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Under an electric field, free electrons move through the metal much like billiard balls knocking against
each other, passing an electric charge as they move.
The transfer of energy is strongest when there is little resistance. On a billiard table, this occurs when a
ball strikes against another single ball, passing most of its energy onto the next ball. If a single ball strikes
multiple other balls, each of those will carry only a fraction of the energy.
By the same token, the most effective conductors of electricity are metals that have a single valence
electron that is free to move and causes a strong repelling reaction in other electrons.
This is the case in the most conductive metals, such as silver, gold, and copper, who each have a single
valence electron that moves with little resistance and causes a strong repelling reaction.
Semi-conductor metals (or metalloids) have a higher number of valence electrons (usually four or more)
so, although they can conduct electricity, they are inefficient at the task.
However, when heated or doped with other elements semiconductors like silicon and germanium can
become extremely efficient conductors of electricity.
Conduction in metals must follow Ohm's Law, which states that the current is directly proportional to
the electric field applied to the metal. The key variable in applying Ohm's Law is a metal's resistivity.
Resistivity is the opposite of electrical conductivity, evaluating how strongly a metal opposes the flow of
electric current. This is commonly measured across the opposite faces of a one-meter cube of material
and described as an ohm meter (m). Resistivity is often represented by the Greek letter rho ().
Electrical conductivity, on the other hand, is commonly measured by siemens per meter (Sm1) and
represented by the Greek letter sigma (). One siemens is equal to the reciprocal of one ohm.
Conductivity & Resistivity in Metals
Resistivity Conductivity
Material
p(m) at 20C (S/m) at 20C
Silver 1.59x10-8 6.30x107
Copper 1.68x10-8 5.98x107
Annealed Copper 1.72x10-8 5.80x107
Gold 2.44x10-8 4.52x107
Aluminum 2.82x10-8 3.5x107
Calcium 3.36x10-8 2.82x107
Beryllium 4.00x10-8 2.500x107
Rhodium 4.49x10-8 2.23x107
Magnesium 4.66x10-8 2.15x107
Molybdenum 5.225x10-8 1.914x107
Iridium 5.289x10-8 1.891x107
Tungsten 5.49x10-8 1.82x107
Zinc 5.945x10-8 1.682x107
Cobalt 6.25x10-8 1.60x107
Cadmium 6.84x10-8 1.467
Nickel (electrolytic) 6.84x10-8 1.46x107
Ruthenium 7.595x10-8 1.31x107
Lithium 8.54x10-8 1.17x107
Iron 9.58x10-8 1.04x107
Platinum 1.06x10-7 9.44x106
Palladium 1.08x10-7 9.28x106
Tin 1.15x10-7 8.7x106
Selenium 1.197x10-7 8.35x106
Tantalum 1.24x10-7 8.06x106
Niobium 1.31x10-7 7.66x106
Steel (Cast) 1.61x10-7 6.21x106
Chromium 1.96x10-7 5.10x106
Lead 2.05x10-7 4.87x106
Vanadium 2.61x10-7 3.83x106
Uranium 2.87x10-7 3.48x106
Antimony* 3.92x10-7 2.55x106
Zirconium 4.105x10-7 2.44x106
Titanium 5.56x10-7 1.798x106
Mercury 9.58x10-7 1.044x106
Germanium* 4.6x10-1 2.17
2
Silicon* 6.40x10 1.56x10-3
*Note: The resistivity of semiconductors (metalloids) is heavily dependent on the presence of impurities
in the material.
https://www.thebalance.com/electrical-conductivity-in-metals-2340117
in which is the conductivity of the material expressed in Siemens per meter (S/m). In electrical
engineering often (kappa) is used instead of .
Electrical Resistance
Electrical resistance is expressed in Ohms, and is not the same as resistivity. While resistivity is a
material property, resistance is the property of an object. The electrical resistance of a resistor is
determined by the combination of the shape and the resistivity of the material. For example, a
wirewound resistor with a long, thick wire has a higher resistance then with a shorter and thinner wire.
A wirewound resistor made from a material with high resistivity has a higher resistance value then one
with a low resistivity. An analogy with a hydraulic system can be made, where water is pumped through
a pipe. The longer and thinner the pipe, the higher the resistance will be. A pipe full with sand will resist
the flow of water more than a without sand (resistivity property).
Nichrome and Constantan are often used as resistance wire. Look in the table for material resistivity for
commonly used materials.
Sheet resistance
The resistance value for a sheet is calculated the exact same way as for wire resistance. The cross-
sectional area can be written as the product of w and t:
For some applications like thin films, the ratio between resistivity and film thickness is called sheet
resistance Rs:
in which Rs is in ohms. The film thickness needs to be uniform for this calculation.
Often resistor manufacturers increase resistance by cutting a pattern in the film to increase the path of
the electric current.
Electrical resistance of a sheet depends on length, width, film thickness and resistivity. The resistance
can be increased by cutting a pattern in the sheet.
Resistive properties of materials
The resistivity of a material is dependent on the temperature and is normally given for room
temperature (20C). The change in resistivity as a result of temperature change is described by the
temperature coefficient. For example thermistors make use of this property to measure temperature.
On the other hand, in precision electronics this is usually an unwanted effect. Metal foil resistors have
excellent properties for temperature stability. This is reached not only by the low resistivity of the
material, but also by the mechanical design of the component.
Many different materials and alloys are used for resistors. Nichrome, an alloy of nickel and chromium, is
often used as resistor wire material because of its high resistivity and it doesnt oxidize at high
temperatures. A disadvantage is that solder doesnt adhere to it. Constantan, another popular material,
is easily soldered and has furthermore a low temperature coefficient.
Temperature coefficient
Material (m) at 20C (S/m) at 20C
(1/C) x10^-3
Silver 1.59108 6.30107 3.8
Copper 1.68108 5.96107 3.9
Gold 2.44108 4.10107 3.4
Aluminum 2.82108 3.5107 3.9
Tungsten 5.60108 1.79107 4.5
Zinc 5.90108 1.69107 3.7
Nickel 6.99108 1.43107 6
Lithium 9.28108 1.08107 6
Iron 1.0107 1.00107 5
Platinum 1.06107 9.43106 3.9
Tin 1.09107 9.17106 4.5
Lead 2.2107 4.55106 3.9
Manganin 4.82107 2.07106 0.002
Constantan 4.9107 2.04106 0.008
Mercury 9.8107 1.02106 0.9
Nichrome 1.10106 9.09105 0.4
Carbon (amorphous) 5104 to 8104 1.25 to 2103 -0.5
1)
Note! - the resistivity depends strongly on the presence of impurities in the material.
2)
Note! - the resistivity depends strongly on the temperature of the material. The table above is
based on 20oC reference.
The electrical resistance of a wire is greater for a longer wire and less for a wire of larger cross
sectional area. The resistance depend on the material of which it is made and can be expressed
as:
R=L/A (1)
where
R = resistance (ohm, )
= resistivity coefficient (ohm m, m)
The factor in the resistance which takes into account the nature of the material is the resistivity.
Since it is temperature dependent, it can be used to calculate the resistance of a wire of given
geometry at different temperatures.
=1/ (2)
where
= conductivity (1 / m)
Resistance of an aluminum cable with length 10 m and cross sectional area of 3 mm2 can be
calculated as
= 0.09
Resistance
The electrical resistance of a circuit component or device is defined as the ratio of the voltage
applied to the electric current which flows through it:
R=U/I (3)
where
R = resistance (ohm)
U = voltage (V)
I = current (A)
Ohm's Law
If the resistance is constant over a considerable range of voltage, then Ohm's law,
I=U/R (4)
For most materials the electrical resistance increases with temperature. Change in resistance can
be expressed as
dR / Rs = dT (5)
where
dR = dT Rs (5b)
A copper wire with resistance 0.5 k at normal operating temperature 20oC is in hot sunny
weather heated to 80 oC. The temperature coefficient for copper is 4.29 x 10-3 (1/oC) and the
change in resistance can be calculated as
= 0.13 (k)
The resulting resistance for the copper wire in hot weather will be
R = (0.5 k) + (0.13 k)
= 0.63 (k)
= 630 ()
Example - Resistance of a Carbon Resistor when Temperature is changed
A carbon resistor with resistance 1 k at temperature 20oC is heated to 120 oC. The temperature
coefficient for carbon is negative -4.8 x 10-4 (1/oC) - the resistance is reduced with increasing
temperature.
= - 0.048 (k)
R = (1 k) - (0.048 k)
= 0.952 (k)
= 952 ()
http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/resistivity-conductivity-d_418.html
The electrical resistivity or specific resistance is the resistance between the opposite faces of a
metre cube of a material. The values given below are in ohm metre units ( m). The reciprocal
of is the electrical conductivity.
The electrical resistivity is readily influenced and usually increased by factors such as impurity
content, porosity, cold work, irradiation, etc. The values given in the main table relate to samples
for which such effects are usually minimal. For similar reasons values are not given below
78.2 K, since the effects of impurities, etc., become increasingly important the lower the
temperature and finally determine the so-called residual resistance eventually attained for many
metals. Certain metals, however, become superconducting below a certain temperature (see
section 2.6.4), and for such metals the transition temperature is entered after the name of the
metal. For the influence of magnetic fields upon resistance, see section 2.6.6.
In the main table, values given in italics are for the liquid phase. All other values are for a
polycrystalline solid sample. For some non-cubic metals, a separate table indicates the degree of
electrical resistivity anisotropy reported for single crystals at normal temperature. A similar
degree of anisotropy can be expected throughout the temperature range of the particular crystal
form.
Semi-conducting elements are also listed separately, and again only for normal temperature.
Since the electrical resistivities of these poor conductors are so strongly dependent on the small
amounts of impurity that may be added intentionally or be present inadvertently, the published
values differ considerably, as may the value for any specific sample. The table indicates an
approximate value or a likely range of values.
Other elements which are solid at normal temperature and do not conduct electricity are dealt
with under electrical insulators (see section 2.6.2). These include boron, carbon in the form of
diamond, iodine, phosphorus and sulphur. Elements which are gases at normal temperature and
pressure are also omitted.
Values are also given for a few typical alloys. These are mainly the alloys for which thermal
conductivity data were given and further compositional details will be found in section 2.3.7.
Metal
(108 m)
Temperature/K
1473.2 (or
78.2 273.2 373.2 573.2 973.2
other)
8.5
Lithium 0.93 12.4 28.5 39.0 53 (1500 K)
3
Lutetium 16 54
4.0 28.7 (1173
Magnesium 0.53 5.74 9.0 15.4
5 K)
Manganese 132 143 147 152
630
Mercury (4.12 K) 5.8 94.1 103.5 128 214
0.45 38.4 (1500
Molybdenum (0.92 K) 4.85 7.34 12.5 23.3
4 K)
138 (1183
Neodymium 61 74 93 120
K)
121.3 (811.2
Neptunium 119.3
K)
57 (1600
Nickel 0.51 6.16 10.5 23.1 40.7
K)
Niobium (9.1 K) 3.0 15.2 19.2 27.1 43 59
Osmium (0.65 K) 8.1 11.4 17.8 30.4 46
43 (1600
Palladium 1.67 9.8 13.5 20.2 31.3
K)
Platinum 1.96 9.81 13.6 21.0 34.3 48.3
~
Plutonium 146 142 109
150
~
Polonium
40
165 (1500
Potassium 1.30 6.49 15.8 27.7 64.7
K)
134 (1123
Praseodymium 65 78 96 118
K)
Promethium 50 64 89 126
Protactinium (1.4 K) 6.1 17.7
Rhenium (1.7 K) 2.62 17.2 24.9 39.7 63.5 84.4
Rhodium 0.46 4.3 6.2 10.2 20 33
250 (1500
Rubidium 2.59 11.5 27.3 45.1 93
K)
Ruthenium (0.49 K) 1.34 7.1 10.0 15.6 27.8 44.4
Samarium 66 91.4
198
Scandium 50.5 75 115 167
0.27 18.7 (1400
Silver 1.47 2.07 3.34 6.10
8 K)
Sodium 0.76 4.33 9.51 17.4 38.9 88 (1500 K)
Strontium 3.55 12.3 16.7 25.5
Tantalum (4.48 K) 2.53 12.2 16.9 26.3 43.2 63 (1500 K)
Technetium (11.2 K) 22.6 33.3 51 65
Terbium 27 113
88 (1073
Thallium (2.37 K) 3.7 15 22.8 38 85
K)
Thorium (1.37 K) 3.9 14.7 20.8 32.5 53.6 68
Thulium 31 67
Tin (3.69 K) 2.1 11.5 15.8 50 60 72
Titanium (0.39 K) 4.6 39 58 90 142
Tungsten (0.01 0.57 40.3 (1500
4.82 7.19 12.3 23.7
K) . . . . . . 3 K)
Uranium (0.68 28
11 35 47
K) . . . . . .
Vanadium (5.03 18.1 89 (1500
2.30 25.9 39.5 63.1
K) . . . . . K)
Ytterbium . . . . . . . . 27.7
13
.
Yttrium . . . . . . . . 55
15.5
.
Zinc (0.85 5.48 37 (873.2
1.04 7.96 13.3
K) . . . . . . . K)
Zirconium (0.55 K) 38.8
6.36 55.9 87.7 128 120 (1500 K)
. . . . . . .
Estimated values based on R. K. Williams and D. L. McElory, USAEC, ORNL-TM-1424,
1966.
Alloy /(108 m)
Temperature/K
273.2 373.2 573.2 973.2 1473.2
http://www.kayelaby.npl.co.uk/general_physics/2_6/2_6_1.html
Electric Resistance
Discussion
introduction
Regular version
IV
V V
I= V = IR R =
R I
Variableogy
quantity: resistance R
unit: ohm [] Georg Ohm (17871854) Germany
JE
1
J = E = E = J
Electrical properties
resistance R ohm
objects
conductance G siemens S
Ohm's law isn't a very serious law. It's the jaywalking of physics. Sensible materials and devices
obey it, but there are plenty of rogues out there that don't.
resistors
Bad Booze Rots Our Young Guts But Vodka Goes Well.
Better Build Roof Over Your Garage Before Van Gets Wet.
white 9
materials
R=
A
Best electrical conductors: silver, copper, gold, aluminum, calcium, beryllium, tungsten
Resistivity is determined by the scattering of electrons. The more scattering, the higher the
resistance.
ne2
=
mevrms
Where
Graphite
Where does this idea belong? Nichrome was invented in 1906, which made electric toasters
possible.
Conducting polymers.
metals (n m) nonmetals ( m)
solder 150
tantalum 131
tin (0 ) 115
titanium (0 ) 390
tungsten 52.8
uranium (0 ) 280
zinc 59
temperature
The general rule is resistivity increases with increasing temperature in conductors and decreases
with increasing temperature in insulators. Unfortunately there is no simple mathematical function
to describe these relationships.
The temperature dependence of resistivity (or its reciprocal, conductivity) can only be truly
understood with quantum mechanics. In the same way that matter is an assembly of microscopic
particles called atoms and a beam of light is a stream of microscopic particles called photons,
thermal vibrations in a solid are a swarm of microscopic particles called phonons. The electrons
are trying to drift toward the positive terminal of the battery, but the phonons keep crashing into
them. The random direction of these collisions disturbs the attempted organized motion of the
electrons against the electric field. The deflection or scattering of electrons with phonons is one
source of resistance. As temperature rises, the number of phonons increases and with it the
likelihood that the electrons and phonons will collide. Thus when temperature goes up, resistance
goes up.
The resistivity of a conductor increases with temperature. In the case of copper, the relationship
between resistivity and temperature is approximately linear over a wide range of temperatures.
= 0(T/T0)
The resistivity of a conductor increases with temperature. In the case of tungsten, the relationship
between resistivity and temperature is best described by a power relationship.
miscellaneous
magnetoresistance
photoconductivity
liquids
electrolytes
gases
dielectric breakdown
plasmas
microphones
Electrical resistivity
The electrical resistance offered by a homogeneous unit cube of material to the flow of a direct
current of uniform density between opposite faces of the cube. Also called specific resistance, it
is an intrinsic, bulk (not thin-film) property of a material. Resistivity is usually determined by
calculation from the measurement of electrical resistance of samples having a known length and
uniform cross section according to the following equation, where is the resistivity, R the
measured resistance, A the cross-sectional area, and l the length. In the mks system (SI), the unit
of resistivity is the ohm-meter. Therefore, in the equation below, resistance is expressed in ohms,
and the sample dimensions in meters.
()
The room-temperature resistivity of pure metals extends from approximately 1.5 10-8 ohm-
meter for silver, the best conductor, to 135 10-8 ohm-meter for manganese, the poorest pure
metallic conductor. Most metallic alloys also fall within the same range. Insulators have
resistivities within the approximate range of 108 to 1016 ohm-meters. The resistivity of
semiconductor materials, such as silicon and germanium, depends not only on the basic material
but to a considerable extent on the type and amount of impurities in the base material. Large
variations result from small changes in composition, particularly at very low concentrations of
impurities. Values typically range from 10-4 to 105 ohm-meters. See Electrical resistance,
Semiconductor
Metals, and some semiconductors in particular, exhibit a change in resistivity when placed in a
magnetic field. Theoretical relations to explain the observed phenomena have not been well
developed.