Laser Diode

Overview

Semiconductor laser diodes, developed in the 1970s, have found vast commercial applications in
compact-disc (CD) players. With the advent of commercial optical fiber, such LD radiation
properties as brightness, directivity, narrow spectral width, and coherence made them the best light
sources for long-haul fiber-optic links. Over the years, the requirements for long-haul system
capacity have continued to increase, as has the need to improve laser-diode quality. In response,
quantum-well and distributed-feedback laser diodes with extremely narrow spectral widthon the
order of tenths of a nanometerhave been developed. These laser diodes have become the most
popular light sources for long-distance transmitters. Vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers
(VCSEL) are among the latest developments in the technology of light sources.

Laser Diodes (LDs)

LASER DIODES (LDs)

Semiconductor laser diodes, developed in the 1970s, have found vast commercial applications in
compact-disc (CD) players. With the advent of commercial optical fiber, such LD radiation
properties as brightness, directivity, narrow spectral width, and coherence made them the best light
sources for long-haul fiber-optic links. Over the years, the requirements for long-haul system
capacity have continued to increase, as has the need to improve laser-diode quality. In response,
quantum-well and distributed-feedback laser diodes with extremely narrow spectral widthon the
order of tenths of a nanometerhave been developed. These laser diodes have become the most
popular light sources for long-distance transmitters. Vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers
(VCSEL) are among the latest developments in the technology of light sources.

WDM, dense-WDM, and high-density WDM technologies pose a new challenge for laser diode
designers. The channel separation in these technologiesmeasured now in frequency, not in
wavelengthis today so small (just imagine a 50-GHz separation) that a spectral width of 0 nm
in a laser diode is now unacceptable. Thus, as is true of the entire fiber-optic communications
industry, laser-diode technology continues to evolve dynamically. This section presents a review
of the current situation.

Principles of Action & Laser

Principle of Action

Laser
The acronym laser means light amplification by the stimulated emission of radiation.

The first working ruby laser was developed in 1960 by the American scientist Theodore Meiman.
The theoretical and practical foundations for this development were made by the American Charles
Townes and the Russians Alexander Prokhorov and Nikolay Basov, who shared the Nobel Prize
for Physics in 1964 for their work.

Interestingly, the laser is not a light amplifier, as the term suggests, but, rather, a light generator.
This was true for the first laser; it is true for today's devices. However, since the term exists and is
well accepted, so be it. (It is also interesting to note that in the technical literature, derivative words
like lasing and to lase have become common.)

The laser is a device that amplifies (or, as we now know, generates) light by means of the
stimulated emission of radiation. How a laser produces light amplification and what the words
stimulated emission of radiation mean is our next consideration.

Spontaneous and stimulated radiation

Spontaneous and stimulated radiation

We distinguish between two types of radiation: spontaneous and stimulated. Spontaneous

means that radiation occurs without external cause. That's exactly what happens in an LED:
Excited electrons from the conduction band fall, without any external inducement, to the valence
band, which results in spontaneous radiation.

The properties of spontaneous radiation follow naturally from the way it occurs:

First, the transition of electrons from many energy levels of conduction and valence bands
contributes to the radiation produced, thus making the spectral width of such a source very wide.
This is why a typical LED's is about 60 nm at an operating wavelength of 850 nm and about
170 nm at an operating wavelength of 1300 nm.
Second, since photons are radiated in arbitrary directions, very few of them create light in the
desired direction, a factor that reduces the output power of an LED. This means that current-to-
light conversion occurs with low efficiency and an LED has relatively low output power
(intensity).
Third, even those photons that contribute to output power do not move strictly in one direction;
thus, they propagate within a wide cone, yielding widespread radiated light. For this reason, we
model an LED with a Lambertian source.
Fourth, this transition, and therefore photon radiation, occurs at any time, in other words, photons
are created independently of one another. Hence, no phase correlation between different photons
exists and the total light radiated is called incoherent.
These four main properties of spontaneous radiationwide spectral width, low intensity, poor
directiveness, and incoherencemake it impossible to use LEDs as light sources for long-distance
communication links.
A different process occurs if you let an external photon hit an excited electron, as Figure (a) shows.
Their interaction includes an electron transition and the radiation of a new photon. Now the
induced emission is stimulated by an external photon. Thus, this radiation is called stimulated.

Stimulated radiation has four main properties.

First, an external photon forces a photon with similar energy (Ep) to be emitted. In other words,
the external photon stimulates radiation with the same frequency (wavelength) it has. (Remember,
EP = hf = hc/ .) This property ensures that the spectral width of the light radiated will be narrow.
In fact, it is quite common for a laser diode's to be about 1 nm at both 1300 nm and 1550 nm.
Second, since all photons propagate in the same direction, all of them contribute to output light.
Thus, current-to-light conversion occurs with high efficiency and a laser diode has high output
power. (In comparison, to make an LED radiate 1 mW of output power requires up to 150 mA of
forward current; a laser diode, on the other hand, can radiate 1 mW at 10 mA.)
Third, the stimulated photon propagates in the same direction as the photon that stimulated it;
hence, the stimulated light will be well directed. If you compare the beam of a laser pointer
available in any stationery storewith any type of lamp, you'll appreciate the difference between
spontaneous and stimulated radiation in terms of the way each directs light.
Fourth, since a stimulated photon is radiated only when an external photon triggers this action,
both photons are said to be synchronized, that is, time-aligned. This means that both photons are
in phase and so the stimulated radiation is coherent.

[+] Enlarge Image

Figure Laser diode: principle of operation: (a) Stimulated emission; (b) light amplification and
positive feedback; (c) pumping to create population inversion.

Thus, in contrast to spontaneous radiation, stimulated radiation has narrow spectral width, high
intensity (power), a high degree of directivity, and coherence. This is why laser diodes, which
radiate stimulated light, find use in long-distance communication links.

Positive Feedback & More about the acronym "laser"

Positive feedback
To radiate stimulated light with essential power, we need not one photon but millions and millions.
Here is how we can stimulate such radiation: We place a mirror at one end of an active layer, as
Figure (b) shows. Two photonsone external and one stimulatedare then reflected back and
directed to the active layer again. These two photons now work as external radiation and stimulate
the emission of two other photons. The four photons are reflected by a second mirror, which is
positioned at the other end of the active layer. When these photons pass the active layer, they
stimulate emission of another four photons. These eight photons are reflected back into the active
layer by the first mirror and this process continues ad infinitum. (Figure [b] illustrates these
explanations.)

Thus, the two mirrors provide positive optical feedbackpositive because the feedback adds the
output (stimulated photons) to the input (external photons). (If the output is subtracted from the
input, the feedback is called negative.) These two mirrors, then, constitute a resonator.

More about the acronym laser

Observe in Figure (b) that the number of stimulated photons increases. This means the power of
the radiated light is intensifying; in other words, the active medium of this system amplifies light,
thus the words light amplification in the acronym.

How can we obtain light amplification? By making the external photons pass through an active
medium and stimulate emission of new photonsthat is, by stimulated emission. But what does
the active medium emit? A stream of photonslight, or electromagnetic radiation. As we have
seen, then, all the words in the laser acronym prove out.

Let's now ask ourselves where the first external photon comes from. Remember, initially we have
excited electrons that fall to the valence band and radiate spontaneously. Of these myriad
spontaneous photons, at least one will head in the right direction (from mirror 1 to mirror 2). This
external photon triggers the entire process.

Keep in mind, though, that our explanations are oversimplified. The important thing for you to
remember is that we are discussing a dynamic and random process. A countless number of photons
and electron-hole pairs are involved in the process; therefore, when we are describing the action
of one photon or one electron, we are presenting only a bird's-eye view of the event, not a close-
up account of this intricate, complex phenomenon in action. Excitation and radiation are governed
by statistical laws. It was Albert Einstein who, at the beginning of the twentieth century, was the
one scientist who truly understood the difference between spontaneous and stimulated emission.
He introduced parametersEinstein's coefficientsto calculate the probabilities of both types of
emission.

Population inversion & Lasing effect and input-output

characteristic

Population Inversion
Refer to Figure (b) and note how fast the number of stimulated photons rises. To sustain this
dynamic process, we need an incalculable number of excited electrons available at the conduction
band. We know that using external energyforward current for an LEDmakes it possible to
excite a number of electrons. But in lasers depletion of the conduction band occurs much faster
than it does in LEDs; hence, we need to excite electrons at a much higher rate than we did in the
LED process. In fact, for laser action (lasing) we need to have more electrons at the higher-energy
conduction band than at the lower-energy valence band. This situation is called population
inversion because, normally, the valence band is much more heavily populated than the conduction
band. To create this population inversion, high-density forward current is passed through the small
active area.

Population inversion is a necessary condition to create a lasing effect because the greater the
number of excited electrons, the greater the number of stimulated photons that can be radiated.
What's more, the emission intensity will be higher as well. In other words, the number of excited
electrons determines the gain of a semiconductor diode. On the other hand, a laser diode introduces
some loss. Two main loss mechanisms are at work: First, many photons are absorbed within the
semiconductor material before they can escape to create radiation. Secondly, mirrors do not reflect
100% of the incident photons. In other words, the loss stems mainly from the absorption and
transmission of the stimulated photons.

Look again at Figure (b). It seems that the number of stimulated photons continues to grow to
infinity, as does the gain but, in fact, this is not true. This figure does not show the loss of these
photons. As a matter of fact, at the beginning of the lasing process, the number of photons
continues to grow at, literally, a nuclear-explosion rate; but, as the process continues, the more
photons that are stimulated, the greater the number lost. Fortunately, loss is a constant for a given
diode, but gain can be changed, as Figure 11(a) shows.

Increasing gain is done by increasing the forward current. Eventually gain becomes equal to loss,
a situation called the threshold condition. (The corresponding forward current is called the
threshold current.) At this threshold condition, a semiconductor diode starts to act like a laser. As
we continue to increase the forward current (that is, the gain), the number of emitted stimulated
photons continues to increase, which means the intensity of the output light also continues to
increase. What we have, then, is a semiconductor diode that radiates monochromatic, well-
directed, highly intense, coherent light. The point to remember? To make a laser diode generate
light, gain must exceed loss.
Lasing effect and input-output characteristic

Taking all the above considerations into account, we conclude that a semiconductor diode
functions like a laser (where gain exceeds loss) if the following conditions are met: Population
inversion, Stimulated emission and Positive feedback

Fortunately, we know how to achieve these conditions.

Let's try to build an input-output characteristic of a laser diode. Since the input here is forward
current (I) and the output is light power (P), this graph demonstrates the P-I characteristic. (It is
sometimes referred to as an L-I graph, where L stands for light.) When a small forward
current is applied, a number of electrons are excited and the diode radiates like an LED. Hence,
one can expect to see the same line that Figure 4 shows. But when the current density becomes
sufficient enough to create population inversion and the threshold condition is reached (where gain
equals loss), the diode starts to work like a laser. You will then see a much more intense, color-
saturated, well-directed beam. This change is reflected by the graph in Figure 11(b), which shows
that the laser diode emits much more power. After the threshold current, Ith, has been exceeded,
increasing output power requires much less current to flow than before it was passed. In other
words, the slope of the input-output characteristic, P/ I, becomes

Figure Lasing effect: (a) Gain and loss; (b) input-output characteristic; (c) setup to measure input-
output characteristic.

much steeper than that for an LED. A common laser diode with 1 mW output power has about a
30-mA threshold current and a 60-mA driving current.

One can easily build the input-output characteristic by measuring the laser diode's output power
while varying the forward current. The arrangement for this measurement is shown in Figure
Laser-diode light: An analysis & p-n junction

Laser-diode light. An analysis

A laser diode radiates light that can be characterized as follows:

1. Monochromatic. The spectral width of the radiated light is very narrow. Indeed, the line width
for a laser diode can be in tenths or even hundredths of a nanometer. 2. Well directed. A laser diode
radiates a narrow, well-directed beam that can be easily launched into an optical fiber.

3. Highly intense and power-efficient. A laser diode can radiate hundreds of milliwatts of output
power. A new type of laser diode, the VCSEL, radiates 1 mW at 10 mA of forward current, making
current-to-light conversion 10 times more efficient than it is in the best LEDs.

4. Coherent. Light radiated by a laser diode is coherent; that is, all oscillations are in phase. This
property is important for the transmission and detection of an information signal.

As you can see, these characteristics are very similar to those of stimulated emission. But
remember: Only the combination of an active medium and a resonator, which together form a
laser, produces light with these remarkable properties.

p-n junction

The above discussion of the principle of action of a laser is sufficiently general to apply to any
solid-state laser. But in fiber-optic communications technology we use only laser diodes, that is,
semiconductor devices. So let's now consider laser-diode action from the standpoint of a p-n
junction.

We know by now that electrons and holes are injected by forward current into an active area, where
they recombine, and that each recombination results in the radiation of a photon. We know, too,
that charges are carried out by the current, thus sustaining this dynamic process. In laser diodes,
only heterojunctions are used. A heterostructure confines the electron-hole's area of interaction
(the active area) and serves as a waveguide for light. You'll no doubt recall this explanation from
our discussion of the principle of action of LEDs in Section 1. What is new for a laser diode,
however, is that its active area is much smaller. Its small size (thickness) results in a much higher
current density and, thus, a much more intensive recombination process. A huge number of
electrons injected into a small area leads to population inversion, to stimulated emission and, when
gain exceeds loss, to laser actionthe generation of monochromatic, coherent, powerful light.

The main point to remember is this: An active region of a laser diode is very small, ranging from
a few micrometers to a few nanometers. This fact requires very high precision in the fabrication
of a laser diode and accounts for its high price in comparison with that of LEDs.
Basic structures and types of laser diodes & Quantum-well
laser diodes

Basic structures and types of laser diodes

The basic construction of a laser diode is shown in Figure (a). If it looks similar to the edge-
emitting LED shown in Figure (b), it in fact is, except for two major differences: First, the thickness
of an active region in a laser diode is very small, typically on the order of 0 m. Second, a laser
diode's two end surfaces are cleaved to make them work as mirrors. Since the refractive index of
GaAsthe material making up the active regionis about 3.6, more than 30% of incident light
will be reflected back into the active region at the GaAs-air interface. Thus, no special mirrors are
required and these surfaces, called laser facets, provide positive feedback. This basic type of laser
diode is called a broad-area LD.

To confine charge carrierselectrons and holeseven more securely within the laser diode's
small active region, a strip contact is used. This construction restricts the current flow within this
narrow region. Since current flow produces gain in an active region, this type of laser diode is
called gain-guided. A means to even further circumscribe the active region is to surround it with a
material having a lower refractive index. Such an LD is called index-guided. Its structure is very
similar to the core-cladding arrangement in an optical fiber. These surrounding layers are called
cladding layers and the term sandwich is usually used to describe this structure. The most popular
construction of an index-guided LD, one where the cladding layer's thickness varies, is known as
a ridge waveguide, RWG. In an index-guided laser diode, the small active region is buried between
several layers having a lower refractive index. Such a structure is called a buried heterostructure
(BH).
Figure Constructions of a laser diode (LD): (a) Basic structure of a broad-area LD; (b) gain-
guided LID; (c) ridge-waveguide, RWG, laser diode.

Quantum-well laser diodes

To make lasing action more efficient, a special fabrication technique is used to form an especially
thin active region, one on the order of 4 to 20 nm of thickness. Such devices are called quantum-
well (QW) laser diodes. The quantum-well technique modifies the density of energy levels
available for electrons and holes. The result is a much larger optical gain. From the p-n junction
standpoint, a quantum-well diode is characterized by the lower potential energy of its electrons
and holes, thus making their recombination easier. In other words, less forward current is required
to reach and sustain lasing action in this type of laser diode. The main advantages of a quantum-
well laser diode are more efficient current-to-light conversion, better confinement of the output
beam, and the potential to radiate a variety of wavelengths.

From a practical standpoint, these advantages of the quantum-well structure dramatically reduce
the threshold current and increase the possibility of changing radiating wavelengths by varying the
thickness of an active layer. Figure 13 illustrates the concept of quantum-well structures.
Figure Schematics of structure and energy-band diagrams of quantum-well laser diodes: (a) A
single-quantum-well, SQW, laser diode; (b) a multiple-quantum-well, MQW, laser diode; (c) a
graded-index separate-confinement heterostructure, GRINSCH. (Shun Lien Chuang, Physics of
Optoelectronics Devices, Copyright 1995. Reprinted with permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)

Quantum-well laser diodes are available with the following structures: single quantum well
(SQW), multiple quantum well (MQW), and graded-index separate-confinement heterostructure
(GRINSCH). An MQW laser provides powerful radiation (up to 100 mW).

Recent advances include strained quantum-well active media. By introducing a controlled strain
of an active layer, a designer can control the quantum-well width and the potential barrier height.
This results in the possibility of engineering the properties of a laser diode: controlling its
wavelength, reducing its threshold current, and increasing laser efficiency. Two types of strain
compressive and tensileare used to achieve this goal.

Fabry-Perot laser diodes

Fabry-Perot laser diodes

Look at Figure (b) one more time. The two mirrors and the active medium between them form a
laser. This arrangement is shown again in Figure 14(a). Remember, we need mirrors to provide
positive feedback, that is, the return of stimulated photons to an active medium to stimulate more
photons. The two mirrors themselves form a resonator with length L.

Let an arbitrary wave travel from the left-hand mirror to the right-hand one, as Figure (b) shows.
At the right-hand mirror, this wave is reflected; hence, the wave experiences a 180 phase shift.
As you can see in Figure (b), the wave should have a break in its phase, which is impossible here.
In other words, this resonator does not support this wave. Now let another wave, as shown in
Figure (c), travel inside a resonator. At the right-hand mirror, the wave experiences a 180 phase
shift and continues to propagate. At the left-hand mirror, this wave again has the same phase shift
and continues to travel. Thus, the second wave shown in Figure (c) yields a stable pattern called a
standing wave.
 Figure Fabry-Perot laser diode: (a) A laser diode; (b) Fabry-Perot resonator with arbitrary wave;
(c) Fabry-Perot resonator with standing wave; (d) gain-loss curve and possible longitudinal modes;
(e) actual multimode radiation.

The only difference between the two waves shown in Figures (b) and (c) is their wavelengths.
Thus, a resonator can support only a wave with a certain wavelength, the wave that forms a
standing-wave pattern. This physical requirement can be written as

where L is the distance between mirrors and N is an integer. For example, if L = 0.4 mm = 400 m
and 1300 nm = 1.3 m, then N = 615.

What is important to discern here is that this resonator supports a wavelength where 2L/N = 1300.8
nm. But this resonator also supports wavelengths equal to 2L/(N 1), 2L/(N 2), 2L/(N 3), and
so forth. In other words, many wavelengths that satisfy Equation 13 may exist. Wavelengths
selected by a resonator are called longitudinal modes. When the length of a resonator increases or
decreases, the laser switches from one longitudinal mode to another. This is called mode hop.

How many longitudinal modes can a laser diode radiate? A resonator can support an infinite
number of waves whose wavelengths satisfy Equation . However, the active medium provides gain
within only a small range of wavelengths. (Remember the energy-gap requirement: < hc/Eg.)
Since a laser is formed by a resonator and an active medium and since radiation is the result of
their interaction, only several resonant wavelengths that fall within the gain curve might be
radiated. This is shown in Figure 14(d). Of course, light generation starts only when gain exceeds
loss. Thus, eventually only those resonant wavelengths that are within the gain-over-loss curve
will actually be radiated. Compare Figures (d) and (e). Waves With N, N1, and N2 might be
radiated, but only waves with N and N1 will be the actual laser output. Modes N2, depicted in
black, are not generated.

To make this explanation more specific, let's introduce spacing between two adjacent longitudinal
modes, N N+1. Indeed, from Formula 13 we can obtain

Thus, for a resonator whose L = 0.4 mm and that works at around 1300 nm, we can compute N
N+1 2 nm. Assuming the line width of a gain curve is equal to 7 nm, we find that this active
medium can support three longitudinal modes.

The last matter to consider here is the actual spectral width of a laser diode. Is it the spectral width
of the gain curve or the spectral width of an individual longitudinal mode? Neither. From the
standpoint of a receiver, this is the width at half the maximum amount of light actually radiated.
Thus, the spectral width is measured between two outermost longitudinal modes at half the
maximum output power, as Figure (e) shows. The point is this: The more longitudinal modes a
laser generates, the wider its spectral width. With all these modes, the typical spectral width of a
laser diode is about 1 to 2 nm. (Remember, the spectral width of an LED is between 60 and 170
nm.)

The type of laser we are considering in our discussion is the Fabry-Perot laser, named after the
French scientists Charles Fabry and Alfred Perot. This device provides lumped feedback, which
results in many longitudinal modes and, eventually, in a relatively large spectral width.

Distributed-feedback (DFB) laser diodes & Vertical-cavity

surface-emitting lasers-VCSEL

Distributed-feedback (DFB) laser diodes

To reduce the spectral width, we need to make a laser diode merely radiate only one longitudinal
mode. This has been done with distributed-feedback (DFB) laser diodes, whose principal
arrangement is shown in Figure(a)

A DFB laser diode has the Bragg grating incorporated into its heterostructure in the vicinity of an
active region. The Bragg grating works like a mirror, selectively reflecting
Figure Distributed feedback, DFB, laser diode: (a) A DFB laser diode; (b) how distributed
feedback works; (c) actual singlemode radiation.

only one wavelength, B. This wavelength can be found from the Bragg condition given in
Formula 60 and repeated here:

where is the period of grating, neff = n sin , and n is the refractive index of the medium. All
these quantities, including angle , are illustrated in Figure (b).

As for the meaning of the term distributed feedback laser diode, the word feedback emphasizes
that we have the means to return stimulated photons to an active medium. This is done by reflecting
a portion of the light at each slope of the grating, as Figure (b) shows for one beam. All the portions
reflected at each slope of this corrugated structure then combine so that most of the light will be
reflected back, provided of course that the condition shown in Formula is maintained. The word
distributed implies that reflection occurs not at a single pointa mirror, say, as in the Fabry-Perot
laserbut at many points dispersed along the active region.

The net result of this arrangement is that the B laser radiates only one wave, with the wavelength
equaling B. Thus, its radiation contains only a single longitudinal mode and, as a result, the
spectral width of this radiation is extremely narrow. Actually, we distinguish between the spectral
width of the entire output of light and the linewidth of each mode composing this light. In a
singlemode operation, these two widths coincide.
DFB laser diodes were proposed in the early 1960s but were not developed commercially until the
1980s, when they were employed in long-distance fiber-optic communications systems. The
newest developments allow manufacturers to fabricate DFB laser diodes radiating up to 30 mW at
1550 nm.

A modification of the idea of using a Bragg grating as a reflector is known as a distributed-Bragg-

reflector (DBR) laser diode. In this laser, an active medium is placed between two Bragg gratings,
which work as a reflector, thereby giving the laser its name.

Vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasersVCSEL

All the laser diodes we have discussed so far are edge-emitting devices, as you can see from
looking at Figures 14 and 15. They are characterized by the significant length of their active
medium (on the order of hundreds of micrometers) and their asymmetrical radiation pattern, which
is very similar to that of ELEDs. (See Figure 6[b].) Incidentally, the radiation patterns of these
lasers usually produce an output beam cone on the order of 10 30, which is much less than that
of LEDs but is still asymmetrical. Special measures, such as the use of DFB technology, must be
taken to ensure that such lasers generate only one longitudinal mode (i.e., singlemode operation).

Recent developments, however, have led to the fabrication of a new type of laser diode: a vertical-
cavity surface-emitting laser (VCSEL) [6]. Since the space within a resonator is called the cavity,
the words vertical cavity mean that the structure providing laser feedback is arranged in the vertical
direction. The words surface emitting mean, in this context, that the laser's beam is emitted
perpendicular to the wafer. (To recall the meanings of the terms edge emitting and surface emitting)

A basic arrangement of a VCSEL is shown in Figure (a). A semiconductor heterostructure (not

shown) forms an active region. Several quantum wells are made within this active region to
enhance light gain. This region is placed between Bragg reflectorsthe stacks of layers with
alternate high and low refractive-index material. (See Figure [b].) Each of these layers is /4 thick
and is made from GaAs (n = 3.6) and A1As (n = 2.9). These layers work like highly reflective
mirrors, providing positive feedback.

Several significant advantages of VCSEL diodes make them among the hottest areas of activity in
transmitter technology today:

The size of the resonant cavity is very small, on the order of 2 m. This results in huge spacing
between two adjacent longitudinal modes, N N+1. Indeed, using Formula 14 for = 850 nm =
0.85 m and L = 2 m, we compute N N+1 = 0.07225 m = 725 nm. The spectral width of a
gain curve is only a few nanometers; therefore, not more than one mode can be within the gain
curve. Thus, a VCSEL diode operates in a singlemode regime. This is shown in Figure (c), where
the numbers give you an idea of the order of magnitude of the spacing. The sketch is given without
scale. The mode shown in black is not generated. (Note: Strictly speaking, Formula 14 is true only
for Fabry-Perot lasers and should not be applied to VCSELs. However, it gives the order of
magnitude correctly because, in reality, mode spacing in a VCSEL is about 100 nm.)
VCSEL diodes have very small dimensions: A typical resonant cavity and diameter of the active
region are about 1 to 5 m, and the thickness of the active layer is about 25 nm = 0.025 m. This
allows manufacturers to fabricate many diodes on one substrate, thereby making one-dimensional
and two-dimensional (matrix) arrays of diodes, precisely the constructions we need in
multichannel systems.
The small size of a VCSEL's resonant cavity leads to a concomitant key advantage: low power
consumption and high switching speed. Thus, a VCSEL can radiate 3 mW output power at 10 mA
forward current and it has an intrinsic modulation bandwidth up to 200 GHz. The first advantage
stems from the fact that high current density is reached at low current value because of the small
active area. (And don't forget the high quantum efficiency of this device.) The second advantage
results from the short distance that electrons and holes have to travel within the active region before
they recombine and the short

Figure Vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser, VCSEL: (a) Basic arrangement; (b) principle of
operation; (c) gain curve and resonant modes (not to scale). ([b] from Christopher Davis, Lasers
and ElectroopticsFundamentals and Engineering. Copyright 1996. Adapted with the permission
of Cambridge University Press.)

distance a radiated photon has to travel before it escapes from the laser. This spawns a short
lifetime, leading to the high modulation bandwidth of this device.

A VCSEL diode radiates a circular output beam in contrast to that radiated by edge-emitting
lasers.
 The fabrication technology for VCSELs is very similar to that for electronic chips, a fact that
gives them the enormous range of advantages that chips have. VCSELs therefore manifest a useful
new twist in the marriage of optics and electronics.
The one major drawback of VCSEL lasers, at least to date, is that they are commercially available
in the wavelength range no longer than 850 nm; that is, they work only in the first transparent
window of an optical fiber. Within this wavelength range, however, they have already found
extensive applications in high-bit-rate LANs such as Gigabit Ethernet. The trend in VCSEL
development is to extend their operating wavelengths to 1300 nm and 1550 nm. Research attests
to this possibility and it is safe to predict that such devices will be commercially available. (Note:
As this book went to press, a VCSEL diode operating at 1300 nm was reported and is expected to
be on the market soon [7].)

Superluminescent Diodes (SLDs)

Superiuminescent Diodes (SLDs)

A superluminescent diode is an optical source whose properties are intermediate between those of
an LED and those of an LD. The device uses a double heterostructure to confine the active region
under conditions of high current density. Hence, population inversion is created, so this source is
able to amplify light. But an SLD does not have positive feedback; therefore, it radiates
spontaneous emission. Thus, an SLD radiates a more powerful and more sharply confined beam
than a regular LED, but an SLD's radiation is not as monochromatic, well directed, and coherent
as a laser diode's radiation. So far, SLDs have found very few applications in fiber-optic
communications.