Summer Training Report

Mahmoud Abdul Aziz Hasan

COPYRIGHTS RESERVED @ BENHA FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
BENHA-OCTOPER 2015
Table of Contents
Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs)....................................................................................................... 6
Introduction to PLC ................................................................................................................................... 7
History of PLC ........................................................................................................................................ 7
PLC basic architecture ........................................................................................................................... 9
PLC configuration .................................................................................................................................. 9
Input/output modules ........................................................................................................................ 10
Advantages of PLCs ............................................................................................................................. 11
Dis advantages of PLCs ....................................................................................................................... 11
Basic elements of control system ........................................................................................................... 12
Switches .............................................................................................................................................. 12
Sensors ................................................................................................................................................ 15
Electromagnetic relay ......................................................................................................................... 19
Contactor ............................................................................................................................................ 22
Circuit breakers ................................................................................................................................... 23
PLC programming Language ................................................................................................................... 23
Instruction List (IL) .............................................................................................................................. 23
Function Block Diagram (FBD) ............................................................................................................ 23
Ladder Diagram (LD) ........................................................................................................................... 24
Running the program .............................................................................................................................. 25
Scan time............................................................................................................................................. 25
Solar Energy ................................................................................................................................................ 26
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 27
Solar radiation at the Earths surface ................................................................................................. 27
Measuring solar radiation ................................................................................................................... 28
Applications of solar energy.................................................................................................................... 28
Solar thermal energy system .............................................................................................................. 29
Solar electric energy system ............................................................................................................... 30
Sizing Grid-Tie solar system .......................................................................................................... 33
Surface Mount Technology (SMT) ............................................................................................................. 34
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 35
Terms .................................................................................................................................................. 35
Why SMT ............................................................................................................................................. 35
 SMT components .................................................................................................................................... 36
Assembly techniques .............................................................................................................................. 38
Rework station ........................................................................................................................................ 39
Advantages .............................................................................................................................................. 41
Disadvantages ......................................................................................................................................... 41
Electricity Meters ....................................................................................................................................... 43
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 44
Measuring the electricity usage .............................................................................................................. 44
Units of measurements ........................................................................................................................... 45
Other units of Measurements ............................................................................................................ 46
Working theory ....................................................................................................................................... 46
Types of electricity meters ...................................................................................................................... 46
Smart meters........................................................................................................................................... 48
Prepayment meters ................................................................................................................................ 49
Working of Prepayment meters ......................................................................................................... 49
Power export metering ........................................................................................................................... 50
Tampering and security in electric meters ............................................................................................. 51
Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) ...................................................................................................................... 52
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 53
Working............................................................................................................................................... 53
LED types............................................................................................................................................. 54
Advantages ......................................................................................................................................... 56
Disadvantages ..................................................................................................................................... 57
Applications............................................................................................................................................. 59
SMD LEDs ............................................................................................................................................ 59
LED lamp ............................................................................................................................................. 59
Testing ..................................................................................................................................................... 61
PCB Kit repair and rework .......................................................................................................................... 63
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 64
SYSTEM 8 Analog IC Tester ..................................................................................................................... 65
Table of Figures
Figure 1: Relay logic Vs PLC logic ................................................................................................ 7
Figure 2: PLC architecture .............................................................................................................. 8
Figure 1.3: PLC fixed configuration ............................................................................................... 8
Figure4: PLC modular configuration .............................................................................................. 9
Figure5: Input/output Modules ....................................................................................................... 9
Figure 6: Proximity Sensor ........................................................................................................... 14
Figure 7: Inductive Proximity Sensor ........................................................................................... 14
Figure 1.8: Capacitive Proximity Sensor ...................................................................................... 15
Figure 9: Ultrasonic Sensor .......................................................................................................... 15
Figure 10: Photoelectric Sensor applications ................................................................................ 16
Figure 1.11: Pressure Sensor......................................................................................................... 16
Figure 12: Pressure Sensor applications ....................................................................................... 16
Figure 13: Circuit symbol for a relay ............................................................................................ 18
Figure 14: Overload Relay ............................................................................................................ 20
Figure 15: Contactor ..................................................................................................................... 21
Figure 16: Circuit Breakers ........................................................................................................... 22
Figure 17: Ladder Logic Elements ............................................................................................... 23
Figure 18: Scan cycle .................................................................................................................... 24
Figure 19: Solar Radiation ............................................................................................................ 26
Figure 20: Pyranometer................................................................................................................. 27
Figure 21: A flat-plate collector Figure 22: Evacuated-tube collector .................... 28
Figure 23: Thermosyphon systems ............................................................................................... 28
Figure 24: Forced-circulation systems .......................................................................................... 29
Figure 25: PV Cells....................................................................................................................... 29
Figure 26: Grid-tied Solar system ................................................................................................. 30
Figure 27: Off-grid solar system ................................................................................................... 31
Figure 28: Hybrid solar systems ................................................................................................... 31
Figure 29: Typical surface mount resistor Figure 30: SMD Capacitor .................................. 35
Figure 31: Typical Quad Flat Package, QFP Figure 32: SMD BGA Ball Grid Array package . 36
Figure 33: Assembly Process ........................................................................................................ 37
Figure 34: Tools needed in Rework Station ................................................................................. 39
Figure 35: Electromechanical meter ............................................................................................. 46
Figure 36: solid state meter ........................................................................................................... 47
Figure 37: Smart meter ................................................................................................................. 47
Figure 38: Pre-payment meter ...................................................................................................... 48
Figure 39: LED parts .................................................................................................................... 52
Figure 40: The inner workings of an LED .................................................................................... 53
Figure 41: LED Types .................................................................................................................. 53
Figure 42: Miniature surface mount LEDs ................................................................................... 54
Figure 43: HPLED ........................................................................................................................ 55
Figure 44: Disassembled LED-light bulb with driver circuit board and Edison screw ................ 59
Figure 45: LED bulbs.................................................................................................................... 60
Figure 46: LED tube lamp ............................................................................................................ 60
Figure47: An Integrating or Ulbricht sphere used for photometric testing of lamps and light fittings
....................................................................................................................................................... 61
Table of Tables
Table 1: PLC vs Computer ............................................................................................................. 6
Table 2: Standard Switches ........................................................................................................... 12
Table 3: Sensing Switches ............................................................................................................ 17
Table 4: SMT terms ...................................................................................................................... 34
 Programmable Logic Controllers
CH.1 (PLCs)
1.1. Introduction to PLC

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs), also referred to as programmable controllers, are in the

computer family. They are used in commercial and industrial applications. A PLC monitors inputs,

makes decisions based on its program, and controls outputs to automate a process or machine. This

course is meant to supply you with basic information on the functions and configurations of PLCs.

Table 1: PLC vs Computer

PLC Computer

Designed for extreme industrial Designed mainly for data processing and
environments calculation
Optimized for speed
Can operation in high temperature and
humidity Cant operate in extreme environments
High immunity to noise
Can be programmed in different languages
Integrated command interpreter
(proprietary) Lots of secondary memory available

No secondary memory available Multitasking capability

Optimized for Single task

1.1.1. History of PLC

During the Industrial Revolution of the 18th-and 19th-centuries, many traditionally manual

processes were taken over by machines. These early machines relied on gears and pulleys to work

and were, by our standards, extremely primitive. The first major breakthrough in the development

of Control systems came with the invention of electrically powered machines.

The first control systems were developed in the early years of the 20th century and used sequential

Relay Circuits for machine control. A major technical breakthrough in its day and still used in

some plants today, relay technology enabled machines to work faster and more safely.
Relay circuits performed their job very well, but they required large amounts of floor space, and

huge amounts of energy. Adding to their drawbacks as the basis for a machine control system,

relay circuits also took a long time to install, troubleshoot, and modify. Finally, in the early 1970s,

a device was developed to replace sequential relay circuits: the Programmable Logic Controller

(PLC).

As you will remember from reading about them in Module 24, PLCs are more reliable, faster,

more flexible and more efficient than relay-based systems. For example, PLCs are cheaper and

easier to wire and maintain than relays. Furthermore, when it comes to troubleshooting, PLCs are

much quicker than relays at testing and debugging the program.

PLCs are used in all kinds of industries. In fact, almost any industrial process that uses electrical

control needs a PLC. For example, let's assume that when a switch turns on we want to turn a

solenoid on for 5 seconds and then turn it off regardless of how long the switch is on. We can do

this with a simple external timer. But what if the process included 10 switches and solenoids?

We would need 10 external timers. What if the process also needed to count how many times the
switches individually turned on?
We need a lot of external counters. With a PLC, however, we can dispense with those unwieldy
timers and counters, and simply program the PLC to count its inputs and turn the solenoids on for
the specified time.
The following figure is a Traditional Relay Logic & PLC logic circuit.

Figure 1: Relay logic Vs PLC logic

1.1.2. PLC Basic Architecture: -

Figure 2: PLC architecture

1.1.3. PLC Configurations

There are two PLC basic configurations that commercial manufacturers offer.
Fixed Configuration

Figure 1.3: PLC fixed configuration

 Modular Configuration

Figure4: PLC modular configuration

1.1.4. Input/output Modules

Figure5: Input/output Modules

1.1.5. Advantages of PLCs: -

The same, as well as more complex tasks, can be done with a PLC. Wiring between devices and
relay contacts is done in the PLC program. Hard-wiring, though still required to connect field
devices, is less intensive. Modifying the application and correcting errors are easier to handle. It
is easier to create and change a program in a PLC than it is to wire and rewire a circuit. Following
are just a few of the advantages of PLCs: -
Increased Reliability

More Flexibility

Lower Cost

Faster Response

Easier to troubleshoot

Remote control capability

Communication Capability

1.1.6. Disadvantages of PLCs: -

In contrast to microcontroller systems that have what is called an open architecture,

most PLCs manufacturers offer only closed architectures for their products

PLC devices are proprietary, which means that parts and software from one

manufacturer can cant easily be used in t combination with parts of another

manufacturer, which limits the design and cost options

1.2. Basic Elements of Control System

1.2.1. Switches: -

Selecting a Switch: -

There are three important features to consider when selecting a switch:

o Contacts (e.g. single pole, double throw)

o Ratings (maximum voltage and current)
o Method of Operation (toggle, slide, key etc.)

Switch Contacts: -

Several terms are used to describe switch contacts:

o Pole - number of switch contact sets.

o Throw - number of conducting positions, single or double.
o Way - number of conducting positions, three or more.
o Momentary - switch returns to its normal position when released.
o Open - off position, contacts not conducting.
o Closed - on position, contacts conducting, there may be several on positions.

Switch Contact Ratings: -

Switch contacts are rated with a maximum voltage and current, and there may be
different ratings for AC and DC. The AC values are higher because the current falls
to zero many times each second and an arc is less likely to form across the switch
contacts.

For low voltage electronics projects the voltage rating will not matter, but you may
need to check the current rating. The maximum current is less for inductive loads
(coils and motors) because they cause more sparking at the contacts when switched
off.
 Standard Switches: -
Table 2: Standard Switches

Type of Switch Circuit Symbol Example

ON-OFF
Single Pole, Single Throw = SPST

A simple on-off switch. This type can be used to

switch the power supply to a circuit.

When used with mains electricity this type of

switch must be in the live wire, but it is better to
use a DPST switch to isolate both live and SPST toggle switch
neutral.

(ON)-OFF
Push-to-make = SPST Momentary

A push-to-make switch returns to its normally

open (off) position when you release the button, Push-to-make switch
this is shown by the brackets around ON. This is
the standard doorbell switch.

ON-(OFF)
Push-to-break = SPST Momentary

A push-to-break switch returns to its normally

closed (on) position when you release the button. Push-to-break switch

ON-ON
Single Pole, Double Throw = SPDT

This switch can be on in both positions, switching

on a separate device in each case. It is often called
a changeover switch. For example, a SPDT
switch can be used to switch on a red lamp in one
position and a green lamp in the other position.

SPDT toggle switch

A SPDT toggle switch may be used as a simple
on-off switch by connecting to COM and one of
the A or B terminals shown in the diagram. A and
B are interchangeable so switches are usually not
labeled.

SPDT slide switch

ON-OFF-ON (PCB mounting)
SPDT Centre Off
A special version of the standard SPDT switch. It
has a third switching position in the centre which
is off. Momentary (ON)-OFF-(ON) versions are
also available where the switch returns to the
central off position when released.

SPDT rocker switch

Dual ON-OFF
Double Pole, Single Throw = DPST

A pair of on-off switches which operate together

(shown by the dotted line in the circuit symbol).

A DPST switch is often used to switch mains

electricity because it can isolate both the live and
neutral connections.
DPST rocker switch

Dual ON-ON
Double Pole, Double Throw = DPDT

A pair of on-on switches which operate together

(shown by the dotted line in the circuit symbol).

A DPDT switch can be wired up as a reversing

switch for a motor as shown in the diagram.
DPDT slide switch
ON-OFF-ON
DPDT Centre Off
A special version of the standard SPDT switch. It
has a third switching position in the centre which
is off. This can be very useful for motor control
because you have forward, off and reverse
positions. Momentary (ON)-OFF-(ON) versions
are also available where the switch returns to the Wiring for Reversing Switch
central off position when released.
1.2.2. Sensors:-

Generally there are 5 steps to determine which switch type is best suited to the application.
This depends on the material properties of the target to be detected.

o Type of sensor.
o Housing design.
o Sensing range (mm)
o Electrical data and connections
o General specifications

Proximity Sensor:
A type of sensing switch that detects the presence or absence of an object without physical contact.

Figure 6: Proximity Sensor

Inductive Proximity Sensor:-

A type of sensing switch that uses an electromagnetic coil to detect the presence of a metal object
without coming into physical contact with it. Inductive proximity sensors ignore nonmetallic
objects.

Figure 7: Inductive Proximity Sensor

 Capacitive Proximity Sensor :-

A type of sensing switch that produces an electrostatic field to detect the presence of metal and
nonmetallic objects without coming into contact with them.

Figure 1.8: Capacitive Proximity Sensor

Ultrasonic Sensor
A type of sensing switch that uses high frequency sound to detect the presence of an object without
coming into contact with the object.

Figure 9: Ultrasonic Sensor

Photoelectric Sensor : -

Recognition, detection, positioning, classification, counting, notification and monitoring.

Nowadays, these processes are largely handled by non-contact photoelectric sensors. Applications
range from the automobile industry, mechanical engineering, and assembly automation, through
warehousing and conveyor systems and packaging applications, to the printing and paper
industries, and naturally include monitoring and safety systems.
 Figure 10: Photoelectric Sensor applications

Pressure Switch : -
A control device that opens or closes its contacts in response to a change in the pressure of a liquid
or gas.

Figure 1.11: Pressure Sensor

Figure 12: Pressure Sensor applications

 Sensing Switches :-

A device, often called a sensor, used to provide information on the presence or absence of an

object. Examples include a limit switch, photoelectric sensor, inductive proximity sensor,

capacitive proximity sensor, and ultrasonic proximity sensor.

Table 3: Sensing Switches

Sensors Advantages Disadvantage Applications

High Current Capability Require Physical Contact Interlocking

Limit Switch Low Cost Very Slow Response Basic End Travel
Familiar " Low-Tech " Contact Bounce Sensing
Sensing

Senses all Kinds of Lens Subject to Packaging

Photoelectric Materials Contamination. Material Handling
Long Life Sensing Range Affected Parts Detection
Largest Sensing Range by Color and Reflectivity
Very Fast Response Time

Resistant to Harsh Distance Limitations Industrial and

Inductive Environments Senses Metal Only Machines.
Very Predictable Machine Tools
Long Life
Easy to Install

Can Detect Non-Metallic Very Sensitive to Level Sensing

Capacitive Detects Through Some Extreme Environmental
Containers Changes

Senses all Materials Sensitive to Temperature Level Control

Ultrasonic Changes. Doors
Anti-Collision
1.2.3. Electromagnetic Relay : -

Relay is an electrically operated switch. Current flowing through the coil of the relay creates a
magnetic field which attracts a lever and changes the switch contacts. The coil current can be on
or off so relays have two switch positions and they are double throw (changeover) switches.

Figure 13: Circuit symbol for a relay

Relays allow one circuit to switch a second circuit which can be completely separate from the first. For
example a low voltage battery circuit can use a relay to switch a 230V AC mains circuit. There is no electrical
connection inside the relay between the two circuits, the link is magnetic and mechanical. The coil of a relay
passes a relatively large current, typically 30mA for a 12V relay, but it can be as much as 100mA for relays
designed to operate from lower voltages
Relays are usually SPDT or DPDT but they can have many more sets of switch contacts, for example relays
with 4 sets of changeover contacts are readily available.
The animated picture shows a working relay with its coil and switch contacts. You can see a lever on the
left being attracted by magnetism when the coil is switched on. This lever moves the switch contacts. There
is one set of contacts (SPDT) in the foreground and another behind them, making the relay DPDT.

The relay's switch connections are usually labeled COM, NC and NO:
COM = Common, always connect to this, it is the moving part of the switch.
NC = Normally Closed, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is off.
NO = Normally Open, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is on.
Connect to COM and NO if you want the switched circuit to be on when the relay coil is on.
Connect to COM and NC if you want the switched circuit to be on when the relay coil is off.
 Choosing a relay : -

You need to consider several features when choosing a relay:

o Physical size and pin arrangement

If you are choosing a relay for an existing PCB you will need to ensure that its dimensions
and pin arrangement are suitable. You should find this information in the supplier's
catalogue.

o Coil voltage

The relay's coil voltage rating and resistance must suit the circuit powering the relay coil.
Many relays have a coil rated for a 12V supply but 5V and 24V relays are also readily
available. Some relays operate perfectly well with a supply voltage which is a little lower
than their rated value.

o Coil resistance

The circuit must be able to supply the current required by the relay coil. You can use
Ohm's law to calculate the current:

supply voltage
Relay coil current =
coil resistance

For example: A 12V supply relay with a coil resistance of 400 passes a current of 30mA.
Switch ratings (voltage and current)

The relay's switch contacts must be suitable for the circuit they are to control. You will need to check
the voltage and current ratings. Note that the voltage rating is usually higher for AC, for example:
"5A at 24V DC or 125V AC".

Switch contact arrangement (SPDT, DPDT etc)

 Most relays are SPDT or DPDT which are often described as "single pole changeover" (SPCO) or
"double pole changeover" (DPCO).

Advantages of relays:
o Relays can switch AC and DC, transistors can only switch DC.
o Relays can switch high voltages, transistors cannot.
o Relays are a better choice for switching large currents (> 5A).
o Relays can switch many contacts at once.
Disadvantages of relays:
o Relays are bulkier than transistors for switching small currents.
o Relays cannot switch rapidly (except reed relays), transistors can switch many times per second.
o Relays use more power due to the current flowing through their coil.
o Relays require more current than many chips can provide, so a low power transistor may be
needed to switch the current for the relay's coil.

Relays can generate a very high voltage across the coil when switched off. This can damage other
components in the circuit. To prevent this a diode is connected across the coil. The cathode of the diode is
connected to the most positive end of the coil.

Overload Relay

A device used to protect a motor from damage resulting from an overcurrent.

Figure 14: Overload Relay

 Overcurrent

A current in excess of the rated current for a device or conductor. An overcurrent can result from
an overload, short circuit, or ground fault.

Overload

Can refer to an operating condition in excess of a full-load rating or a current high enough to cause
damage if it is present long enough. An overload does not refer to a short circuit or ground fault.

1.2.4. Contactor :-

A device used to energize and de-energize an electrical circuit.

Figure 15: Contactor

1.2.5. Circuit Breakers : -

There are several circuit breakers that are used in residential, commercial and light industrial
applications. These circuit breakers are normally plug-in or bolt-on types that mount in load centers
or panel boards. Other types are also available, for example, circuit breakers that mount on a DIN
rail. There are several variations of circuit breakers, and this section will attempt to explain the
most popular of them.

Figure 16: Circuit Breakers

1.3. PLC Programming Languages: -

Instruction List (IL)

Series of instructions, each one must start on a new line.

One instruction = operator + one or more operations separated by commas.
Function Blocks lunched using a special operator.
Label Operator Operation Comment
Run: LD %IX1 (*pushbutton*)
ANDN %MX5
ST %QX2 (*run*)

Function Block Diagram (FBD) : -

Representation of functions by blocks linked to each other.

Network evaluation: from the O/P of a function block to the I/P of the connected function block.
 Ladder Diagram (LD) : -
Graphic elements organized in networks connected by power supply rails.
Elements used: contacts, coil, functions, function blocks control elements (jump, return, etc.)

Start 1 Start 2 run

Start 3
Ladder Logic Elements:

Figure 17: Ladder Logic Elements

1.4. Running the Program

For the program to operate the PLC should be put on the Run mode or Operating cycle.

In the operating cycle first the controller examines the inputs and their status is recorded

in the PLC memory, then the ladder diagram is evaluated, and changes are send to the

outputs accordingly.

1.4.1. Scan Time

The completion of a cycle of the controller is called a Scan. The scan time needed to

complete a full cycle by the controller gives the measure of the speed of execution for

the PLC.

Generally outputs are updated in memory during the scan but the actual output is

updated until the end of the program during the I/O scan.

Figure 18: Scan cycle

This process of reading inputs, executing logic, and writing outputs is called the PLC Scan or

Sweep. The CPU continuously Reads Inputs, Solves Logic, and Writes to the. It is important to

understand the scan because it may dictate how a programmer structures logic.
 Solar Energy
CH.2
2.1. Introduction

Solar Energy is the energy coming from the sun. It comes from nuclear fusion reaction that takes
place deep in the Sun. The energy from these reactions flow out from the sun and escape into
space.

To get benefit from this free, clean energy source we use solar power stations which can be:
Photovoltaic Power Stations
Thermal Power Stations
Hybrid power stations

At the end of 2010, global Photovoltaic (PV) installations surpassed 40 GW and PV power stations
are popular in Germany and Spain. Solar thermal stations operate in the USA and Spain, and the
largest of these is the 354 megawatt (MW) power plant in the Mojave Desert.

Solar Constant
The sun is a large sphere of very hot gases, the heat being generated by various kinds of fusion
reactions. Its diameter is 1.39x106 KM. While that of the earth is 1.27x104 KM. The mean distance
between the two is 1.50x108 KM.

The standard value solar constant 1.370 kilowatts per square meter.

2.1.1. Solar Radiation at the Earths Surface

Figure 19: Solar Radiation

2.1.2. Measuring solar radiation

Solar Radiation flux is usually measured with the help of a pyranometer. It is not hard to measure
energy from the sun at Earth's surface, a quantity called insolation. Pyranometers (from the Greek
word for fire) are designed specifically for this purpose. In high-quality pyranometers, several
devices called thermocouples are electrically connected to form thermopiles. When sunlight strikes
a thermopile, it creates a temperature difference across the junctions of the thermopile. This
produces a small voltage proportional to the amount of incident energy. The advantage of
thermopile-based pyranometers is that they respond across a very broad range of wavelengths, as
required to measure insolation. A high-quality thermopile-based pyranometer is shown in Figure.
(This instrument is roughly 20 cm in diameter.)

Figure 20: Pyranometer

2.2. Applications of solar energy

Solar Collectors
A solar collector is a device for collecting solar radiation and transfer the energy to fluid
passing in contact with it. They are used with:
o Solar thermal energy system
o Solar electric energy system

Types of solar collector

1. Non- concentrating solar collector.
2. Concentrating (focusing) solar collector.

Simple solar thermal collectors are mainly collectors either flat or with a vacuum pipe (figure
below). These systems cannot reach temperatures higher than 150C. These collectors are usually
used for heating purposes and production of low temperature water (90C-100C) but could also
be used to produce power through an Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC).
Figure 21: A flat-plate collector Figure 22: Evacuated-tube collector

2.2.1. Solar thermal energy system

Water Heating Methods:

1. Thermosyphon systems
The principle of the thermosyphon system is that cold water has a higher
specific density than warm water, and so being heavier will sink down.
Therefore, the collector is always mounted below the water storage tank,
so that cold water from the tank reaches the collector via a descending
water pipe. If the collector heats up the water, the water rises again and
reaches the tank through an ascending water pipe at the upper end of the
collector. The cycle of tankwater pipecollector ensures the water is
heated up until it achieves an equilibrium temperature. The consumer
can then make use of the hot water from the top of the tank, with any
water used being replaced by cold water at the bottom. The collector
then heats up the cold water again. Due to higher temperature
differences at higher solar irradiances, warm water rises faster than it
does at lower irradiances. Therefore, the circulation of water adapts
itself almost perfectly to the level of solar irradiance.

Figure 23: Thermosyphon systems

 2. Forced-circulation systems
In contrast to thermosyphon systems, an electrical pump can be used to
move water through the solar cycle of a system by forced circulation.
Collector and storage tank can then be installed independently, and no
height difference between tank and collector is necessary.
Figures shows a system using forced circulation with a conventional
boiler for back-up heating.

Figure 24: Forced-circulation systems

2.2.2. Solar electric energy system

Solar photovoltaic (PV) energy system

Figure 25: PV Cells

Type of photovoltaic solar system:
1. Grid-Tied
Grid-tied, on-grid, utility-interactive, grid intertie and grid back feeding
are all terms used to describe the same concept a solar system that is
connected to the utility power grid.

Figure 26: Grid-tied Solar system

Advantages of Grid-Tied Systems:

o Save more money with net metering
o The utility grid is a virtual battery

Equipment for Grid-Tied Solar Systems:

There are a few key differences between the equipment needed for grid-
tied, off-grid and hybrid solar systems. Standard grid-tied solar systems
rely on the following components.
o Grid-Tie Inverter (GTI) or Micro-Inverters
o Power Meter

2. Off-Grid
An off-grid solar system (off-the-grid, standalone) is the obvious
alternative to one that is grid-tied. For homeowners that have access to
the grid, off-grid solar systems are usually out of question. Here`s why:
To ensure access to electricity at all times, off-grid solar systems require
battery storage and a backup generator (if you live off-the-grid). On top
of this, a battery bank typically needs to be replaced after 10 years.
Batteries are complicated, expensive and decrease overall system
efficiency.
 Figure 27: Off-grid solar system

Advantages of Off-Grid Solar Systems

o No access to the utility grid
o Become energy self-sufficient

Equipment for Off-Grid Solar Systems:

Typical off-grid solar systems require the following extra components:
o Solar Charge Controller
o Battery Bank
o DC Disconnect (additional)
o Off-Grid Inverter
o Backup Generator (optional)

3. Hybrid Solar Systems

Hybrid solar systems combines the best from grid-tied and off-grid solar
systems.
These systems can either be described as off-grid solar with utility
backup power, or grid-tied solar with extra battery storage.

Figure 28: Hybrid solar systems

 Advantages of Hybrid Solar Systems
o Less expensive than off-gird solar systems
o Smart solar holds a lot of promise

2.2.2.1. Sizing Grid Tie Solar System

Determining the size of your grid-tie system is much easier than an off-grid system as the utility
company has kept all of the records for you. There are several ways that you can build a solar
system of this type. You can start by finding out how many kWh you use on average per month,
and creating a system that would cover all of your electricity bill. Once you have completed this,
you may be surprised at how large a system this would be, or that you just dont have the roof or
ground space to support a system like this. There may be ways to cut down on your electric use,
or change out appliances within the home (see the off-grid section previously in this guide for
references on making your home more energy efficient). If your utility has a tiered billing structure
where you are billed a rate for baseline usage, and then higher rates for a percentage of power used
above that baseline, you may be able to build a solar system that eliminates the overages and higher
rates which equates to a greater savings per the investment. The following steps will help you
determine the size of system you will need.

1. Find your monthly average electrical usage from your electricity bill. This will be
listed in kWh.

2. Find your daily average electric use. This will be your monthly average kWh divided
by 30.

3. Find your locations average peak sun hours per day. The above map has rough figures.

4. Calculate the system size (AC kW) to cover 100% of your electric bill by dividing your
daily average electric use in #2 by the figure in #3

5. Divide your result in #4 by .77 to get a derate factor for the components in the system.
This takes into consideration temperature, wire loss, component inefficiencies, etc.

6. Multiply your result in #5 by 1000 to get watts of system.

7. Divide the wattage of the module that you would like to use into this number to
determine the number of modules you would need.
 Surface mount technology (SMT)
CH.3
3.1. Introduction

Surface-mount technology (SMT) is a method for producing electronic circuits in which the
components are mounted or placed directly onto the surface of printed circuit boards (PCBs). An
electronic device so made is called a surface-mount device (SMD). In the industry it has largely
replaced the through-hole technology construction method of fitting components with wire leads
into holes in the circuit board. Both technologies can be used on the same board for components
not suited to surface mounting such as large transformers and heat-sinked power semiconductors.

Virtually all of today's mass produced electronics hardware is manufactured using surface mount
technology (SMT) The associated surface mount devices (SMDs) provide many advantages over
their leaded predecessors in terms of manufacturability and often performance.

It was not until the 1980's that surface mount technology, SMT became widely used. Once SMT
started to be used, the change from conventional leaded components to surface mount devices,
SMDs took place quickly in view of the enormous gains that could be made using SMT.

3.1.1. Terms

Because "surface-mount" refers to a methodology of manufacturing, there are different terms used
when referring to the different aspect of the method, which distinguishes for example the
components, technique, and machines used in manufacturing. These terms are listed in the
following table:

Table 4: SMT terms

Term Expanded form

SMD Surface-mount devices (active, passive and electromechanical components)
SMT Surface-mount technology (assembling and mounting technology)
SMA Surface-mount assembly (module assembled with SMT)
SMC Surface-mount components (components for SMT)
SMP Surface-mount packages (SMD case forms)
SME Surface-mount equipment (SMT assembling machines)

3.1.2. Why SMT

Mass produced electronic circuit boards need to be manufactured in a highly mechanized

manner to ensure the lowest cost of manufacture. The traditional leaded electronic components
do not lend themselves to this approach. Although some mechanization was possible,
component leads needed to be pre-formed. Also when the leads were inserted into boards
automatically problems were often encountered as wires would often not fit properly slowing
production rates considerably.

It was reasoned that the wires that had traditionally been used for connections were not actually
needed for printed circuit board construction. Rather than having leads placed through holes,
 the components could be soldered onto pads on the board instead. This also saved creating the
lead holes in the boards which added cost to the production of the bare PCBs.
As the components were mounted on the surface of the board, rather than having connections
that went through holes in the board, the new technology was called surface mount technology
or SMT and the devices used were surface mount devices, SMDs. The idea for SMT was
adopted very quickly because it enabled greater levels of mechanization to be used, and it
considerably saved on manufacturing costs.

To accommodate surface mount technology, SMT, a completely new set of components was
needed. New SMT outlines were required, and often the same components, e.g. ICs were sold
in both traditional leaded packages and SMT packages. Despite this, the gains of using SMT
proved to be so large that it was adopted very quickly.

3.2. SMT Components

Surface mount devices, SMDs by their nature are very different to the traditional leaded
components. They can be split into a number of categories:

Passive SMDs:
There is quite a variety of different packages used for passive SMDs. However the majority
of passive SMDs are either resistors or capacitors for which the package sizes are
reasonably well standardized. Other components including coils, crystals and others tend
to have more individual requirements and hence their own packages.

Resistors and capacitors have a variety of package sizes. These have designations that
include: 1812, 1206, 0805, 0603, 0402, and 0201. The figures refer to the dimensions in
hundreds of an inch. In other words the 1206 measures 12 hundreds by 6 hundreds of an
inch. The larger sizes such as 1812 and 1206 were some of the first that were used. They
are not in widespread use now as much smaller components are generally required.
However they may find use in applications where larger power levels are needed or where
other considerations require the larger size.

Figure 29: Typical surface mount resistor Figure 30: SMD Capacitor

The connections to the printed circuit board are made through metallized areas at either end of the package.
 Transistors and diodes:
These components are often contained in a small plastic package. The connections are
made via leads which emanate from the package and are bent so that they touch the board.
Three leads are always used for these packages. In this way it is easy to identify which way
round the device must go.

Integrated circuits:
There is a variety of packages which are used for integrated circuits. The package used
depends upon the level of interconnectivity required. Many chips like the simple logic
chips may only require 14 or 16 pins, whereas other like the VLSI processors and
associated chips can require up to 200 or more. In view of the wide variation of
requirements there is a number of different packages available.

For the smaller chips, packages such as the SOIC (Small Outline Integrated Circuit) may
be used. These are effectively the SMT version of the familiar DIL (Dual In Line) packages
used for the familiar 74 series logic chips. Additionally there are smaller versions including
TSOP (Thin Small Outline Package) and SSOP (Shrink Small Outline Package.)

The VLSI chips require a different approach. Typically a package known as a quad flat
pack is used. This has a square or rectangular footprint and has pins emanating on all four
sides. Pins again are bent out of the package in what is termed a gull-wing formation so
that they meet the board. The spacing of the pins is dependent upon the number of pins
required. For some chips it may be as close as 20 thousandths of an inch. Great care is
required when packaging these chips and handling them as the pins are very easily bent.

Figure 31: Typical Quad Flat Package, QFP Figure 32: SMD BGA Ball Grid Array package

Other packages are also available. One known as a BGA (Ball Grid Array) is used in many
applications. Instead of having the connections on the side of the package, they are
underneath. The connection pads have balls of solder that melt during the soldering
process, thereby making a good connection with the board and mechanically attaching it.
As the whole of the underside of the package can be used, the pitch of the connections is
wider and it is found to be much more reliable.

A smaller version of the BGA, known as the microBGA is also being used for some ICs.
As the name suggests it is a smaller version of the BGA.
3.3. Assembly techniques:

SMT is used almost exclusively for the manufacture of electronic circuit boards these days. They
are smaller, often offer a better level of performance and they can be used with automated pick
and place machine that in many cases all bit eliminate the need for manual intervention in the
assembly process.

Figure 33: Assembly Process

Where components are to be placed, the printed circuit board normally has flat, usually tin-lead,
silver, or gold plated copper pads without holes, called solder pads. Solder paste, a sticky mixture
of flux and tiny solder particles, is first applied to all the solder pads with a stainless steel or nickel
stencil using a screen printing process. It can also be applied by a jet-printing mechanism, similar
to an inkjet printer. After pasting, the boards then proceed to the pick-and-place machines, where
they are placed on a conveyor belt. The components to be placed on the boards are usually
delivered to the production line in either paper/plastic tapes wound on reels or plastic tubes. Some
large integrated circuits are delivered in static-free trays. Numerical control pick-and-place
machines remove the parts from the tapes, tubes or trays and place them on the PCB.

The boards are then conveyed into the reflow soldering oven. They first enter a pre-heat zone,
where the temperature of the board and all the components is gradually, uniformly raised. The
boards then enter a zone where the temperature is high enough to melt the solder particles in the
solder paste, bonding the component leads to the pads on the circuit board. The surface tension of
the molten solder helps keep the components in place, and if the solder pad geometries are correctly
designed, surface tension automatically aligns the components on their pads. There are a number
of techniques for reflowing solder. One is to use infrared lamps; this is called infrared reflow.
Another is to use a hot gas convection. Another technology which is becoming popular again is
special fluorocarbon liquids with high boiling points which use a method called vapor phase
reflow. Due to environmental concerns, this method was falling out of favor until lead-free
legislation was introduced which requires tighter controls on soldering. Currently, at the end of
2008, convection soldering is the most popular reflow technology using either standard air or
nitrogen gas. Each method has its advantages and disadvantages. With infrared reflow, the board
designer must lay the board out so that short components don't fall into the shadows of tall
components. Component location is less restricted if the designer knows that vapor phase reflow
or convection soldering will be used in production. Following reflow soldering, certain irregular
or heat-sensitive components may be installed and soldered by hand, or in large-scale automation,
by focused infrared beam (FIB) or localized convection equipment.

If the circuit board is double-sided then this printing, placement, reflow process may be repeated
using either solder paste or glue to hold the components in place. If a wave soldering process is
used, then the parts must be glued to the board prior to processing to prevent them from floating
off when the solder paste holding them in place is melted.

After soldering, the boards may be washed to remove flux residues and any stray solder balls that
could short out closely spaced component leads. Rosin flux is removed with fluorocarbon solvents,
high flash point hydrocarbon solvents, or low flash solvents e.g. limonene (derived from orange
peels) which require extra rinsing or drying cycles. Water-soluble fluxes are removed with
deionized water and detergent, followed by an air blast to quickly remove residual water. However,
most electronic assemblies are made using a "No-Clean" process where the flux residues are
designed to be left on the circuit board [benign]. This saves the cost of cleaning, speeds up the
manufacturing process, and reduces waste.

Certain manufacturing standards, such as those written by the IPC - Association Connecting
Electronics Industries require cleaning regardless of the solder flux type used to ensure a
thoroughly clean board. Even no-clean flux leaves a residue which, under IPC standards, must be
removed.[citation needed] Proper cleaning removes all traces of solder flux, as well as dirt and
other contaminants that may be invisible to the naked eye. However, while shops conforming to
IPC standard are expected to adhere to the Association's rules on board condition, not all
manufacturing facilities apply IPC standard, nor are they required to do so. Additionally, in some
applications, such as low-end electronics, such stringent manufacturing methods are excessive
both in expense and time required.

Finally, the boards are visually inspected for missing or misaligned components and solder
bridging. If needed, they are sent to a rework station where a human operator repairs any errors.
They are then usually sent to the testing stations (in-circuit testing and/or functional testing) to
verify that they operate correctly.

3.4. Rework Station

When there are any errors resulted from the assembly process, the boards are sent to this
station where a human operator can fix it manually. The operator follows these steps:
Figure 34: Tools needed in Rework Station

1. Preparing the PCB

Check to be sure the pad size of the PCB lines up with the pins on the SMD
Clean the PCB of any dust or debris.
Turn the soldering iron on now, and set the temperature between 600-700
degrees.
Warning: When heated to these temperatures, you will be burned if you
touch the tip of the soldering iron.
2. Use Tweezers to Position the Component
3. Tack down one corner
4. Using the Flux
Spread the flux over the pins on the opposite side of the component that was
tacked down in the previous step.
5. Solder
6. Heat up de-soldering wick to fix tack
It is fairly common that while preforming the previous step, a solder bridge will
develop. These steps will also work for removing the component from the board.
Take the desoldering wick and place it over the solder you want to remove.
With the soldering iron, lightly press on the wick, to ensure the heat is
transferred through to the solder.
7. Solder
8. Fix any remaining solder bridges
9. Clean with Rubbing Alcohol
Take the anti-static cloth and pour a small amount of rubbing alcohol onto
it.
Gently clean around the newly soldered component, and where any excess
flux exists. This will give a more professional look.
3.5. Advantages
 Smaller components. As of 2012 smallest was 0.4 0.2 mm (0.016 0.008 in: 01005).
Much higher component density (components per unit area) and many more connections
per component.
Lower initial cost and time of setting up for production.
Fewer holes need to be drilled.
Simpler and faster automated assembly. Some placement machines are capable of placing
more than 136,000 components per hour.
Small errors in component placement are corrected automatically as the surface tension of
molten solder pulls components into alignment with solder pads.
Components can be placed on both sides of the circuit board.
Lower resistance and inductance at the connection; consequently, fewer unwanted RF
signal effects and better and more predictable high-frequency performance.
Better mechanical performance under shake and vibration conditions.
Many SMT parts cost less than equivalent through-hole parts.
Better EMC performance (lower radiated emissions) due to the smaller radiation loop area
(because of the smaller package) and the smaller lead inductance.

3.6. Disadvantages

Manual prototype assembly or component-level repair is more difficult and requires skilled
operators and more expensive tools, due to the small sizes and lead spacing of many SMDs.
SMDs cannot be used directly with plug-in breadboards (a quick snap-and-play prototyping
tool), requiring either a custom PCB for every prototype or the mounting of the SMD upon
a pin-leaded carrier. For prototyping around a specific SMD component, a less-expensive
breakout board may be used. Additionally, strip-board style proto-boards can be used, some
of which include pads for standard sized SMD components. For prototyping, "dead bug"
bread-boarding can be used.
SMDs' solder connections may be damaged by potting compounds going through thermal
cycling.
Solder joint dimensions in SMT quickly become much smaller as advances are made
toward ultra-fine pitch technology. The reliability of solder joints becomes more of a
concern, as less and less solder is allowed for each joint. Voiding is a fault commonly
associated with solder joints, especially when reflowing a solder paste in the SMT
application. The presence of voids can deteriorate the joint strength and eventually lead to
joint failure.
SMT is unsuitable for large, high-power, or high-voltage parts, for example in power
circuitry. It is common to combine SMT and through-hole construction, with transformers,
heat-sinked power semiconductors, physically large capacitors, fuses, connectors, and so
on mounted on one side of the PCB through holes.
 SMT is unsuitable as the sole attachment method for components that are subject to
frequent mechanical stress, such as connectors that are used to interface with external
devices that are frequently attached and detached.
 Electricity meters
CH.4
4.1. Introduction

An electric meter is a device which is used to measure the consumption of electrical power supplied
to a consumers. An electric meter is also known as an energy meter. The electric power, commonly
known as electricity is a clean and convenient way of delivering energy to a residence, business or
a machine. The electric meter is an important device because it facilitates the measurement of
electricity provided to consumers, since electricity is a billable service.

The electric power company which supplies the electricity installs the electric meters to measure
the amount of electricity consumed by each of its customers. Then the electric meter reads the
meter after some set duration of time, generally after every month and charges the consumer for
the amount of electric power used.

The most common type of electric meter is the one which measures the power consumption in
kilowatt hours. They are used in electricity retailing; the meter records the values to generate an
invoice for the electricity. These days, there are electric meters which can be used to record other
variables like the time when the electricity was used. Since it is expensive to store large amounts
of electricity, it must usually be generated as it is needed. More electricity requires more
generators, and so providers want consumers to avoid causing peaks in consumption. This is the
reason that electric meters have been e therefore devised in such a way which encourages users to
shift their consumption of power away from peak hours, such as midafternoon, when many
buildings turn on air conditioning in countries where climate is really hot during noon times. In
some parts of the world, the electrical meter charges higher rates at certain times of day, in order
to reduce the use of power. Also, in some areas meters have relays to turn off nonessential
equipment.

In order to make sure that there is an efficient use of their distribution network, the power supplying
companies try to maximize the delivery of billable power. One of the methods adopted to ensure
the efficient supply is to reduce tampering with the electric meters. Also, the network needs to get
upgraded with thicker wires, larger transformers, or more generators if its parts become too hot
because of the heat produced due to excessive currents.

4.2. Measuring the electricity usage

Basically there are three ways to go about it:

1. Simple watt-hour meter

Purchase a simple watt-hour meter at your local store. After plugging in the device to the watt-
hour meter, plug the meter into the supply point. When the device begins to draw current, the watt-
hour meter will measure the electricity usage and give a reading. You can get the reading or a
given moment and over an extended period of time.
 2. Whole-house meter

For measuring electricity usage of the whole house, either for any given moment for the month,
then you may consider an installation of a whole-house meter. Similar to the electric meter at your
home, it has some extra features that help you to measure the electricity usage for a selected period
of time. The reset button on the device will reset the meter reading to zero. It will keep on recording
the electricity usage until you stop it. You can compare the reading with your actual figure stated
in your electric bill and make sure you are not being overcharged.

3. Using your own electric meter

If you don't wish spending money on buying watt-hour meter or a whole-house meter, you can still
measure the electricity usage using your home electric meter. You just need to do the following:

First, decide on the device you want to measure and turn it off. It is a good idea to turn off the air
conditioner and refrigerator for they can affect the reading if they kick in while you are making
the measurement. Go to your electric meter and using a stopwatch, just measure how long does it
take for the disc to spin one round. Then, turn on the device you want to measure. Go back to your
electric meter to measure how much time it takes to spin one round now.

Now you are ready to do some calculations. The formula for calculation is: 3.6 x Kh fator / number
of seconds = kW. The Kh factor is 7.2.

Measuring electricity usage has never been simpler!

4.3. Units of measurements

The most popular unit of measurement used by electricity meter is kilowatt hour. One kilowatt
hour is equal to the quantity of power used by one kilowatt of load during a time period of one
hour or 3,600,000 joules. Some of the power supplying companies use SI (International System)
mega joule as units of measurements in electric meter.

The units of measurements in electric meter which are used to measure the demand of electric
power are watts, however, averaged over a period, most of the times a quarter or half hour.

The Volt-amperes are the measurement units electric meter use to measures the amount of the
entire power moved through a distribution network, including reactive and actual. This is equal to
the product of root-mean-square volts and amperes. Volt-amperes reactive, (varh) in kilovar-hours
are the units of measurements used by electric meter to measure the reactive power. An inductive
load or a lagging such as a motor has negative reactive power. While, on the other hand the
capacitive load or a leading load has positive reactive power. There are many ways to measure the
distortion of the electric current by loads. The power factor is the ratio of resistive to volt-amperes.
A capacitive load has a leading power factor, and an inductive load has a lagging power factor. A
purely resistive load such as a filament lamp, heater or kettle exhibits a power factor of one.
4.3.1. Other Units of Measurement

There are other units also which are different from the units of measurements used by electric
meter. In other words, in addition to the commonly used units of measurements in electric meter,
there are many other units which can be used. The meters which measured the amount of charge
in coulombs are called as ampere-hour meters, were used in the early days of electrification. These
were dependent upon the supply voltage remaining constant for accurate measurement of energy
usage, which was not a likely circumstance with most supplies. Some of the electric meters
measured only the duration of time for which current flowed, and no measurement of the current
and magnitude of voltage being made. These units of measurement in electric meter were only
suited for constant load applications. However, neither of these types is likely to be used today.

4.4. Working theory

The electric meters generally comprises of two parts a transducer to convert the power into a
mechanical or electrical signal, and a counter to integrate and display the value of the total energy
that has passed through the meter. One of the easiest and the simplest ways to measure the line
current and voltage for single phase electronic meters are line current and line voltage.

In multi-phase meters (many homes have 2 or 3 phases of electricity supply, providing more
power), voltage and current measurements have to be electrically isolated for each phase and
transformers are used instead of shunts for current sensing.

Let us have a look at the working of an electric meter which is meant for residential connections.
Usually domestic electric meter is enclosed in a glass case in which contains a revolving disk
which in turn rotates a series of numbers or dials. When the electric current passes through the
meter, the disk rotates to measure the exact amount of kilowatts used. The speed of rotation varies
depending on how much electricity you are using in your house for particular device such as
running a washing machine, microwave and water heater etc. It is important to note that different
electric appliance uses different amount of electricity for its operating. More the utilization of
electric power, the faster the speed of rotation of disks.

The electric meter working in case of watt hour meters is explained here. The electromechanical
type meter has the spinning wheel in it and the other type of meter is a solid state type. The solid-
state types make use of a current transformer to measure the current produced in the current-
carrying conductors, which means that the current carrying conductors need not be connected to
the actual measuring device. The electromechanical type uses an aluminum disc acted upon by
two coils. One coil is positioned in such a way as to produce a magnetic flux in proportion to the
voltage on the disc, and the other coil produces magnetic flux proportional to the current.

4.5. Types of electricity meters

There are basically two kinds of electric meter categories, the electromechanical and solid state
meters.
Electromechanical Technology: The most common electric meter type is the Thomson electric
meter which falls under the electromechanical category. This was invented by Elihu Thomson in
1888. The working pf this electromechanical induction electric meter is very simple to understand.
These kinds of electric meter are operated by counting the number of revolutions of an aluminum
disc which keeps on rotating at a speed proportional to the power supplied. The number of
revolutions is thus proportional to the energy usage. It consumes a small amount of power,
typically around two watts. There is a disc made up of a metal which is acted upon by two coils.
The one of the two coils is attached in a way that it produces a magnetic flux proportional to the
voltage and the other produces a magnetic flux in proportion to the current. The field of the voltage
coil is delayed by ninety degrees using a lag coil. The eddy currents are produced in the disc and
the effect is such that a force is exerted on the disc in proportion to the product of the instantaneous
current and voltage. A permanent magnet exerts an opposing force proportional to the speed of
rotation of the disc. The equilibrium between these two opposing forces results in the disc rotating
at a speed proportional to the power being used.

Figure 35: Electromechanical meter

Solid state meters: The types of electric meter in modern times has changed and now we have solid
state electric meters which display the power used on an LCD screen whereas there are some latest
electrical meters which can be made to read automatically. Apart from the amount of electricity
used, the solid state electric meter type can also record other parameters of the load and supply
such as maximum demand, power factor and reactive power used etc. some of the advanced kinds
of electric meters also include electronic clock mechanisms to compute a value, rather than an
amount of electricity consumed, with the pricing varying by the time of day, day of week, and
seasonally. The technology used in most of the solid state electric meter type is the use of a current
transformer to measure the current. The main current-carrying conductors need to pass through the
meter itself and so the meter can be located remotely from the main current-carrying conductors,
which is a particular advantage in large-power installations. It is also possible to use remote current
transformers with electromechanical meters though this is less common.
Figure 36: solid state meter

4.6. Smart meters

Smart meters make use of wireless networking to transfer information to and fro between utilities
and the customers. So far, the connections link has been used primarily to report back utilization
for monthly billing purpose, but there are fresh advanced applications strived to achieve efficiency.

Figure 37: Smart meter

The consumers may catch a genuine experience like reading monthly-bills, electricity usage in
graphical format and various other things with the help of smart meters. In fact the smart meters
can notify the user about the inexpensive time to make use of the various utilities to conserve
energy and monthly billing as well. Moreover, the smart meter can help to provide efficiency to
the power plants. Smart meters are sometimes referred as an electrical meter, but it also means a
device which measures natural gas or water usage. The smart meters classify the usage in a very
detailed manner as compared to the conventional meters.

Customers can, in few cases, may get an actual-time read-out of electricity utilization or find a
graph of a whole day's consumption. Smart meters are intended to help customers take benefit of
off-peak rates. Utilities are most of the times interested in moving consumptions to off-peak times
and running power plants more efficiently. Smart meter I usually a part of smart grid.
Smart meters are also found to be an inexpensive substitute to conventional interval or time-of-use
meters and are proposed to be used on an extensive scale with all consumer classes, including
residential consumers. Interval and time-of-use meters are more of a bequest technology that
traditionally have been installed to compute commercial and industrial customers, but in general
offers no AMR (automated reading) functionality.

Ever since the commencement of electricity deregulation and market-driven pricing across the
globe, government regulators have been seeking for a way to match utilization with production.
Customary electrical meters only evaluate total use and as such, provide no information of when
the energy was utilized. Smart meters offers an reasonable and efficient way of determining this
information, allowing the price setting agencies to establish diverse prices for utilization based on
the time of day and the season.

Electricity prices normally crests at certain conventional times of the day and the season. In
particular, if production is controlled, prices can increase radically during these times as more
costly sources of power are bought from other authorities or more costly production is brought
online. It is assumed that billing consumers by how much is frenzied and at what time of day will
compel consumers to amend their utilization habits to be more receptive to market prices.

4.7. Prepayment Meters

With the help of pre-payment meters you can pay for your gas and electricity as you make use of
it or utilize it. The energy suppliers replace the standard credit meters with a prepayment meters
when the customer is not being able to manage monthly energy bills, or if they have a prior debt
with the supplier, with which the customer will be required to top up when they need gas or
electricity. Also the prepayment meter is installed on the request of customers, if in case theyre
trying to manage their domestic budget, although it is not advised as the gas and electricity you
utilize is charged at a much advanced rate than other energy taxes.

Figure 38: Pre-payment meter

4.7.1. Working of pre-payment meters

Prepayment meters work in a similar manner of pay-as-you-go mobile phones. The prepayment
meters make use of smartcards, tokens, keys, and in some cases, money must be put straight into
the meter rather than paying for the gas and electricity after using it.
There are three types of prepayment meter: smartcard, keys and token meters. All these pre-
payment meters can be credited in newsagents and garages, anywhere the Payzone or Paypoint
signs are displayed and also in some branches of the Post Office.

It has been discovered that almost all prepayment meters are set at the suppliers most pricey tariff.
And it implies that the shoddier families in society pay the largest part for their energy. According
to the energy suppliers the reason behind is this is because of the additional costs the meters sustain,
like the fees for collecting cash by means of Paypoint, Payzone and Post Office outlets, as well as
the fixing and maintenance of the meters themselves.

Also, its important to make sure that you dont run out of credit when you are away in order to
make your appliances left on, such as fridges or freezers running.

Switching of prepayment meters

It gets difficult for the customers to change the prepayment meters after theyve installed, so they
are often considered as a last resort. If the energy supplier says about installing a pre-payment
meters at your home, speak to them and try if you can get a repayment plan for the money you
owe, or whether or not you are eligible for a social levy.

And in case if you have a prepayment meter but you want to switch to a standard credit meter, then
its required to contact your supplier. Usually there is a charge for the installing of a new meter.

4.8. Power Export Metering

When a consumer is producing more electric power than he actually requires for his own use at
home, the surplus energy may be exported back to the power grid. This phenomenon is known as
power export metering. The consumers who want power export metering need to have special
equipment or safety devices to protect the grid components as well as their own while sending the
electricity back to the grid. The safety equipment ensure that no damage happens in case of faults
like electrical short circuits.

Most net metering laws involve monthly roll over of kWh credits, a small monthly connection fee,
require monthly payment of deficits (i.e. normal electric bill), and annual settlement of any residual
credit. Unlike a Feed-in Tariff or time of use metering (TOU), net metering can be implemented
solely as an accounting procedure, and requires no special metering, or even any prior arrangement
or notification.

In simplest cases, this amount of exported energy to the grid may be accounted for by the meter
running backwards during periods of net export. This will result in the reduced usage of electric
power by the consumer. The customer's recorded energy usage decreased by the amount the energy
exported by him to the grid. These days there are so many meters which permit this kind of export
and maintain all the data about the energy consumed by the customer and the energy transferred
by him to the grid. The advanced and sophisticated meters permit such exports in power export
metering. There is a system known as net metering in which the owner gets the retail credit for at
least a portion of the electricity which is generated by him. The majority of electric meters are
accurate in recording the flow of electricity in both directions, allowing a no-cost method of
effectively banking excess electricity production for future credit. Nevertheless, there may be
different rules in different countries and possibly in different states with in a same country. So, if
power export metering is available, you should check for how long you can keep your banked
credits, and how much the credits are worth. In the recent times, the upload sources typically
originate from renewable sources or gas or steam turbines, which are often found in cogeneration
systems. Vehicle-to-grid systems can also be set up at workplace, garages, and parking lots at park
and rides and could help drivers charge their batteries at home at night when off-peak power prices
are cheaper, and receive bill crediting for selling excess electricity back to the grid during high-
demand hours.

4.9. Tampering And Security In Electric Meters

Electric meters can be manipulated, thus causing them to stop, under-register or even bypassing
the meter. Consumers, who are tamper with electric meter, effectively use power without paying
for it. This theft or fraud can be dangerous as well as dishonest. Electric meter security is looked
upon as major issue in many countries today.

Today, many power companies are installing remote-reporting meters which are capable of detect
any tampering in electric meters, and discover energy theft. These smart power meters are
particularly helpful in preventing energy theft and encouraging security in electric meters.

A large portion of a countrys revenue is lost due to the high density of tampering and security in
electric meters. Hence it becomes very important to detect tampering in electric meters to ensure
proper billing. Electric meter readers are trained to spot signs of tampering. The consumers who
tamper with electric meter may be charged each billing period with the maximum rate until the
tamper is removed, or in some cases the service may also be disconnected.

A common method of tampering with electric meters is by attaching magnets to the outside of the
meter. These magnets prevent the alternating current from forming eddy currents in the rotor, by
saturating the coils or current transformers.

Rectified DC loads causes mechanical but not electronic meters to under-register. As the DC
currents do not cause the coils to make eddy currents in the disk, thus causing reduced rotation and
a lower bill. Other ways of tampering in electric meters and playing with the electric meter security
is to use some combinations of capacitive and inductive load, which also result in reduced or
reverse motion.

Today, many modern meters can easily detect all of these effects. The owner of the meter normally
secures the meter against tampering. Newer computerized meters usually have counter-measures
against tampering. In order to find and fix power distribution problems, power companies today
normally investigate discrepancies between the total billed and the total generated These
investigations are an effective method of discovering tampering and security in electric meters.
 Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
CH.5
5.1. Introduction

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a pn junction diode,

which emits light when activated when a suitable voltage is applied to the leads, electrons are able
to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This
effect is called electroluminescence, and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the
photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the semiconductor.
An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2) and integrated optical components may be used
to shape its radiation pattern.
Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962. the earliest LEDs emitted low-intensity
infrared light. Infrared LEDs are still frequently used as transmitting elements in remote-control
circuits, such as those in remote controls for a wide variety of consumer electronics. The first
visible-light LEDs were also of low intensity, and limited to red. Modern LEDs are available across
the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.
Light-emitting diodes are now used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive
headlamps, advertising, general lighting, traffic signals, camera flashes and even LED wallpaper.
However, LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are still relatively expensive, and require more
precise current and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable
output.

Figure 39: LED parts

5.1.1. Working

A P-N junction can connect the absorbed light energy into its proportional electric current. i.e. the
P-N junction emits light when energy is applied on it. This phenomenon is generally called electro-
luminance, which can be defined as the emission of light from a semi-conductor under the
influence of an electric field. The charge carriers recombine in a forward P-N junction as the
electrons cross from the N-region and recombine with the holes existing in the P-region. Free
electrons are in the conduction band of energy levels, while holes are in the valence energy band.
Thus the energy level of the holes will be lesser than the energy levels of the electrons. Some part
of the energy must be dissipated in order to recombine the electrons and the holes. This energy is
emitted in the form of heat and light.

Figure 40: The inner workings of an LED

5.1.2. LED Types

LEDs are produced in a variety of shapes and sizes. The color of the plastic lens is often the same
as the actual color of light emitted, but not always. For instance, purple plastic is often used for
infrared LEDs, and most blue devices have colorless housings. Modern high-power LEDs such as
those used for lighting and backlighting are generally found in surface-mount technology (SMT)
packages.

Figure 41: LED Types

The main types of LEDs are:

Miniature
 These are mostly single-die LEDs used as indicators, and they come in various sizes from
2 mm to 8 mm, through-hole and surface mount packages. They usually do not use a
separate heat sink. Typical current ratings ranges from around 1 mA to above 20 mA. The
small size sets a natural upper boundary on power consumption due to heat caused by the
high current density and need for a heat sink. There are three main categories of miniature
single die LEDs:

Low-current: typically rated for 2 mA at around 2 V (approximately 4 mW

consumption).

Standard: 20 mA LEDs (ranging from approximately 40 mW to 90 mW) at around:

1.9to 2.1 V for red, orange and yellow,
3.0to 3.4 V for green and blue,
2.9to 4.2 V for violet, pink, purple and white.

Ultra-high-output: 20 mA at approximately 2 V or 45 V, designed for viewing in

direct sunlight.

Figure 42: Miniature surface mount LEDs

5 V and 12 V LEDs are ordinary miniature LEDs that incorporate a suitable series
resistor for direct connection to a 5 V or 12 V supply.

High-power devices
High-power LEDs (HPLEDs) or high-output LEDs (HO-LEDs) can be driven at currents
from hundreds of mA to more than an ampere, compared with the tens of mA for other
LEDs. Some can emit over a thousand lumens. LED power densities up to 300 W/cm2
have been achieved. Since overheating is destructive, the HPLEDs must be mounted on a
 heat sink to allow for heat dissipation. If the heat from a HPLED is not removed, the device
will fail in seconds. One HPLED can often replace an incandescent bulb in a flashlight, or
be set in an array to form a powerful LED lamp.

Figure 43: HPLED

Custom designs such as alphanumeric or multi-color

5.1.3. Advantages

Efficiency:
LEDs emit more lumens per watt than incandescent light bulbs. The efficiency of LED
lighting fixtures is not affected by shape and size, unlike fluorescent light bulbs or tubes.

Color:
LEDs can emit light of an intended color without using any color filters as traditional
lighting methods need. This is more efficient and can lower initial costs.

Size:
2
LEDs can be very small (smaller than mm2) and are easily attached to printed circuit
boards.

On/Off time:
LEDs light up very quickly. A typical red indicator LED will achieve full brightness in
under a microsecond. LEDs used in communications devices can have even faster response
times.

Cycling:
LEDs are ideal for uses subject to frequent on-off cycling, unlike incandescent and
fluorescent lamps that fail faster when cycled often, or high-intensity discharge lamps (HID
lamps) that require a long time before restarting.

Dimming:
LEDs can very easily be dimmed either by pulse-width modulation or lowering the forward
current. This pulse-width modulation is why LED lights, particularly headlights on cars,
 when viewed on camera or by some people, appear to be flashing or flickering. This is a
type of stroboscopic effect.

Cool light:
In contrast to most light sources, LEDs radiate very little heat in the form of IR that can
cause damage to sensitive objects or fabrics. Wasted energy is dispersed as heat through
the base of the LED.
Slow failure:
LEDs mostly fail by dimming over time, rather than the abrupt failure of incandescent
bulbs.

Lifetime:
LEDs can have a relatively long useful life. One report estimates 35,000 to 50,000 hours
of useful life, though time to complete failure may be longer. Fluorescent tubes typically
are rated at about 10,000 to 15,000 hours, depending partly on the conditions of use, and
incandescent light bulbs at 1,000 to 2,000 hours. Several DOE demonstrations have shown
that reduced maintenance costs from this extended lifetime, rather than energy savings, is
the primary factor in determining the payback period for an LED product.

Shock resistance:
LEDs, being solid-state components, are difficult to damage with external shock, unlike
fluorescent and incandescent bulbs, which are fragile.

Focus:
The solid package of the LED can be designed to focus its light. Incandescent and
fluorescent sources often require an external reflector to collect light and direct it in a
usable manner. For larger LED packages total internal reflection (TIR) lenses are often
used to the same effect. However, when large quantities of light are needed many light
sources are usually deployed, which are difficult to focus or collimate towards the same
target.

5.1.4. Disadvantages

High initial price:

LEDs are currently more expensive, price per lumen, on an initial capital cost basis, than
most conventional lighting technologies. As of 2012, the cost per thousand lumens
(kilolumen) was about $6. The price was expected to reach $2/kilolumen by 2013. At least
one manufacturer claims to have reached $1 per kilolumen as of March 2014. The
additional expense partially stems from the relatively low lumen output and the drive
circuitry and power supplies needed.

Temperature dependence:
LED performance largely depends on the ambient temperature of the operating
environment or "thermal management" properties. Over-driving an LED in high ambient
temperatures may result in overheating the LED package, eventually leading to device
failure. An adequate heat sink is needed to maintain long life. This is especially important
 in automotive, medical, and military uses where devices must operate over a wide range of
temperatures, which require low failure rates. Toshiba has produced LEDs with an
operating temperature range of -40 to 100 C, which suits the LEDs for both indoor and
outdoor use in applications such as lamps, ceiling lighting, street lights, and floodlights.

Voltage sensitivity:
LEDs must be supplied with the voltage above the threshold and a current below the rating.
Current and lifetime change greatly with a small change in applied voltage. They thus
require a current-regulated supply (usually just a series resistor for indicator LEDs).

Light quality:
Most cool-white LEDs have spectra that differ significantly from a black body radiator like
the sun or an incandescent light. The spike at 460 nm and dip at 500 nm can cause the color
of objects to be perceived differently under cool-white LED illumination than sunlight or
incandescent sources, due to metamerism, red surfaces being rendered particularly badly
by typical phosphor-based cool-white LEDs. However, the color-rendering properties of
common fluorescent lamps are often inferior to what is now available in state-of-art white
LEDs.

Area light source:

Single LEDs do not approximate a point source of light giving a spherical light distribution,
but rather a lambertian distribution. So LEDs are difficult to apply to uses needing a
spherical light field; however, different fields of light can be manipulated by the application
of different optics or "lenses". LEDs cannot provide divergence below a few degrees. In
contrast, lasers can emit beams with divergences of 0.2 degrees or less.

Electrical polarity:
Unlike incandescent light bulbs, which illuminate regardless of the electrical polarity,
LEDs will only light with correct electrical polarity. To automatically match source
polarity to LED devices, rectifiers can be used.

Blue hazard:
There is a concern that blue LEDs and cool-white LEDs are now capable of exceeding safe
limits of the so-called blue-light hazard as defined in eye safety specifications such as
ANSI/IESNA RP-27.105: Recommended Practice for Photo-biological Safety for Lamp
and Lamp Systems.

Blue pollution:
Because cool-white LEDs with high color temperature emit proportionally more blue light
than conventional outdoor light sources such as high-pressure sodium vapor lamps, the
strong wavelength dependence of Rayleigh scattering means that cool-white LEDs can
cause more light pollution than other light sources. The International Dark-Sky Association
discourages using white light sources with correlated color temperature above 3,000 K.

Efficiency droop:
 The luminous efficacy of LEDs decreases as the electric current increases. Heating also
increases with higher currents which compromises the lifetime of the LED. These effects
put practical limits on the current through an LED in high power applications.
Impact on insects:
LEDs are much more attractive to insects than sodium-vapor lights, so much so that there
has been speculative concern about the possibility of disruption to food webs.

Use in winter conditions:

Since they do not give off much heat in comparison to traditional electrical lights, LED
lights used for traffic control can have snow obscuring them, leading to accidents.

5.2. Applications

LEDs are small, durable and need little power, so they are used in handheld devices such as
flashlights. LED strobe lights or camera flashes operate at a safe, low voltage, instead of the 250+
volts commonly found in xenon flashlamp-based lighting. This is especially useful in cameras on
mobile phones, where space is at a premium and bulky voltage-raising circuitry is undesirable.

LEDs are used for infrared illumination in night vision uses including security cameras. A ring of
LEDs around a video camera, aimed forward into a retroreflective background, allows chroma
keying in video productions.

LEDs are used in mining operations, as cap lamps to provide light for miners. Research has been
done to improve LEDs for mining, to reduce glare and to increase illumination, reducing risk of
injury for the miners.

LEDs are now used commonly in all market areas from commercial to home use: standard lighting,
AV, stage, theatrical, architectural, and public installations, and wherever artificial light is used.

5.2.1. SMD LEDs

"SMD LED" is an abbreviation for Surface-Mounted-Device Light-Emitting Diode. An SMD LED

Module is a type of LED module that uses Surface-mount technology (SMT) to mount LED chips
on printed circuit boards (PCB). It is a self-contained Surface-Mount LED device designed either
to function on its own or to plug into a compatible unit.

5.2.2. LED lamp

An LED lamp is a light-emitting diode (LED) product that is assembled into a lamp (or light bulb)
for use in lighting fixtures. LED lamps have a lifespan and electrical efficiency that is several times
better than incandescent lamps, and significantly better than most fluorescent lamps, with some
chips able to emit more than 100 lumens per watt.

Like incandescent lamps and unlike most fluorescent lamps (e.g. tubes and compact fluorescent
lamps or CFLs), LEDs come to full brightness without need for a warm-up time; the life of
fluorescent lighting is also reduced by frequent switching on and off. Initial cost of LED is usually
higher. Degradation of LED dye and packaging materials reduces light output to some extent over
time.
LED chips need controlled direct current (DC) electrical power; an appropriate circuit is required
to convert alternating current from the supply to the regulated low voltage direct current used by
the LEDs. LEDs are adversely affected by high temperature, so LED lamps typically include heat
dissipation elements such as heat sinks and cooling fins.

Figure 44: Disassembled LED-light bulb with driver circuit board and Edison screw

LED lamps are made of arrays of SMD modules that replace screw-in incandescent or compact
fluorescent light bulbs, mostly replacing incandescent bulbs rated from 5 to 60 watts. Such lamps
are made with standard light bulb connections and shapes, such as an Edison screw base,
an MR16 shape with a bi-pin base, or a GU5.3 (bi-pin cap) or GU10 (bayonet fitting) and are made
compatible with the voltage supplied to the sockets. They include driver circuitry to rectify the AC
power and convert the voltage to an appropriate value, usually Switched-mode power supplies.
Figure 45: LED bulbs

LED tube lights are designed to physically fit in fixtures intended for fluorescent tubes. Some LED
tube lamps are intended to be a drop-in replacement into existing fixtures. Others require rewiring
of the fixtures to remove the ballast. An LED tube lamp generally uses many
individual LEDs which are directional. Fluorescent lamps emit light all the way around the lamp.
Most LED tube lights available can be used in place of T8, T10, or T12 tube designations,T8 is
D26mm,T10 is D30mm, in lengths of 590mm, 1200mm and 1500mm.

Figure 46: LED tube lamp

5.3. Testing

Once the assembly process of the LED bulbs ends, the testing processes begins. The first test
concluding lighting the bulbs while varying the voltage applied and heat conditions. This test helps
to define the range of operating conditions for the LED bulbs which is very important. All the
produced bulbs are tested.

There are two more tests that are very important. The relevant tests, devised by the Illuminating
Engineering Society, are known as IES LM-79 and IES LM-80. A manufacturer that wants to
apply for Energy Star certification must first pay an approved independent laboratory to carry out
the tests on its behalf. With the results in hand, the manufacturer can then apply to the EPA. It's
the EPA that decides the benchmarks. Light output depends on the bulb's spec, but is a minimum
of 1,600 lumens for bulbs purporting equivalence to a 100-W incandescent bulb. Among the other
criteria are color rendering index of at least 80, and a rated life of at least 25,000 hours more on
that in a moment.

"The LM-79 is basically the test that defines the photometrics, in other words that defines what
the light performance is. LM-79 quantifies light output and distribution, as well as electrical power,
allowing the calculation of the all-important efficacy in lumens/watts. It also identifies the light's
color characteristics, such as its appearance, and its ability to render colors accurately.

It's done with spheres in independent labs. You put the product into these spheres, very expensive
test equipment that basically encloses the entire fixture, and it tests all those variables.

Figure47: An Integrating or Ulbricht sphere used for photometric testing of lamps and light fittings

The other test is purely a life test. It is run for 6,000 hours, so it's effectively nine straight months
of testing. Life test is a useful if loose euphemism for what the test actually measures, which is
lumen depreciation: the extent to which the lamp's light output falls over time.

All LED lights at some point are going to start losing the amount of lumens that come out of the
light. The industry has set a number, called L70, which basically represents 70 percent of the
original light output, as the end of life for an LED. So, the industry defines an LED light bulb as
dead when its output falls to 70 percent of what it was to begin with.
 PCB Kit repair and rework
CH.6
6.1. Introduction

Nowadays PCB kits are everywhere as time pass these kits broke due to mechanical or electrical
damages, to repair a broken PCB kit there are some procedures to be taken :
Visual check for broken components or PCB tracks.
Test PCB tracks using multi-meter .
Test the electrical components like capacitors, Transistors, resistors and ICs .

Each electrical component has a number of a value, to measure a component you need to test its
value or search for its data-sheet on the Internet .

As for ICs they have 3 types :

Digital
Analog
Hybrid

For testing ICs there are two ways to test them :

Static Measurement .
Dynamic Measurement .

Lets start with static test. It's done by applying a known signal on a certain pin and observe the
output. They say "a picture worth thousand words" then the picture .

Figure 48: Schematic of 7404

The picture is the schematic of 7404 .it's hex-inverter digital IC. The test is done by applying a
digital signal to input pin and observe the output as shown in the schematic .

As we have the idea of static check. Lets have a look at the dynamic test. The dynamic test is
made using a device called "System 8" this device is an IC tester, it check whether the IC give the
correct out or not. If the IC didn't get the correct output then it's require a replacement with another
one.
6.2. SYSTEM 8 Analog IC Tester

The SYSTEM 8 Analogue IC Tester is the answer to testing analogue devices. The key feature of
the AICT is its ability to functionally test all common analogue ICs and discrete devices in circuit.
It is also capable of testing all types of analogue and digital components by means of the well-
known, power off V-I test technique. For users requiring only the latter function, please select the
Analogue Test Station section.

The Analogue IC Tester can be fitted inside a standard PC case with PCI interface (one empty CD-
ROM bay required) or inside an external case (MultiLink) with USB interface (please contact sales
for details).

Figure 49: SYSTEM 8 Analogue IC Tester

Features
Analogue Functional Test
The 24 test channels available on the Analogue IC Test Solution have the facility to drive
analogue voltage onto the PCB and measure analogue responses (in both voltage and
current) from the device under test. The same channels can also be set to restrict the output
of the device under test to a specified voltage in order to protect connected circuitry and
facilitate a more comprehensive test of the device.
The inclusion of these features in the SYSTEM 8 Analogue IC Tester means that analogue
ICs can be verified by a functional in-circuit test by simply attaching a clip.

Board comparison fault diagnosis

Clear pass or fail results
Circuit diagrams not required
24 analogue channels
Powerful Matrix V-I Test
Matrix V-I testing is a powerful extension to the normal Analogue V-I technique. The
Matrix V-I test performs a V-I test between every pair of pins on the device under test
(DUT) and in every single combination. This technique also allows ICs to be tested out-
of-circuit as well as finding shorts between pins that would otherwise not have been found.
 V-T test with pulse for gate-activated devices (triacs, SCRs etc.)
Auto clip positioning
Discrete Devices
Testing discrete devices is easy using three dedicated channels. A wide range of
programmable voltage and current stimulus/measurement features are offered. This allows
many different devices to be tested ranging from power transistors to high-gain Darlington
transistors.

Specifications
1x SYSTEM 8 24 channel Analogue IC Tester module
1x Analogue IC Tester cable set
SYSTEM 8 software on CD-ROM
Standard PCI interface
 Pneumatic and Hydraulic
CH.7 Systems
7.1. Introduction

Most industrial processes require objects or substances to be moved from one location to another,
or a force to be applied to hold, shape or compress a product. Such activities are performed by
Prime Movers; the workhorses of manufacturing industries.

In many locations all prime movers are electrical. Rotary motions can be provided by simple
motors, and linear motion can be obtained from rotary motion by devices such as screw jacks or
rack and pinions. Where a pure force or a short linear stroke is required a solenoid may be used
(although there are limits to the force that can be obtained by this means).

Electrical devices are not, however, the only means of providing prime movers. Enclosed fluids
(both liquids and gases) can also be used to convey energy from one location to another and,
consequently, to produce rotary or linear motion or apply a force. Fluid-based systems using
liquids as transmission media are called hydraulic systems (from the Greek words hydra for water and
aulos for a pipe; descriptions which imply fluids are water although oils are more commonly used) . Gas-
based systems are called Pneumatic systems (from the Greek pneumn for wind or breath). The most
common gas is simply compressed air, although nitrogen is occasionally used.

The main advantages and disadvantages of pneumatic or hydraulic systems both arise out of the
different characteristics of low density compressible gases and (relatively) high density
incompressible liquids. A pneumatic system, for example, tends to have a 'softer' action than a
hydraulic system which can be prone to producing noisy and wear inducing shocks in the piping.
A liquid-based hydraulic system, however, can operate at far higher pressures than a pneumatic
system and, consequently, can be used to provide very large forces.

Table 5: Comparison of different power systems

Electrical Hydraulic Pneumatic

Energy source Usually from outside Electric motor or Electric motor or
supplier diesel driven diesel driven
Energy storage Limited (batteries) Limited (accumulator) Good (reservoir)
Distribution system Excellent, with Limited basically a Good. Can be treated
minimal loss local facility as a plant wide service
Energy cost Lowest Medium Highest
Rotary actuator AC & DC motors. Low speed. Good Wide speed range.
Good control on DC control. Can be stalled Accurate speed
motors. AC motors control difficult
cheap
Linear actuator Short motion via Cylinders. Very high Cylinders. Medium
solenoid. Otherwise force force
 via mechanical
conversion
Controllable force Possible with solenoid Controllable high Controllable medium
& DC moults force force
Conit3licated by
need-for cooling
Points to note Danger from electric Leakage dangerous Noise
shock and unsightly. Fire
hazard

7.2. Classification of Fluid Power Systems

The fluid power system can be categorized as follows:

1. Based on the control system
Open-loop system:
There is no feedback in the open system and performance is based on the
characteristics of the individual components of the system. The openloop system is
not accurate and error can be reduced by proper calibration and control.
Closed-loop system:
This system uses feedback. The output of the system is fed back to a comparator by
a measuring element. The comparator compares the actual output to the desired
output and gives an error signal to the control element. The error is used to change
the actual output and bring it closer to the desired value. A simple closed-loop
system uses servo valves and an advanced system uses digital electronics.

2. Based on the type of control

Fluid logic control: This type of system is controlled by hydraulic oil or air. The
system employs fluid logic devices such as AND, NAND, OR, NOR, etc. Two
types of fluid logic systems are available:
Moving part logic (MPL):
These devices are miniature fluid elements using moving parts such as
diaphragms, disks and poppets to implement various logic gates.
Fluidics:
Fluid devices contain no moving parts and depend solely on interacting fluid
jets to implement various logic gates.

Electrical control:
This type of system is controlled by electrical devices. Four basic electrical devices
are used for controlling the fluid power systems: switches, relays, timers and
solenoids. These devices help to control the starting, stopping, sequencing, speed,
 positioning, timing and reversing of actuating cylinders and fluid motors. Electrical
control and fluid power work well together where remote control is essential.

Electronic control:
This type of system is controlled by microelectronic devices. The electronic brain
is used to control the fluid power muscles for doing work. This system uses the
most advanced type of electronic hardware including programmable logic control
(PLC) or microprocessor (P). In the electrical control, a change in system operation
results in a cumbersome process of redoing hardware connections.
The difficulty is overcome by programmable electronic control. The program can
be modified or a new program can be fed to meet the change of operations. A
number of such programs can be stored in these devices, which makes the systems
more flexible.

7.3. Hydraulic System

Hydraulic systems can be found today in a wide variety of applications, from small assembly
processes to integrated steel and paper mill applications. Hydraulics enable the operator to
accomplish significant work (lifting heavy loads, turning a shaft, drilling precision holes, etc.) with
a minimum investment in mechanical linkage through the application of Pascals law, which states:

Pressure applied to a confined fluid at any point is transmitted undiminished throughout the fluid
in all directions and acts upon every part of the confining vessel at right angles to its interior
surfaces and equally upon equal areas

By applying Pascals law and Brahmas application of it, it is evident that an input force of 100
pounds on 10 square inches will develop a pressure of 10 pounds per square inch throughout the
confined vessel. This pressure will support a 1000-pound weight if the area of the weight is 100
square inches.

The principle of Pascals law is realized in a hydraulic system by the hydraulic fluid that is used
to transmit the energy from one point to another. Because hydraulic fluid is nearly incompressible,
it is able to transmit power instantaneously.

The following are the two types of hydraulic systems:

1. Fluid transport systems:
Their sole objective is the delivery of a fluid from one location to another to accomplish
some useful purpose. Examples include pumping stations for pumping water to homes,
cross-country gas lines, etc.
 2. Fluid power systems:
These are designed to perform work. In fluid power systems, work is obtained by
pressurized fluid acting directly on a fluid cylinder or a fluid motor. A cylinder produces a
force resulting in linear motion, whereas a fluid motor produces a torque resulting in rotary
motion.

7.3.1. Hydrostatic and Hydrodynamic Systems

A hydrostatic system uses fluid pressure to transmit power. Hydrostatics deals with the mechanics
of still fluids and uses the theory of equilibrium conditions in fluid. The system creates high
pressure, and through a transmission line and a control element, this pressure drives an actuator
(linear or rotational). The pump used in hydrostatic systems is a positive displacement pump. The
relative spatial position of this pump is arbitrary but should not be very large due to losses (must
be less than 50 m). An example of pure hydrostatics is the transfer of force in hydraulics.

Hydrodynamic systems use fluid motion to transmit power. Power is transmitted by the kinetic
energy of the fluid. Hydrodynamics deals with the mechanics of moving fluid and uses flow theory.
The pump used in hydrodynamic systems is a non-positive displacement pump. The relative spatial
position of the prime mover (e.g., turbine) is fixed. An example of pure hydrodynamics is the
conversion of flow energy in turbines in hydroelectric power plants.
In oil hydraulics, we deal mostly with the fluid working in a confined system, that is, a hydrostatic
system.

7.3.2. Basic Components of a Hydraulic System

Hydraulic systems are power-transmitting assemblies employing pressurized liquid as a fluid for
transmitting energy from an energy-generating source to an energy-using point to accomplish
useful work. Figure 50 shows a simple circuit of a hydraulic system with basic components.

Figure 50: Components of a hydraulic system

 1. The hydraulic actuator is a device used to convert the fluid power into mechanical power
to do useful work. The actuator may be of the linear type (e.g., hydraulic cylinder) or rotary
type (e.g., hydraulic motor) to provide linear or rotary motion, respectively.
2. The hydraulic pump is used to force the fluid from the reservoir to rest of the hydraulic
circuit by converting mechanical energy into hydraulic energy.
3. Valves are used to control the direction, pressure and flow rate of a fluid flowing through
the circuit.
4. External power supply (motor) is required to drive the pump.
5. Reservoir is used to hold the hydraulic liquid, usually hydraulic oil.
6. Piping system carries the hydraulic oil from one place to another.
7. Filters are used to remove any foreign particles so as keep the fluid system clean and
efficient, as well as avoid damage to the actuator and valves.
8. Pressure regulator regulates (i.e., maintains) the required level of pressure in the hydraulic
fluid.

The piping shown in Fig. 50 is of closed-loop type with fluid transferred from the storage tank to
one side of the piston and returned back from the other side of the piston to the tank. Fluid is drawn
from the tank by a pump that produces fluid flow at the required level of pressure. If the fluid
pressure exceeds the required level, then the excess fluid returns back to the reservoir and remains
there until the pressure acquires the required level.

Cylinder movement is controlled by a three-position change over a control valve.

1. When the piston of the valve is changed to upper position, the pipe pressure line is
connected to port A and thus the load is raised.
2. When the position of the valve is changed to lower position, the pipe pressure line is
connected to port B and thus the load is lowered.
3. When the valve is at center position, it locks the fluid into the cylinder (thereby holding it
in position) and dead-ends the fluid line (causing all the pump output fluid to return to tank
via the pressure relief).

In industry, a machine designer conveys the design of hydraulic systems using a circuit diagram.
Figure 1.2 shows the components of the hydraulic system using symbols. The working fluid, which
is the hydraulic oil, is stored in a reservoir. When the electric motor is switched ON, it runs a
positive displacement pump that draws hydraulic oil through a filter and delivers at high pressure.
The pressurized oil passes through the regulating valve and does work on actuator. Oil from the
other end of the actuator goes back to the tank via return line. To and fro motion of the cylinder is
controlled using directional control valve.
Figure 51: Components of a hydraulic system (shown using symbols).

7.4. Basic Components of a Pneumatic System

A pneumatic system carries power by employing compressed gas, generally air, as a fluid for
transmitting energy from an energy-generating source to an energy-using point to accomplish
useful work. Figure 1.3 shows a simple circuit of a pneumatic system with basic components.

Figure 52: Components of a pneumatic system

The functions of various components shown in Fig. 52 are as follows:
1. The pneumatic actuator converts the fluid power into mechanical power to perform useful
work.
2. The compressor is used to compress the fresh air drawn from the atmosphere.
3. The storage reservoir is used to store a given volume of compressed air.
4. The valves are used to control the direction, flow rate and pressure of compressed air.
5. External power supply (motor) is used to drive the compressor.
6. The piping system carries the pressurized air from one location to another.

Air is drawn from the atmosphere through an air filter and raised to required pressure by an air
compressor. As the pressure rises, the temperature also rises; hence, an air cooler is provided to
cool the air with some preliminary treatment to remove the moisture. The treated pressurized air
then needs to get stored to maintain the pressure. With the storage reservoir, a pressure switch is
fitted to start and stop the electric motor when pressure falls and reaches the required level,
respectively.

The three-position change over the valve delivering air to the cylinder operates in a way similar to
its hydraulic circuit.

7.5. Advantages of a fluid power system

The advantages of a fluid power system are as follows:

1. Fluid power systems are simple, easy to operate and can be controlled accurately:
Fluid power gives flexibility to equipment without requiring a complex mechanism. Using
fluid power, we can start, stop, accelerate, decelerate, reverse or position large
forces/components with great accuracy using simple levers and push buttons. For example,
in Earth-moving equipment, bucket carrying load can be raised or lowered by an operator
using a lever. The landing gear of an aircraft can be retrieved to home position by the push
button.
2. Multiplication and variation of forces:
Linear or rotary force can be multiplied by a fraction of a kilogram to several hundreds of
tons.
3. Multifunction control:
A single hydraulic pump or air compressor can provide power and control for numerous
machines using valve manifolds and distribution systems. The fluid power controls can be
placed at a central station so that the operator has, at all times, a complete control of the
entire production line, whether it be a multiple operation machine or a group of machines.
Such a setup is more or less standard in the steel mill industry.
 4. Low-speed torque:
Unlike electric motors, air or hydraulic motors can produce a large amount of torque while
operating at low speeds. Some hydraulic and pneumatic motors can even maintain torque
at a very slow speed without overheating.
5. Constant force or torque:
Fluid power systems can deliver constant torque or force regardless of speed changes.
6. Economical:
Not only reduction in required manpower but also the production or elimination of operator
fatigue, as a production factor, is an important element in the use of fluid power.
7. Low weight to power ratio:
The hydraulic system has a low weight to power ratio compared to electromechanical
systems. Fluid power systems are compact.
8. Fluid power systems can be used where safety is of vital importance:
Safety is of vital importance in air and space travel, in the production and operation of
motor vehicles, in mining and manufacture of delicate products. For example, hydraulic
systems are responsible for the safety of takeoff, landing and flight of aero-planes and space
craft. Rapid advances in mining and tunneling are the results of the application of modern
hydraulic and pneumatic systems.

7.6. Circuit Diagram Symbols

Figure 53: Circuit Diagram Symbols

Figure 54: Circuit Diagram Symbols (cont.)