, each point is analyzed and a set of
statistic values are achieved as: minimum, maximum,
average, spatial centroid position, analysis of variance
(ANOVA) and standard deviation (STD). In this case, if
the image ground truth is available from several manual
markers, for the same image by Inter and Intra-observer,
all statistic values are evaluated automatically.
5) The last step is storage all information as: all images
and 28 points (printed on image for further checking),
CSV file and statistical analysis.
IV. E XPERIMENTAL R ESULTS
As described in Subsection IV-A, we used 300 input images
to evaluate the accuracy of the automatic landmark detection
process (Subsection III-D). Each image uses a ground truth
file used to validate the automatic landmark detection process
that contains one cephalometric landmark for each point.
All cephalometrics landmark was collected by a specialist in
legal medicine using the metrics adopted in real scenarios in
forensics.
A. Accuracy Metrics
To validate our results, we have adopted a metric using
the pixel position, horizontal and vertical, limited by ground
truth point from the file collected by an expert, as described
(a) Hit (b) Miss
Fig. 4. The red circle is the landmark from the ground truth file; and also is
the center of the black boundary edge, where it is the limit (defined in pixel)
adopted to specify the hit range for automatic process. (a) The software
counts as hit when the green circle is inside the black boundary edge. (b)
The software counts as miss when the green circle is in outside of the black
boundary edge.
previously. This approach is a modified version of the pro-
posed by [37]. Using the ground truth point as a reference, we
propose a bounded region on image with dimensions D D,
as shows the Figure 4. The dimension D defines a square,
which allows to evaluate the error influence in according to
the required accuracy. If the value of D decreases, the region
size decreases, increasing the detection technique precision
in relation to the ground truth point. When the value of D
increases, the area increases and decreases the precision of
the automatic detection process in relation to the ground truth
point. The influence of the size D in the accuracy of the
proposed technique will be discussed later in this work.
This bounded region consists of two defined regions: Hit
and Miss. If the point achieved in the automatic landmark
detection, is inside of bounded region is considered a Hit as
shows the Figure 4a, otherwise it is considered as a Miss as
shows the Figure 4b.
In a classification process, usually all results need a test
accuracy analysis, a good measure to be used is the F-
score [38]. This accuracy metric is composed , basically, of
four parameters: True positives (ntp ), True Negative (ntn ),
False Positive (nf p ) and False Negative (nf n ). At the end of
the execution process, after achieve all landmark results, we
define ntp (true positive) when the automated method marks
the landmark inside of the bounded region and a nf p (false
positive) when the automated method marks the landmark out
of bounded region. In this analysis, we have used the F-
score method shown in Equation 1, where variable precision
and recall are defined as precision = ntp /(ntp + nf p ) and
recall = ntp /(ntp + nf n ), respectively. All results of F-
score metric, for each cephalometric point, after the automatic
landmark detection is ranged between 1 (best) and 0(worst).
precision recall
F score = 2 (1)
precision recall
B. Tests
To test the automatic identification process we analyzed the
pixel variation to create the boundary edge limit. Those tests
 1 1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
F-score
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Range in Pixel
Fig. 5. Graphic presenting the general F -score results for each group test.
was used to know what is the limit that automatic process
of cephalometric points identification has an acceptable result
when it is compared to the points collected manually by an
expert observer.
Using all the 300 images that counts 8400 points (28
landmark per photo), we have got run 18 case tests varying
the pixel range size from the point till the limit border. For
each group test were separated by pixel variation as follow:
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 15, 20, 30, 40 and 50
pixels.
Finalizing separately all 18 group tests, as result we have
found the F-score results for each landmark and also the
general scope, which the F-score results for each group
test that allows measure performance from all landmarks.
Figure 5 shows all general F-score values for each group test,
meanwhile Table I shows the F-score values for all landmarks
in each group test.
V. D ISCUSSION
Analyzing the results, the tests of first group (0 pixel)
showed that the automatic process has identified 379 land-
marks at the same point marked manually as the expert
observer. In the other hand, the other tests - from 10 to 50
pixels - the results did not vary significantly compared to
manual marking process. In this tests, the automatic process
has hit 8337 of all 8400 cephalometric landmarks varying the
general F-score result in 0.002 even for 40 pixels of difference.
We conclude in our tests that in a resolution image of
640x480, 5 pixels is the limit that is comparable to an expert
observer. In general the F-score result is 0.985, analyzing each
landmark separately the best and worst F-score results are 1
and 0.79 respectively, where in this case the worst results are
both Zygion landmark.
To all tests the Zygion landmarks have got the worst F-
score result compared to the general F-score in all the tests.
The others cephalometric landmarks reached the F-score value
above 0.9 in the test using 4 pixels, however the both Zygion
landmarks stabilized only from the test using the range limit
of 8 pixels. The tests have shown that both Zygion landmarks
have lower F-score value compared to general F-score result
presented in Figure 6.
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
F-score
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
10 11 12 15 20 30 40 50 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 15 20 30 40 50
Range in Pixel
zy left zy right General
Fig. 6. Graphic presenting the comparison between the general F -score
results and the F -score results of both Zygion landmark in all tests.
The range of 5 pixels from a ground truth point to the
boundary edge is equals less than 0.8% of the image height,
which we were considered as rigid classification criteria for
all landmarks, and using the Cohens kappa coefficient [39]
adopted for statistical classifications in interpreting indices of
agreement, these have supported that F-score value of 0.79 is
also a significant result.
In this case, the group test of 5 pixels, analyzing each point
separately, is the first group test that has no F-score value
bellow 0.75. The results of the tests show the difficult to
identify correctly the cephalometric Zygion landmark position.
This landmark tends to be highly variable when determining
their exact anatomical location. Even in manual analysis some
works describe the difficult to mark manually this point for
not having a reference to help, as in other facial points. The
statistical analysis achieves a expressive dispersion, in this
case less than, when compared to the others facial landmarks
detection approaches [16], [17], [40], [41].
A. Others facial landmarks detection frameworks
A comparative analysis is presented using four main frame-
works in the literature for the facial landmarks detection in
images, as follows: DLIB [42], [43], CLandmark [44][46],
CSIRO FaceAnalisys [47] and Superviseddescent [33], [48].
All tools were used to detect the points available by the
challenge 300-W [49], which were not collected by specialists
in anthropology, odontology, facial cephalometry or criminal
expert. Thus, all tests are performed using these tools, aimed
to demonstrate that these techniques, not achieve an accurate
identification of facial cephalometric points, bring them im-
possible to use for forensic purposes.
The tests aim to assess the training ability of these tech-
niques when them are trained to detect the cephalometric
points, so we use for all framework the same image dataset
presented in the previous Section III. In order to compare these
techniques with the proposed methodology, the 300 images
presented in Subsection III-C were also used.
As presented in the Subsection IV-A, the tolerance criteria
of 5 pixel was used for all tools to define the Hit region
 TABLE I
TABLE PRESENTING ALL F- SCORE RESULTS FOR EACH CEPHALOMETRIC LANDMARK IN EACH GROUP TEST.

Landmark 0 px 1 px 2 px 3 px 4 px 5 px 6 px 7 px 8 px 9 px 10 px 11 px 12 px 15 px 20 px 30 px 40 px 50 px
al e 0.113 0.646 0.929 0.988 0.997 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
al d 0.083 0.636 0.909 0.990 0.997 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
ch e 0.071 0.500 0.819 0.953 0.988 0.997 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
ch d 0.119 0.540 0.828 0.940 0.973 0.992 0.998 0.998 0.998 0.998 0.998 0.998 0.998 0.998 0.998 0.998 0.998 0.998
cph e 0.052 0.446 0.732 0.903 0.976 0.993 0.998 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
cph d 0.101 0.492 0.737 0.915 0.980 0.995 0.998 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
ex e 0.089 0.707 0.947 0.988 0.997 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
ex d 0.089 0.624 0.921 0.992 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
en e 0.119 0.608 0.913 0.986 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
en d 0.148 0.611 0.942 0.990 0.998 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
g 0.077 0.595 0.905 0.981 0.997 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
gn 0.065 0.537 0.851 0.957 0.986 0.997 0.998 0.998 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
go e 0.095 0.547 0.844 0.951 0.980 0.993 0.997 0.998 0.998 0.998 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
go d 0.160 0.592 0.844 0.944 0.995 0.990 0.998 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
il e 0.107 0.763 0.986 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
il d 0.089 0.734 0.980 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
im e 0.089 0.747 0.981 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
im d 0.065 0.729 0.988 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
li 0.046 0.565 0.868 0.951 0.981 0.990 0.995 0.997 0.997 0.997 0.997 0.997 0.997 0.997 0.997 0.997 0.997 0.997
ls 0.089 0.519 0.853 0.958 0.988 0.998 0.998 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
mid 0.033 0.251 0.670 0.889 0.980 0.995 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
n 0.089 0.588 0.891 0.986 0.995 0.998 0.998 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
pu e 0.065 0.783 0.990 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
pu d 0.071 0.770 0.990 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
sn 0.137 0.598 0.895 0.974 0.995 0.998 0.998 0.998 0.998 0.998 0.998 0.998 0.998 0.998 0.998 0.998 0.998 0.998
sto 0.113 0.661 0.955 0.997 0.998 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
zy e 0.013 0.204 0.446 0.611 0.690 0.790 0.830 0.874 0.915 0.951 0.964 0.978 0.988 0.995 0.998 0.998 0.998 0.998
zy d 0.013 0.165 0.454 0.592 0.687 0.790 0.835 0.879 0.913 0.947 0.964 0.974 0.985 0.992 0.995 0.995 0.995 0.995

for the automatic point detection. In this case, because the

General F-score
used techniques have a set of facial landmarks higher than the
proposed methodology available for comparison, the analysis Proposed Method
was performed for only the 18 cephalometric points presented
Superviseddescent
in Section III-B.
In Table II the results of F-score of all the analyzed points DLIB
is presented, including a general F-score analysis for all tested
FaceAnalisys
frameworks. The Figure 7 presents the comparison of the F-
score results of the proposed methodology with all tested Clandmark
frameworks. In a global comparison of all 28 cephalometric
0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 1
facial landmarks the proposed methodology based on the
Superviseddescent [33], [48] technique used as the basis
Fig. 7. Graphic presetting the general F-score comparing the proposed method
inspiration for the development of this work, this was the one to the others landmark frameworks.
which achieved the best general result of F-score was below
of 0.9. 1
0.9
Only the Right Cheilion point (ch d) achieved a better result 0.8

than the proposed methodology, using the CSIRO FaceAnal- 0.7

0.6
F-score

isys framework [47]. However, the CSIRO FaceAnalisys has 0.5

0.4
obtained 0.768 of general F-score, is significantly lower when 0.3
compared to the F-score obtained by the proposed methodol- 0.2
0.1
ogy that was 0.985. The results of these tests only confirm that 0
tested frameworks can not be used for anthropometric analyzes 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 15 20 30 40 50
Range in Pixel
using cephalometric landmarks. Proposed Method Clandmark DLIB FaceAnalisys Superviseddescent

VI. C ONCLUSIONS
In this paper was presented the use of photo anthropometry,
using automated techniques for identifying facial cephalomet-
ric points from frontal view of images. The main contribution
was address to an implementation of an efficient prototype for
Fig. 8. Graphic of the general F-score comparing the proposed method to
the others landmark frameworks.
automatic detection of cephalometric landmarks in frontal face
images.
 TABLE II
R ESULTS : G ENERAL F- SCORE OF PROPOSED METHOD AND OTHERS LANDMARK FRAMEWORKS .

Landmark Proposed Method Clandmark Dlib CSIRO Superviseddescent

al d 1 - - - 0,957
al e 1 - - - 0,917
ch d 0,992 0,585 0,986 0,998 0,901
ch e 0,997 0,404 0,940 0,971 0,925
cph d 0,995 0,887 0,988 0,861 -
cph e 0,993 0,768 0,985 0,804 -
ec d 1 0,608 0,986 0,474 0,949
ec e 1 0,874 0,997 0,644 0,940
en d 1 0,673 0,985 0,865 0,737
en e 1 0,515 0,988 0,811 0,907
g 1 - - - -
gn 0,997 0,707 0,921 0,870 0,670
go d 0,990 0,083 0,365 0,325 -
go e 0,993 0,039 0,408 0,315 -
il d 1 - - - -
il e 1 - - - -
im d 1 - - - -
im e 1 - - - -
li 0,990 0,887 0,953 0,936 0,853
ls 0,998 0,897 0,990 0,974 0,696
mid 0,995 0,281 0,446 0,683 -
n 0,998 - - - -
pu d 1 - - - 0,958
pu e 1 - - - 0,947
sn 0,998 0,942 0,990 0,981 0,874
sto 1 0,844 0,046 0,993 0,859
zy d 0,790 0,142 0,033 0,188 -
zy e 0,790 0,131 0,039 0,166 -
General 0,985 0,631 0,811 0,768 0,880

The presented proposed methodology has achieved results
equivalent to specialists in manual facial landmarks marking
process. And, when compared to the main techniques available
in the current literature for cephalometric landmark detection,
the proposed methodology achieved better results than all the
analyzed techniques.
As suggested further works, for example, currently in the
Federal Police Department, the forensic experts agents use a
manual approach (SAFF 2D
R software) to collect the facial [5] D. Gibelli, Z. Obertova, S. Ritz-Timme, P. Gabriel, T. Arent, M. Rat-
cephalometric landmarks on photos. The development of the
proposed methodology, addressed to automatic cephalometric
landmarks identification, allows them achieve improvements
in all manual tasks reducing failures, in forensics analysis for
example, which the human error could compromises the entire
forensic analysis.
The result shows that computer vision and image processing
techniques, applied in to photo anthropometry and others
anthropology research areas, promises to achieve goals be-
yond of cephalometric landmark identification. Several other
anthropological analyzes can be benefited from this proposed
methodology, allow them achieve improvements and reducing
the analysis time.
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