Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing 29 (2012) 7789

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Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ymssp

Rotordynamics and bearing design of turbochargers

Wen Jeng Chen n
Eigen Technologies, Inc., P.O. Box 2224, Davidson, NC 28036, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o abstract

Article history: Turbochargers have gained signicant attention in recent years. They are already widely
Received 2 February 2011 used in automotive, locomotive, and marine applications with diesel engines. They are
Received in revised form also applied in the aerospace application to increase the engine performance now. The
27 May 2011
turbochargers used in automotive and aerospace industry are very light-weight with
Accepted 27 July 2011
operating speeds above 100,000 rpm. The turbochargers used in locomotive and marine
Available online 21 August 2011
applications are relatively heavy in size and power compared to the automotive and
Keywords: aerospace applications, and the maximum continuous operating speeds are around
Turbochargers 30,000 rpm depending on the diesel engine power rating. Floating ring bushings, semi-
Floating ring bearing
oating dampers, ball bearings, and ball bearings with dampers are commonly used in
Damper bearing
automotive applications for small turbochargers. However, these bearings may not be
Taper land bearing
Rotordynamics appropriate for large turbochargers in locomotive and marine applications. Instead,
multi-lobed bearings with and without squeeze lm dampers are commonly used in
these heavy-duty turbochargers.
This paper deals with the rotordynamic characteristics of larger turbochargers in
locomotive and marine applications. Various bearing designs are discussed. Bearing
design parameters are studied and optimal values are suggested. Test results are also
presented to support the analytical simulation.
& 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

The turbochargers used in locomotive and marine applications, as illustrated in Fig. 1, are relatively heavy and large in
size, and also have lower operating speed compared to the small turbochargers used in automotive applications, as shown
in Fig. 2. A typical locomotive turbocharger weighs approximately 1535 kg and 500 mm in length with 3555 mm journal
diameter, and operates below 35,000 rpm. However, a typical automotive turbocharger weighs in the order of 1 kg and
200 mm in length with 515 mm journal diameter, and operates above 100,000 rpm. Although the rotor speed is quite
different, the bearing surface speed is in the same order of magnitude for turbochargers. Fig. 3 shows the relative size
between the small and large turbochargers. Radial turbine is commonly employed in the automotive applications, while
axial turbine is used in locomotive and marine applications due to larger ow rate. The compressor wheels with long
inducer session in the locomotive and marine applications are made into two pieces in the earlier design due to
manufacturing restriction and installation requirement, they are converting into one-piece design with advanced 5-axis
machines available these days.

n
Tel.: 1 704 896 2693; fax: 1 704 896 0392.
E-mail address: WJChen@dyrobes.com

0888-3270/$ - see front matter & 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ymssp.2011.07.025
78 W.J. Chen / Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing 29 (2012) 7789

Fig. 1. Locomotive turbocharger and rotor assembly.

Fig. 2. Automotive turbocharger and rotor assembly.

For turbochargers, the cost is extremely sensitive due to large production. Four types of low cost bearings commonly
used in passenger cars and commercial trucks are oating ring bushing, semi-oating damper, ball bearing, and ball
bearing with damper, as shown in Fig. 4.
The oating ring bushing (bearing) is the simplest bearing among them and the most widely used in small
turbochargers. It is basically a oating ring inserted in the clearance space between the rotating journal and stationary
bearing housing, as illustrated in Fig. 5. The ring rotates at a fraction of the journal speed and the typical ring speed is
between 15% and 30% of the journal speed. Floating ring bushing consists of two hydrodynamic uid lm bearings in series
with the ring as an additional degrees-of-freedom. The inner lm has two rotating surfaces, i.e., journal and ring with
 W.J. Chen / Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing 29 (2012) 7789 79

Fig. 3. Relative size comparison between small and large turbochargers.

Fig. 4. Bearings in automotive turbochargers.

Fig. 5. Floating ring bearing.

rotational speeds of O and O2, and the outer lm has only one rotating surface, i.e., ring with rotational speed of O2. This
arrangement can only be used for very high speed and light weight applications, such as in the automotive industry. For
heavy rotors with lower rotational speed, the ring may experience high eccentricity and relatively low ring speed which
may not be able to develop proper lm pressure to carry the load applied on the ring. The maximum possible ring-speed,
80 W.J. Chen / Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing 29 (2012) 7789

O2, can be estimated using the torque balance with concentric journal, ring, and bearing [9]

O
O2 1
1 m2 =m1 R2 =R1 3 L2 =L1 L1 =L2 

where O is the journal speed, m is the oil dynamic viscosity, R is the radius of the rotating surface, L is the axial length of the
bearing, and C is the bearing radial clearance. Subscripts 1 and 2 are for the inner and outer lm properties. Since the inner
lm has much higher surface velocity and smaller clearance, the lubricant operating temperature is higher than that of the
outer lm. Typical ratio of m2/m1 ranges from 1.2 to 2.0. With small clearance, the radio of R2/R1 can be considered to be the
ratio of the ring outer diameter to the inner diameter. Typically, this ring diameter ratio is about 1.501.75. The length
ratio L2/L1 is about 1. The clearance ratio C2/C1 is about 1.54.0. For oating ring bearing, the clearance ratio is probably the
most important design parameter, the optimal value depends on the operating conditions and ratios of R2/R1 and L2/L1.
Smaller clearance ratio will decrease the ring speed which is not desirable from the lubrication point of view, although it
may increase the rotor stability. Large clearance ratio increases the ring speed, however, it is not desirable from rotor
vibration and stability point of view.
For some automotive turbochargers, the two oating rings at both compressor and turbine ends are constructed into
one-piece and it is constrained from rotating (O2 0) but free from whirling. Then the inner lm is still a conventional
journal bearing with one rotating surface and outer lm becomes a squeeze lm damper. However, since these two rings
are constructed into one bushing, their motions will inuence with each other and the analytical modeling must reect
this connection. This conguration is sometimes referred to as a semi-oating bearing or damper. Ball bearings are also
successfully used in turbochargers for small passenger cars. For commercial diesel turbochargers, ball bearings with
squeeze lm dampers have gained broad attentions, since ball bearings alone may not be sufcient for the vibration
attenuation. The inner race of the ball bearing rotates with the shaft and the outer race of the bearing is constrained from
rotation but free from radial motion in an oil lm. Similar to the semi-oating bearings, the ball bearings and dampers are
constructed into a one-piece cartridge for lower cost and easy assembly, as illustrated in Fig. 4.
Dynamics of small turbochargers with oating ring bearings has been widely studied and presented [16]. The dynamic
characteristics of a commercial diesel turbocharger with three different bearing systems (oating ring bearings, semi-
oating damper bearings, and ball bearings with squeeze lm dampers) has been presented and the analytical simulation
results have been compared with the experimental data [6]. However, the dynamics of the larger locomotive and marine
turbochargers and their bearings have not been well discussed and many eld failures have been reported [7]. Due to their
relatively heavy weight and lower operating speed of the larger turbochargers compared to the smaller turbochargers, the
dynamic characteristics can be very different. For small turbochargers, the center of mass of the entire rotor assembly is
very near the turbine end bearing due to relatively long and heavy radial turbine compared to the compressor wheel. A
typical critical speed map for an automotive turbocharger is shown in Fig. 6. It shows that the operating speed range of a
typical automotive turbocharger is above the rst two vibration modes and may be above the third mode (free-free mode).
For large turbochargers, the center of mass of the complete rotor assembly is near the center of the bearing span due to the
short axial turbine and larger compressor wheel. The critical speed map for a typical large turbocharger in marine
application is also shown in Fig. 6. It shows that the operating speed is above the rst mode, but below the second rigid
bearing critical speed and the third mode. The dynamic characteristics of these two types of turbochargers can be
signicantly different. The bearings employed in small turbochargers may not be suitable for the large turbochargers.
Inadequate bearing design could result in detrimental failures as illustrated in Fig. 7. For large turbochargers, multi-lobe
bearings are commonly used. For some applications, dampers are also used on the outside of the multi-lobe bearings for
vibration attenuation.

Fig. 6. Typical critical speed map for turbochargers.

 W.J. Chen / Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing 29 (2012) 7789 81

Fig. 7. Damaged bearings and parts.

Fig. 8. Example rotor conguration.

A large turbocharger in this study has experienced vibration problems. This paper discusses the rotordynamic
characteristics of this turbocharger and presents various bearing design comparison. Parametric study on the bearing
parameters is also presented.

2. Description of the turbocharger system

The turbocharger under study, as illustrated in Fig. 8, weighs 20.2 kg and has a total length of 481 mm. A sleeve is t
into the compressor bearing end for the thrust bearing and seal installation, and also to keep both the turbine and
compressor radial bearings with the same journal diameter of 46 mm. The normal operating speed ranges from 15,000 to
28,500 rpm. However, it could go up to 30,000 and 32,000 rpm during test. The lubricant is the same as the engine oil,
which is 20W40 oil. The oil inlet temperature to the turbocharger can range from 40 to 80 1C with a typical value around
60 1C. This wide oil temperature range can affect the location of the critical speed and the rotor stability. Various types of
bearing have been tested and they are 3-lobe bearings, 3-lobe bearings with dampers, and taper land bearings. The average
bearing unit loading in turbochargers is relatively small compared to the bearing unit loading in other turbomachinery.
The bearing static performance, such as the lm thickness and maximum lm pressure, is not as critical as the bearing
dynamic properties, stiffness and damping, which can affect the rotordynamic characteristics of the machine. Regardless
the bearing types used, the turbocharger experienced high vibration and machine failure without a proper bearing design.
Due to the compact of the construction and lack of vibration monitoring system, any bearing failure in this turbocharger
will result in a catastrophic failure.
82 W.J. Chen / Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing 29 (2012) 7789

3. Taper land bearing description

Conventional 3-lobe bearings and other type of preloaded bearings have been well documented [8,9]. However, taper
land bearing has not been addressed in previous publications. Taper land bearing with 3-pads, as illustrated in Fig. 9, is
commonly used in this kind of applications due to its simplicity in manufacturing and low cost.
The taper is described and machined by an offset arc. The taper is machined only in the center portion, not the entire
axial length. Side lands are left on both sides of the taper to restrict the oil ow and buildup hydrodynamic pressure. The
offset arc center is specied by an offset (ra) from the bearing center to the arc center and an angular position (ya).
Typically, the arc center angular location is the same as the angular location of the middle of the oil groove, as illustrated in
Fig. 9. Sometimes, it is in line with the leading edge of the pad. The additional clearance formed by the taper arc in the
leading edge is commonly referred to as the undercut (u). Once the center position and radius of the taper arc (Ra) are
specied, the undercut (u) and the taper circumferential length (yT) are determined mathematically. The undercut (u) and
taper arc length (yT) are commonly specied in the bearing design process. The arc radius (Ra) and center offset (ra) are
more commonly specied in the bearing manufacturing drawings for production purposes. Since these four parameters are
mathematically related, only two parameters are needed.

4. Bearing parameters

The bearing radial clearance is dened as the clearance between the bearing radius and the journal radius (Cb Rb  Rs)
and the value is normally determined according to the journal diameter and rotational speed [9]. The clearance is typically
selected to be a larger value for larger journal diameters and higher journal speed. Other bearing geometric parameters are
studied below. For parametric study, non-dimensional variables are frequently utilized. The Sommerfeld number
commonly used in the bearing presentation is a non-dimensional parameter, which combines the bearing geometric
data (L: axial length, D: diameter, R: radius, and Cb: radial clearance) and operating conditions (m: lubricant viscosity, Ns:
rotational speedrps, and W: load) into a single non-dimensional parameter
 2
mNs R
S 2
W=LD Cb

Under normal operation, typical Sommerfeld number for the large turbochargers is greater than 5 due to high speed
and low unit loading. The most desirable bearing operating condition is to have a thick lm of lubricant that separates the
interacting surfaces. The load carrying capability is dened using the minimum lm thickness
Minimum film thicknessh h
h 3
Bearing Radial Clearance Cb

Fig. 9. Taper land bearing denition.

 W.J. Chen / Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing 29 (2012) 7789 83

The bearing stability is measured by using the critical journal mass. The critical journal mass is determined by assuming
the rotor is rigid, symmetric, and supported by two identical bearings. Therefore, the fundamental translational motion can
be analyzed using a simple 2-DOF system [10]. The critical journal mass and the whirling frequency are determined as
follows:
Kxx Cyy Kyy Cxx Kxy Cyx Kyx Cxy
o20 Mcrit k0 4
Cxx Cyy

Kxx k0 Kyy k0 Kxy Kyx

o20 5
Cxx Cyy Cxy Cyx
For a given bearing geometry and specied operating conditions (a given Sommerfeld number), K and C are the
linearized bearing dynamic coefcients. The journal is on the threshold of instability with a whirling frequency of o0 when
the journal mass equals to Mcrit. If the journal mass is greater than the critical journal mass, then this simple 2-DOF system
becomes unstable in the linear sense. It should be noted that the higher critical journal mass for a rigid rotor system may
not possess better stability for the exible rotor system. The critical journal mass should only be used as a reference for the
bearing stability comparison and extreme caution must be taken when interpreting the results. For a complicate exible
rotorbearing system, a complete rotor bearing analysis is required to determine the system stability. For large
turbochargers, the operating speed is frequently near the rigid body critical speed. Therefore, stability parameter can be
a good indication for the bearing design. The non-dimensional critical journal mass is dened as

O2 Cb
M crit Mcrit 6
W
Another two variables used in the non-dimensional analysis are the side ow, which is the minimum oil ow required,
and the power loss
Qs
Qs 7
1=2pNs Cb LD
 
Cb
Hp Hp 8
p3 mNs2 LD3
For taper land bearing, there are three geometric parameters are discussed. The rst parameter under study is the ratio
of the undercut to the bearing radial clearance, which is dened in the following:
Undercut Depth u
u 9
Bearing Radial Clearance Cb
u 0 indicates that there is no taper arc. The stability and load carrying capability for various undercutclearance ratios
are shown in Fig. 10.
For u 0:5 and 1, the lm thickness is slightly higher for Sommerfeld number greater than 0.3, but lower for low
Sommerfeld number. For u 2, the lm thickness is noticeably lower when Sommerfeld number is less than 1, but about
the same lm thickness when Sommerfeld number is greater than 1. The load carrying capability is signicantly decreased
when u is greater than 2 in the entire Sommerfeld number range. In general, the stability is improved as u increases up to
2. When u is greater than 2, the stability is decreased for Sommerfeld number larger than 1. Typical Sommerfeld number

Fig. 10. Undercutclearance ratio effect.

84 W.J. Chen / Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing 29 (2012) 7789

for large turbochargers is greater than 5, therefore, the optimal value of u is between 1.5 and 2. It will have the same load
carrying capability, but improved stability compared to the bearing without undercut.
The second parameter studied is the circumferential taper arc length ratio
Circumferential Taper Arc Length yT
y 10
Circumferential Pad Arc Length w
y 0 indicates that there is no taper arc. Fig. 11 shows the stability and load carrying capability for various taper arc length
ratios. In general, as the taper arc length increases, the stability is improved. It is noticed that when arc length ratio is less
than 50%, the stability margin is lower in a small range of Sommerfeld number between 0.2 and 0.6. When the arc length
ratio is greater than 90%, the stability parameter is actually a little lower than that of 75% at Sommerfeld number greater
than 1, although it has better stability at lower Sommerfeld number. The lm thickness does not have much difference for
the typical Sommerfeld number greater than 5. The optimal value for the arc length ratio is around 75% and 80%.
The third parameter discussed is the axial length ratio
Axial Taper Length LT
z 11
Bearing Axail Length L
Again, z 0 indicates that there is no taper arc and 100% indicates that there is no side land. The stability and load
carrying capabilities for various taper axial length ratios are shown in Fig. 12. The effect of z on the stability and lm
thickness is very similar to the effect of y. The optimal value for the taper axial length ratio is between 70% and 90%.
It should be noted that the taper land bearing can improve the bearing stability, however, it decreases the load carrying
capability at lower Sommerfeld number region (S o0.3). Therefore, it is only recommended for high Sommerfeld number

Fig. 11. Arc length ratio effect.

Fig. 12. Axial length ratio effect.

 W.J. Chen / Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing 29 (2012) 7789 85

applications, such as the turbochargers that typical Sommerfeld number is greater than 5. For other applications, such as
gear driven centrifugal compressors, the typical Sommerfeld number is between 0.1 and 1, where the taper land bearing
may not be suitable.

5. Bearing comparison

The preloaded multi-lobe bearing, as sketched in Fig. 13, is also commonly used in turbomachinery and turbochargers.
It can be used alone, or with damper outside the bearing. Geometrically, it can be treated as a special case of the taper land
bearing with arc length equal to the pad arc length (y 100%) and without side lands (z 100%). Note that for a positive
preload, the lobe (arc) radius (Rp Ra) must be greater than the bearing radius, i.e., Rp 4Rb and Cp 4 Cb. The lobe (arc) center
is distanced from the bearing center with a radius of ra Cp  Cb. Also, the lobe (arc) center angular position (ya) falls within
the range of ((1/2)(y1 y2) p,y2 p) for an offset (tilt) ranged from 0.5 to 1.0. The tilt less than 0.5 is not desirable.
However, for a typical taper land bearing, the arc center angular position is either in line with the center of oil groove (y0)
or with the leading edge (y1). Also, the arc radius (Ra) of a typical taper land bearing can be slightly smaller than the
bearing radius depending upon the desirable undercut and taper arc length, although, most of the time it is slightly larger
than the bearing radius.
It will be interesting to compare the bearing performance for these two types of bearings: preloaded lobe and taper
land bearings. Five (5) bearings with the same bearing clearance (Cb), as shown in Fig. 14, are considered in this
comparison study. The rst bearing (#1) is a 3-axial groove bearing with a constant bearing clearance, which has no
preload and taper arc. It is basically a cylindrical bearing with 3-axial oil grooves. The second bearing (#2) is a preloaded 3-
lobe bearing with a preload of 0.5625 and an offset (tilt) of 1.0. It has the same bearing clearance (Cb) and a maximum
clearance (u Cb) at the leading edge of the lobe to form the clearance ratio (u u/Cb) of 1.5. The third (#3) and fourth (#4)
bearings are taper land bearings with the same clearance ratio of 1.5, but without the side lands (z 100%). The third
bearing (#3) has an arc length ratio of 75% and the fourth bearing (#4) has an arc length ratio of 100%. These are not typical
taper land bearings since they do not have side lands. They are used for comparison purposes. The fth bearing (#5) has a
taper arc length ratio of 75% and an axial length ratio of 75%, which is a typical taper land bearing. The bearing clearance is
the same at both leading and trailing edges of the lobe for the second and fourth bearings. However, in other area the
clearance of the taper land bearing is larger than that of the 3-lobe bearing. The clearance distributions along the
circumferential direction for these ve bearings are illustrated in Fig. 15.
Fig. 16 shows the stability parameters for these ve bearings. As expected that preloaded bearing and taper land
bearings have much better stability margin than the plain cylindrical grooved bearing. The stability curves for the 3-lobe
bearing and taper land bearing (#3) with 75% arc length ratio and no side lands are nearly the same with taper land
bearing slightly better in the Sommerfeld number range between 0.7 and 2.0. With 100% taper arc length ratio (#4), the
curve shifts to the right, i.e., better stability in the low Sommerfeld number and worse in the high Sommerfeld number
range, which is not desirable for turbocharger applications since typical Sommerfeld number for large turbochargers is
above 5. Taper land bearing with 75% arc length ratio and 75% axial length ratio has the best stability among them for
Sommerfeld number greater than 1.
Fig. 17 shows the minimum lm thickness. The taper land bearing (#5) has the largest minimum lm thickness for
Sommerfeld number above 0.6. In the low Sommerfeld number region, 3-axial groove bearing has the best lm thickness,
followed by the 3-lobe bearing. Taper land bearing is not suitable for the low Sommerfeld number operation from the load
carrying capability point of view.

Fig. 13. Typical preloaded multi-lobe bearing.

86 W.J. Chen / Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing 29 (2012) 7789

Fig. 14. Bearing comparison.

Fig. 15. Bearing clearance.

Fig. 16. Stability comparison.

 W.J. Chen / Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing 29 (2012) 7789 87

Fig. 17. Film thickness comparison.

Fig. 18. Flow side leakage comparison.

Fig. 18 shows the ow side leakage. The oil ow is an important design parameter which affects the size of oil pump, oil
cooler, reservoir, and piping. The mechanical loss associated with the oil circulation cannot be neglected. It shows that the
taper land bearing without side lands has high side leakage. The side lands restrict the oil ow and lower the ow
requirement. However, this low ow requirement also increases the oil and bearing temperatures, which in some
applications may not be desirable.
As described before, the non-dimensional analysis can only be used as a reference and guideline. The non-dimensional
parameters are displayed versus Sommerfeld number. However, the lubricant dynamic viscosity is a function of operating
temperature which depends on the ow and power loss. Therefore, with the same lubricant supply temperature, the
operating temperature and the effective Sommerfeld number can be different. A complete dimensional analysis is always
required to determine the bearing performance.

6. Turbocharger bearing design

The critical speed map for the turbocharger under study is shown in Fig. 19. The vibration mode shapes for low support
stiffness (very exible bearings) and high support stiffness (rigid bearings) are also shown in Fig. 19. For very low bearing
stiffness, the rotational motion is predominant in the rst mode, and translational motion is predominant in the second
mode. These are two classical rigid body modes with the conical mode rst and translatory mode second. However, as the
bearing stiffness increases above the 5E05 N/mm, these two modes switch orders and become exible rotor modes with
translational motion rst and rotational motion second. For wide range of operating speeds and broad lubricant
temperatures, the operation over the theoretical critical speeds is inevitable, if the rotor system cannot be modied, which
is the case for this application. The goal here is to minimize the response throughout the operating speed range, such that
the critical speed can be classied as critically damped mode and separation margin is not required by industry standards,
Due to the high operating speed and low bearing load of the large turbocharger, the operating Sommerfeld number is
greater than 10 in this application. Therefore, taper land bearing is chosen over the 3-lobe bearing for stability and power
loss saving. Although tilting pad bearing can be an alternative solution, it is not feasible from cost point of view.
88 W.J. Chen / Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing 29 (2012) 7789

Fig. 19. Critical speed map and mode shapes.

Fig. 20. Steady-state unbalance response at compressor nose.

Fig. 21. Stability analysis.

Following the previous discussion, a taper land bearing has been designed for this turbocharger. The clearance ratio
(u u=Cb ) is 1.875, the taper arc length ratio (y) is 80%, and the axial length ratio (z) is 81%. The steady-state unbalance
responses for various oil supply temperatures at the compressor nose, where the vibration is monitored, are shown in
Fig. 20. It shows that the peak response may be occurred within the operating speed range, but the amplication factors
are very small and well below 2.5 as referenced by industry standards. The peak response decreases as the oil temperature
increases. With proper balancing, the vibration shall not be a concern with these low amplication factors.
Fig. 21 shows the stability analysis results at the maximum continuous operating speed with logarithmic decrements
of the rst two modes, translational (T) and rotational (R) motions, versus the aerodynamic cross-coupled stiffness
 W.J. Chen / Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing 29 (2012) 7789 89

Fig. 22. Response collected during test.

(Q) applied at compressor end for oil supply temperatures of 40 and 80 1C. As expected that the higher oil temperature, the
lower the rotor stability is. Also, as the aerodynamic cross-coupled stiffness increases, the stability decreases. The
logarithmic decrement for the vibration mode with predominant translational motion decreases in a much faster rate than
the mode with predominant rotational motion, and becomes unstable when the destabilizing force is very high
(Q0 7400 N/mm). Note that the aerodynamic cross-coupled stiffness in this application is estimated to be around
290 N/mm (QA), which is far less than the required aerodynamic cross-coupled stiffness (Q0) to make the system unstable.
Therefore, the rotor system is considered to be stable in all the operating conditions.
Fig. 22 shows the response curves with oil inlet temperature around 63 1C for both X and Y probes taken during test.
The peak response occurred around 20,000 rpm with very low amplication factor. This tested data is in agreement with
the predicted results. The machine has been in operation for more than two years since the bearing redesign without any
vibration problems.

7. Conclusions

For large turbochargers in locomotive and marine applications with high speed and low bearing load, taper land bearing
is well suitable in this kind of applications. When the bearing and oil temperatures become a concern, the preloaded 3-lobe
bearing and/or 3-lobe bearing with damper can be employed to lower the bearing/oil temperature with higher oil ow.
Tilting pad bearing can be a good engineering solution, but infeasible due to much higher cost.
The taper land bearing clearance is determined according to the rotor speed and journal diameter. Recommended
undercutclearance ratio (u u=Cb ) is between 1.5 and 2. The optimal value for the arc length ratio (y) is around 7580%.
The recommended axial length ratio (z) is also around 80%. However, due to manufacturing and reliability considerations,
a minimum side land width is required. Suggested minimum side land width for this size of bearing is 23 mm, which may
affect the nal axial length ratio slightly. One important factor to be considered in this bearing design is the high
temperature from the turbine end. The thermal growth of the journal and bearing must be considered in determining the
bearing parameters.
Taper land bearings based on the suggested design guideline presented in this paper have been successfully tested and
operated in many turbochargers.

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