Programme Title: HNC Mechatronics

Unit number / Title: Instrumentation and Control

Assignment Title: Assignment 1: Programming and use of PLC’s

Tutor: Gareth Lambert

Student: Mark O’Neill

Mark O’Neill HNC Year 1

Instrumentation and Control: Assignment 1
Task 1

Describe the Following Terms used in process measurement; include any relevant
diagrams in your descriptions

Accuracy and Precision

In process measurement accuracy refers to the ability of a measuring device to

relay data as close to the actual quantity being measured, accuracy differs from
precision as precision may supply data very close to each other in value but be
far away from the measured quantity,

For Example

If the quantity being measured is 100

And the values being measured by the device are

100, 75, 70
This device is deemed as accurate but not precise

If another device measures the readings as

50, 52, 55
This device is deemed to be Precise but not accurate

Accuracy and precision rely on being based on a known reference on which a

comparison of the measured value can be made, ideally the measuring device
should be both Accurate and precise, with the values created clustering tightly
around the required value

To communicate accuracy and precision effectively a target analogy can be used,

Mark O’Neill HNC Year 1

Instrumentation and Control: Assignment 1
Hysterisis Error

If a known quantity is being

measure but yielding different
output values each time this it is
referred as Hysterisis error, it
comes from the maximum
separation of loading and
unloading, in effect there is a
“memory” this means that that the
loading and unloading yield
different values even though the
same force is being applied.

For Example, if we look at the extension of an elastic band, a set

force of lets say 5 Newton’s is applied to the elastic band and the
length of the band Is increases to 10 cm, applying a further 5
Newton’s extends the length to 20 cm, However when 5 Newton’s
is then removed the length of the Elastic band falls to 11cm, one
would have assumed that as the force has been returned to 5
Newton’s that the extension length would be 10 cm, this is due to
the “memory” of the material. The difference is the Hysterisis
error.

Mark O’Neill HNC Year 1

Instrumentation and Control: Assignment 1
Non – Linearity Error

Many things we measure have a linear scale, i.e., numbers, 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10

if produced onto a graph the result would be a linear line due to the fact that at
each time period the increment rises by 1.

Non linearity occurs when the vales do not increase in an even fashion, such as
variable increases or exponential increases

Some examples of nonlinearity in graphical form

(Below). Analogue linearity error is the

deviation from the actual quantity, the
amount in deviation from the desired
output is the linearity error

(Above). Digital linearity error is resultant of

the switching of a digital signal to match the
measurement of a quantity, as a digital
signal can only be either high or low, the
signal tries to switch in order to try and
produce the desired output.

At certain values some materials express

very good linearity where as the same material at other values posses’ poor
linearity, it is the role of the system designer to determine which sensors are
suitable for the correct applications. The more linear a sensor is the more it costs

Range

The range is the difference between the lower end and the higher end of a set of
values, for example if a thermocouple has a range of -270 degrees Celsius to
+400 degrees Celsius the range is

400 + 270 = 670 degrees Celsius

Values Lower than -270 and higher than +400 degrees Celsius would require a
sensor with a larger range, however determining the correct sensor for the
correct application, then range would be taken into account when selecting a
sensor. Generally sensors with larger measurement ranges are proportionately
more expensive.

Mark O’Neill HNC Year 1

Instrumentation and Control: Assignment 1
Dead Band / Space

Refers to the unresponsiveness of a sensor, the amount that something needs to

change before this change is “noticed” by the sensor

For example the sensor detecting the teeth of a gear operates when the tooth is
high, the Angle distance between the teeth is Dead ban/space, in the first
instance the bead band is 90 degrees, in the second instance the dead band is
reduced to 45 degrees.

If the first gear were to rotate 46 degrees clockwise the sensor would not notice
the change and therefore assume the gear had not moved, however in the
second gear, if it rotated 46 degrees the sensor would then pick up the high tooth
and be aware that the gear had moved

Dead band in a pressure transmitter occurs when small changes in pressure don’t
provide enough of a force change to allow the sensor to overcome friction and
move to provide the correct output

Mark O’Neill HNC Year 1

Instrumentation and Control: Assignment 1
Task 2

a) Select a modern sensing method for each of the following properties and
describe their construction and operation

Pressure

Piezoresistive pressure sensors work on the principle of a Piezoresistive effect in

which a mechanical force applied to a material changes its electrical resistance,
unlike the Piezorelectric effect where the application of a force on a material
create an electrical force.
The Piezoresistive elements are arranged in a Wheatstone bridge, a measuring
instrument which compares known resistance to an unknown resistance created
by the pressure input, the relationship between the resistance results in an
output.
The output from the bridge is directly proportional to the pressure input

Piezoresistive strain gauges placed behind a silicon diaphragm convert the

pressure applied to the diaphragm in to an electrical resistance which can then be
used to determine the unknown pressure

Level

Sensors can detect Light level through a photocell by means of producing an

electrical resistance directly proportional to the light input.

A Float switch is a means of measuring the level at which a liquid has reached,
the principle of a float switch is very
simple indeed, the arrangement of a
float switch can differ in its construction
to produce different results

The floating element of the switch can

either float to make a contact or float to
break a contact depending on the design
intent of its application

Encased inside the float switch is a magnetic reed switch, which is operated,
when the floating element containing a magnet passes it, when the liquid level
reaches such a level the floating element connecting the magnet raises away
from the magnetic reed switch cause the connection to break the circuit.

Although a float switch is very simple, its resolution is also limited a binary output
is all that is possible, the switch is either activated (high liquid level) or the switch
is inactive (the level is not high)
There is no way of accurately knowing whether the level is ¼, ½ or ¾ full

A proximity sensor with a floating armature could be used to determine the level
of the liquid

Mark O’Neill HNC Year 1

Instrumentation and Control: Assignment 1
Temperature

A thermocouple can be used for a wide range

of temperature however accuracy of below 1
Kelvin is hard to achieve, it works on the
principal of an EMF (Electro magnetic Force)
being produced in the junction between two
dissimilar metals, each metal that is subject
to a thermal source will generate a voltage,
so by using dissimilar metals its possible to
measure the different between the two
voltages to determine the actual temperature
value. As with many types of sensors there are different types offering different
ranges and characteristics depending on the application required, some types can
operate in temperatures as low as – 270 degrees Celsius and some can operate in
temperatures as high as +2600 degrees Celsius, selecting the correct
thermocouple for the desired temperature range is important due to the fact that
thermocouples are nonlinear measurement devices past certain temperatures

An issue that occurs when using thermocouples is in their connection, special wire
that reduces any additional junctions being created that will generate their own
voltage and interfere with the output.

See Appendix A for typical thermocouple types, their temperature Ranges and
their voltage-temperature characteristics

Temperature Sensor Advantages and Disadvantages

Sensor Advantages Disadvantages

Thermocoupl • No resistance leadwire problems • Non-linear
e
• Fastest response • Low voltage
• Simple, rugged • Least stable, repeatable
• Inexpensive • Least sensitive
• High temperature operation
• Point temperature sensing
RTD • Most stable, accurate • Current source required
• Contamination resistant • Self-heating
• More linear than thermocouple • Slow response time
• Area temperature sensing • Low sensitivity to small
• Most repeatable temperature temperature changes
measurement
Thermistor • High output, fast • Non-linear
• Two-wire ohms measurement • Limited range
• Economic • Fragile
• Point temperature sensing • Current source required
• Self heating

Mark O’Neill HNC Year 1

Instrumentation and Control: Assignment 1
Flow

A rotating vane slow sensor can operate in two ways, but

either recording the flow of a liquid / gas by the rotating
speed of the shaft or by the veins interrupting an infra red
beam, the speed is then proportional to the flow.

In a vane rotating flow sensor turbine blades are used, the

pressure applied by the liquid / gas to the top of the fins, is
greater than the pressure on the back of the fins, the
difference in pressure causes the turbine to rotate, and infra
red bean is aimed at the blades, as the beam is continuously
broken the pulse repetition frequency output is directly
proportionate to the flow of liquid / gas being measured.
To achieve accuracy the sensor will need to be calibrated by
using a known source of pressure.

Mark O’Neill HNC Year 1

Instrumentation and Control: Assignment 1
 Application of sensors at place of work

Pressure Sensor

To test sub assemblies and components for leaks, we use a pressure sensor from
SMC pneumatics, this particular sensor measures in Kpa (kilopascal).

Manufacture Honeywell Honeywell

Model 24PCFFM6G 40PC100G2A
Pressure Range 0-100 psi 0-100 psi
Maximum permissible 200 psi 200 psi
over pressure
Operating Temp -40 to +85 degrees C -45 to +125 degrees C
Supply Voltage 10-12V (dc) 5V (dc)
Price £12.23 £38.79

In the above table of 2 similar pressure sensors the selection must be made
based on the appropriateness of the sensor to meet the application for example if
pressures need to be measured in an environment with temperatures exceeding
85 degrees Celsius then the Honeywell 24PCFFM6G would not be a suitable
component

However due to cost implications if the highest temperature acting upon the
sensor would be below 85 degrees Celsius then the 24PCFFM6G should be chosen
over the 40PC100G2A as would have a saving of £26.56 per unit, and would
perform comfortably.

Mark O’Neill HNC Year 1

Instrumentation and Control: Assignment 1
Temperature Sensor

A thermocouple is used to measure the temperature of an inlet head, a

temperature reading is required to ensure that combustion of process gas does
not happen past a certain point but also to control the rate in which the process
gas is passed through the inlet head, if the head is getting too hot then the
process gas will be reduced

Manufacturer RS RS
Part Number 621-2170 455-4270
Operating temp range -50 to 400 degrees C 0 to 760 degrees C
Standard Type Type K Type J
Price £7.00 £16.32

The two components above primarily differ in their temperature range, if the
temperature required to be measured was 500 degrees C then the Kype K
thermocouple would not be suitable for the application, if the maximum
temperature being measured was 300 degrees C then the Type J thermocouple
would be over specification and un required for the application.

Mark O’Neill HNC Year 1

Instrumentation and Control: Assignment 1
Flow Sensor

These reed sensors are connected to a manifold which circulates water around
the system, it’s possible to determine the flow of water leaving the manifold to be
distributed around the system, the sum of the values obtained from the reed
sensors would equal the total flow of water around the system.

This particular model is FM0102 it can measure 2 – 16 litres per minute obtaining
a accuracy of ±3.0% and a repeatability of ±5.0%

A similar product on the market is the PF2A710-F02-67 manufactured by SMC, its

has a measurement range of 1 – 10 litres per minute with a repeatability of ±1%
or less, making it superior product to meet this application, however the cost of
the SMC product although superior would be un-economically viable for use in our
systems as the level of repeatability is un required.

SMC PF2A710-F02-67
Level Sensor

Mark O’Neill HNC Year 1

Instrumentation and Control: Assignment 1
On a product called Atlas Abatement the tank where the systems water is stored,
its level is controlled by the used of two float switches, a warning level switch is
operated when the water level rises to a level at which is deemed to be getting
higher, an additional switch located above indicates that the water level has risen
to high and the system shuts down

Manufacturer GENTECH GENTECH

Model LS304-11N LS404-11
Float Specific Gravity 0.85 0.65
Operating Temp -30 to 110 degrees C -30 to 105 degrees C
Medium Fuels, oils, alcohol Water
Switching Properties IDENTICAL IDENTICAL
Mechanical Specification IDENTICAL IDENTICAL

The important thing when selecting the correct float switch for the right
application is the medium, in which you require to measure, the specific gravity of
the float which is compared to that of water (1.0) determines how the float will
respond to a certain liquids.
As Oils have a higher density to that of water, a higher specific gravity will make
the float respond quicker and should be used for such applications.

Mark O’Neill HNC Year 1

Instrumentation and Control: Assignment 1
 b) Describe a typical application for each of the methods described in 2a

Pressure

There are many different applications where Piezoresistive sensors are used,

Although in essence the sensor is used only to measure pressure, it can also be
used to measure height and depth

When submersed in a liquid to a depth, the pressure applied to the sensor

combined with the specific gravity and liquid volume of said liquid can result in
the depth

Use to determine altitude is also an application suitable for Piezoresistive sensors,

the higher the altitude the less pressure that is applied to the sensor.

Weather instrumentation: to determine the atmospheric and barometric pressure

which indicates the precipitation likelihood.

Level

An Application for a float level would be in a reservoir tank, if the tank is required
to be filled to a desired level at all times, then a float switch could facilitate this,
when water is drained from the tanks outlet, the inlet will be operated by the
float dropping off, until such time as it floats again and shuts off the tank inlet.

Temperature

A thermocouple has a variety of applications within industry such as use in the

food industry where vats of liquid may been to be at a certain temperature for
either cooking to the correct temperature, also use in a ceramics company where
control of the drying kiln will need to be monitored.

Flow

There are countless application in which a flow meter may be used, Gas flow
meters may be used to determine the speed of gas circulating around a heating
system where as a liquid flow meter may also be used in a heating system to
measure the flow of water circulating.

Mark O’Neill HNC Year 1

Instrumentation and Control: Assignment 1
Task 3

a) Describe the main stages of analogue to digital conversion

Analogue signals are limitlessly variable where as digital signal can only choose
from high or low states, analogue signal have a higher range and accuracy but
unfortunately are electronically impossible to understand by electronic devices, so
therefore but be converted into a digital signal, this is done by matching up an
analogue wave form with binary bits, if we take a basic sinusoidal wave form for
example and convert it into a digital wave form you can see the steps taken to
how it was produced

The main stages of Digital to Analogue Conversion are

Sampling

Starting off with an analogue signal points at specific time periods must be
sampled to determine the values of the integers that will be made into a digital
signal

Quantizing

Is the process of turning the values of the sampling process into whole integers,
this process rounds up or down a number to the nearest whole integer for
example 6.4 would be rounded down to 6 and 6.5 would be rounded up to 7 as a
whole integer

Mark O’Neill HNC Year 1

Instrumentation and Control: Assignment 1
Encoding

Converts the integers into “words” they are binary number sets with variable
resolutions,
i.e., a 2 bit binary word has 4 possible states

State Decimal Value Binary value

1 0 00
2 1 01
3 2 10
4 3 11

Where as a 4 bit binary word has 16 possible states

State Decimal Value Binary value

1 0 0000
2 1 0001
3 2 0010
4 3 0011
5 4 0100
6 5 0101
7 6 0110
8 7 0111
9 8 1000
10 9 1001
11 10 1010
12 11 1011
13 12 1100
14 13 1101
15 14 1110
16 15 1111

The division of these words determines its resolution, as you can see the higher
number of bits the higher the resolution will be

Turns the integers produced from the previous two steps and converts them to a
digital value

Mark O’Neill HNC Year 1

Instrumentation and Control: Assignment 1
So for example

3 6 7 5 2
0011 0110 0111 0101 0010

In the graph the original waveform is represented as the BLUE line and the binary
equivalent is represented by the RED bar, going by this the wave form can be
digitally represented by the digital term

0011 0110 0111 0101 0010

b) A/D modules may have different word lengths giving different resolutions.
Calculate the resolution of a 4 bit and a 12 bit A/D module

4 bit A/D module Resolution

to determine the resolution of a 4 bit number system we must raise the base of
the binary to a power of the number of bits

so:-

2^4 = 16

this means that there are 16 different configurations

12 bit A/D module resolution

to determine the resolution of a 12 bit number system we must raise the base of
the primary to the power of the number of bits

so:-

2^12 = 4096

Mark O’Neill HNC Year 1

Instrumentation and Control: Assignment 1
Task 4

a) describe the Principles of 4-20mA current loop transmission

4 – 20 mA current loop is a sensor signalling standard that is widely used because

it is largely unaffected by electrical noise, typically used to measure physical
factors such as temperature, Ph, pressure, etc
4mA represents the lowest end of the range of current that can be used and
20mA represents the highest end of the range. The reasons that 4-20mA is so
popular are
- Easy Connection
o Only two wires are required for instillation, the supply voltage and
the measuring current.
- Current immunity to electronic interference.
- Sensor information can be transmitted long distances with little adverse
affect
- The current loop can provide operating power to the devices.

b) Explain why 4mA represents the minimum value and not 0mA

If the minimum value was 0mA then if a problem in the system arose and no
current was being passed, components would read the current failure as a value
and continue to operate as normal, by setting the lowest value at 4mA it provides
the components with information that there is a problem if a value of <4mA
passing through the system causing them to fall below their operating limit and
cease to operate.

20mA
As you can see from the
diagram, the GREEN area
represents the current where the
system remains operational and
the RED area represents the 4mA
current range where the system
will stop
0mA

20mA As you can see from this diagram

the GREEN area is the operational
current range of the system,
however there is no fail safe to
stop the system in the event of
components failing, it merely
assumes the system is operating
0mA as normal.

Mark O’Neill HNC Year 1

Instrumentation and Control: Assignment 1
Task 5

a) Draw an operational amplifier in a simple inverting configuration.

A Graphical representation of the input wave in comparison of the output wave

form with the negative gain can be seen on the next page.

b) Calculate values of Rin & Rf to give a gain of -5

to achieve a gain of – 5 the ratio between Rin and Rf needs to be 5:1

the equation to determine the gain (Av) is

Av = -Rf / Rin

so if Rin = 5 ohms
Rf = 1 ohms

-5 killohms / 1 killohms = -5

The Gain (Av) for the circuit is -5

Mark O’Neill HNC Year 1

Instrumentation and Control: Assignment 1
Mark O’Neill HNC Year 1
Instrumentation and Control: Assignment 1
Appendix A

Mark O’Neill HNC Year 1

Instrumentation and Control: Assignment 1
Mark O’Neill HNC Year 1
Instrumentation and Control: Assignment 1
Bibliography

http://wpcontent.answers.com/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Elastic_Hysteresi
s.jpg/300px-Elastic_Hysteresis.jpg

http://www.tutelman.com/golf/measure/precision.php

http://www.visionic.co.uk/Thermocouple.htm

http://www.wellesley.edu/Chemistry/Chem105manual/Appendices/uncertainty_a
nalysis.html

Mark O’Neill HNC Year 1

Instrumentation and Control: Assignment 1