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Western Chalukya architecture

Western Chalukya architecture (Kannada: ), also known as


Kalyani Chalukya or Later Chalukya architecture, is the distinctive style of
ornamented architecture that evolved during the rule of the Western Chalukya
Empire in the Tungabhadra region of modern central Karnataka, India, during the
11th and 12th centuries. Western Chalukyan political influence was at its peak in the
Deccan Plateau during this period. The centre of cultural and temple-building
activity lay in the Tungabhadra region, where large medieval workshops built
numerous monuments.[1] These monuments, regional variants of pre-existing
dravida (South Indian) temples, defined the Karnata dravida tradition.[2] Temples of
all sizes built by the Chalukyan architects during this era remain today as examples
of the architectural style.[3]

Most notable of the many buildings dating from this period are the Mahadeva
Temple at Itagi in the Koppal district, the Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi in the
Gadag district, the Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti in the Bellary district and the
Kallesvara Temple at Bagali in the Davangere district.[4][5] Other monuments
notable for their craftsmanship include the Kaitabheshvara Temple in Kubatur and Core area of Western Chalukya
Kedareshvara Temple in Balligavi, both in the Shimoga district, the Siddhesvara architectural activity in modern
Temple at Haveri in the Haveri district, the Amrtesvara Temple at Annigeri in the Karnataka state, India
Dharwad district, the Sarasvati Temple in Gadag, and the Dodda Basappa Temple at
Dambal, both in the Gadag district.[6]

The surviving Western Chalukya monuments are temples built in the Shaiva, Vaishnava, and
Jain religious traditions. None of the military, civil, or courtly architecture has survived; being
built of mud, brick and wood, such structures may not have withstood repeated invasions.[7]
The centre of these architectural developments was the region encompassing the present-day
Dharwad district; it included areas of present-day Haveri and Gadag districts.[8][9] In these Dodda Basappa Temple at
districts, about fifty monuments have survived as evidence of the widespread temple building Dambal, a unique 24-
of the Western Chalukyan workshops. The influence of this style extended beyond the
Kalyani pointed, uninterrupted
region in the northeast to the Bellary region in the east and to the Mysore region in the south. stellate (star-shaped), 7-
tiered dravida plan, 12th
In the BijapurBelgaum region to the north, the style was mixed with that of the Hemadpanti
century CE
temples. Although a few Western Chalukyan temples can be found in the Konkan region, the
[8]
presence of the Western Ghats probably prevented the style from spreading westwards.

Contents
1 Evolution
2 Temple complexes Mallikarjuna temple at
2.1 Basic layout
Kuruvatti, 11th century CE
2.2 Categories
2.3 Early developments
2.4 Later enhancements
2.5 Stellate plans
2.6 Kalyani region
3 Architectural elements
3.1 Overview
3.2 Vimana
3.3 Mantapa
3.4 Sculpture
3.4.1 Figure sculpture
3.4.2 Deity sculpture
3.4.3 Miniature towers Kaitabhesvara temple at
Kubatur, 4-tiered plan, 1100
4 Temple deities
CE
5 Appreciation
5.1 Influence
5.2 Research
5.3 Notable temples
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 External links

Evolution
Though the basic plan of the Western Chalukya style originated from the older
dravida style, many of its features were unique and peculiar to it.[10][11] One of
these distinguishing features of the Western Chalukyan architectural style was an
articulation that can still be found throughout modern Karnataka. The only
exceptions to this motif can be found in the area around Kalyani, where the temples
.[12]
exhibit a nagara (North Indian) articulation which has its own unique character
Siddhesvara Temple at Haveri, a
In contrast to the buildings of the early Badami Chalukyas, whose monuments were staggered square plan withdravida
clustered around the metropoleis of Pattadakal, Aihole, and Badami, these Western articulation and superstructure, 11th
Chalukya temples are widely dispersed, reflecting a system of local government and century CE
decentralisation.[1] The Western Chalukya temples were smaller than those of the
early Chalukyas, a fact discernible in the reduced height of the superstructures which
tower over the shrines.[1]

The Western Chalukya art evolved in two phases, the first lasting approximately a quarter of a century and the second from the
beginning of 11th century until the end of Western Chalukya rule in 1186 CE. During the first phase, temples were built in the
Aihole-Banashankari-Mahakuta region (situated in the early Chalukya heartland) and Ron in the Gadag district. A few provisional
workshops built them in Sirval in the Gulbarga district and Gokak in the Belgaum district. The structures at Ron bear similarities to
the Rashtrakuta temples in Kuknur in the Koppal district and Mudhol in the Bijapur district, evidence that the same workshops
continued their activity under the new Karnata dynasty.[13] The mature and latter phase reached its peak at Lakkundi (Lokigundi), a
principal seat of the imperial court.[14] From the mid-11th century, the artisans from the Lakkundi school moved south of the
Tungabhadra River. Thus the influence of the Lakkundi school can be seen in some of the temples of the Davangere district, and in
the temples at Hirehadagalli and Huvinahadgalli in theBellary district.[15]

Influences of Western Chalukya architecture can be discerned in the geographically distant schools of architecture of the Hoysala
Empire in southern Karnataka, and the Kakatiya dynasty in present-day Andhra Pradesh.[16] Sometimes called the Gadag style of
architecture, Western Chalukya architecture is considered a precursor to the Hoysala architecture of southern Karnataka.[17] This
influence occurred because the early builders employed by the Hoysalas came from pronounced centres of medieval Chalukya
art.[18][19] Further monuments in this style were built not only by the W
estern Chalukya kings but, also by their feudal vassals.
Temple complexes

Basic layout
A typical Western Chalukya temple
may be examined from three
aspects the basic floor plan, the
architectural articulation, and the
figure sculptures.

The basic floor plan is defined by


the size of the shrine, the size of the
sanctum, the distribution of the
Amrtesvara Temple in Annigeri was
building mass, and by the
built in the Dharwad district in 1050
pradakshina (path for
CE with dravida articulation. This
circumambulation), if there is was the first temple made of
Mahadeva Temple (Itagi) in the one.[20] soapstone
Koppal district, 1112 CE, an example
of dravida articulation with a nagara Architectural articulation refers
superstructure to the ornamental components that give shape to the outer wall of the shrine. These
include projections, recesses, and representations that can produce a variety of
patterns and outlines, either stepped, stellate (star-shaped), or square.[21] If stepped
(also called "stepped diamond of projecting corners"), these components form five or seven projections on each side of the shrine,
where all but the central one are projecting corners (projections with two full faces created by two recesses, left and right, that are at
right angles with each other). If square (also called "square with simple projections"), these components form three or five projections
on a side, only two of which are projecting corners. Stellate patterns form star points which are normally 8-, 16-, or 32-pointed and
are sub-divided into interrupted and uninterrupted stellate components. In an 'interrupted' stellate plan, the stellate outline is
interrupted by orthogonal (right-angle) projections in the cardinal directions, resulting in star points that have been skipped.[22] Two
basic kinds of architectural articulation are found in Indian architecture: the southern Indian dravida and the northern Indian
nagara.[23]

Figure sculptures are miniature representations that stand by themselves, including architectural components on pilasters, buildings,
sculptures, and complete towers. They are generally categorised as "figure sculpture" or "other decorative features".[24] On occasion,
rich figure sculpture can obscure the articulation of a shrine, when representations of gods, goddesses, and mythical figures are in
abundance.[25]

Categories
Chalukyan temples fall into two categories the first
being temples with a common mantapa (a colonnaded
hall) and two shrines (known as dvikuta), and the
second being temples with one mantapa and a single
shrine (ekakuta). Both kinds of temples have two or
more entrances giving access to the main hall. This
format differs from both the designs of the northern Kalleshvara temple at Bagali
Yellamma temple at Badami, (987 CE); Open mantapa
Indian temples, which have a small closed mantapa
early phase construction, with ornate pillars, some of
11th century leading to the shrine and the southern Indian temples
which have decorative relief
which generally have a large, open, columned on the pedestal
mantapa.[26]
The Chalukyan architects retained features from both northern and southern styles. However, in the overall arrangement of the main
temple and of the subsidiary shrines, they inclined towards the northern style and tended to build one main shrine with four minor
shrines, making the structure a panchayatna or five-shrined complex.[27] Chalukyan temples were, almost always, built facing the
east.[28]

The Sanctum (cella) is connected by avestibule (ardha mantapa or ante-chamber) to the closed mantapa (also called the navaranga),
which is connected to the open mantapa. Occasionally there can be two or more open mantapas. In Shaiva temples, directly opposite
the sanctum and opposite the closed mantapa is the nandi mantapa, which enshrines a large image of Nandi, the bull attendant of
Shiva. The shrine usually has nopradakshina.[29]

The pillars that support the roof of themantapa are monolithic shafts from the base up to the neck of thecapital. Therefore, the height
of the mantapa and the overall size of the temple were limited by the length of the stone shafts that the architects were able to obtain
from the quarries.[30] The height of the temple was also constrained by the weight of the superstructure on the walls and, since
mps or cementing material.[30]
Chalukyan architects did not use mortar, by the use of dry masonry and bonding stones without cla

The absence of mortar allows some ventilation in the innermost parts of the temple through the porous masonry used in the walls and
ceilings. The modest amount of light entering the temples comes into the open halls from all directions, while the very subdued
illumination in the inner closed mantapa comes only through its open doorway. The vestibule receives even less light, making it
necessary to have some form of artificial lighting (usually, oil lamps) even during the day. This artificial source of light perhaps adds
[31]
"mystery" to the image of the deity worshipped in the sanctum.

Early developments
From the 11th century, newly incorporated features were either based on the
traditional dravida plan of the Badami Chalukyas, as found in the Virupaksha and
Mallikarjuna Temples at Pattadakal, or were further elaborations of this articulation.
The new features produced a closer juxtaposition of architectural components,
visible as a more crowded decoration, as can be seen in the Mallikarjuna Temple at
Sudi in the Gadag district and the Amrtesvara Temple at Annigeri in the Dharwad
district.[32]

The architects in the Karnataka region seem Kasivisvesvara Temple, inner closed
mantapa with polished, bell-shaped,
to have been inspired by architectural
lathe-turned pillars in Lakkundi, 1087
developments in northern India. This is
CE
evidenced by the fact that they incorporated
decorative miniature towers (multi-aedicular
towers depicting superstructures) of the Sekhari and Bhumija types, supported on pilasters,
almost simultaneously with these developments in the temples in northern India. The
miniature towers represented shrines, which in turn represented deities. Sculptural depictions
of deities were generally discreet although not uncommon. Other northern ideas they
incorporated were the pillar bodies that appeared as wall projections.[33] Well-known
constructions incorporating these features are found at the Kasivisvesvara Temple and the
Nannesvara Temple, both at Lakkundi.[34]

Full and half Gadag-style In the 11th century, temple projects began employing soapstone, a form of greenish or blueish
pillars at Sarasvati Temple in black stone, although temples such as the Mallikarjuna Temple at Sudi, the Kallesvara Temple
Gadag at Kuknur, and the temples at Konnur and Savadi were built with the formerly traditional
sandstone in the dravida articulation.[32]

Soapstone is found in abundance in the regions of Haveri, Savanur, Byadgi, Motebennur and Hangal. The great archaic sandstone
building blocks used by the Badami Chalukyas were superseded with smaller blocks of soapstone and with smaller masonry.[35] The
first temple to be built from this material was the Amrtesvara Temple in Annigeri in the Dharwad district in 1050 CE. This building
was to be the prototype for later, more articulated structures such as theMahadeva Temple at Itagi.[36]

Soapstone was also used for carving, modelling and chiselling of components that could be described as "chubby".[37] However, the
finish of the architectural components compared to the earlier sandstone temples is much finer, resulting in opulent shapes and
creamy decorations.[38] Stepped wells are another feature that some of the temples included.
[39]

Later enhancements
The 11-century temple-building boom continued in the 12th century with the
addition of new features. The Mahadeva Temple at Itagi and the Siddhesvara Temple
in Haveri are standard constructions incorporating these developments. Based on the
general plan of the Amrtesvara Temple at Annigeri, the Mahadeva Temple was built
in 1112 CE and has the same architectural components as its predecessor. There are
however differences in their articulation; the sala roof (roof under the finial of the
superstructure) and the miniature towers on pilasters are chiseled instead of Twenty-four pointed stellate plan of
moulded.[40] The difference between the two temples, built fifty years apart, is the vimana of Dodda Basappa Temple in
more rigid modelling and decoration found in many components of the Mahadeva Dambal, 12th century CE
Temple. The voluptuous carvings of the 11th century were replaced with a more
severe chiselling.[41]

As developments progressed, the Chalukyan builders modified the pure dravida


tower by reducing the height of each stepped storey and multiplying their number.
From base to top, the succeeding storeys get smaller in circumference and the
Square floorplan with five projections topmost storey is capped with a crown holding the kalasa, a finial in the shape of a
per side of the shrine decorative water pot. Each storey is so richly decorated that the original dravida
character becomes almost invisible. In the nagara tower the architects modified the
central panels and niches on each storey, forming a more-or-less continuous vertical
band and simulating the vertical bands up the centre of each face of the typical northern style tower.[35] Old and new architectural
components were juxtaposed but introduced separately.[40] Some superstructures are essentially a combination of southern dravida
and northern nagara structures and is termed "Vesara Shikhara" (also called Kadamba Shikhara).[29]

The characteristically northern stepped-diamond plan of projecting corners was adopted in temples built with an entirely dravida
articulation.[37] Four 12th century structures constructed according to this plan are extant: the Basaveshwara Temple at Basavana
Bagevadi, the Ramesvara Temple at Devur and the temples at Ingleshwar and Yevur, all in the vicinity of the Kalyani region, where
nagara temples were common. This plan came into existence in northern India only in the 11th century, a sign that architectural ideas
traveled fast.[42]

Stellate plans
A major development of this period was the appearance of stellate (star-shaped)
shrines in a few temples built of the traditional sandstone, such as the Trimurti
Temple at Savadi, the Paramesvara Temple at Konnur and the Gauramma Temple at
Hire Singgangutti. In all three cases, the shrine is a 16-pointed uninterrupted star, a
ground-plan not found anywhere else in India and which entirely differentiates these Thirty-two pointed interrupted stellate
temples from the 32-pointed interrupted star plans of bhumija shrines in northern floorplan (one side of the shrine)
India.[43]

The stellate plan found popularity in the soapstone constructions such as the Doddabasappaemple
T at Dambal as well. Contemporary
stellate plans in northern India were all 32-pointed interrupted types. No temples of the 6-, 12-, or 24-pointed stellate plans are known
to exist anywhere in India, with the exception of the unique temple at Dambal, which can be described either as a 24-pointed
uninterrupted plan, or a 48-pointed plan with large square points of 90 degrees alternating with small short points of 75 degrees.[44]
The upper tiers of the seven-tiered superstructure look like cogged wheels with 48
dents.[45] The Doddabasappa Temple and the Someshvara Temple at
Lakshmeshwara are examples of extreme variants of a basic dravida articulation.
These temples prove that the architects and craftsman were consciously creating new
[46]
compositions of architectural components out of traditional methods.

In the early 13th century, 12th century characteristics remained prominent; however,
Sixteen-pointed uninterrupted stellate many parts that were formerly plain became decorated. This change is observed in
floorplan (one side of the shrine),
the Muktesvara Temple at Chaudayyadanapura (Chavudayyadanapura) and the
Trimurti Temple at Savadi in Gadag
district, 11th century CE Santesvara Temple at Tilavalli, both in the Haveri district. The Muktesvara Temple
with its elegant vimana was renovated in the middle of the 13th century.[47] In the
Tilavalli Temple, all the architectural components are elongated, giving it an
intended crowded look. Both temples are built with a dravida articulation.[47] Apart from exotic dravida articulations, some temples
of this period have nagara articulation, built in the stepped-diamond and the square plan natural to a nagara superstructure. Notable
among temples with a stepped-diamond style are the Ganesha eTmple at Hangal, the Banashankari temple at Amargol (which has one
dravida shrine and one nagara shrine), and a small shrine that is a part of the ensemble at the Mahadeva Temple.[45] At Hangal, the
architects were able to provide a sekhari superstructure to the shrine, while the lower half received a nagara articulation and
depictions of miniature sekhari towers. The style of workmanship with a square plan is found at Muttagi and the Kamala Narayana
Temple at Degoan.[45]

Kalyani region
Temples built in and around the Kalyani region (in the Bidar district) were quite
different from those built in other regions. Without exception, the articulation was
nagara, and the temple plan as a rule was either stepped-diamond or stellate.[22] The
elevations corresponding to these two plans were similar because star shapes were
produced by rotating the corner projections of a standard stepped plan in increments
of 11.25 degrees, resulting in a 32-pointed interrupted plan in which three star points
are skipped in the centre of each side of the shrine.[22] Examples of stepped-
diamond plans surviving in Karnataka are the Dattatreya Temple at Chattarki, the Stepped floorplan of Dattatreya
Someshvara Temple in Kadlewad, and the Mallikarjuna and Siddhesvara at Kalgi in Temple (one side of the shrine) with
the Gulbarga district. The nagara shrine at Chattarki is a stepped diamond of five projections at Chattarki in
projecting corners with five projections per side.[22] Because of the stepped- Gulbarga district, 12th century CE
diamond plan, the wall pillars have two fully exposed sides, with a high base block
decorated with a mirrored stalk motif and two large wall images above. The shapes
[48]
and decorations on the rest of the wall pillar have a striking resemblance to the actual pillars supporting the ceiling.

The other type is the square plan with simple projections and recesses but with a possibility of both sekhari and bhumija
superstructures. The plan does not have any additional elements save those that derive from the ground plan. The recesses are simple
and have just one large wall image. The important characteristic of these nagara temples in the Kalyani region is that they not only
differ from the dravida temples in the north Karnataka region but from the nagara temples north of the Kalyani region as well. These
differences are manifest in the articulation and in the shapes and ornamentation of individual architectural components, giving them a
unique place in Chalukyan architecture. Temples that fall in this category are the Mahadeva Temple at Jalsingi and the Suryanarayana
Temple at Kalgi in the modern-day Gulbarga district.[48] The plan and the nagara articulation of these temples are the same as found
ferent, producing a different look.[12]
to the north of the Kalyani region, but the details are dif

Architectural elements

Overview
The Western Chalukya decorative inventiveness focused on the pillars, door panels,
lintels (torana), domical roofs in bays,[49] outer wall decorations such as Kirtimukha
(gargoyle faces common in Western Chalukya decoration),[50][51] and miniature
towers on pilasters.[30] Although the art form of these artisans does not have any
distinguishing features from a distance, a closer examination reveals their taste for
decoration. An exuberance of carvings, bands of scroll work, figural bas-reliefs and
panel sculptures are all closely packed.[52] The doorways are highly ornamented but
have an architectural framework consisting of pilasters, a moulded lintel and a
Domical bay ceiling in
cornice top. The sanctum receives diffused light through pierced window screens
Kaitabheshvara temple at Kubatur,
flanking the doorway; these features were inherited and modified by the Hoysala
1100 CE, in the Shimoga district
builders.[29] The outer wall decorations are well rendered. The Chalukyan artisans
extended the surface of the wall by means of pilasters and half pilasters. Miniature
decorative towers of multiple types are supported by these pilasters. These towers are of the dravida tiered type, and in the nagara
style they were made in thelatina (mono aedicule) and its variants; thebhumija and sekhari.[53]

Vimana
The Jain Temple at Lakkundi marked an important step in the development of Western
Chalukya outer wall ornamentation, and in the Muktesvara Temple at Chavudayyadanapura
the artisans introduced a double curved projecting eave (chhajja), used centuries later in
Vijayanagara temples.[33] The Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi embodies a more mature
development of the Chalukyan architecture in which the tower has a fully expressed ascending
line of niches. The artisans used northern style spires and expressed it in a modified dravida
outline. Miniature towers of both dravida and nagara types are used as ornamentation on the
walls. With further development, the divisions between storeys on the superstructure became
less marked, until they almost lost their individuality. This development is exemplified in the
Dodda Basappa Temple at Dambal, where the original dravida structure can only be identified
.[27]
after reading out the ornamental encrustation that covers the surface of each storey

The walls of the vimana below the dravida superstructure are decorated with simple pilasters
in low relief with boldly modeled sculptures between them. There are fully decorated surfaces Kirtimukha decoration at
Kasivisvesvara Temple at
with frequent recesses and projections with deeper niches and conventional sculptures.[52]
Lakkundi
The decoration of the walls is subdued compared to that of the later Hoysala architecture. The
walls, which are broken up into hundreds of projections and recesses, produce a remarkable
effect of light and shade,[52] an artistic vocabulary inherited by the Hoysala builders in the decades that followed.
[54]

Mantapa
An important feature of Western Chalukya roof art is the use of domical ceilings (not
to be confused with the European types that are built of voussoirs with radiating
joints) and square ceilings. Both types of ceilings originate from the square formed
in the ceiling by the four beams that rest on four pillars. The dome above the four
central pillars is normally the most attractive.[26] The dome is constructed of ring
upon ring of stones, each horizontally bedded ring smaller than the one below. The
Open mantapa (hall) at the
Mahadeva Temple at Itagi, the top is closed by a single stone slab. The rings are not cemented but held in place by
Koppal district, 1112 CE the immense weight of the roofing material above them pressing down on the
haunches of the dome.[26] The triangular spaces created when the dome springs from
the centre of the square are filled with arabesques. In the case of square ceilings, the
Hindu mythology.[26]
ceiling is divided into compartments with images of lotus rosettes or other images from
Pillars are a major part of Western Chalukya architecture and were produced in two main types:
pillars with alternate square blocks and a sculptured cylindrical section with a plain square-block
base, and bell-shaped lathe-turned pillars. The former type is more vigorous and stronger than the
bell-shaped type, which is made of soapstone and has a quality of its own.[30] Inventive
workmanship was used on soapstone shafts, roughly carved into the required shapes using a lathe.
Instead of laboriously rotating a shaft to obtain the final finish, workers added the final touches to
an upright shaft by using sharp tools. Some pillars were left unpolished, as evidenced by the
presence of fine grooves made by the pointed end of the tool. In other cases, polishing resulted in
pillars with fine reflective properties such as the pillars in the temples at Bankapura, Itagi and
Hangal.[30] This pillar art reached its zenith in the temples at Gadag, specifically the Sarasvati
Temple in Gadag city.[55]
A figure sculpture at
Notable in Western Chalukya architecture are the decorative door panels that run along the length
Siddhesvara Temple in
of the door and over on top to form a lintel. These decorations appear as bands of delicately
Haveri, 11th century CE
chiseled fretwork, moulded colonettes and scrolls scribed with tiny figures. The bands are
separated by deep narrow channels and grooves and run over the top of the door.[26] The temple
plan often included a heavy slanting cornice of double curvature, which projected outward from the roof of the open mantapa. This
was intended to reduce heat from the sun, blocking the harsh sunlight and preventing rainwater from pouring in between the
pillars.[56] The underside of the cornice looks like woodwork because of the rib-work. Occasionally, a straight slabbed cornice is
seen.[56]

Sculpture

Figure sculpture
Figural sculpture on friezes and panels changed during the period. The heroes from
the Hindu epics Ramayana and Mahabharata, depicted often in early temples,
become fewer, limited to only a few narrow friezes; there is a corresponding
[57] Depiction
increase in the depiction of Hindu gods and goddesses in later temples.
of deities above miniature towers in the recesses, with a decorative lintel above, is
Yali Balustrade at Tripurantakesvara
common in 12th-century temples, but not in later ones.[41] Figures of holy men and
Temple, Balligavi, the Shivamogga
district dancing girls were normally sculpted for deep niches and recesses. The use of
bracket figures depicting dancing girls became common on pillars under beams and
cornices. Among animal sculptures, the elephant appears more often than the horse:
its broad volumes offered fields for ornamentation.[57] Erotic sculptures are rarely seen in Chalukyan temples; the Tripurantakesvara
Temple at Balligavi is an exception. Here, erotic sculpture is limited to a narrow band of friezes that run around the exterior of the
temple.[58]

Deity sculpture
In what was a departure from convention, the Western Chalukyan figure sculptures
of gods and goddesses bore stiff forms and were repeated over and over in the many
temples.[56] This was in contrast to the naturalistic and informal poses employed in
the earlier temples in the region. Barring occasional exaggerations in pose, each
principal deity had its own pose depending on the incarnation or form depicted.
Consistent with figure sculpture in other parts of India, these figures were fluent
rather than defined in their musculature, and the drapery was reduced to a few Figure sculpture at Mahadeva
Temple at Itagi, the Koppal district
visible lines on the body of the image.[56]
Western Chalukyan deity sculptures were well-rendered; exemplified best by that of Hindu goddess Sarasvati at the Sarasvati temple
in Gadag city.[59] Much of the drapery on the bust of the image is ornamentation comprising jewellery made of pearls around her
throat. An elaborate pile of curls forms her hair, some of which trails to her shoulders. Above these curly tresses and behind the head
is a tiered coronet of jewels, the curved edge of which rises to form a halo.[60] From the waist down, the image is dressed in what
seems to be the most delicate of material; except for the pattern of embroidery traced over it, it is difficult to tell where the drapery
begins and where it ends.[61]

Miniature towers
From the 11th century, architectural articulation included icons between pilasters, miniature
towers supported by pilasters in the recesses of walls, and, on occasion, the use of wall pillars
to support these towers.[33] These miniature towers were of the southern dravida and northern
bhumija and sekhari types and were mostly used to elaborate dravida types of articulation.
The miniatures on single pilasters were decorated with a protective floral lintel on top, a form
of decoration normally provided for depiction of gods.[38] These elaborations are observed in
the Amrtesvara Temple at Annigeri. These miniatures became common in the 12th century,
and the influence of this northern articulation is seen in the Kasivisvesvara Temple at
Lakkundi and in the nearby Nannesvara Temple.[33]

The miniature towers bear finer and more elegant details, indicating that architectural ideas
Miniature decorative traveled fast from the north to the south.[62] Decoration and ornamentation had evolved from
dravida-style tower a moulded form to a chiseled form, the sharpness sometimes giving it a three-dimensional
(aedicule) at Siddhesvara effect. The foliage decorations changed from bulky to thin, and a change in the miniature
Temple in Haveri
towers on dual pilasters is seen. The 11th century miniatures consisted of a cornice (kapota), a
floor (vyalamala), a balustrade (vedika) and a roof (kuta) with a voluptuous moulding, while
in the 12th century, detailed dravida miniature towers with many tiny tiers (tala) came into vogue.[41] Some 12th-century temples
such as the Kallesvara Temple at Hirehadagalli have miniature towers that do not stand on pilasters but instead are supported by
.[63]
balconies, which have niches underneath that normally contain an image of a deity

Temple deities
The Western Chalukyan kings Shaivas (worshippers of the Hindu god Shiva)
dedicated most of their temples to that God. They were however tolerant of the
Vaishnava or Jain faiths and dedicated some temples to Vishnu and the Jain
tirthankaras respectively. There are some cases where temples originally dedicated
to one deity were converted to suit another faith. In such cases, the original presiding
deity can sometimes still be identified by salient clues. While these temples shared
the same basic plan and architectural sensibilities, they differed in some details, such
as the visibility and pride of place they afforded the different deities.[26]
Jaina image in sanctum, doorpost
As with all Indian temples, the deity in the sanctum was the most conspicuous and lintel decoration at Jain Temple
in Lakkundi
indicator of the temple's dedication. The sanctum (Garbhagriha or cella) of a Shaiva
temple would contain a Shiva linga, the universal symbol of the deity.[64] An image
of Gaja Lakshmi (consort of the Hindu god Vishnu) or an image of Vishnu riding on Garuda, or even just the Garuda, signifies a
Vaishnava temple. Gaja Lakshmi, however, on account of her importance to the Kannada-speaking regions,[26] is found on the lintel
of the entrance to the mantapa (pillared hall) in all temples irrespective of faith. The carving on the projecting lintel on the doorway
to the sanctum has the image of a linga or sometimes of Ganapati (Ganesha), the son of Shiva in the case of Shaiva temples or of a
seated or upright Jain saint (Tirthankar) in the case of Jain temples.[26]
The great arched niche at the base of the superstructure (Shikhara or tower) also contains an
image indicative of the dedicators' sect or faith.[26] Above the lintel, in a deep and richly
wrought architrave can be found images of the Hindu trimurti (the Hindu triad of deities)
Brahma, Shiva and Vishnu beneath arched rolls of arabesque. Shiva or Vishnu occupies the
[26]
centre depending on the sect the temple was dedicated to.

Occasionally, Ganapati and his brother Kartikeya (Kumara, Subramanya) or the saktis, the
female counterparts, can be found at either end of this carving. Carvings of the river
Goddesses Ganga and Yamuna are found at either end of the foot of the doorway to the shrine
in early temples.[30]

Appreciation

Influence
The Western Chalukya dynastic rule ended in the late
12th century, but its architectural legacy was inherited
by the temple builders in southern Karnataka, a region
Chaturmukha, a four-faced
then under the control of the Hoysala empire.[65]
Brahma image at Jain
Broadly speaking, Hoysala architecture is derived from
Temple, Lakkundi, 11th
century CE a variant of Western Chalukya architecture that
emerged from the Lakshmeshwar workshops.[66] The
construction of the Chennakesava Temple at Belur was
the first major project commissioned by Hoysala King Vishnuvardhana in 1117 CE. This
temple best exemplifies the Chalukyan taste the Hoysala artisans inherited. Avoiding
overdecoration, these artists left uncarved spaces where required, although their elaborate
doorjambs are exhibitionistic. Here, on the outer walls, the sculptures are not overdone, yet
they are articulate and discreetly aesthetic.[18][67] The Hoysala builders used soapstone almost
Miniature decorative nagara-
universally as building material, a trend that started in the middle of the 11th century with style tower (aedicule) at
Chalukyan temples.[32] Other common artistic features between the two Kanarese dynasties Siddhesvara Temple in
are the ornate Salabhanjika (pillar bracket figures), the lathe-turned pillars and the makara Haveri
torana (lintel with mythical beastly figure).[18] The tower over the shrine in a Hoysala temple
.[68]
is a closely moulded form of the Chalukya style tower

When the Vijayanagara Empire was in power in the 15th and 16th centuries, its workshops preferred granite over soapstone as the
building material for temples. However, an archaeological discovery within the royal center at Vijayanagara has revealed the use of
soapstone for stepped wells. These stepped wells are fashioned entirely of finely finished soapstone arranged symmetrically, with
steps and landings descending to the water on four sides. This design shows strong affinities to the temple tanks of the Western
ChalukyaHoysala period.[69]

Research
Unlike the Badami Chalukyan temples featured in detailed studies by Henry Cousens (1927), Gary Tartakov (1969) and George
Michell (1975), Western Chalukyan architecture suffered neglect despite its importance and wider use. Recently however, scholars
have returned to the modern Karnataka region to focus on a longer chronology, investigating a larger geographical area, making
1 through 13th centuries.[2]
detailed studies of epigraphs and giving more importance to individual monuments dating from the1th

The first detailed study of Western Chalukya architecture was by M.A. Dhaky (1977), who used as a starting point two medieval
epigraphs that claimed the architects were masters of various temple forms. This study focused in particular on the riches of the
Western Chalukya miniature wall shrines (aedicules). An important insight gained from this work was that the architects of the region
learned about temple forms from other regions. These forms to them appeared
"exotic", but they learned to reproduce them with more or less mastery, depending
on the extent of their familiarity with the other regions' building traditions.[70] This
conscious eclectic attempt to freely use elements from other regions in India was
pointed out by Sinha (1993) as well.[71]

A seminal work by Adam Hardy (1995) examined the Karnataka temple-building


tradition over a period of 700 years, from the 7th century to the 13th century, and
Stepped well (muskin bhanvi) at the reviewed more than 200 temples built by four dynasties; Badami Chalukya,
Manikesvara Temple in Lakkundi Rashtrakuta, Western Chalukya and Hoysala. The study covered dravida and nagara
style monuments and the differences between the dravida tradition in modern
Karnataka and that of neighbouring Tamil Nadu and made it possible to interpret the
many architectural details as part of a larger scheme.[2][71]

The temples and epigraphs of the Western Chalukyas are protected by the Archaeological Survey of India and the Directorate of
Archaeology and MuseumsGovernment of Karnataka.[72][73] In the words of historian S. Kamath (2001), "The Western Chalukyas
[17]
left behind some of the finest monuments of artistic merit. Their creations have the pride of place in Indian art tradition".

Notable temples
The Mahadeva Temple at Itagi dedicated to Shiva is among the larger temples built by the
Western Chalukyas and perhaps the most famous. Inscriptions hail it as the 'Emperor among
temples'.[74] Here, the main temple, the sanctum of which has a linga, is surrounded by
thirteen minor shrines, each with its own linga. The temple has two other shrines, dedicated to
Murthinarayana and Chandraleshwari, parents of Mahadeva, the Chalukya commander who
consecrated the temple in 1112 CE.[75]

The Siddheshwara temple in the Haveri district has sculptures of deities of multiple faiths.
The temple may have been consecrated first as a Vaishnava temple, later taken over by Jains
and eventually becoming a Shaiva temple.[28] The hall in the temple contains sculptures of
Uma Mahesvara (Shiva with his consort Uma), Vishnu and his consort Lakshmi, Surya (the
sun god), Naga-Nagini (the snake goddess), and the sons of Shiva, Ganapati and Kartikeya.
Shiva is depicted with four arms, holding his attributes: the damaru (drum), the aksamala
A pierced window screen (chain of beads) and the trishul (trident) in three arms. His lower left arm rests on Uma, who
brings light into the mantapa
is seated on Shiva's lap, embracing him with her right arm while gazing into his face. The
at Manikesvara Temple in
ge earrings and curly hair.[76]
sculpture of Uma is well decorated with garlands, lar
Lakkundi
Some temples, in a departure from the norm, were dedicated to deities other than Shiva or
Vishnu. These include the Surya (portrayed as 'Suryanarayana') shrine at the Kasi
Vishveshwara temple complex and a Jain temple dedicated to Mahavira, both at Lakkundi; the Taradevi temple (built in a Buddhist
architectural style) at Dambal in the Gadag district; the Mahamaya temple dedicated to a tantric goddess at Kuknur in the Koppal
district, and the Durga temple at Hirekerur in the Haveri district.[77]

See also
Badami Chalukya Architecture
Dravidian architecture
Hindu temple architecture
Hoysala architecture
Vijayanagara architecture
Notes
1. Hardy (1995), p 156 31. Cousens (1926), p 21
2. Sinha, Ajay J. (1999). "Indian Temple Architecture: 32. Foekema (2003), p 50
Form and Transformation, the Kara Drvia 33. Foekema (2003), p 51
Tradition, 7th to 13th Centuriesby Adam Hardy".
34. Foekema (2003), p 51, p 53
Artibus Asiae. 58 (3/4): 358362. JSTOR 3250027 (htt
ps://www.jstor.org/stable/3250027). 35. Cousens (1926), p 18

3. Hardy (1995), pp 67 36. Foekema (2003), p 49

4. Hardy (1995), p323, p333, p335, p336 37. Foekema (2003), p 55

5. The Mahadeva Temple at Itagi has been called the 38. Foekema (2003), p 52
finest in Kannada country after theHoysaleswara 39. Kamiya, Takeo (20 September 1996)."Architecture of
temple at Halebidu (Cousens in Kamath (2001), p the Indian Subcontinent"(http://www.indoarch.org/plac
117) e.php?placelink=R%3D5%2BS%3D18%2BP%3D23
6. Hardy (1995), p321, p326, p327, p330, p335 0%2BM%3D1212). Gerard da Cunha-Architecture
Autonomous, Bardez, Goa, India. Retrieved
7. Cousens (1926), p 27
2007-10-27.
8. Cousens (1926, p 17
40. Foekema (2003), p 57
9. Foekema (1996), p 14
41. Foekema (2003), p 56
10. The original dravida temple plans had evolved during
42. Foekema (2003), pp 5455
the 6th and 7th centuries in Karnataka andTamil Nadu
under the Badami Chalukyas and Pallava empires. 43. Foekema (2003), pp 5354
(Foekema 1996, p 11) 44. Foekema (2003), p 60
11. The development of puredravida art was a result of 45. Foekema (2003), p 61
parallel, interrelated developments in the modern 46. Foekema (2003), pp 5859
Karnataka and Tamil Nadu regions, within a broader 47. Foekema (2003), p 58
context of South Indian art (Hardy 1995, p 12)
48. Foekema (2003), p 64
12. Foekema (2003), p 65
49. A square or rectangular compartment in a hall
13. Hardy (1995), p 157 (Foekema 1996, p 93)
14. Hardy (1995), p 158 50. The face of a monster used as decoration in Hindu
15. Hardy (1995), p 217 temples (Foekema 1996, p 93)
16. Hardy (1995), p 215 51. Kamiya, Takeo (20 September 1996)."Architecture of
17. Kamath (2001), p 115 the Indian Subcontinent"(http://www.indoarch.org/plac
18. Kamath (2001), p 118 e.php?placelink=R%3D5%2BS%3D18%2BP%3D23
0%2BM%3D1056). Gerard da Cunha-Architecture
19. Settar S. "Hoysala Heritage" (https://web.archive.org/w
Autonomous, Bardez, Goa, India. Retrieved
eb/20060701065442/http://www.flonnet.com/fl2008/sto
2007-10-27.
ries/20030425000206700.htm). Frontline, Volume 20,
Issue 08, April 1225, 2003. Frontline, From the 52. Cousens (1926), p 20
publishers of the Hindu. Archived fromthe original (htt 53. Kamath (2001), p 117
p://www.flonnet.com/fl2008/stories/200304250002067 54. Settar S. "Hoysala Heritage" (https://web.archive.org/w
00.htm) on 1 July 2006. Retrieved 2007-12-13. eb/20060701065442/http://www.flonnet.com/fl2008/sto
20. Foekema (2003), p 47 ries/20030425000206700.htm). Frontline, Volume 20
21. Foekema (2003), pp 35, 47 Issue 08, April 1225, 2003. Frontline, From the
publishers of the Hindu. Archived fromthe original (htt
22. Foekema (2003), p 63
p://www.flonnet.com/fl2008/stories/200304250002067
23. Foekema (2003), p 42 00.htm) on 1 July 2006. Retrieved 2007-10-28.
24. Foekema (2003), pp 35, 37, 48 55. Kannikeswaran. "Templenet Encyclopedia Temples
25. Foekema (2003), p 37 of Karnataka, Kalyani Chalukyan temples"(http://www.
26. Cousens (1926), p 22 templenet.com/Karnataka/kalyani_chalukya.html) .
webmaster@templenet.com. Retrieved 2006-12-16.
27. Cousens (1926), p 19
56. Cousens (1926), p 24
28. Cousens (1926), p 85
57. Cousens (1926), p 26
29. Kamath (2001), p 116
58. Cousens (1926), p 107
30. Cousens (1926), p 23
59. Cousens (1926), p 78 72. "Alphabetical list of Monuments"(http://asi.nic.in/asi_m
60. Cousens (1926), pp 2526 onu_alphalist_karnataka.asp). Protected Monuments.
Archaeological Survey of India. Retrieved 2007-06-13.
61. Cousens (1926), pp 2425
73. "Directory of Monuments in Karnataka"(http://kannada
62. Foekema (2003), p 53
siri.kar.nic.in/archaeology/eng/dirmon.htm).
63. Foekema (2003), p 59 Department of Archaeology and Museums
64. Foekema (1996), p 93 Archaeological Monuments. National Informatics
65. Kamath (2001), pp 115, 134 Centre, Karnataka. Retrieved 2008-01-13.
66. Hardy (1995), p 243 74. Kamath (2001), pp 117118
67. Settar S. "Hoysala Heritage" (https://web.archive.org/w 75. Rao, Kishan (10 June 2002)."Emperor of Temples'
eb/20060701065442/http://www.flonnet.com/fl2008/sto crying for attention" (http://www.hinduonnet.com/2002/
ries/20030425000206700.htm). Frontline, Volume 20 06/10/stories/2002061003760500.htm). The Hindu.
Issue 08, April 1225, 2003. Frontline, From the Retrieved 2007-11-09.
publishers of the Hindu. Archived fromthe original (htt 76. Rao, Nagaraja M.S. "Sculptures from the Later
p://www.flonnet.com/fl2008/stories/200304250002067 Calukyan Temple at Haveri" (http://www.jstor.org/stabl
00.htm) on 1 July 2006. Retrieved 2006-11-13. e/3249429). Artibus Asiae, Vol. 31, No. 2/3 (1969), pp.
68. Sastri (1955), p 427 167178. Jstor-Artibus Asiae Publishers. Retrieved
69. DavisonJenkins (2001), p 89 2007-11-10.

70. Foekema (2003), p 12 77. K. Kannikeswaran. "Templenet Encyclopedia, The


Ultimate Source of Information on Indian T
emples" (htt
71. Foekema (2003), p 31
p://www.indiantemples.com/Karnataka/kalyani_chaluk
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webmaster@Templenet.com. Retrieved 2007-11-10.

References
Book

Cousens, Henry (1996) [1926].The Chalukyan Architecture of Kanarese Districts . New Delhi: Archaeological Survey
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Foekema, Gerard (2003) [2003].Architecture decorated with architecture: Later medieval temples of Karnataka,
10001300 AD. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd.ISBN 81-215-1089-9.
Foekema, Gerard (1996).A Complete Guide To Hoysala Temples. New Delhi: Abhinav. ISBN 81-7017-345-0.
Hardy, Adam (1995) [1995]. Indian Temple Architecture: Form and Transformation-The Karnata Dravida Tradition 7th
to 13th Centuries. Abhinav Publications.ISBN 81-7017-312-4.
Jenkins, Davison (2001). "Hydraulic Works". In John M. Fritz and George Michell (editors).New Light on Hampi:
Recent Research at Vijayanagara. Mumbai: MARG. ISBN 81-85026-53-X.
Kamath, Suryanath U. (2001) [1980].A concise history of Karnataka : from pre-historic times to the present .
Bangalore: Jupiter books.LCCN 80905179. OCLC 7796041.
Sastri, Nilakanta K.A. (2002) [1955].A history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of iVjayanagar. New
Delhi: Indian Branch, Oxford University Press.ISBN 0-19-560686-8.
Sinha, Ajay J. (1999). "Indian Temple Architecture: Form and Transformation, the Kara Drvia Tradition, 7th to
13th Centuries by Adam Hardy". Artibus Asiae. 58 (3/4): 358362. JSTOR 3250027.
Web

"Alphabetical List of Monuments Karnataka" . Archaeological Survey of India. Archaeological Survey of India.
Retrieved 2007-12-13.
Kamat J. "Temples of Karnataka". Timeless Theater Karnataka. Kamat's Potpourri. Retrieved 2007-12-30.
Kamiya, Takeyo. "Architecture of Indian subcontinent". Indian Architecture. Gerard da Cunha. Retrieved 2007-11-13.
Kannikeswaran K. "Templenet-Kalyani Chalukyan temples". Temples of Karnataka. www.templenet.com. Retrieved
2007-11-13.
Rao, Kishan. "Emperor of Temples' crying for attention". The Hindu. Retrieved 2007-12-13.
Rao, M. S. Nagaraja (1969). "Sculptures from the Later Clukyan emple
T at Hveri". Artibus Asiae. 31 (2/3): 167
178. JSTOR 3249429.
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External links
"Speaks of catholic outlook". The hindu. Retrieved 2013-05-23.

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