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0 TOXIC SUBSTANCE AND CONFINED SPACE HAZARDS

INTRODUCTION

Industrial hygiene is a safety and health profession that is concerned with predicting,
recognizing, assessing, controlling, and preventing environmental hazards in the workplace
that can cause sickness or serious discomfort to workers. An environmental hazards are any
factor in the workplace that can cause enough discomfort to result in lost time or illness.
Common environmental hazards include gases, fumes, vapors, dusts, mists, noise and
radiation. This chapter provides the necessary information for prospective and practicing
industrial hygenists to do so. Among them are roles of industrial hygenist, toxic substances
and their effects, tools for toxic substances assessment, airborne contaminants and their
effects, indoor air quality and sick building syndrome, confined space hazards, and
prevention strategies of each mentioned hazard.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

After completing this chapter, students should be able to:

1. Obtain responsibilities of industrial hygenists;

2. Define clearly toxic substances and confined space hazards;
3. Determine the effects of toxic substances and confined space hazards to health;
4. Recognize the appropriate tools for toxic substances assessment;
5. Identify suitable PPE to protect workers from toxic substances hazards;
6. Relate toxic substances and confined space hazards to standards and regulations; and
7. Prevent and control toxic substances hazards at workplace.

10.1 ROLES OF INDUSTRIAL HYGENIST

The role of industrial hygenists often depends on the size of the company employing them.
Usually, large companies employ professional hygenist who specialize in industrial hygiene.

The following describes the responsibilties of industrial hygenists.

To ensure the occupational health of employees in good condition

To maintain an objective approach in recognizing, assessing, controlling, and preventing
environmental hazards in the workplace regardless of outside pressure and influence.
To help employees understand the precautions that they should take to avoid health
problems.
To respect employers honesty in matters relating to industrial hygiene.
To make the health of employees a higher priority than obligations to the employer.

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10.2 TOXIC SUBSTANCES: DEFINITION AND THEIR EFFECTS

Hazardous substances are used in many workplaces today. Workers who exposed to toxic
substances need to know more about the health effects of chemicals which they use or may be
exposed to on the job.

10.2.1 WHAT IS A TOXIC SUBSTANCE?

A toxic substance can be defined as one with an inherent ability to cause systemic damage to
living organisms another word for it is 'poison'. Toxic substances occur in the air, the soil,
the water and in other living things, and they can enter the body in various ways, such as:
through ingestion by eating and drinking;
through inhalation by breathing;
by absorption through contact with the skin; and
by injection from a hypodermic syringe, for example, or from an insect, spider or snake bite.

10.2.2 WHAT MAKES A CHEMICAL TOXIC?

The toxicity of a substance is its ability to cause harmful effects. These effects can strike a single cell,
a group of cells, an organ system, or the entire body. A toxic effect may be visible damage, or a
decrease in performance or function measurable only by a test. All chemicals can cause harm. When
only a very large amount of the chemical can cause damage, the chemical is considered to be
relatively non-toxic. When a small amount can be harmful, the chemical is considered toxic.

The toxicity of a substance depends on three factors: its chemical structure, the extent to which the
substance is absorbed by the body and the body's ability to detoxify the substance (change it into less
toxic substances) and eliminate it from the body.

10.2.3 ARE "TOXIC" AND "HAZARDOUS" THE SAME?

No. The toxicity of a substance is the potential of that substance to cause harm, and is only
one factor in determining whether a hazard exists. The hazard of a chemical is the practical
likelihood that the chemical will cause harm. A chemical is determined to be a hazard
depending on the following factors:

toxicity: how much of the substance is required to cause harm,

route of exposure: how the substance enters your body,
dose: how much enters your body,
duration: the length of time you are exposed,
reaction and interaction: other substances you are exposed to, and
sensitivity: how your body reacts to the substance compared to others.

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10.2.4 How can chemicals enter the body?

Exposure normally occurs through inhalation, skin or eye contact, and ingestion.

Inhalation. The most common type of exposure occurs when you breathe a substance into
the lungs. The lungs consist of branching airways (called bronchi) with clusters of tiny air
sacs (called alveoli) at the ends of the airways. The alveoli absorb oxygen and other
chemicals into the bloodstream. See figure below.

Some chemicals are irritants and cause nose or throat irritation. They may also cause
discomfort, coughing, or chest pain when they are inhaled and come into contact with the
bronchi (chemical bronchitis). Other chemicals may be inhaled without causing such warning
symptoms, but they still can be dangerous.

Sometimes a chemical is present in the air as small particles (dust or mist). Some of these
particles, depending on their size, may be deposited in the bronchi and/or alveoli. Many of
them may be coughed out, but others may stay in the lungs and may cause lung damage.
Some particles may dissolve and be absorbed into the blood stream, and have effects
elsewhere in the body.

Skin Contact. The skin is a protective barrier that helps keep foreign chemicals out of the
body. However, some chemicals can easily pass through the skin and enter the bloodstream.
If the skin is cut or cracked, chemicals can penetrate through the skin more easily. Also, some
caustic substances, like strong acids and alkalis, can chemically burn the skin. Others can
irritate the skin. Many chemicals, particularly organic solvents, dissolve the oils in the skin,
leaving it dry, cracked, and susceptible to infection and absorption of chemicals.

Eye Contact. Some chemicals may burn or irritate the eye. Occasionally they may be
absorbed through the eye and enter the bloodstream. The eyes are easily harmed by
chemicals, so any eye contact with chemicals should be taken as a serious incident.

Ingestion. The least common source of exposure in the workplace is swallowing chemicals.
Chemicals can be ingested if they are left on hands, clothing or beard, or accidentally
contaminate food, drinks or cigarettes. Chemicals present in the workplace as dust, for
example, metal dusts such as lead or cadmium, are easily ingested.

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10.2.5 Acute effects and chronic effects

A toxic substance is one that has a negative effect on the occupational health of a worker.
When a toxic chemical acts on the human body, the nature and extent of the injurious
response depends upon the dose received (the amount of the chemical that actually enters the
body system and time interval during which this dose was administered). Response can vary
widely and might be as little as a cough or mild respiratory irritation or as serious as
unconsciousness and death. All of various effects and exposures of toxic substances can be
categorized as being either acute or chronic.

Acute effects and exposures involve a sudden dose of a highly concentrated substance. They
are usually the result of an immediate health problem ranging from irritation to death. Types
of acute effects and exposures are:

(1) Sudden,
(2) Severe,
(3) Typically involve just one incident, and
(4) cause immediate health problems. Acute effects and exposures are not the result of an
accumulation over time.

Chronic effects and exposures involve limited continual exposure over time. Consequently,
the associated health problems develop slowly. The characteristics of chronic effects and
exposures are:

(1) Continual exposure over time,

(2) limited concentrations of toxic substances,
(3) Progressive accumulation of toxic substances in the body and progressive worsening of
associated health problems, and
(4) Little or no awareness of exposure on the body part of affected workers.

10.2.6 WHAT ARE EXPOSURE LIMITS TO TOXIC SUBSTANCES?

Exposure limits are established by health and safety authorities to control exposure to
hazardous substances. The most important exposure limits are the Permissible Exposure
Limits (PELs). Exposure limits usually represent the maximum amount (concentration) of a
chemical which can be present in the air without presenting a health hazard. However,
exposure limits may not always be completely protective, for the following reasons:

1. Although exposure limits are usually based on the best available information, this
information, particularly for chronic (long-term) health effects, may be incomplete. Often we
learn about chronic health effects only after workers have been exposed to a chemical for
many years, and then as new information is learned, the exposure limits are changed.

2. Exposure limits are set to protect most workers. However, there may be a few workers
who will be affected by a chemical at levels below these limits. Employees performing
extremely heavy physical exertion breathe in more air and more of a chemical, and so may
absorb an excessive amount.

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3. Exposure limits do not take into account chemical interactions. When two or more
chemicals in the workplace have the same health effects, industrial hygienists use a
mathematical formula to adjust the exposure limits for those substances in that workplace.
This formula applies to chemicals that have additive effects, but not to those with synergistic
or potentially effected.

4. Exposure limits usually apply to the concentration of a chemical in the air, and are
established to limit exposure by inhalation. Limiting the concentration in air may not prevent
excessive exposure through skin contact or ingestion. Chemicals that may produce health
effects as a result of absorption through the skin have an "S" designation next to their
numerical value in the PEL table. Workers exposed to these chemicals must be provided with
protective clothing to wear when overexposure through the skin is possible. Some chemicals,
like lead and cadmium in dust form, may be ingested through contamination of hands, hair,
clothes, food and cigarettes.

There are three types of OSHA PELs:

1. The 8-Hour Time Weighted Average (TWA) is the average employee exposure over
an 8-hour period, based on industrial hygiene monitoring. The measured level may
sometimes go above the TWA value, as long as the 8-hour average stays below. All
chemicals with PELs have a TWA value. Only a few chemicals have Ceiling and Excursion
Limits.

2. The Ceiling Limit is the maximum allowable level. It must never be exceeded, even
for an instant.

3. The Excursion Limit is a value that can be exceeded only for a specified short period
of time (between 5-15 minutes), which is called the Excursion Duration. When there is an
Excursion Limit for a substance, exposure still must never exceed the Ceiling Limit, and the
8-hour average still must remain at or below the TWA.

10.3 TOXIC SUBSTANCES: PREVENTION STRATEGIES

10.3.1 KNOWLEDGE

Everyone who works with toxic substances should know the names, toxicity and other
hazards of the substances they use. Employers are required by law to provide this
information, along with training in how to use toxic substances safely.

10.3.2 ENGINEERING CONTROLS

Limiting exposure at the source is the preferred way to protect workers. The types of
engineering controls, in order of effectiveness, are:
Substitution is using a less hazardous substance. But before choosing a substitute, carefully
consider its physical and health hazards. For example, mineral spirits (Stoddard Solvent) is
less of a health hazard than perchloroethylene for dry cleaning, but is more of a fire hazard
and an air pollutant.
Process or equipment enclosure is the isolation of the source of exposure, often through
automation. This completely eliminates the routine exposure of workers. For example,
handling of radioactive materials is often done by mechanical arms or robots.

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Local exhaust ventilation is a hood or intake at or over the source of exposure to capture or
draw contaminated air from its source before it spreads into the room and into your breathing
zone.
General or dilution ventilation is continual replacement and circulation of fresh air sufficient
to keep concentrations of toxic substances diluted below hazardous levels. However,
concentrations will be highest near the source, and overexposure may occur in this area. If the
dilution air is not well mixed with the room air, pockets of high concentrations may exist.

10.3.3 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

The following devices should be used only when engineering controls are not possible or are
not sufficient to reduce exposure.
Respiratory protective equipment consists of devices that cover the mouth and nose to
prevent substances in the air from being inhaled. A respirator is effective only when used as
part of a comprehensive program established by the employer, which includes measurement
of concentrations of all hazardous substances, selection of the proper respirator, training the
worker in its proper use, fitting of the respirator to the worker, maintenance, and replacement
of parts when necessary.
Protective clothing includes gloves, aprons, goggles, boots, face shields, and any other
materials worn as protection. It should be made of material designed to resist penetration by
the particular chemical being used. Such material may be called impervious to that chemical.
The manufacturer of the protective clothing usually can provide some information regarding
the substances that are effectively blocked.
Barrier creams are used to coat the skin and prevent chemicals from reaching it. They may be
helpful when the type of work prevents the use of gloves. However, barrier creams are not
recommended as substitutes for gloves. Genial skin creams and lotions (such as moisturizing
lotion) are not barrier creams.

Figure 10.1: Part of Personal Protective Equipment to protect toxic substances hazard

10.4 AIRBORNE CONTAMINANTS

It is important to understand the different types of airborne contaminants that may be present
in the workplace. The most common types of airborne contaminants are dusts, fumes, smoke,
aerosols, mists, gases and vapours.

Dusts are various types of solid particles that are produced when a given type of
organic or inorganic material is scraped, sawed, ground, drilled or otherwise
deformed. The degree of hazard represented by dust depends on the toxicity of the
material and the size and level of concentration of the particles.
Fumes in the workplace caused by manufacturing processes such as welding, heat
treatment, all of which involve the interaction of intense heat with a parent material.
The heat volatilizes portions of the materials, which then condenses as it comes in

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 contact with cool air. The result of this reaction is the formation of tiny particles that
can be inhaled.
Smoke is the result of the incomplete combustion of carbonaceous materials. Because
combustion is incomplete, tiny soot or carbon particles remain and can be inhaled.
Aerosols are liquid or solid particles that are so small they can remain suspended in
air long enough to be transported over a distance. They can be inhaled.
Mists are tiny liquid droplets suspended in air. Mists are formed in two ways: (1)
when vapours return to a liquid state through condensation; and (2) when the
application of sudden force or pressure turns a liquid into particles.
Gases are actually formless fluids. Gases become hazardous when they fill a confined
and unventilated space. The most common sources of gases are from welding and the
exhaust from internal combustion engines.
Vapours are from certain materials that are solid or liquid at room temperature and at
normal pressure then heated or exposed to abnormal pressure.

10.5 EFFECTS OF AIRBORNE TOXICS

Airborne toxic substances are classified according to the type of their effect to humans body.
Following are the effects of toxic substances:

Irritants are sun stances that cause irritation to the skin, eyes, and the inner lining of
the nose, mouth, throat and respiratory systems.
Asphyxiates are substances that can disrupt breathing so severely that suffocation
results. Common simple asphyxiates include carbon dioxide, ethane, helium, hydrogen,
methane and nitrogen.
Narcotics and anaesthetics are used by dentists and physicians to control pain before
and after surgery. However, if the dosage is too high, narcotics and anaesthetics can
cause serious health problems and even death.

10.6 INDOOR AIR QUALITY AND SICK-BUILDING SYNDROME

Poor indoor air quality (IAQ) can cause a variety of health problems ranging from the
temporary to the long term effect. Health problems associated with poor indoor air quality
include allergic reactions, respiratory problems, eye irritation and bronchitis. Often, the cause
of poor indoor air quality can be slipshod maintenance such as failure to keep fans, leakage of
ducting system and failure of air filters clean.
In reality, a sick-building syndrome is one that makes people sick because it has become
infested with airborne micro organisms. Although much is still unknown about sick-building
syndrome, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimates that as many as 30 percent
of the buildings in the USA have air quality problems.

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10.5.1 WHY SHOULD CONCERN TO INDOOR AIR QUALITY?

(a) Occupational health concerns

Avoid sick-building syndrome.

Eye, nose and throat irritation.
Headache >> difficulty in concentrating.

(b) Productivity concerns

Poor IAQ can lead to loss of productivity.

Increase in employee absenteeism.
Lost work hours caused by poor IAQ cost an estimated $ 3 billion per year.
150 Million Person-days per year of absenteeism attributed to poor IAQ.

10.5.2 RECOMMENDED AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION

Table 1: Code of practice on Indoor Air Quality (IOQ)

8 hour TWA Airborne Concentration

Indoor Air Contaminants
ppm mg/m3
Carbon dioxide C1000
Carbon monoxide 10
Formaldehyde 0.1
Respirable particulates 0.15
Total volatile organic compounds
3
(TVOC)
(Source: Department of Occupational Safety and Health, Malaysia

10.7 TOXIC SUBSTANCES: ASSESSMENT TOOLS

10.7.1 OBSERVATION METHOD

a. Observation using a checklist.

b. Distributing questionnaires and having personal interview with workers.

10.7.2 DIRECT TECHNICAL MEASUREMENT

a. Using a Indoor Air Quality Monitor (Figure 10.2)

This instrument is used to measure humidity, carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide
(CO), air temperature and Total volatile organic compounds (TVOC).
The standard used is ASHRAE Standard 62-89R: Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor
Air Quality.

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 Figure 10.2: Indoor Air Quality Monitor

10.8 HAZARDS OF CONFINED SPACE

Figure 10.3: A confined space

10.8.1 DEFINITION OF CONFINED SPACE

"Confined Space" refers to a space which by design has limited openings for entry and exit,
unfavourable natural ventilation which could contain or produce dangerous air contaminants,
and which is not intended for continuous employee occupancy. The example of confined
space is clearly shown in Figure 10.3.

Generally speaking, a confined space is an enclosed or partially enclosed space that:

is not primarily designed or intended for human occupancy

has a restricted entrance or exit by way of location, size or means
Can represent a risk for the for the health and safety of anyone who enters, due to one
or more of the following factors:

o its design, construction, location or atmosphere

o the materials or substances in it
o work activities being carried out in it, or the
o mechanical, process and safety hazards present

Confined spaces can be below or above ground. Confined spaces can be found in almost any
workplace. A confined space, despite its name, is not necessarily small. Figure 10.4 shows
the examples of confined spaces: silos, vats, hoppers, underground utility vaults, tanks,
sewers, access shafts, truck or rail tank cars, aircraft wings, and pipelines. Ditches and
trenches may also be a confined space when access or egress is limited.

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 Figure 10.4: Examples of confined space workplaces

10.8.2 WHAT ARE THE HAZARDS IN A CONFINED SPACE?

All hazards found in a regular workspace can also be found in a confined space. However,
they can be even more hazardous in a confined space than in a regular worksite.

Hazards in confined spaces can include:

Poor air quality: There may be an insufficient amount of oxygen for the worker to
breathe. The atmosphere might contain a poisonous substance that could make the
worker ill or even cause the worker to lose consciousness. Natural ventilation alone
will often not be sufficient to maintain breathable quality air.
Chemical exposures due to skin contact or ingestion as well as inhalation of 'bad'
air.
Fire hazard: There may be an explosive/flammable atmosphere due to flammable
liquids and gases and combustible dusts which if ignited would lead to fire or
explosion.
Process-related hazards such as residual chemicals, release of contents of a supply
line.
Noise.
Safety hazards such as moving parts of equipment, structural hazards, entanglement,
slips, and falls.
Radiation.

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 Temperature extremes including atmospheric and surface.
Shifting or collapse of bulk material.
Barrier failure resulting in a flood or release of free-flowing solid.
Uncontrolled energy including electrical shock.
Visibility.
Biological hazards.

10.8.3 EFFECTS OF CONFINED SPACE TO OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND

HEALTH

Many workplaces contain spaces that are considered "confined" because their configurations
hinder the activities of any employees who must enter, work in, and exit them. For example,
employees who work in process vessels generally must squeeze in and out through narrow
openings and perform their tasks while cramped or contorted. OSHA uses the term "confined
space" to describe such spaces. In addition, there are many instances where employees who
work in confined spaces face increased risk of exposure to serious hazards. In some cases,
confinement itself poses entrapment hazards. In other cases, confined space work keeps
employees closer to hazards, such as asphyxiating atmospheres or the moving parts of
machinery. OSHA uses the term "permit-required confined space" (permit space) to describe
those spaces that both meet the definition of "confined space" and pose health or safety
hazards.
A confined space is a place which is substantially enclosed (though not always entirely), and
where serious injury can occur from hazardous substances or conditions within the space or
nearby (e.g. lack of oxygen). In United Kingdom, a number of people are killed or seriously
injured each year in confined spaces. These occur across a wide range of industries, from
those involving complex plant through simple storage vessels. Those killed include not only
people working in the confined spaces but those who try to rescue them without proper
training or equipment.

Figure 10.5: A worker performing his job in a confined space

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10.8.4 WHY IS WORKING IN A CONFINED SPACE MORE HAZARDOUS THAN
WORKING IN OTHER WORKSPACES?

Many factors need to be evaluated when looking for hazards in a confined space. There is
smaller margin for error. An error in identifying or evaluating potential hazards can have
more serious consequences. In some cases, the conditions in a confined space are always
extremely hazardous. In other cases, conditions are life threatening under an unusual
combination of circumstances. This variability and unpredictability is why the hazard
assessment is extremely important and must be taken very seriously each and every time one
is done.

Some examples include:

The entrance/exit of the confined space might not allow the worker to get out in
time should there be a flood or collapse of free-flowing solid.
Self-rescue by the worker is more difficult.
Rescue of the victim is more difficult. The interior configuration of the confined
space often does not allow easy movement of people or equipment within it.
Natural ventilation alone will often not be sufficient to maintain breathable quality
air. The interior configuration of the confined space does not allow easy
movement of air within it.
Conditions can change very quickly.
The space outside the confined space can impact on the conditions inside the
confined space and vice versa.
Work activities may introduce hazards not present initially.

10.8.5 WHAT SHOULD BE DONE WHEN PREPARING TO ENTER THE

CONFINED SPACE?

The important thing to remember is that each time a worker plans to enter any work space,
the worker should determine if that work space is considered a confined space. Be sure the
confined space hazard assessment and control program has been followed.
The next question to ask is - Is it absolutely necessary that the work be carried out inside the
confined space? In many cases where there have been deaths in confined spaces, the work
could have been done outside the confined space!
Before to entering any confined space, a trained and experienced person should identify and
evaluate all the potential hazards within the confined space. An important step in determining
the hazards in a confined space is air testing.
Air quality testing: The air within the confined space should be tested from outside of the
confined space before entry into the confined space. Care should be taken to ensure that air is
tested throughout the confined space - side-to-side and top to bottom. A trained worker using
detection equipments (Figure 10.6) which have remote probes and sampling lines should do
the air quality testing. The sampling should show that:

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 The oxygen content is within safe limits - not too little and not too much.
A hazardous atmosphere (toxic gases, flammable atmosphere) is not
present.
Ventilation equipment is operating properly.

Figure 10.6: Tools for confined space assessment

The results of the tests for these hazards are to be recorded on the Entry Permit along with the
equipment or method(s) that were used in performing the tests.
Air testing may need to be ongoing depending on the nature of the potential hazards and the
nature of the work. Conditions can change while workers are inside the confined space and
sometimes a hazardous atmosphere is created by the work activities in the confined space.

10.8.6 OSHA STANDARD RELATING TO CONFINED SPACE

Confined space hazards are addressed in specific standards for the general industry, shipyard
employment, and the construction industry. This page highlights OSHA standards, the
Regulatory Agenda (a list of actions being taken with regard to OSHA standards), directives
(instructions for compliance officers), and standard interpretations (official letters of
interpretation of the standards) related to confined spaces.

Section 5(a)(1) of the OSH Act, often referred to as the General Duty Clause, requires
employers to "furnish to each of his employees employment and a place of employment
which are free from recognized hazards that are causing or are likely to cause death or serious
physical harm to his employees".

Section 5(a)(2) requires employers to "comply with occupational safety and health standards
promulgated under this Act".

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 Section 5(a)(1) :

(a) Each employer:

(1) shall furnish to each of his employees employment and a place of employment
which are free from recognized hazards that are causing or are likely to cause
death or serious physical harm to his employees;
(2) Shall comply with occupational safety and health standards promulgated
under this Act.

(b) Each employee shall comply with occupational safety and health standards and all
rules, regulations, and orders issued pursuant to this Act which are applicable to his
own actions and conduct.

The OSHA standard relating to confined spaces advices that entry permits be required before
employees are allowed to enter a potentially hazardous confined spaces. This means that an
employee must have a written permit to enter a confined space. Before the permit is issued, a
supervisor or safety and health professionals should do the following:

Shut down equipment and power any equipments, steam, gas, power in the confined
space should be shut off and locked or tagged to prevent its accidental activation.
Test the atmosphere test for the presence of airborne contaminants and to determine the
oxygen level in the confined space (minimum and maximum of oxygen is 19.5 percent
and 23.5 percent, respectively).
Ventilate the space spaces containing airborne contaminants should be purged to
remove them. Such areas should also ventilate to keep contaminants from building up
again while an employee is working in the space.
Have rescue personnel stand by never allow an employee to enter a confined space
without any having rescue personnel standing by in the immediate vicinity. The personnel
should be fully trained and properly equipped.
Maintain communication an employee outside of the confined space should stay in
constant communication with employee inside. Communication can be visual, verbal, or
electronic medium depending on the distance between the employee inside and the
employee outside.
Use a lifeline a lifeline attached to a full-body harness and a block and tackle will
ensure that the employee who is inside can be pulled out when emergency. The apparatus
should be rigged so that one employee working alone can pull an unconscious employee
out of the confined space.

8.8.7 PREVENTION AND CONTROLS OF CONFINED SPACE HAZARD

Most prevention and control strategies can be placed in one of the following four categories:

Engineering controls the category of engineering controls includes such

strategies as replacing a toxic material with one that is less hazardous or
redesigning a process to make it less stressful or to reduce exposure to
hazardous materials.

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 Ventilation exhaust ventilation involves trapping and removing
contaminated air. It is used to remove and add air to dilute a contaminant to
acceptable level.

Figure 10.7: Ventilation in a confined space

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) it is used as barrier between worker

and the hazards but does nothing to reduce or eliminate the hazards. Examples
of PPE include safety goggles, face shields, gloves and others.
Administrative controls this strategy limits the exposure of employees to
hazards using rotating schedules, providing breaks, work in shift, and other
schedule-oriented strategies.

SUMMARY
Through this chapter students have learned about:
Responsibilities of industrial hygienists;
Definition of toxic substances and confined space hazards;
Effects of toxic substances and confined space hazards to health;
Appropriate tools for toxic substances and confined space assessment;
Suitable PPE to protect workers from toxic substances hazards;
Standards and regulations relating to toxic substances and confined space hazards;
Prevention of toxic substances hazards at workplace.

REFERENCES
1. Goetsch, D. L. (2004). Occupational safety and health for technologists,
engineers, and managers (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
ISBN: 0131137646
2. Reese, C. D. (2003). Occupational health and safety management, a practical
approach. Lewis Publishers, A CRC Press Company. ISBN: 1566706203
3. National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Malaysia.
http://www.niosh.com.my

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