Understand centrifugal compressor, equipment interaction

Operating scenarios provide insights into predicting behavior during changes

K. Majumdar, Abu Dhabi National Oil Co., Abu Dhabi, U.A.E.
Comments? Write:
editorial@HydrocarbonProcessing.com

Many compressor operators often find difficulty in comprehending compressor behavior with respect to system changes,
particularly when coupled with other operational changes. An example is how to predict possible flow increase when there is still
some room for a speed increase. Where will the new operating point be if a change is made - will it shift along the constant
pressure line to the right, along the system curve or along the compressor curve itself? How are power consumption and efficiency
predicted in such cases? For the benefit of operators, compressor behavior with respect to the connected systems and related
problems are presented for common operating scenarios.

Fig. 1 shows a typical arrangement of a compressor operating in a process system. The compressor is taking suction from a
source, point A at pressure P1, and discharging at pressure P2 at point B into a process system consisting of pipelines, valves and
equipment. The gas is transported through this system to be delivered to point C at pressure P3. The line pressure drop, (P2-P 3),
is usually denoted as P (delta P) of the system.

Fig. 1. Typical process compressor arrangement.

System curve. The plot of pressure drop versus flow gives the system curve (Fig. 2a). The total pressure drop has two
components, the superincumbent pressure or static pressure difference between points B and C, and the dynamic pressure drop,
i.e., the drop due to friction, velocity change, etc. The static pressure drop of any system is constant and is independent of the flow
through the system, whereas dynamic pressure drop varies directly as the square of the velocity or flowrate.
 Fig. 2a. Total pressure drop has two components.

The system curve is independent of the gas supply source or the equipment that is delivering gas into the system. The curve
remains unchanged unless any component of the system is changed, like opening a manual or a control valve, pipe size change,
etc. As a valve in the system is opened, flow increases, i.e., the pressure drop decreases, shifting the system curve to the right
(curve b in Fig. 2a). When the valve is throttled, the system curve moves to the left (curve c).

Compressor curve basics. The flow, Q, head (or differential pressure, P) and speed, N, relationship of a centrifugal compressor
is very similar to that of a centrifugal pump (Fig. 2b). The major difference is that a pump handles liquid, which is a
noncompressible fluid. Hence, density and volumetric flow remain unchanged throughout the flow process. A compressor handles
only gas, which is compressible. As the pressure of a gas stream changes during compression or flow, density or specific volume
changes correspondingly.

Fig. 2b. Compressor operating limits are between surge

and stonewall.

As shown in Fig. 2b, centrifugal compressors have continuously falling pressure-flow characteristics. A family of parallel curves
represents compressor operation at different speeds. For a compressor operating at a constant speed, the pressure increases as
the flow decreases and vice versa. If reduction in flow continues, at one point compressor operation becomes unstable and a
momentary flow reversal takes place. This leads to a very rapid pulsating flow backward and forward through the compressor
internals, resulting in severe vibration and consequent damage. This phenomenon is known as surge and the flow at which surge
occurs is the surge point for that particular speed. The surge point shifts to the right as speed increases (Fig. 2b). The line joining
the surge points of curves at different speeds is the compressor surge line. To avoid surge, compressors are always operated at
flows greater than surge point, i.e., at a reasonable distance to the right of the surge line.

As flow increases, a point is reached at the right-hand extreme of the compressor curve after which the flow can not increase no
matter what changes are made on the outlet side. This point is known as stonewall for the compressor for that particular speed.
Like the surge point, the stonewall point also shifts to the right as speed increases (Fig. 2b). However, unlike surge, no adverse
effect occurs to the compressor at the stonewall point. Therefore, the operating regime of a compressor is confined between these
two limits, i.e., surge and stonewall. The set of curves including the limit lines is also known as the compressor operating map.

Relationship between compressor and system curves. When a compressor is connected to a system, the operating point can
be obtained by superimposing the system curve (Fig. 2a) on the compressor curve (Fig. 2b), resulting in Fig. 2c. The point at
which the compressor curve for a particular speed meets the system curve represents the compressor operating point for that
speed. That means the compressor would deliver flow and pressure corresponding to the intersection point in Fig. 2c. Under no
circumstances can the compressor deliver any other flow or pressure (at that speed), unless a change is made in the system.
Only when some change is made in the connected system (say, change in valve opening, pipe size, length, etc.), does the
operating point shift along the compressor curve. Otherwise, the compressor will continue to operate at that fixed flow and
pressure.
 Fig. 2c. The operating point is obtained by superimposing
the system and compressor curves.

So, it can be noted that although a system is quite independent of its upstream source equipment, in this case the compressor,
compressor operation is very much dependent on its downstream connected system.

Compressor behavior in common applications. The figures shown later are only schematics of the most common compressor
configurations. They are neither complete in all details, nor do they represent all possible configurations. Several variations and
different control system arrangements are also possible, although not shown here.

1. Single-speed compressor drive with suction / discharge pressure control. Fig. 3 shows the typical arrangement of a
single-speed (motor-driven) compressor. In this configuration, a compressor operates similarly to a motor-driven pump. The
compressor takes suction from the suction drum and discharge into the piping system.

Fig. 3. In this configuration, a compressor operates

similarly to a motor-driven pump.
The main objective of any compressor control is to maintain a balance between discharge and incoming flows. This is done by
tracking pressure in the suction drum by means of a pressure controller, which regulates a control valve mounted either on the
suction or discharge line. In some installations, a pressure controller is also installed on the compressor discharge line, which
works in conjunction with the suction side pressure controller through a signal selector or a microprocessor-based control module.
In case of low pressure gas, it is more common to provide the control valve on the discharge line.

Scenario 1.1: Incoming flow to compressor decreases. Consider that at a particular instance flow coming into the drum drops.
Outgoing flow being higher than incoming flow, suction drum pressure falls momentarily. The pressure instrument mounted on the
suction drum senses this drop. The pressure controller takes action by closing the control valve on the discharge line (or suction
line) to reduce the flow. As the control valve closes, the system curve shifts to the left (Fig. 4a).

Fig. 4a. As the control valve closes, the system curve

shifts to the left.

Consequently, the operating point (a) also shifts to the left along the compressor curve to the point of intersection (b) with the
modified system curve, where the compressor flow equals the reduced incoming flow. So, in this type of arrangement, compressor
capacity control is achieved by shifting the system curve along the compressor curve backward and forward, as shown by arrows
in Fig. 4a.

Scenario 1.2: Incoming flow drops below surge control point. As incoming flow drops, the compressor will try to find the
operating point in the way described in scenario 1.1. If, however, flow drops below the surge control point, the compressor surge
control system sends a signal to the recycle valve (also called antisurge valve (ASV), a quick-acting control valve) to open. Part of
the outlet flow is then returned back to the suction side via the ASV. Thus, the inlet flow (incoming + recycle) is never allowed to
fall below the surge control point to avoid surge (Fig. 4b).
 Fig. 4b. Inlet flow is never allowed to fall below the surge
control point.

In this case both the ASV and pressure control valves mounted on the compressor discharge line take action simultaneously, i.e.,
the former opens and the latter closes.

Scenario 1.3: Gas demand decreases at the consumer end. In most of these cases, the online valve at the consumer end is
throttled, either manually or through the process control system, to achieve the desired flow reduction. For example, in case of gas
supply to a boiler, heater or gas turbine, the control valve at the inlet of the equipment is throttled matching the equipment load.
The valve may even close if the equipment trips. This event in effect changes the system curve, shifting the operating point to the
left until the desired lower flow is achieved (similar to scenarios 1.1 and 1.2). The control valve on the compressor outlet line will,
however, open instead of closing, in contrast with scenarios 1.1 and 1.2. The reverse phenomenon follows when gas demand
increases. The same control sequence would also follow when gas is to be delivered to a consumer at a constant pressure.

In summary, for all single-speed compressors, variation in flow is achieved only by varying the system curve position backward
and forward. The operating point shifts along the compressor curve, as shown in Figs. 4a to c.

Fig. 4c. The online valve at the consumer end is throttled

to achieve the desired flow reduction.
 2. Variable-speed compressor drive with speed controller. Fig. 5 shows a general arrangement of a compressor driven by a
gas turbine driver. The compressor control module varies gas turbine speed through the speed control module, matching the
process requirement.

Fig. 5. The compressor control module varies gas turbine

speed.

As explained earlier, the system curve is independent of the compressor curve and the points at which the system curve cuts the
set of compressor curves are the corresponding operating points at different speeds. The speed is changed by a variable-speed
driver to achieve varying flow-pressure requirements. The driver is often a gas or steam turbine, although variable-speed electric
motors are also used in certain cases. In this type of arrangement, a pressure controller mounted on the suction line controls the
speed of the variable-speed driver. In some installations, pressure controllers mounted on both suction and discharge lines control
the driver speed through a signal selector. Microprocessor-based advanced compressor control systems are also used instead of
a simple PID controller.

Scenario 2.1: Incoming flow to compressor decreases. As in the case of a single-speed compressor, here also compressor
suction and discharge controllers are used through a low-signal selector or a compressor control module to modulate the driver
speed. As the incoming flow to the suction drum decreases, compressor suction pressure decreases. The pressure controller on
the suction side detects this pressure drop and sends a signal to the driver (turbine) to slow down until a new operating point is
reached where the discharge flow equals the reduced incoming flow (point a to b in Fig. 6a).
 Fig. 6a. The pressure controller sends a signal to the
driver to slow down.

In this case the system curve remains unchanged. Only the operating point shifts down along the system curve, unlike in the
similar scenario using a single-speed drive (1.1) where the operating point moves along the compressor curve (note the
difference).

Scenario 2.2: Incoming flow drops below surge control point. In case of a variable speed compressor, if the incoming flow
decreases below the surge control point, the compressor first slows down similarly to scenario 2.1. The operating point starts to
shift down along the system curve until the minimum sustainable speed is reached (Fig. 6b). If the corresponding flowrate is still
not reached, the surge control valve begins to open along the minimum speed curve. The surge control valve continues to open
until the sum of forward and recycle flow is equal to the flow corresponding to the intersection point of the system and compressor
curves (at the minimum operating speed).

Fig. 6b. The operating point starts to shift down along the
system curve.

It should be noted that under certain circumstances like this, the ASV might open even when the discharge flow is higher than the
surge flow at the minimum speed. However, this sequence of control takes place only if the speed controller and the driver are fast
enough to respond and rectify the changing condition. If the flow change is very rapid, the fast-acting antisurge control system
acts through the ASV ahead of the speed controller to save the compressor from surging.
 Scenario 2.3: Gas demand decreases at the consumer end. As in the case of a single-speed compressor, the system curve
also moves to the left due to throttling of the consumer valve(s) to achieve flow reduction. The suction pressure controller now
starts sending a signal for the driver to slow down. The operating point moves horizontally from point a to be along the fixed-
pressure line until it meets the compressor curve at a speed that corresponds to the reduced flowrate (Fig. 6c). If the flow
increases the reverse phenomenon takes place.

Fig. 6c. The operating point moves horizontally from point

a to point b.

Scenario 2.4: Compressor delivers at a fixed pressure to consumer; set pressure changed. When the compressor is connected
to a piping system to deliver gas at a constant pressure to a consumer, the static pressure difference (P2-P 3) in Figs. 1, 2a and 2c
remains constant. In fact, in all the scenarios described, this difference is assumed to be constant. Now, if the pressure setting at
the consumer end is lowered, the static pressure curve in Fig. 2a moves down (Fig. 6d). Correspondingly, the system curve also
shifts down to the right, although its slope remains unchanged. The shifted system curve now meets the compressor curve at a
new location on the right-hand side of the original point. This means flow increases as discharge pressure decreases. However, if
the flow coming to the compressor suction drum is not increased at the same rate (say, due to nonavailability of excess gas),
suction pressure would drop. The lower suction pressure triggers the pressure controller to take effect through the compressor
control system to slow down the compressor. Thus, the operating point shifts along the new system curve to meet the new speed
curve at a point where the flow equals the incoming flow. The reverse happens when the pressure is increased.

Fig. 6d. If the compressor setting at the consumer end is

 lowered, the static pressure curve moves down.

In summary, when a compressor is driven by a variable-speed drive (gas turbine, steam turbine, etc.), the operating point may
shift either along the compressor curve, the system curve, the fixed pressure line, or a combination of them depending on the
nature of change as discussed. This is quite different from a compressor driven by a single-speed drive (electric motor) described
earlier.

3. Gas molecular weight changes.

Scenario 3.1: MW decreases. Change in hydrocarbon gas composition, hence in molecular weight (MW), is quite common.
Lower MW leads to a lower discharge pressure from the same compressor at the same speed. The compressor curve shifts down
as shown in Fig. 7. The compressor in this case will speed up automatically, through the suction / discharge pressure controller, to
develop the same pressure (point b back to a). If the compressor is already at its maximum sustainable speed (say, at 105% of
rated speed as per API), the compressor flow drops to a value corresponding to the intersection point of the system and the new
compressor curves (point b).

Fig. 7. Lower MW leads to a lower discharge pressure.

This flow reduction may eventually increase the suction pressure, as the compressor cannot cope with all the incoming gas. The
excess gas may then start to escape to the vent or flare, even though all operating conditions may appear unchanged. This
phenomenon of gas escaping to flare is often experienced in process plants. If gas from a compressor suction drum is suddenly
found going to flare when the compressor is running normally at its full speed, MW reduction is often the first suspect.

This problem is also faced when a compressor rated to handle heavy saturated gas is operated in recycle mode for a long period
through an aftercooler. The gas continues to become leaner due to cyclic compression and cooling, resulting in lower discharge
pressure. At this point, if the compressor has to feed forward, it fails to develop the required discharge pressure. The recycle valve
still remains partly open, returning some gas to suction side. The incoming gas starts to escape to flare from the suction drum,
unless the vicious cycle is interrupted manually. Sometimes while a compressor is running in recycle mode, light seal gas leaks
through worn out seals into the compressor casing, which may result in a similar problem.

Scenario 3.2: MW increases. Conversely, an increase in MW results in a higher discharge pressure. The compressor curve
shifts up for the same speed. The net result is an increase in compressor flow, of course, if additional gas is available. If not, the
compressor is slowed down by the suction / discharge pressure controller. In case of a single-speed compressor, flow is directly
reduced by throttling the control valve on the discharge (or suction) line.

Impact of MW variation on compressor stability. Note that unlike the effects of suction pressure and temperature variations, MW
change has a much greater effect on performance and, hence, compressor stability. This effect is more visible on multistage
compressors. When MW increases, the initial stage(s) may be operating at the rated (or increased) flow, but subsequent stages
may be operating at progressively lower flow due to higher pressure from the preceding stage. The flow in some of these stages
may drop below the surge point even when the inlet flow to the compressor is much higher than the surge point. Incidentally,
reducing MW does not have the reverse effect, i.e., it does not enhance compressor stability.
Going to extremes, change in MW may decrease compressor stability to such an extent that when some stages are at surge,
others in the same compressor may be at stonewall. Conventional compressor control and surge protection systems fail to detect
such instability. The compressor map provided in the control system no longer holds good as the flow-pressure-speed relationship
is altered by the change in MW.

This, however, should not give an impression that compressors can operate only at a fixed (rated) MW. Compressor design
normally allows operation over a certain MW range without running into surge in any stage (usually, there is enough distance
between the surge and normal operating points). In case of a substantial change in MW, compressor performance and stability
should be reassessed, preferably with the assistance of the compressor vendor.

4. Compressor flow increases beyond rating. If the driver (motor, steam or gas turbine) is sufficiently large and sufficient inlet
gas is available, it may often be possible to derive somewhat higher throughput from a compressor without being unduly
overloaded. The throughput is increased automatically by the control system for reasons described earlier. MW change is one
main reason; the other being actual system pressure drop lower than estimated in design. Lower destination pressure or higher
suction pressure may also cause a flow increase, often to the operators' benefit. In all these cases, the system curve shifts to the
right to meet the compressor curve at a higher flowrate. This is true for both single- and variable-speed compressors.

If all other compressor and driver operating parameters are within acceptable limits (below alarm and trip points) and MW variation
is within the specified design range, such operation at increased flowrate is not expected to cause any instability or mechanical
problem in the compressor. The operating point in this case is well within the compressor design operating regime.

Barring the question of efficiency, a centrifugal compressor - like a centrifugal pump - can be operated anywhere on its curve
between surge point (or surge control line, SCL) and stonewall by shifting the system curve, provided the driver is adequately
sized. However, if the increase is due to a change in MW where the compressor curve itself shifts, this should be limited to the
specified MW variation range. In fact, during a factory acceptance test (FAT), compressors are actually operated at varying
flowrates within the compressor map range to verify the developed pressure and other parameters.

Besides the above many other scenarios are possible. It is not possible to identify and discuss them all separately. However,
some of the common scenarios and problems presented will help to understand and interpret the behavior of many others not
described here. HP

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Compressor Handbook for the Hydrocarbon Processing Industries, Gulf Publishing Co., Book Division.

Lapina, Ronald P., Estimating Centrifugal Compressor Performance, Volume-1.

Pichot, Pierre, Compressor Application Engineering, Volume-1.

Kumares Majumdar is technical services manager at Abu Dhabi National Oil

Company (ADNOC). He has over 30 years of experience in the oil and gas industry
in the fields of process engineering design, commissioning and operation. Mr.
Majumdar has worked in many countries with internationally reputed engineering
and operating companies on oil, gas and pipeline projects. He joined ADNOC in
1987 in its Gas Processing & Pipelines Division, which operates one of the largest
gas processing plants in the world and an extensive pipeline network. Mr.
Majumdar specializes in process and systems engineering related to gas
processing, utility plants and pipeline transportation. He holds a BE degree in
chemical engineering from Jadavpur University, India, and has had several
technical papers published in leading journals and presented at symposiums.