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1 Introduction (e.g., for a generic case as shown in Fig. 1(b)) and the calculation
of the slope h does depend both on the magnitude of DT and on
The increase in performance of a turbofan engine strongly
which wall temperature Twc is taken. The validity of the two-
depends on the turbine entry temperature (TET). Common in
temperature method for HTC calculations shrinks to a neighbor-
modern designs are entry temperatures higher than the melting
hood of the analyzed wall temperature in the case of a nonlinear
temperature of the blade metal: the correct design of cooling sys-
dependence of q_ on Tw. The HTC represents then a local tangent
tems for hot components is thus of critical importance to prevent
of a general nonlinear qT _ w curve. And the two-point method
engine failures.
with a small enough temperature difference becomes effectively a
Convective heat transfer analysis is commonly based on the
finite difference approximation of the local differential.
heat transfer coefficient (HTC) definition given by Newtons law
The problem of the variability of HTC with wall temperature
of cooling of the below equation
has been discussed by several authors. The quest for heat transfer
q_ hTw Taw (1) descriptors invariant with the wall temperature resulted in some
authors (see Ref. [1]) proposing the use of other parameters
where h is the HTC, Tw is the wall temperature, and Taw is the adi- instead of HTC like hadiabatic or the discrete Greens functions.
abatic wall temperature. The conventional wisdom is that the Such parameters are invariant with the wall temperature. How-
HTC is predominantly determined by the aerodynamics and hence ever, together with the complexity involved in calculating or
should not be dependent on the wall temperature. This reflects an measuring these heat transfer descriptors, the use of these
assumption that the thermal interaction between the solid and fluid approaches in turbomachinery external heat transfer has been so
domains is negligible, and as such, the aerodynamics fully deter- far quite limited because they are based on superposition principle
mines the heat transfer. and as such are formally valid only when the energy equation is
Figure 1(a) shows how in this condition, when h does not
depend on Tw, Eq. (1) gives a linear dependence of q_ on wall tem-
perature. In this case, the calculation of h follows the solution of a
linear system obtained calculating q_ for two completely arbitrary
wall temperatures with an interval DT. In the linear case of
Fig. 1(a), the calculated HTC will be the correct one regardless of
the used wall temperature or temperature difference.
This two-temperature method predicts the correct value of HTC
over a whole range of wall temperatures only if both h and Taw in
Eq. (1) can be treated as two aerodynamically determined
unknowns. If this is not the case, Eq. (1) is not linear anymore
1
Corresponding author.
Contributed by the Heat Transfer Division of ASME for publication in the
JOURNAL OF THERMAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS. Manuscript received Fig. 1 Schematics of the linear and nonlinear dependency of
March 21, 2016; final manuscript received February 5, 2017; published online April heat transfer with Tw: (a) linear variation of q_ with Tw and (b)
19, 2017. Assoc. Editor: Ting Wang. nonlinear variation of q_ with Tw
Journal of Thermal Science and Engineering Applications DECEMBER 2017, Vol. 9 / 041002-1
Copyright VC 2017 by ASME
q_ _
qC
(3)
q_ ref T0in Tw k
P0in 460,000 Pa Fig. 4 Mis for 50% span section: comparison of CFD with
MisOut 1.05 hub0.91 tip experimental data
T0in 444 K
Tw 288 K
Turbulence intensity 6% at leading edge
Turbulence length scale 5 103 m
the suction side. Validation tests have been carried out using Spalart
and Allmaras [20] and kx SST [21] turbulence models. The
boundary layer laminarization and turbulent transition on the suc-
tion side have been artificially tripped for both Spalart Allmaras
and the standard kx SST models. This artificially tripped transi-
tion has been obtained by disabling turbulence production in one of
the boundary layer blocks (shown in Fig 3(a)). The present analyses
are first carried out with the fixed transition model as implemented.
A fixed tripped transition point treatment is commonly used in aero-
dynamic analyses. A similar treatment is also used in some recent
turbine aerothermal analyses (e.g., see Refs. [22,23]). The use of
more sophisticated transition models such as transitional SST [24]
and kklx [25] including the wall temperature influence on the Fig. 5 q_ =q_ ref for 50% span section: comparison of CFD with
transition will be discussed later. experimental data
Journal of Thermal Science and Engineering Applications DECEMBER 2017, Vol. 9 / 041002-3
Fig. 7 Mesh dependency study. Total pressure field (Pa) downstream of the trailing edge.
The results of the mesh dependency study for heat transfer cal- transfer predictions. A simple option (often adopted for its seem-
culations are shown in Figs. 6 and 7. Two mesh densities (4 106 ingly simple form) is
and 5 106 nodes) have been compared for both wall heat flux
and total pressure downstream of the vane. The results indicate q_
HTC (4)
a mesh independency for the analyzed case, and the mesh Tref Tw
with 4 106 nodes has been used for the results shown in Secs. 4
and 5. With the definition given above, HTC can be worked out in one
CFD solution for a given Tw. The reference temperature Tref is
often taken as T0in.
3 HTC Calculation Procedure The main concern with this definition is potentially very incon-
First, it should be recognized that the definition of HTC may sistent values for HTC. For instance, we might need to work out
vary, which itself is a source of uncertainties in turbine heat HTC at a near-adiabatic condition. This need can be due to
Journal of Thermal Science and Engineering Applications DECEMBER 2017, Vol. 9 / 041002-5
A downstream shift of the suction-side shock for the cooled streamlines at the suction sideendwalls corner. Streamlines are
case is observed. The shift distance is of the same order of magni- consistently generated from the same points in the two cases.
tude as the trailing edge thickness. This is consistent with what Some differences are appreciable between the quasi-adiabatic and
has been previously observed on the 2D case for the same geome- cooled case with a more pronounced streamline convergence
try [6]. toward the midspan for the higher TR case.
A further examination of the effect of wall temperature on A close look at the changes in secondary flows has been possi-
secondary flows has been carried out. Figure 15 shows flow ble also by visualizing the direction of wall shear stresses in the
form of limiting streamlines. The results are shown in Fig. 16. casing shroud for 0.99 temperature ratio is seemingly stronger
Differences in the wall shear stress direction due to different than that for 0.7. This might be attributed to the higher density
developments of secondary flow structures with wall temperature due to the cooling (hence the higher local fluid inertia, and resist-
are noticeable. In particular, Fig. 16 suggests that the radial ance to the secondary flow transport) in the near-wall region of
inward movement on the rear blade suction surface near the the cooled case (TR 0.7).
Journal of Thermal Science and Engineering Applications DECEMBER 2017, Vol. 9 / 041002-7
Fig. 15 Streamlines at suction sideendwalls corners for quasi-adiabatic (TR 5 0.99) and
cooled (TR 5 0.7) case
Fig. 16 Wall shear stress direction on suction side for quasi-adiabatic (TR 5 0.99) and
cooled (TR 5 0.7) case
Fig. 18 Density contours at TE cut plane for quasi-adiabatic (TR 5 0.99) and cooled
(TR 5 0.7) case
temperature on the overall blade passage capacity has been also applied to correct heat transfer data both on a 2D NGV section [6]
assessed. All the CFD runs examined have mass flow converged and a 3D tip leakage flow field [7].
to less than 0.1%. The 0.7 TR case showed a 0.5% increase in The new nonlinear method is based on hypothesizing a linear
mass flow with respect to the quasi-adiabatic case. Considering relation between the HTC and the wall temperature. Newtons law
that the general trends of blading performance increasing nowa- of cooling can then be expressed by
days are aimed at fractions of a percentage point, the impact of
such a change in blade mass flow should thus not be overlooked, q_ h0 h1 Tw Tw Taw (7)
also in noting that temperature ratios lower than 0.7 can be typical
of heavily cooled NGVs. where h0, h1, and Taw are the unknowns for each surface mesh
point. The three parameters are determined simply from the solu-
tion of a set of three linear equations, with the heat fluxes obtained
by CFD solutions at three different wall temperatures. The method
5 Nonlinear Method for TR Scaling does not require any numerical approximation techniques. It is
The results shown in Sec. 4 highlight a strong dependence of purely analytical, simple with very little extra processing cost.
HTC on the wall thermal condition. This is an inherently local The method is equivalent to considering a quadratic depend-
effect which is ignored when trying to correct HTC data using a ence of heat flux on wall temperature. The formulation starts from
global correction method. The previous research [6] showed the the hypothesis that the variability of Taw with wall temperature is
inadequacy of global corrections for the 2D midspan section of much smaller compared to the one shown by HTC. Its accuracy to
MT1 NGV. While global corrections are inapplicable even on 2D predict HTC at different wall temperatures has been also tested
cases, correction methods based on a boundary layer approach recently on a case where high variability of Taw is expected [7].
may be able to be applied for the case of a pure 2D flow field. The model showed comparable accuracy (and a more robust com-
However, when a 3D flow field is examined, the definition of a putational stability) with respect to a higher order nonlinear
boundary layer integration direction becomes cumbersome if not method including wall temperature dependency also for Taw.
impossible. The distinctive characteristic of such a method with respect to
The three-point nonlinear method recently introduced by Maf- the traditionally used two-temperature method is that while the
fulli and He [6] gives the possibility to apply a local correction of latter is valid only when used as a finite difference approximation
HTC with the wall temperature. The method has been successfully _ w curve at a given Tw (see Fig. 1(b)),
of the local slope of the qT
Journal of Thermal Science and Engineering Applications DECEMBER 2017, Vol. 9 / 041002-9
the three-point method is valid for a range of wall temperatures as 25% in some regions. Using the proposed three-point method
being essentially a three-point parabolic curve fitting method. allows to reduce the prediction errors significantly. These compar-
This increased validity range makes the method particularly isons demonstrate consistently that the new three-point method
appealing when using HTC as a buffer parameter in a loosely offers, at the price of a 50% increase in computational time com-
coupled CFDFEA approach, allowing improved stability and pared to the two-point method, the possibility of much more accu-
convergence. In Sec. 6, we will first examine the validity and rately predicting the heat flux over a whole range of wall
effectiveness of the three-point method for the fully 3D case. We temperatures.
will then consider how the method may help in more challenging
cases considering the influence of wall temperature on the
laminarturbulent flow transition. 6 TW Effect on Laminar Turbulent Transition
The three-point method is applied to predict data at TR 0.6. The fixed transition treatment as described above, though sim-
The constants of Eq. (7) are calculated using CFD solutions at TR ple, does not allow to capture the effect of wall temperature on the
0.99, 0.8, and 0.7. In the same fashion, the two-point linear transition location. The results obtained in this section use transi-
method is applied to extrapolate the heat flux distribution on the tion models in which the transition location is determined as part
blade and endwalls at TR 0.6, using h and Taw calculated at the of the solution, allowing to further explore the effects of TR on
quasi-adiabatic case (TR 0.99). Figure 19 shows the comparison external aerodynamics.
between the direct CFD results and the two used prediction meth- The analysis is carried out on the 2D midspan section of the
ods (the two-point linear and the three-point nonlinear). The MT1 NGV analyzed in the previous paragraphs. Over 100,000
improved predictive performance of the three-point method with nodes mesh have been used for the study. Wall y has been kept
respect to the conventional two-points one is evident, especially lower than one. Validation and mesh independency tests have
in the regions characterized by highly 3D flows (corresponding, as been carried out on the used grid. The results of such studies are
seen previously, to high HTC variability). To better compare the not shown here for brevity. Calculations have been performed
predictive performance of the two models, the percentage errors using the two well-established transition models available in
of the predictions are calculated using the below equation FLUENT: transitional SST [24] and kklx [25].
Figures 21 and 22 show wall nondimensional heat flux obtained
using the kklx and the transitional kx SST, respectively.
q_ predicted q_ CFD Despite some offset in the predicted transition point and length,
error 100 (8)
q_ CFD both transition models are consistent in predicting an early onset
of transition due to the cooling. This effect of cooling in promot-
Comparison of the errors is shown in Fig. 20. Heat transfer errors ing boundary layer transition as predicted presently is qualita-
obtained using the conventional two-point method can be as high tively in line with that observed experimentally by Back et al.
Journal of Thermal Science and Engineering Applications DECEMBER 2017, Vol. 9 / 041002-11