In

st
itu
te
of
G
eo
gr
ap
hi
ca
l In
fo
rm
at
io
n
Sy
ste
m
s
Image Analysis/Classification
 Image Classification

s
m
s te
Sy
Classification is the process of assigning pixels to the Land cover classes

n
or themes in a remotely sensed data

io
at
A process of converting remotely sensed data into useful information

rm
fo
Image classification can be described as a process to automatically

In
assign land cover class categories to every pixel of the image

l
ca
An important part of image analysis is identifying groups of pixels that
hi
ap
have similar spectral characteristics and to determine the various
gr

features or land covers represented by these groups. This form of

eo
G

analysis is known as classification

of
te
itu
st
In
 s
Visual Interpretation vs. Classification

m
s te
Sy
Visual Interpretation

n
io
Human analyst attempts to classify features in an image using the

at
elements of visual interpretation

rm
fo
In
Digital image classification

l
ca
hi
Uses the spectral information represented by the digital numbers in one
ap
or more spectral bands, and attempts by using a computer, to classify
gr

each individual pixel based on this spectral information. This type of

eo
G

classification is also termed spectral pattern recognition

of
te
itu
st
In
 s
Image Classification

m
s te
Sy
An image represents both spectral and information classes which

n
io
at
must be distinguished while performing classification

rm
fo
Spectral classes: groups of pixels that have nearly uniform spectral

l In
characteristics in all the spectral bands

ca
hi
ap
Information classes: various themes or object that represent the
gr

actual features on ground, Classes that human beings define

eo
G
of
te
itu
st
In
 s
Image Classification

m
s te
Sy
Image classification can also be defined as the process of matching the

n
spectral classes in the data to the information classes of interest

io
at
All pixels in an image are assigned to particular classes or themes resulting in

rm
a classified image that is essentially a thematic map of the original image

fo
In
Conventional classification approaches operate on a per-pixel basis

l
ca
Per-pixel methods examine each pixel of the image independently and
hi
ap
assign it to a class based on its spectral characteristics
gr

The most commonly used per-pixel methods are,

eo
G

Supervised classifications
of
te

Unsupervised classifications
itu
st
In
 s
m
Information Classes and Spectral Classes

ste
Sy
A broad information class may contain a number of spectral sub-classes

n
io
with unique spectral variations

at
rm
In Forest class , spectral sub-classes may be due to variations in age,

fo
In
species, and density, or perhaps as a result of shadowing or variations

l
ca
in scene illumination
hi
ap
gr

It is the analyst's job to decide on the utility of the different spectral

eo
G

classes and their correspondence to useful information classes

of
te
itu
st
In
 s
m
Spectral and information classes

ste
Sy
n
Ideal classification results can be achieved once one spectral class is

io
at
rm
related to one information class.

fo
In
Likely results can be obtained once more than one spectral class

l
ca
relates to one information class.
hi
ap
However, when spectral classes relate to more than one information
gr
eo

classes, the results are problematic and likely inaccurate.

G
of
te
itu
st
In
In Ideal Results

Likely Results
st
itu
te
of
G
eo
gr
ap
hi
ca
l In
fo
rm
at
io
n
Sy
s te
m
s
 s
m
s te
Sy
Problematic Results Spectral Class Information Classes

n
io
1 water Water

at
Shadow

rm
2 Bare land Bare land

fo
In
Parking area

l
ca
hi
ap
gr
eo
G
of
te
itu
st
In
 s
Classification

m
ste
Multispectral classification may be performed using

Sy
algorithms based on parametric and nonparametric statistics

n
io
nonmetric methods (Decision Tree based Methods)

at

rm
The use of

fo
Supervised or

In
Unsupervised classification logic

l
ca
The use of
Hard or
hi
ap
Soft (fuzzy)
gr
eo

The use of
G

Per-pixel or
of

Object-oriented classification logic

te

Hybrid approaches (using ancillary data/information)

itu
st
In
 s
m
Classification

tes
Sy
Parametric methods

n
io
assume normally distributed remote sensor data

at
rm
fo
Nonparametric methods

lIn
may be applied to remote sensor data that are not normally

ca
hi
distributed ap
gr
eo

Nonmetric methods
G
of

such as rule-based decision tree classifiers

te
itu
st
In
 s
Supervised Classification

m
ste
Sy
Identity of some of the land-cover types are known a priori

n
io
The analyst selects training sites because the spectral

at
rm
characteristics of these known areas are used to train the

fo
classification algorithm for eventual land-cover mapping of the

In
l
ca
remainder of the image

hi
Univariate and multivariate statistical parameters are calculated
ap
gr

for each training site

eo
G

Every pixel both within and outside the training sites is then
of
te

evaluated and assigned to the class of which it has the highest

itu

likelihood of being a member

st
In
 s
m
Unsupervised Classification

ste
Sy
The identities of land-cover types within a scene are not generally

n
io
known a priori because ground reference information is lacking or

at
rm
surface features within the scene are not well defined

fo
In
The computer is instructed to group pixels with similar spectral

l
ca
characteristics into unique clusters according to some statistically
hi
ap
determined criteria
gr
eo

The analyst then re-labels and combines the spectral clusters into
G
of

information classes
te
itu
st
In
 s
m
Unsupervised Classification

te
s
Sy
n
Supervised and unsupervised classification algorithms typically

io
at
use hard classification logic to produce a classification maps

rm
fo
lIn
ca
Conversely, it is also possible to use fuzzy logic, which takes into
hi
ap
account the imprecise nature of the real world
gr
eo
G
of
te
itu
st
In
 s
m
Per-pixel vs. Object-oriented Classification

s te
Sy
Per-pixel classification

n
io
Digital image classification based on processing the entire scene pixel by

at
pixel

rm
Object-oriented (based) classification

fo
Techniques that allow the analyst to decompose the scene into many

In
relatively homogenous image objects (segments) using a multi-resolution

l
ca
image segmentation process

hi
The various statistical characteristics of these homogeneous image objects
ap
in the scene are then subjected to traditional statistical or fuzzy logic
gr

classification
eo

Object-oriented classification based on image segmentation is often used

G

for the analysis of high-spatial-resolution imagery

of
te
itu
st
In
 s
Land-use and Land-cover Classification

m
ste
Sy
Land use

n
io
refers to what people do on the land surface (e.g., agriculture,

at
rm
commerce, settlement)

fo
relates to the human activity or economic functions associated

lIn
with a specific piece of land, residential area ,industry

ca
Land cover hi
ap
gr

refers to the type of material present on the landscape (e.g.,

eo
G

water, sand, crops, forest, human-made materials buildings, road)

of
te
itu
st
In

18
 U.S. Geological Surveys Land-Use/Land-Cover

s
m
Classification System for Use with Remote Sensor Data

ste
Sy
The system is designed to be driven primarily by the interpretation of remote

n
io
at
sensor data obtained at various scales and resolutions

rm
Anderson Paper uploaded on LMS

fo
lIn
ca
hi
ap
gr
eo
G
of
te
itu
st
In
 Level I Level II

s
11. Residential
1. Urban or built-up land

m
12. Commercial and service
13. Industrial

te
14. Transportation, communications and utilities

s
15. Industrial and commercial complexes

Sy
16. Mixed urban or built-up land
17. Other urban or built-up land

n
21. Cropland and pasture
2. Agricultural land

io
22. Orchards, groves, vineyards, nurseries, and ornamental horticultural areas
23. Confined feeding operations

at
24. Other agricultural land

rm
31. Herbaceous rangeland
3. Rangeland 32. Shrub and brush rangeland
33. Mixed rangeland

fo
41. Deciduous forest land
4. Forest land

In
42. Evergreen forest land
43. Mixed forest land

l
51. Streams and canals

ca
5. Water 52. Lakes
53. Reservoirs

hi
54.
ap Bays and estuaries
61. Forested wetland
6. Wetland 62. Non-forested wetland
gr

71. Dry salt flats

7. Barren land
eo

72. Beaches
73. Sandy area other than beaches
G

74. Bare exposed rock

75. Strip mines, quarries and gravel pits
76. Transitional areas
of

77. Mixed barren land

te

81. Shrub and brush tundra

8. Tundra 82. Herbaceous tundra
itu

83. Bare ground tundra

84. Wet tundra
st

85. Mixed tundra

In

91. Perennial snow fields 20

9. Perennial snow or ice 92. Glaciers
 s
Land Use/Land Cover Cl

m
te
Level-III

s
Sy
n
io
Residential

at
rm
Level I Level II
Single Family

fo
1. Urban or 11. Residential

In
built-up land 12. Commercial and service
13. Industrial Multifamily

l
ca
14. Transportation, communications and

hi
utilities
Apartments
ap
15. Industrial and commercial
complexes
gr

16. Mixed urban or built-up land Residential Hostels

eo

17. Other urban or built-up land

G

Mobile Home Parks

of
te

Others
itu
st
In

21
In
st
itu
te
of
G
eo
gr
ap
hi
ca
l In
fo
rm
at
io
n
Sy
ste
m
s
 s
m
Nominal spatial resolution

te
requirements as a function of the

s
mapping requirements for Levels I to IV

Sy
land-cover classes in the United States

n
(based on Anderson et al., 1976). Note

io
the dramatic increase in spatial

at
resolution required to map Level II

rm
classes.

fo
In
l
ca
hi
ap
gr
eo
G
of
te
itu
st
In
 s
m
Reference/Readings

tes
Sy
n
Chapters on Image Classification

io
at
rm
fo
In
l
ca
hi
ap
gr
eo
G
of
te
itu
st
In
In
st
itu
te
of
G
eo
gr
ap
hi
ca
l In
fo
rm
at
io
n
Sy
ste
m
Unsupervised Classification

s
 s
Unsupervised Classification

m
ste
Sy
Commonly referred to as clustering

n
io
Compared to supervised classification, unsupervised

at
rm
classification normally requires only a minimal amount

fo
In
of initial input from the analyst

l
ca
hi
This is because clustering does not normally require
ap
gr
eo

training data
G
of
te
itu
st
In
 s
Unsupervised Classification

m
s te
Sy
Process that search for natural groupings of the spectral properties of pixels

n
io
Clustering process results in a classification map consisting of m spectral

at
rm
classes (clusters)

fo
The analyst then attempts a posteriori (after the fact) to assign or transform

In
the spectral classes into thematic information classes of interest (e.g., forest,

l
ca
agriculture)
hi
ap
Some spectral clusters may be meaningless because they represent mixed
gr
eo

classes of Earth surface materials

G

The analyst must understand the spectral characteristics of the terrain well
of
te

enough to be able to label certain clusters as specific information classes

itu
st
In
In
st
itu
te
of
G
eo
gr
ap
hi
ca
l In
fo
rm
at
io
n
Sy
ste
m
s
 Unsupervised Classification

s
m
te
Two step process

s
Sy
Iterative process of Clusters forming

n
Cluster means utilized to assign pixels to class based on

io
at
distance

rm
fo
lIn
ca
hi
ap
gr
eo
G
of
te
itu
st
In
 To classify unknown pixel, the distance between the unknown pixel and the

s
m
mean values for each (cluster)class is determined

te
Assigns the unknown pixel to the closest class

s
Sy
n
io
at
rm
fo
l In
ca
hi
ap
gr
eo
G
of
te
itu

Min distance to means relatively easy, involves means values , ignores within class
variance
st

Point 2 will classified to class J instead of R

In
In
st
itu
te
of
G
eo
gr
ap
hi
ca
l In
fo
rm
at
io
n
Sy
ste
m
s
In
st
itu
te
of
G
eo
gr
ap
hi
ca
l In
fo
rm
at
io
n
Sy
ste
m
s
 s
m
Unsupervised Classification -Methods

ste
Sy
n
Two widely used unsupervised classification methods

io
at
rm
K-Mean

fo
In
Iterative Self-Organizing Data Analysis Technique (ISODATA)

l
ca
hi
ap
gr
eo
G
of
te
itu
st
In
 s
K mean

m
s te
The main idea of the k-means clustering is to specify number of clusters (as a

Sy
constraint) to be generated, and define a set of arbitrary pixels as cluster

n
io
at
centroids, i.e. one for each cluster (as the no of clusters known a priori)

rm
The clustering starts with the fixed a priori specified number of clusters to be

fo
In
created.

l
ca
It calculates the distance (normally Euclidian) between the initial cluster

hi
centroids and each pixel of the image, and then, each pixel in the image is
ap
gr

assigned to the cluster with the closest means

eo

It iteratively calculates the new cluster means and the pixels assignment is
G
of

updated to the relevant clusters

te

This iterative assignment process continues until there is no substantial change

itu
st

between the successive iterations

In
In
st
itu
te
of
G
eo
gr
ap
hi
ca
l In
fo
rm
at
io
n
Sy
ste
m
s
 s
m
ISODATA Clustering

ste
Sy
The ISODATA algorithm is a modification of the k-means

n
io
clustering algorithm, which includes

at
rm
Merging of the clusters

fo
In
Splitting a single cluster into two clusters

l
ca
ISODATA is iterative because it makes a large number of
hi
ap
passes through the remote sensing dataset until specified
gr
eo

results are obtained

G
of
te
itu
st
In
 s
m
ISODATA Clustering

s te
Sy
Uses the minimum spectral distance formula to form clusters

n
io
Begins with either arbitrary cluster means or the means of an existing

at
rm
signature set

fo
Each time the clustering repeats, the means of these clusters are shifted

l In
ca
The new cluster means are used for the next iteration

hi
ap
The process stops when
gr

a maximum number of iterations has been performed,

eo
G

or a maximum percentage of unchanged pixels has been reached

of

between two iterations

te
itu
st
In
 s
ISODATA Clustering

m
ste
Sy
ISODATA algorithms normally require the analyst to specify the

n
io
following criteria:

at
rm
Maximum number of clusters (classes) to be identified by the

fo
algorithm

l In
ca
Minimum Distance: Cluster pairs that have a Euclidean

hi
distance less than this value will be merged into one cluster
ap
gr

No of iterations-maximum number of times ISODATA is to

eo
G

classify pixels and recalculate cluster mean vectors. The ISODATA

of

algorithm terminates when this number is reached

te
itu
st
In
 s
ISODATA Clustering

m
s te
Sy
Minimum members in a cluster (%): If a cluster contains less than the

n
io
minimum percentage of members, it is deleted and the members are

at
rm
assigned to an alternative cluster (percent of pixels in a cluster relative to

fo
the total number of pixels in the image)

l In
ca
hi
Maximum standard deviation (smax): When the standard deviation for a
ap
cluster exceeds the specified maximum standard deviation in any band,
gr
eo

the cluster is split into two clusters

G
of
te
itu
st
In
 ISODATA

s
m
(Iterative Self-Organizing Data Analysis Techniques)

te
s
Sy
The ISODATA algorithm starts with an initial threshold

n
io
It assigns each pixel to a cluster with the closest means and the process

at
rm
iteratively continues until a predefined threshold is approached

fo
It additionally merges the clusters that have less number of pixels than the

l In
threshold or if the center of two clusters are too close

ca
hi
It also split a big cluster if the cluster standard deviation exceeds a predefined
ap
value
gr
eo

After the required number of clusters are formed, the analyst using his priori
G
of

knowledge about the area or some reference data assigns the information
te

classes to each cluster to prepare the final thematic map

itu
st
In
Splitting a big cluster if the cluster standard deviation exceeds threshold

s
m
s te
Sy
n
io
at
rm
fo
l In
ca
hi
ap
gr
eo
G
of
te
itu
st
In
 s
m
Post Classification

ste
Sy
n
In post classification phase, analyst compare spectral classes

io
at
with some reference data to identify the spectral classes

rm
fo
Spectral reflectance curves can be used to identify the

lIn
spectral classes

ca
hi
Defining the level of classification
ap
gr

Merging different classes to reach final outcome

eo
G

Accuracy assessment through field truthing or reference data

of
te
itu
st
In
In
st
itu
te
of
G
eo
gr
ap
hi
ca
l In
fo
rm
at
io
n
Unsupervised Classification

Sy
ste
m
s
 s
m
te
Initialize from Statistics generate arbitrary

s
Sy
clusters from the file statistics for the entire
.img file

n
Use Signature Means use only the selected

io
at
signatures in the Signature Editor to generate

rm
the clusters

fo
In
Convergence Threshold: is the maximum

l
percentage of pixels whose cluster assignments

ca
can go unchanged between iterations

hi
ap
gr

Skip Factors: X,Y:

eo

1 processes all pixels,

G

2 processes every other pixel,

3 every third pixel
of
te

Assignment of color to the clusters

itu
st
In
 s
Classified Image

m
s te
Sy
n
io
at
rm
fo
l In
ca
hi
ap
gr
eo
G
of
te
itu

Raster Attribute editor > edits> column properties > up /down > Display width
st
In
 s
Cluster Assignment to classes

m
te
Display both original and classified image in viewer

s
Sy
n
io
at
rm
fo
In
l
ca
hi
ap
gr
eo
G
of
te
itu
st
In
In
st
itu

individual class
Opacity to check
te
of
G
eo
gr
ap
hi
ca
l In
fo
rm
at
io
n
Sy
ste
m
s
 s
m
ste
Figure 2. ISODATA

Sy
Figure 1.
Washington DC cluster map of the
Mall data set.

n
Washington DC Mall. A

io
total of 15 clusters were

at
identified in order to

rm
discern the spectral

fo
heterogeneity of

In
information classes.

l
ca
hi Key
ap
gr
eo
G
of
te
itu
st
In
In
st
itu
te
of
G
eo
gr
ap
hi
ca
l In
fo
rm
at
io
n
Sy
ste
m
s
Classes
 s
m
Reference/Reading

ste
Sy
n
Chapter 12,Section 12.3, Campbell

io
at
Chapter 8, Section 8.3.2, Mather

rm
fo
lIn
ca
hi
ap
gr
eo
G
of
te
itu
st
In
In
st
itu
te
of
G
eo
gr
ap
hi
ca
l In
fo
rm
at
io
n
Sy
s
Supervised Classification

te
m
s
 s
Supervised Classification

m
ste
Sy
Supervised classification can be defined as the process of using

n
io
samples of known classes to classify the remaining unknown

at
rm
pixels to these classes with in the image

fo
Supervised classification exploits a priori knowledge about the

In
l
ca
data to identify which of the predefined informational classes
hi
ap
closely resembles a classification unit, Prior Decision
gr
eo

This a priori knowledge typically is in the form of training samples

G
of
te
itu
st
In
 s
Supervised Classification

m
ste
Sy
The analyst first selects training samples for all representative

n
io
classes

at
rm
These training samples are a collection of representative data

fo
In
points for which the class labels are known to the analyst

l
ca
Statistical characteristics (based on spectral information) of these
hi
ap
training samples are used to train the classifier, to identify and
gr
eo

match the class labels of the unknown data points

G
of
te
itu
st
In
 s
Supervised Classification

m
ste
Sy
As the classification process is based on the training data, they

n
io
must be homogeneous and represent the classes as closely as

at
rm
possible

fo
Pixels that are at the boundaries of the different information

lIn
ca
classes, (pixels with mixed spectral characteristics) should not be
hi
ap
selected as training pixels to avoid between-class confusions
gr
eo

The training samples for a class should represent within-class

G

spectral variations and should not include pixels with obvious

of
te

mixtures
itu
st
In
 s
Supervised Classification

m
ste
Sy
The training samples should be well spread over the entire image

n
io
at
to adequately represent the information classes

rm
fo
In
An image with high within-class and low between-class spectral

l
ca
hi
variability makes it hard to select true representative class
ap
gr

samples and to achieve satisfactory classification results

eo
G
of
te
itu
st
In
 s
Supervised Classification

m
ste
Sy
The training pixels should be sufficient in numbers and the

n
io
general rule is to collect at least 10xN to 100xN pixels for each

at
rm
class, where N is the number of bands of the image being used

fo
The brightness value of each pixel of the training data of the

lIn
ca
desired classes are used to calculate the mean, standard
hi
ap
deviation, variance-covariance and correlation matrices
gr
eo

These measures represent the spectral characteristics of classes,

G

and required by the algorithms to assign appropriate class to the

of
te

remaining unclassified image data

itu
st
In
 s
Selecting the Optimum Bands for Image

m
te
Classification: Feature Selection

s
Sy
n
io
After getting training statistics a judgment is often made to

at
rm
determine the bands (channels) that are most effective in

fo
discriminating each class from all others

l In
ca
This process is commonly called feature selection
hi
ap
The goal is to delete from the analysis the bands that provide
gr
eo

redundant spectral information

G

This minimizes the cost of the digital image classification process

of
te
itu
st
In
 s
m
SUPERVISED CLASSIFICATION

s te

Sy
Training stage

n
Analyst need to have significant prior knowledge of the area and ground

io
at
cover

rm
fo
Training sample or training signature collection

In
Feature Selection

l
ca
hi
Classification Stage : categorization of each pixel to landscape class it
ap
most closely resemble
gr

Accuracy Assessment
eo

Output stage: the results may be used to:

of

Generate thematic maps

te

Tabulate scene/classification statistics

itu

Use of the Derived information for further analysis in GIS

st
In
 s
m
Select the Appropriate Classification Algorithm

s te
Sy
Several widely adopted nonparametric classification algorithms

n
include:

io
at
Minimum distance

rm
Box Classifier or Parallepiped

fo
In
The most widely adopted parametric classification algorithms is

l
the Maximum likelihood

ca
hi
These algorithms require that
ap
gr

The number of classes be specified in advance, and

eo

That certain statistical characteristics of each class to which the pixels

G
of

are to be allocated are known, these estimates are derived from the
te

training samples
itu
st
In
 s
Minimum Distance to Means Classification Algorithm

m
te
To assign unclassified pixels to their nearest classes

s
Sy
The minimum distance to means decision rule is computationally

n
io
at
simple and commonly used

rm
fo
It requires that the user provide the mean vectors for each class

In
in each band ck from the training data

l
ca
hi
To perform a minimum distance classification, a program must
ap
gr

calculate the distance to each mean vector ck from each

eo
G

unknown pixel (BVijk)

of
te
itu
st
In
 s
MINIMUM DISTANCE TO MEANS

m
ste
Sy
Point 1, an unknown, the shortest straight-
line distance to the several means is to the

n
Soil

io
class ----------------------". Point 1, then, is
Soil

at
assigned to -------------------------------------.

rm
Point 2 is slightly closer to the "soil" but lies
at the edge of the "urban" spread. Here, the

fo
classification seems ambiguous.

In
By the minimum distance rule, it would
go to "soil" but this may be erroneous

l
ca
("urban" would have been a greater

hi
likelihood). ap
Point 3 is not near any of the class DN
gr
clusters, but is about equidistance between
"urban", "water", "forest", and "heather". If
eo

one plays the odds, "urban" may be closer

G

to 3; but this situation indicates how

of

misclassification might occur.

te
itu
st
In
 s
m
Parallelepiped Classification Algorithm

s te
Sy
n
io
Statistically, Range is the simplest measure of variability for a set of

at
data values

rm
fo
Range- Min and Max Values obtained from training set to bound

In
the class

l
ca
Thus, a rectangular decision region for each class is defined
hi
ap
The range in all bands describes a multidimensional box or
gr

parallelepiped
eo
G
of
te
itu
st
In
 s
m
Parallelepiped Classification Algorithm

ste
Sy
n
Requires the analyst to provide

io
at
an estimate of the lowest and highest pixel values for each

rm
class in each band

fo
l In
or

ca
a range in terms of a standard deviation units on either
hi
ap
side of the mean of each band
gr
eo

These extreme values allow the estimation of the position of

G

the boundaries of the box or parallepiped

of
te
itu
st
In
 s
m
Parallelepiped Classification Algorithm

s te
Sy
Each pixel to be classified, its values are checked to see whether they lie

n
io
inside any of the parallelepipeds

at
If the pixel lies inside just one of the parallelepipeds, is therefore labeled as a

rm
member of the class represented by that parallelepiped

fo
If a particular pixel in this space does not lie inside any of the regions defined

In
by the parallelepipeds, pixels are of an unknown type and left unclassified

l
ca
A pixel may lie inside two or more overlapping parallelepipeds, and the

hi
decision then becomes more complicated. The easiest way around is to
ap
allocate the pixel to the first parallelepiped inside whose boundaries it falls
gr

or
eo

Find distance between the doubtful pixel and the center point of each
G

parallelepiped and use a minimum distance rule to decide on the best

of

classification
te
itu
st
In
 s
m
Parallelepiped Classification Algorithm

s te
Sy
n
io
at
rm
fo
l In
ca
hi
ap
gr
eo
G
of
te
itu

If a pixel value lies above the low threshold and below the high threshold for all n
st
In

bands being classified, it is assigned to that class

In
st
itu
te
of
G
eo
gr
ap
hi
ca
l In
fo
rm
at
io
n
Sy
ste
m
s
 s
m
Maximum Likelihood Classification Algorithm

s te
Sy
The maximum likelihood decision rule is based on probability

n
io
at
The maximum likelihood procedure assumes that the training data statistics for

rm
each class in each band are normally distributed

fo
In
The probability of a pixel belonging to each of a predefined set of m classes is

l
ca
calculated, and the pixel is then assigned to the class for which the probability

hi
is the highest
ap
gr

The probability information is obtained through the computation of probability

eo
G

density functions ( a probability density function (PDF), or density of a continuous random variable, is a function that describes the
of

relative likelihood for this random variable to take on a given value.

te

The mean, variance and co-variance of each training class is needed to compute
itu

the probability function

st
In
 s
m
s te
Sy
wj

n
io
Band 2 wi

at
rm
fo
In
Band 1

l
ca
class overlap
hi
ap
gr

# of
eo

pixels
G
of
te

0 255
itu

Digital Number
st

Band 1
In
 s
m
What happens when the

te
probability density

s
functions of two or more

Sy
training classes overlap

n
in feature space? For

io
example, consider two

at
hypothetical normally

rm
distributed probability

fo
density functions

In
associated with forest
and agriculture training

l
ca
data measured in bands

hi
ap 1 and 2. In this case,
pixel X would be
gr
assigned to forest
because the probability
eo

density of unknown
G

measurement vector X is
of

greater for forest than

te

for agriculture.
itu
st
In
 s
m
Training Samples Guidelines

s te
Sy
Minimum number of samples = number of parameters to be estimated:

n
io
Practical minimum = 10 to 100 x no. bands.

at
rm
Distribute training pixels for a spectral class across the image to better

fo
represent the variation of the class in the image.

l In
Do not include pixels in training areas that are adjacent to borders of

ca
hi
spectral classes (like field boundaries).
ap
Do not include pixels for groups containing obvious mixtures (e.g. deep
gr
eo

water and shallow water)

G
of
te
itu
st
In
 s
m
ste
Sy
n
io
at
rm
fo
In
l
ca
hi
ap
gr
eo
G
of
te

Different techniques for signatures

itu

selection
st
In
In
st
itu
te
of
G
eo
gr
ap
hi
ca
l In
Signature Styles

fo
rm
at
io
n
Sy
ste
m
s
 s
m
te
Merge Signature of Same Class

s
Sy
Select the classes need to be merged> shift click Class #

n
Press merge selected signature button

io
New class of merged signatures is added at the end

at
Delete the previous selected on and assign name to the merged signatures

rm
fo
l In
ca
hi
ap
gr
eo
G
of
te
itu
st
In
In
st
itu
te
of
G
eo
gr
ap
hi
ca
l In
fo
Signature Alarm

rm
at
io
n
Sy
ste
m
s
 s
m
Evaluate Signatures Accuracy

s te
Sy
Reference Data

n
io
at
Classified

rm
Data Agricultur Agricultur Forest_1 Forest_2 Urban_1 Urban_2 Row Total

fo
e e

In
---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ----------

l
Agriculture 62 0 0 0 0 0 62

ca
Agriculture 0 45 0 0 0 0 45

hi
Forest_1 0 0
ap 493 15 0 0 508
Forest_2 0 0 7 402 0 0 409
gr

Water 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
eo

Urban_1 0 0 0 0 75 0 75
G

Urban_2 0 0 0 0 0 81 81
of

Column 62 45 500 417 75 81 1180

te

Total
itu
st
In
 s
Signatures Accuracy

m
ste
Which one will be a good signature?

Sy
n
io
at
rm
good

fo
lIn
ca
hi
ap
gr
eo
G

bad
of
te
itu
st
In
In
st
itu
te
of
G
eo
gr
ap
hi
ca
l In
fo
rm
at
Signatures Accuracy-Histogram

io
n
Sy
ste
m
s
In
st
itu
te
of
G
eo
gr
ap
hi
ca
l In
fo
rm
at
io
Original and classified image

n
Sy
ste
m
s
 s
Class thematic map

m
ste
Sy
n
io
at
rm
fo
lIn
ca
hi
ap
gr
eo
G
of

Assign color to classes

Add area column
te
itu
st
In
 s
m
te
MINIMUM

s
Washington

Sy
DC Mall data DISTANCE TO
set. MEAN

n
io
METHOD

at
rm
fo
In
l
ca
hi
ap
gr

Key
eo
G
of
te
itu
st
In
In
st
itu
te
of
G
eo

Key
MAX LIKELY HOOD METHOD

gr
ap
hi
ca
l In
fo
rm
at
io
n
Sy
s te
m
s
 s
Supervised vs. Unsupervised

m
s te
Sy
Select Training fields Run clustering
algorithm

n
io
at
rm
Edit/evaluate Identify classes

fo
signatures

l In
ca
hi
Classify image
ap Edit/evaluate
signatures
gr
eo
G
of

Evaluate Evaluate
te

classification classification
itu
st
In
 s
m
s te
Sy
n
Spectral classes for an image be represented by

io
at
i, i = 1, . . . M

rm
Determine the class or category to which a pixel vector x belongs, the

fo
probability is to be calculated

In
p(i |x), i = 1, . . . M

l
ca
p(i |x) gives the likelihood that the correct class is i for a pixel at

hi
position x. ap
Classification is performed according to
gr

x i , if p(i |x) > p(j |x) for all j I

eo
G

The pixel at x belongs to class i if p(i |x) is the largest.

of
te
itu
st
In