Diction Handbook for Graduate Students in Review Commented [MA1]:

The Spirit of the Law

Language is a living, breathing entity. Language is as versatile and
malleable as we humans who use it to communicate. No diction book
can ever hope to present the full and complete picture of any language.
All it can do is be a guidebook and a starting point for any serious
student of language, be they singer or otherwise. We all need to
remember that just like any musical phrase, there is not necessarily only
one right way to work the phrase, but rather a choice that encompasses
the fluency of the verbal and musical communication goals in toto. The
purpose of this book is to be a guide for students of lyric diction (i.e.
singers/coaches/conductors) for Italian, French, and German. This book
also addresses a specific population of singer; ideally collegiate level
with some experience in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).

Phonetics in brief:

Phonetics is the study of languages specifically as it relates to sound.

There are three basic elements of sound that are as important for
singers to understand along wi:th the scientific community:

Production Any utterance capable via the human vocal tract

Acoustics - The atmosphere through which sound travels
Perception a single unified awareness derived from sensory processes
while a stimulus is present. (dictionary.com)

What many singers fail to understand is the perception aspect. My

students complain over and over again But when I listen to so-and-so, I
hear. in response to certain production aspects that we discuss in
class. In fact, those who study linguistics have to go through ear
training, just as musicians study ear training in conjunction with theory.
Note in the definition, perception is a process, not an instinctual
reaction. The ear/brain must be trained to identify specific elements of
production such as height, pitch, dentalization, aspiration, and so forth.
Casual or untrained listeners will simply place certain sounds in a
category that best fits their limited acoustic world. The most successful
diction students are the ones who learn how to listen.

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Then, how do we define diction? What does that exactly mean for a
singer?

One of my biggest pet peeves is for this exchange to occur during

class:

Me: (After a student has finished singing) That was devoid of

expression.

Student: Oh, well I was only focusing on my diction, so I wasnt

thinking about anything else.

Whats wrong with this picture? It is clear that most students decouple
the pronunciation from any expressive content in the language.
Granted, we cant even begin to express if the sounds are incorrect, so it
is warranted that attention is often focused on the minute details of
phonetics, and how the articulators (tongue, teeth, lips) and air function
to produce the correct sound. However, can the pronunciation even
be considered correct if there is no thought to declamation and
elocution? Can a singers diction be correct if there is no attention
paid to the meaning of the sentence, or how it needs to be
communicated in the context of an emotion or action?

One of the most overlooked and underutilized aspects of

successful "diction" is the concept of speaking! Wagner, in writing to
Liszt, wanted singers to read the libretto aloud, distinctly and with
expression. Claire Croiza, in her wonderful book Claire Croiza: The
Singer as Interpreter says: "First learn to articulate well in speaking...If
we cannot speak with a clear articulation, how can we sing with one?" If
we as singers are not invested in the words as art, what is the point? So
my classes are structured around the student successfully speaking text
before they sing it, to drive this point home. It is something that is
necessary, even in English, to practice.

Also, every language has unique elements that make it DIFFERENT Formatted: Font: +Body (Cambria), 14 pt, Italic

differentiate it from other languages. Obviously idioms and structure Formatted: Font: +Body (Cambria), 14 pt, Italic

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are part of this equation, but a good composer/poet has solved the
puzzle to some degree. The choices singers need to make are how to
make Italian sound like Italian, French like French, German like German,
English like English, etc. What are the elements of phonetics that are
unique from language to language? The informed communicator has
more tools to wring out the rhetoric and direct listeners to the beauty
and power of language, as well as the specific focus of the poem/prose,
be it sentimental, didactic, surreal, or even nonsense.

Therefore, my definition of diction is inclusive of EXCELLENT Formatted: Font: +Body (Cambria), 14 pt, Italic

excellent (not correct) pronunciation, THOUGHTFUL thoughtful Formatted: Font: +Body (Cambria), 14 pt, Italic

declamation, and POWERFUL powerful elocution. Any speech, even with Formatted: Font: +Body (Cambria), 14 pt, Italic
the most fascinating ideas and calls to action, is uninspiring if the
speaker does not communicate well. Therefore singers who intend on
communicating life and passion to an audience MUST must be superior Formatted: Font: +Body (Cambria), 14 pt, Italic

at diction.

Just as we define speakers to be fluent in a language, I believe

musicians should be fluent in the pronunciation of a language.
Historical change (and Urban Dictionary, nay, even the Oxford English
Dictionary) teaches us that language is constantly in a state of flux.
There are also multiple wonderful and reliable resources that all have
varying similarities and differences on diction instruction. My book
retains much of the instruction of many of these wonderful resources
and knowledge imparted to me by inspiring teachers.
In my teaching I use four basic language dictionaries that have
nothing to do with singing: Il Nuovo Dizionario Italiano Garzanti
(1992), Dictionnaire de la pronunciation franaise dans sa norme
actuelle (heretofore referred to as the Warnant) (1987), Duden:
Das Aussprache-wrterbuch Unerllich fr die richtige Aussprache
(1990) and The Merriam-Webster Dictionary (2001). These are
admittedly old references, and perhaps in the age of the internet there
probably are more current resources. Nevertheless, for the vast
majority of the 18th-20th century repertoire that most of us musicians
deal with on a daily basis, the aforementioned scholarly dictionaries are
the most reliable in a majority of cases. I do want to emphasize two
things:

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 1) These dictionaries are for SPOKEN diction, NOT lyric. In ALL
languages lyric diction will differ from spoken, to some degree or
another.
2) NO resource is infallible. There will be mistakes in every source.
However, a smart and FLUENT student of language will cull from
multiple sources and take the mean.

A QUICK GUIDE TO THE INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET (IPA).

The IPA was founded in 1886 (conveniently by the International

Phonetic Association) to promote the study of the science of phonetics
and the various practical applications of that science (i.e. singing). It is
based on the Roman alphabet (to the relief as well as the consternation
of native speakers of English). The IPA has produced charts, the most
recent being in 2005. All the pronunciation-specific resources (with the
exception of the Garzanti) have some form of the vowel and consonant
charts. The chart can be found in the appendix on p. blah. There are
many sounds on the chart that musicians dealing with Western music
will not encounter. However, having a strong knowledge of the IPA will
allow ANYONE access to the excellent pronunciation of ANY language.
Understanding the voicing, place, and manner of articulation can allow
for singers to have not only excellent pronunciation, but also to assist
them in diagnosing problems that arise from certain combinations of
the above. A few things to keep in mind:

1) The limitations of JUST just using the chart and not the other Formatted: Font: +Body (Cambria), 14 pt, Italic

symbols This becomes problematic as we move from

language to languagefor example, the [] in German will NOT
be equal to the same symbol in French. Furthermore, the [] in
Italian, French, and German will generally sit slightly higher
and brighter than in English. Linguists have FAR more tools to
identify the specific qualities of vowel such as brightness,
roundness, advanced, retracted, centralized, etc. Ear training
must develop the skill of differentiation.
2) All the dictionaries mentioned, as well as most reputable
diction resources, use the International Phonetic Alphabet. Do
keep in mind that there are MULTIPLE multiple phonetic Formatted: Font: +Body (Cambria), 14 pt, Italic

alphabets that serve specific languages, regions, and dialects

(such as the North American PA). These can make sense to

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 musicians and non-musicians alike, but since we are dealing on
a daily basis with multiple languages, the use of IPA is a must.
3) Other languages NOT covered in this resource
The power of the IPA is fully realized in its transference to
other languages that singers might encounter, including English,
Russian, Spanish, and Portuguese. Keep in mind that the IPA works for
EVERY language, not just the ones covered in this resource.
4) The particulars of writing IPA above or below the text.
My argument for writing the IPA above the text is as follows: If a
singer is following the text in a voice lesson or coaching, it is more likely
that they are checking their pronunciation as they go along, as opposed
to tracking the translation. It is easier to track the IPA if it is above the
line, as opposed to being below. Nico Castel uses this format, as does
the Odom and Moriarty and Grubb, so I am in good company. I do
acknowledge that there are other systems, so students should choose to
do what works best in their own written work for their lessons and
coachings. However, in my class, students will be expected to write their
IPA above the line, not below.

Italian The thorny issues

It is very important to keep in mind that Italian, unlike most of the

other languages American singers study, does not have a standardized
pronunciation in the same manner as German (Hoch Deutsch), English
(American Standard, British Received) and French (Parisian). Italy was
not united as a country until 1871, long after the unification of the
German states, the French Renaissance period between the 15th-17th
centuries, and the American Revolution. Before and during the period
of Il Risorgimento, the Italian peoples were divided into regions that
were ruled by ducal families. These regions were walled (or utilized
natural barriers), to protect their interests and properties. As with all
languages, there are different dialects, and usually these dialects have a
relatively even spread geographically. However, with Italian, one can
find strong differentiations in pronunciations between neighboring
cities and villages. Of course this only addresses the spoken diction

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issues. The lyric diction rules, as with all languages, often differ
profoundly from the spoken, and Italian is no exception.

Italians themselves are known to disagree about some fundamental

phonetic issues in their language, such as:
-The number of vowels*
-The treatment of the intervocalic s
- The quality of vowels (open vs. closed), should they even agree that
there are seven vowels that exist in their language. I have found that the
Websters New World Italian Dictionary is a wonderful reference that
generally agrees with the Garzanti, and is a good, compact resource for
students. Also, the exceptional Singers Italian: A guide to lyric diction
by Evalina Colorni has been my well-loved lodestar for many years.
There are three reasons that a student is required to have a reputable
Italian dictionary by their side at all times:
1) To look up the stress of an Italian word
2) To look up whether a non-final stressed 'e' or 'o' is open or
closed, and
3) To look up the voicing of a 'z'

*Giulio Caccini (1564-1616) wrote in his Le Nuove Musiche that open

vowels are more sonorous than closed vowels, and he proceeded to
instruct that for LYRIC diction, singers should just use open es and os.
Colorni uses this approach in regards to most final vowels and all
unstressed vowels, and it is one solution to a far more complex problem.
More on this in the vowels section. The Nico refers to Mathilde
Marchese, the master teacher of Italian singing in the late 1800's, who
states that "closed" Italian vowels are not a part of her teaching.

There ARE, however, some fundamental qualities of Italian that can be

considered hallmarks that MUST be utilized by any student.
There are five dental, non-aspirated consonants. [d], [t], [n], [l], and [].
You could include the [r] as well (as some books do). But, in my
experience with this age group , who are mostly native English
speakersof mainly native speakers of English, if you can roll your rs
you are in good shape, regardless of where you roll them. The most
natural position in this case will function just fine. The advanced
student can challenge themselves to produce the [r] in a dental position.

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1. All Vvowels: (Rregardless of whether there are five or seven, Formatted: Font: +Body (Cambria), 14 pt, Bold

they ) sit in a brighter/higher place than those of English. The

[], [] and [] tend to be the most problematic.

2. The need to differentiate between single and double Formatted: Font: +Body (Cambria), 14 pt, Bold

consonantsSingle vs. Double Consonants : . The difference Formatted: Font: +Body (Cambria), 14 pt, Bold

between a single and a double will often change the meaning of

a word, such as caro (dear) and carro (cart), core (heart)
and corre (runs). There are multiple examples, and the
Colorni lists quite a few. This can be somewhat related to
English in the difference between which and witch. Only
one sound is different, but the difference in meaning is
profound (Linguists refer to this phenomenon as a phoneme).

3. The lilt of the Italian language, or working with stressed vs.

unstressed syllables. The almost unpredictable nature of
stress in Italian is, in my opinion, what makes it so lyrical and
melodic. Also, the length of the stressed syllable is often
overlooked by the casual student, mainly because there is
nothing quite like it in either the Germanic languages (English)
or the Romantic cousins French and Spanish, which tend to be
the languages most native speakers of English are familiar
with. This will be most important when dealing with recitative,
although this importance is not diminished when dealing with
an aria proper, or in song. My general advice to students is to
spend 3-4 times the amount of phonation on the stressed
vowel, vs. the unstressed vowels. It is incorrect to assume that
all Italian words have the stress on the penultimate syllable.
Common words like "angelo" chiudere, gelida, esile,
amano, tavola, "timide", "mormora" and sciabola, as well
as names like Ilia belie that notion. True, the penultimate
stress is frequent, but should not be assumed. Colorni makes a
good point of this on p. 34.

4. Remembering that in stark contrast to English, the majority of

Italian words end in vowels; ergo, when they are done with a
sentence, their mouths are in an open position. Many issues
experienced by native speakers of English of having an

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 inadvertent diphthong on final es or os in Italian stem from
the natural instinct to close the mouth at the end of a word or
sentence.

5. The emotional content of an Italian word is generally

expressed by the vowel, usually in terms of length. Again, this
is in sharp contrast to German/English, which relies on
stronger/longer consonants and aspiration for similar effects.

6. Dental, non-aspirate consonants. As mentioned before, the 5

dental consonants in Italian are the d, t, n, l, and [].
They must be made with the tip of the tongue in the dental
place of articulation, and also not have a puff of air after the
articulation. A correctly transcribed consonant that is
aspirated looks like this: [th]. Most native speakers of English
will do this naturally. Practice saying the difference between
toy and toi. Use a piece of paper close and directly in front
of your mouth to see if the paper moves. If it doesnt move, you
are not aspirating, and that is correct for Italian.

Keeping in mind these six basic fundamental qualities will raise the
Italian production value of any singer.

ITALIAN VOWELS

This book will follow the Garzanti premise (and generally accepted
practice, both spoken and lyric) that there are seven vowels in Italian,
[], [i], [], [e], [],[o] and [u]. Please refer to the vowel chart on page
blah for further clarification.
1. The [] vowel "Italianate/Germanic- a"

This vowel is the most open AND one of the most back vowels on
the chart. One will notice that the difference between [] and [] is very
little. There are some sources that state that the a in English is

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equivalent to that of Italian. I must, however, agree with Colornis
assessment that the a vowel in Italian is the more forward/brighter of
the vowels as is true of most of the other vowels in Italian. John
Moriarty in his Diction book also agrees with Colorni. The title of this
vowel in my book reflects the controversial nature of this sound.
There are varying degrees of brightness to the vowel, and arguably the
greatest variance is in the a vowel. You can see that, according to the
chart and common usage for singers, they go from bright to dark in the
following order (and I have listed the languages that the Warnant and
Dudens use as the appropriate representation of the vowels: [a]
(French) [] (German/Italian) [] (English). It is rare that singers sing
these vowels too brightly. The vowel can be too spread, of course, but
this is a separate issue. It is my experience that most native speakers of
English will sing this particular vowel too dark, regardless of instruction
of the vowel in relation to English. One of my students who was a native
French speaker did in fact sing her Italian a vowels too bright, but this
is a rare occurrence.

2. The [] (open-o) vowel

This vowel is common in Italian, French, German, and English. It
can be used for some a spellings in English, which exacerbates the
over-darkening of the vowel in native speakers of English. According to
the chart it sits in the same back position, but does sit higher, and is
rounder. Generally speaking this is functional in all languages if not
exaggerated.

3. The [o] (closed-o) vowel

This vowel is common in Italian and Spanish. It is not the same as
the [o] of French and German, and herein lies our first difficulty. It
would probably be best described as being a more rounded [] vowel.
Moriarty uses a [o]2 . Another option could be a [] (attach rounding Formatted: Font: +Body (Cambria), 14 pt, Superscript

symbol). Contrasting words like sole and the German sohn can be of
help.

4. The [u] vowel "little-u"

This vowel is the most closed, rounded, and back of the vowels. It
is used in Italian, French, German, Spanish, English, etc. It is the most
rounded of the lip vowels and has a low tongue position. Often the
challenge for native English speakers is making this vowel with the

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tongue positioned too high. This makes the vowel more shallow and it
loses its (fundamental frequency???)

5. The [i] vowel "little- i"

This vowel has the highest tongue position and the most
neutral lip position. It is the vowel that is most closed and the most
frontal position. This vowel is used in Italian, French, German, English,
Spanish, etc. Generally speaking the trick for most native speakers of
English is to make sure this vowel sits high and front enough.

6. The [e] vowel "closed e"

This vowel is common in Italian and Spanish. It is not the
same [e] as French or German, and so therein lies our second difficulty.
As with the [o], Moriarty uses the [e]2 to delineate the idea that the
tongue position is not as high as the French/German equivalent.
Contrasting words like stessa and stehen can help with this.

7. The [] vowel "open-e"

This vowel is common to English, French, German, and
Italian. As with the [] vowel, it does sit higher in the European
languages as opposed to English, but words like bed and said will be
very close to the European equivalent. Italian words like diletto and
gelo use the [].

The rules for the opening and closing of e and o in Italian:

There are many sources that agree/disagree on this issue (see the note
for Caccini above). I draw from the Garzanti, my knowledge of Italian
and listening to Italian speakers, and the wisdom of Colorni to guide my
reasoning. Since lyric diction is different from spoken, I will use more
open vowels generally speaking than the average Italian speaker.

1. All unstressed final es are open.

2. All stressed final es are closed unless preceded by a [j].
3. All final os are open, regardless of stress
4. All non-final unstressed es and os are open
5. All non-final stressed es and os must be looked up in a
reputable dictionary.

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So I hear the collective groan of the student at the thought of having to
look up each and every Italian word with a non-final stressed o or e.
Other sources wade through and find patterns, and then attach rules to
such patterns. This is possible, but the list of exceptions is just as
onerous. My strategy is to have the student memorize a list of common
Italian words and endings. Otherwise, the Websters New World Italian
Dictionary (or the Garzanti) will work for looking up the rest of the
words. A couple things to remember with these dictionaries:
1. The Websters New World Italian Dictionary is for SPOKEN Italian,
not lyric. Therefore all the rules listed above governing non-
stressed es and os will be in contradiction.
2. The Garzanti ONLY concerns itself with the stressed vowel. This
alleviates any confusion a student may find in looking up words
and solving these words using the IPA in the Websters, for
instance.
3. My graduate students have the option of closing unstressed
vowels, should they deem it preferable. One tends to notice, then,
that the majority of vowels sung in Italian will be closed. I cant
help but think of the soutenu style of French diction, which OPENS
the majority of common, mono-syllabic words, and other vowels
that are usually closed in the courant (current) style of French.
But each singing student needs to decide what is MOST functional
for her voice and technique at that time. This is perhaps the
MOST important take-away from this discussion.

COMMON ITALIAN WORDS AND ENDINGS:

Word Meaning Solution
is []
e and [e]
ed and [e]
essere to be []
questa this [e]
quella that [e]
senza without []
bene well []
mezzo middle []
terra earth []
ciel sky []
per for, with, etc. [e]

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bella (bel, bello) beautiful []
nella (nel, nei, etc.) in the, with the etc. [e]
della (del, dei etc.) of the, from the etc. [e]
pene pain [e]
amore love [o]
dove where [o]
come how, like [o]
cosa thing []
sono I am, they are [o]
voglio, vo I want []
so I know []
ancor again [o]
dolce sweet [o]
core, cuore heart []
foco, fuoco fire []
occhi eyes []
oggi today []
ogni each, every [o]
noi we [o]
voi you (pl.) [o]
sole sun [o]
solo, sola alone [o]
notte night []
giorno day [o]
voce voice [o]
non not [o]
ho I have []
bocca mouth [o]
fior flower [o]

Suffixes/Endings

-endo gerund form []

- erebbe present conditional form vorebbe (he would)f
[]
- erei present conditional form []
-estre ex. silvestre "woodland" []
- ella ex. favella ("speech") []
- ello ex. gioiello []

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- ente ex. dolente []
-esimo ex. centesimo []

- olo ex. "giaggiolo" "iris" []

- ola `ex. "figliola" []
- otto ex. "vecchiotto" []

RULES THAT WILL HELP

There are a couple of rules that will help us to figure out the solution
of a vowel without having to look it up.
1) Any e that is preceded by a [j] will be open (hence the reason
why pi is an exception to the all stressed final es are closed
rule).
2) Any o that is preceded by a [w] will be open.
* Do not mix the rules. A word like quello will be transcribed as
[kwel:l], and a word like fiori will be transcribed as [fjoi]. The
specific glide+vowel combinations are not transferrable.

A couple of things to note:

1) Ive only listed the open endings and suffixes. One can then infer
that the rest of the suffixes/endings will be closed, such as etta, --
-ette, -ere, -mente, -oso, - essa, and the rest.
2) Words like affetto (affection), effetto (effect) and diletto are
not closed, as the -etto is not part of a diminuitive ending, but
just part of the word.
3) "Che" is pronounced in two ways, depending on the part of
speech. According to the Colorni, when "che" is a relative pronoun
(whom, who, that, which, how) it is [] (having no accent mark). If
"ch has an accent mark, it is a preposition meaning "for" or
"because". It will be [e]. Often it is attached to words like "perch"
and "finch".
4) This list is not exhaustive. I encourage all my students to continue
to learn and refine and memorize key Italian words as they
continue to crop up in their roles and art songs.

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Other solutions:

VOCALIC HARMONIZATION
The Nico Castel Libretti books utilize vocalic harmonization. This is also
common in French. The concept is that the stressed vowel of the word
dictates the position of the other non-stressed vowels. For instance:
Dove sono. The stressed vowels in both words are closed. With my
approach, the undergraduate should open the unstressed e and o.
The Nico in fact closes ALL the vowels. In contrast, a word like
serpentello utilizes nothing but open vowels. The Volume II of The
Libretti of Mozarts Completed Operas has a lovely explanation of this
concept on p. xvii. I highly encourage this approach to the more
sophisticated singer.

MAKE IT WORK
One of the other benefits to the Italian language in re singing is that it is
flexible enough to accommodate multiple vocal approaches. Singers
need to keep in mind that making the difference meaningful between
[pn] and [pen] is rather important, considering the very unique
meanings of each of these words. This notwithstanding, and my point to
all of this, is will the singer communicate the idea, and can this idea be
understood by the general population. Its one thing for a listener to find
your pronunciation odd, and its another thing entirely to just not be
understood.

GLIDES
Glides are defined (according to Introductory Phonology) as non-
syllabic equivalents of vowels. As a result they can be described in two
different ways. [j] is described as a voiced palatal central approximate,
but also a high, front, unrounded glide (being a variation of the [i]
vowel). The [w] is described as a voiced labial-velar approximate, as
well as a high, back, rounded glide, being a variation of the [u]. The

14
most problematic of the sounds of Italian occur with this symbol, the [].
I describe this sound (and this is thanks to many students who longed to
put a descriptive term on this symbol besides a voiced palatal lateral
glide) the gli. This is, as its name implies, a fairly difficult sound to
wrap the head around. The tip of the tongue should be down, and
against the lower teeth. The articulation is made with the blade of the
tongue (which include both sides of the tongue) as well as in
combination with the dorsal part of the tongue. This sound should in no
way be confused with the [l], which is only the combination of the tip of
the tongue against the upper teeth, and the blades. The [l] is also a
lateral, but not a palatal consonant, an important differentiation. A great
way to work on the difference is to use the name Guglielmo. You
should feel a distinct difference between the second and third
consonants. This sound occurs in Italian, as well as other languages
such as Portuguese, Norwegian, and Occitan.

A note about the [:] (colon)

- The [:] in IPA is an indication of length. Therefore, any symbol that
precedes a [:] will be elongated. This is helpful to determine the stress
of Italian words that have multiple vowels. This accurately represents
double consonants, such as [t:t]. This is also used in the Dudens to
indicate long vowels. In conclusion, the [:] can be used in multiple
situations, for consonants or vowels.

USING THE [j] "j-glide"

The [j]should be used when an i is followed by a vowel, sounded, and
unstressed. Any stressed i will be transcribed as [i], as it is syllabic. So
mio will be transcribed as [mi:], whereas chiesa will be [kjz]. A
word like suoi will be transcribed as [sw:i]. Note that the last [i]
vowel is transcribed as a vowel, not as a glide, because it is not followed
by a vowel. Generally triphthongs can be described as three vowels that
are part of one syllable. The triphthong can be just one syllable, or two,
depending on the setting.

USING THE [w] "w-glide"

15
The [w] should be used when a u is followed by a vowel and
unstressed. Any stressed u will be transcribed as [u], as it is syllabic. So
pu will be transcribed as [pw], and lui will be transcribed as [lu:i].

USING THE [] "gli".

This voiced palatal lateral glide is used for any combination of the
letters gl. When the gl is followed by an i and nothing else, it will be
transcribed as [i], as in gli, which is a direct article, plural. When the
gl is followed by an unstressed i and another vowel, the i will be
silent. Example words are Guglielmo [gu lm] or Pagliacci
[pt:ti]. Also words like figlio and voglio are transcribed as [fi]
and [v]. It is clear to see that if the i is not stressed, it is assimilated
into the voiced palatal lateral glide. This is the first example of
assimilation that we see in Italian, which is a common occurrence.
Also, it is common to see IPA transcriptions using this symbol as so:
[m:]. 'Battaglia' is [bat:taa]
This is perhaps a more accurate representation of the length of the
glide, which speaks to its complicated articulation. I find that if students
are making this sound correctly, the need for the length to be
represented in the transcription is not necessary. Colorni doesnt
represent this symbol as a double, but Castel does. Therefore, it may
drive home to the student the complicated nature of the articulation,
and the student may feel more comfortable making this sound as a
double consonant. For recitative this would be an important distinction
to make. In the context of an aria, this may be more problematic. This is
something that can be addressed by the student and their teacher.

Diphthongs and Triphthongs

A diphthong is a sequence of two vowels that function as one syllable. A
triphthong, then, is a sequence of three vowels that function as one
syllable. It is important to note that sometimes, depending on the setting
by the composer, diphthongs and triphthongs can be separated into
multiple syllables. In recitative this never happens, but in melodic
settings this can be possible (think O sole mio). The vowels or glides
can have a number of combinations. The most important idea is that
there is one vowel that is primary. The other vowels and glides, in
various combinations, function as secondary.

16
Examples of diphthongs
One of the most interesting things about Italian is the two and three-
letter words that result in diphthongs. Common words include: mio,
io, suo, pie, and cui. Every single one of these words has the
stress on the first vowel. So, as in the example pie ([pi:] (meaning
pious), the stressed vowel is primary, but the secondary vowel is not a
glide, as [] cannot be a glide. pi, meaning foot, is pronounced [pj].
Cui is another important and oft mispronounced word. Cui [ku:i]
means where or which, a part of an object pronoun. Qu [kwi]
means here, an adverb. Other occurrences of diphthongs can happen
with other vowels, such as Laura [la:u] or paura [pau:]. One of the
most tricky is Eumenidi, for example in Smanie, implacabili from
Cos fan tutte. An example of multiple text settings would be "Iago",
which can be [jg] or [i:g].

It is important to note that, if the stress in an Italian word falls on the

last vowel, it will have some sort of accent mark. Otherwise, you will
not find accent marks (generally speaking) in the middle of a word, with
the exception of the dieresi.

There are 3 common accent marks in Italian:

- accento acuto
`- accento grave
- dieresi

These have the same basic concepts attached as in French, when used
by the Garzanti in showing stress. The accento acuto will identify the
vowel as closed, as well as stressed. The accento grave will identify the
vowel as open, as well as stressed. The Garzanti in fact uses these
accents to identify the stressed vowel as well as the quality of the vowel
(open or closed, in reference to es and os. You will see a mix of open
and closed accent marks on the last syllable of an Italian word, if it is
stressed. The dieresi identifies the vowel as being syllabic. For example,
consider the word bomi in Neddas ballatella from I Pagliacci. The
e is syllabic. It also happens to be open, but that is not necessarily the
case of all vowels that use the dieresi.

17
TRIPTHONGS
As mentioned before, triphthongs are a combination of three vowels
that make a single syllable. Examples of these in Italian are miei
[mj:i], suoi [sw:i], guai [gw:i], and so forth. Some examples of a
combination of two glides + a primary vowel would be would be
seguiamo [sgwja:m] or aiuola [jw:l]. Again, depending on the
setting, these could be split up into multiple syllables.

ITALIAN CONSONANTS
The other beautiful thing about Italian is that the discussion of vowels
is quite short. Now we delve into what makes Italian consonants
unique.

1) Dental, non-aspirate consonants. As discussed earlier, the [d], [n], t[],

[l], and [] are placed in the dental area of the vocal tract. Happily, the
word dental contains most of the consonants, so that is handy as a
memorization device. Since the [] is used in English (in words like
better and butter) it, like the other consonants, can be produced in
the alveolar region. However, it is not difficult for native speakers of
English to make the adjustment to place it in the dental region, along
with the other dental consonants.

2) Single vs. Double consonants.

My rule of thumb is; when a vowel is followed by a double consonant,
it is shortened. When a vowel is followed by a single consonant, it is
elongated. One can also think of the consonants having more or less
length, too. A colon will be utlilized to indicate the lengthening of the
consonant, such as [g:g] or [b:b]. There are many ways of going about
describing this phenomenon. Using the short vs. long vowel has a
benefit of relating to the German concept. Students often query this, as
German double consonants and Italian double consonants seem to be
different. My argument is that there are more similarities than

18
differences between the two regarding this concept, and the language
itself takes care of the differences. You are not going to find that
German lilts in the same way just because you use a double ss in
Wasser just like you would for stesso. Each word may resemble the
other out of context, but in a sentence the overall effect is different,
mainly because of the more predictable nature of the stress of a German
word, which will mostly happen on the first syllable of the root. And,
just like double consonants can have an onomatopoetic effect in
German, such as bitterlich, the same can happen in Italian, such as
orrore.

Now to look to the consonants themselves:

The easy ones
B = [b] D = [d] F = [f] H = silence! The h is always silent in Italian, just
like French. J = [j] (a rarity in spelling, but you see it depending on the
librettist, as it is not in contemporary use) L = [l] M = [m] P = [p] Q = [k]
Qu = [kw] always!!! Qu is treated differently in Italian, German, and
French.
R = [] or [r], depending. S = [s] or [z], depending T = [t] V = [v] W = [w]
or [v] (not part of the Italian alphabet, but occurs in borrowed words).
X = unique solutions, since this is also not part of the general Italian
alphabet. But, you do find it in dialects (such as Venetian), so it is best
to find another source to help you with the pronunciation.
Z = [ts] or [dz], or [t:ts] or [d:dz], again depending, discussion below.

Dealing with c, g, and sc

These consonants will introduce us to a new kind of consonant

combination called the affricate. An affricate is a combination of a
stop/plosive + a fricative, in that order. The four affricates in Italian are
[ts], [dz], [t], and [d]. The doubling of these looks like this: [t:ts],
[d:dz], [t:t], and [d:d]. Note that the stop/plosive is doubled, not
the fricative. Here is how to determine which symbols are to be
used.

C When c is followed by a, o, u, or h, it will be

transcribed [k]. So words such as cara, con, cui, and chimera
will be transcribed [k:], [ko:n], [ku:i], and [kim:]. When the c
is doubled it will be [k:k], in words such as siccome [sik:ko:m],

19
occulto [k:ku:lt], and macchia [mk:kj]. Then, "c" followed by a
consonant will also be [k] or [k:k], such as crudele [krudl].
When c is followed by e or i, it will become the affricate [t].
Words such as cielo and cede will be [t:l] and [t:d]. It is
important to note that when c is followed by i and then another
vowel, the i is SILENT. In no reputable Italian dictionary will you see
some kind of [j]. This is a perception problem that exists, generally with
native speakers of English.
When c is doubled and followed by e or i, it will look like [t:t], in
words like faccia [ft:t] (face) and accesso (access) [t:ts:s].
Again, it is important to note that the i is silent! Also 'ascese' -
threshold

"G"- When g is followed by a", "o", u, or "h", it will be [g]. So words

such as "gaia", "agone", "gusto", and "lusinghiera" will be transcribed as
[g:j], [gon], [gust], and [luzigj]. When the "g" is doubled it will
be [g:g], in words such as "leggo" [leg:g] (I read), "fuggono" [fug:gn],
(they flee and "sogghigno" [sg:gi] (grin). "Grin" can also be
transcribed as [sg:gi:], that will be discussed when the [] is
covered.
When "g"is followed by "e" or "i", it will be the second affricate, [d].
Words such as "gelida" and "gioco" will be ['dlid] and ['dk]. It is
important to note that when g is followed by i and then another
vowel, the i is SILENT. In no reputable Italian dictionary will you see
some kind of [j]. This is my biggest pet peeve, to hear schooled
musicians referring to this opera as "Don [divn:ni], as opposed to the
correct way, which is [dn dvn:ni]. Other words like "gioia" [d:j]
and "coraggio" [kd:d] function in the same manner.
The doubling of "g", as with the example above, will be transcribed as
the double affricate, as in "peggio" [pd:d].

"SC" - When "sc is followed by a", "o", u, or "h", it will be [sk]. So

words such as "scala", "conosco", "oscuro", and "Schicchi" will be
transcribed as [skl], [knsk], [sku], and [skik:ki]. When doubled
it will, like "Schicchi", be transcribed with a [sk:k], such as "pennacchini"
[pn:nk:kini].
When "sc" is followed by e or i, it will become [], not an affricate.
And, just like "c" and "g", when sc is followed by i and then another
vowel, the i is SILENT. In no reputable Italian dictionary will you see

20
some kind of [j]. So words like "sciabola", "scendere", "lasciare" and
"scienza" will be transcribed ['bl], ['nd], [l'], and
[nts].

Also, many dictionaries will transcribe this as doubled. This

phenomenon is noted earlier in the example with [:] and [:]. So a
word like "lasciare" is transcribed as [l:] in many contemporary
dictionaries, as well as the Nico. So words that utilize the [], [], and []
can be doubled if desired. In my estimation, this is lower on the list of
priorities, which include bright/tall vowels, and dental/non-aspirate
consonants. Nevertheless, it does produce a pleasing lilt and heightens
the expressive quality of the language, so more advanced students of
Italian diction are encouraged to double these consonants.

"R"'s in Italian are governed by two basic rules.

An "r" will be [] when it is:

1) Intervocalic (single between two vowels). For these purposes, a [w]

or [j] counts as a vowel.

2) Ending a word and the next word in the same phrase begins with a
vowel. All parts of this rule must be present in order to meet the
specifications for a [].

Otherwise, all other 'r's will be transcribed as [r]. Double 'rr' will always
be transcribed as [r:r]. This might seem redundant to some; but, for
native speakers of English, this hammers home the need for the student
to make a greater-than-average effort to roll 'r's. Also, in other
instances of rolled-'r's, such as "guarda", there will be slightly less
length on an [r] in this instance, as opposed to "terror", which should
look (and sound like) [tr:ror].

Discussion:
a) Some students have insisted to me that a [r] "sounds better in a large
space"...so by that definition logically we should be doubling all
consonants in Italian. This flies in the face of the fact that using an [r] in
place of an [] will change the meaning of the word. For example,

21
substituting an [r] for [] in the word "core" (heart) will change it to the
word "corre", which means "runs". Clearly these are two very different
meanings. This is the effect of the phonemic phenomenon discussed
earlier, and also hammers home the importance of paying attention to
minute details, as this *can* damage the effect of your communication.
Also, Italian speakers make the differentiation between [r] and [], so
there is no reason that a good communicator of Italian from the opera
stage can't be understood when using the [].

b) This rule can get confusing. First off, to reiterate, the 'r' must end the
word in question. So, all Italian words that begin with an 'r' must be
rolled. A good example of this rule in practice would be the line "per
arcano desio" from the recitative of Nedda's ballatella (I Pagliacci). This
line should be transcribed [perkndzi:]. The first 'r' ends a word
and the phrase continues with another word beginning with a vowel.
Another famous example is the line "Amor, amor", from the ending of
the first act duet of La Bohme. Good Italian singers will sing
[momor]. The first 'amor' is followed by a comma, but since the 'r' is
final in a word and followed by a vowel in the same phrase it will be a
tap/flap. The final 'r' should be a trill. Another good example that crops
up in many songs is the phrase 'per amore', which should be transcribed
[pemo].

APOCOPATION/ELISION
There is another phenomenon frequently encountered in Italian, the
concept of apocopation. This means that a final vowel or final syllable is
elided from a word (eliding can mean "the act of omission or
suppression", which is the salient definition for our purposes).
Apocopation occurs more frequently in literary and poetic language, and
rarely in speech (another example of the wide variance between speech
and spoken). A common manifestation of apocopation is indeed found in
the word "amor". Its complete form should be "amore", but the final
vowel is omitted, or elided. A couple of popular examples of the
omission of a complete syllable would be "po'", and "vo'". The original
words are "poco" and voglio". Note the ' symbol calls attention to the
fact that there is a missing syllable. You won't see that at the end of
Italian words that are just missing a vowel. It is also helpful to note that
this happens in German as well. "Griesch'chem" has a comma to show

22
that there is a missing vowel, which for all purposes eliminates a
syllable.

The effects of apocopation

Apocopation will not affect the quality of the stressed vowel. So
[pk], when it is apocopated, will still be [p]. [v] will be [v].
However, when a word like "parlare" becomes "parlar", the final 'r' will
be rolled! This increases the prevalence of rolled 'r's in Italian, perhaps
using this unique sound to have a more prominent role in the lyrical
quality and aural structure of lyric diction. In general, when one studies
Italian melodic structure, the benefits of apocopation become clear.

S
'S's in Italian are also governed by two basic rules. An 's' will be [z]
when:
1) Intervocalic (otherwise known as the "Rose" rule, famously coined by
Moriarty.
2) When 's' is followed by a voiced consonant. It should be noted that
glides do not count as consonants in this instance.

Otherwise, all other 's's should be unvoiced (initial, final, etc.).

Examples of voicing the 's' would be words like "rose", "cosa", "snello",
and "fantasma". These should be transcribed as [rz], [kz], [znl:l],
and [fntzm].

There are two important exceptions to these rules.

1) When 's' is preceded by the prefix 'ri-' (as in words like "risuon" and
"risolvi"), the 's' will remain unvoiced. So these words should look like
[riswn] and [rislvi]. This is somewhat reflective of the German idea of
dealing with the pronunciation of the root stem. In this case, the 's' is the
beginning of a root, therefore maintaining its unvoiced quality.

2) When 's' is part of a reflexive verb form, such as "volgasi" or "dicesi"

or "sentesi", the 's' will remain unvoiced. So these words should be
transcribed as [vlgsi], [ditsi], and [sntsi]. These words are a more
lyrical form of the original reflexive form, which is "si volga", "si dice",

23
and "si sente". So note that, instead of two separate words, we have one
single word with the stress on the first syllable.

GN
The 'gn' in Italian is always pronounced [], or [:]. Words like
"signore", "agnellina", "sogno" and "montagna" should be transcribed as
[sio], [l:lin], [so:], and [mnt:] (notice I'm mixing up the
doubling to accommodate both schools of thought). "Ognor" = always

Z
The 'z' in Italian is tricky, and the third most important reason to have a
reputable Italian dictionary by your side. The 'z' becomes an affricate,
and can be transcribed as [ts], [t:ts], [dz], or [d:dz]. Obviously when the
'z' is doubled it is clear that one needs the doubled affricate. However,
the rub comes in deciding which one. In fact, the 'z' must always be
looked up to determine whether it is voiced or unvoiced. The following
examples demonstrate this:

[md:dz] [tsi:] [tsingl:l] [dzimr:r] [pt:ts] [nt:ts] [dzrlin]

mezzo zio zingarella zimarra pazzo nozze Zerlina

[nvitsj] [snts] [prndz] [grdzon] [dlitsj]

novizia senza pranzo garzone delizia
'news' 'lunch/breakfast'

One can see that initial or internal 'z's can be either voiced or unvoiced.
As Nico points out, the current trend in initial 'z's is to voice them.
However, the word "zingarelle" in Traviata is still transcribed as
[tsigl:l], as we are still going by mid to late 19th c. rules.

N-ASSIMILATION

N-assimilation is a powerful tool for the singer. It is also one of

the reasons that Italian is a language uniquely designed for singing.
Neither Colorni nor Moriarty make mention of this, but Nico goes into

24
great detail in the introduction to many of his Italian libretti. The basic
concept is that an 'n' in Italian, in certain environments, will maintain
the manner of articulation (which is nasal) but yield its place to the
following consonant. This is actually a phenomenon that happens in
many languages, including English. A word such as "information" can be
pronounced using assimilation, depending on the speaker and the speed
of the speech. One will note that assimilation decreases the amount of
articulations in a word, therefore increasing speed, ease, and flexibility.
This is a possibility within words, as well as words within a phrase. This
happens in the three environments described below.

1) When 'n' is followed by a bilabial consonant (m, p, or b), it will

become [m]. This only is applied to a word that ends in 'n' and then is
directly followed by a word that begins with a bilabial. For example:

[umpk] [umbt:t] [kom:me]

un poco un baccio con me

This makes singing a text like "parlo d'amor con me" in Cherubino's
"Non so pi" a good deal easier. Practice going back and forth between
articulating an 'n' in "con me" and then use the assimilation. You can see
that using the assimilation means that the tongue doesn't move. The
nasality of the 'n' remains, but the tongue should be still and neutral at
the bottom of the mouth.

2) When 'n' is followed by a labiodental consonant, it will become

[]. This is the last symbol to be introduced in Italian. It is described as
a voiced labiodental nasal. My students like to label it "mj". It is the one
we would use in the word "information". Touching your upper teeth to
your lower lip and then phonating a nasal form the sound. There is very
little difference between the sound of an [n] vs. an [] vs. an [m]. This
sound occurs in places like the following examples:

[iflit] [ivrn] [trifr] [sovil]

infelice inverno trionfar son vil

25
Again you will notice, in pronunciation, that the tongue is stable while
the teeth and lips articulate both sounds.

3) When 'n' is followed by a velar stop/plosive, the 'n' becomes

[]. This sound is described as a voiced velar nasal. My students (and
other textbooks) refer to this sound as either "nj" or "eng". This sound I
find tricky to use in that it can lead to a lowered palate post-articulation,
and so should be used with care. This sound occurs in places like the
following examples:

[kor] [vg] [sgw] [fike] [lgw]

ancor vengo sangue finch languore
*Nota bene - a word like "fingere" would not utilize the [] as the 'n' is
followed by a voiced dental, not a velar.

RADDOPPIAMENTO SINTATTICO (Phrasal doubling)

This phrase in Italian pretty much says it all! This is another
unique Italian phenomenon that might seem to negate some of the
lyrical quality of the language, as opposed to the other phenomenons
previously observed. However, this technique adds drama to a
sentence, which is, of course, wonderfully Italian. Words such as "che",
"a", "o", and "gi" will cause phrasal doubling. Words such as articles
("gli", "il") and personal pronouns ("mio", "tuo") will not cause phrasal
doubling.
A common example is "che gelida manina". That phrase should be
transcribed as [kd:dlidmnin]. Another example, and one of the
most important phrases, is "O Dio". This should always be transcribed
[od:di:]. This will be the only required phrasal doubling for students to
identify. It is interesting to note that Italians in many ways take care of
the phrasal doubling themselves. Think about the word "Iddio", which
also means "God" (used in the cantata in Tosca), or words like "giacch"
(as, or a combination of already/how), "dacch" (since) or siccome (so
like). Clearly the Italians have incorporated it into their spelling. Some
coaches encourage its use, others not so much. I consider this to be a
more advanced technique, to be used by students of Italian who are

26
adding sophistication to the language. My only required use of phrasal
doubling is for the words "O Dio".

Multiple vowels sharing one note

This is a uniquely Italian phenomenon, in that composers will set
multiple vowels sharing notes of long and short duration, and we have
to decide how to address these in an Italian fashion.

The basic rules are:

1) Stressed vowels take precedence over unstressed vowels.

2) Stressed parts of speech take precedence over unstressed parts of
speech
3) Unstressed "i" and "u" become [j] and [w], respectively.

There should never, or at least rarely, be an equal division between two

vowels. Words like "mio" and "io" need to be at least 3/1. A good
example would be an excerpt from Le nozze di Figaro, in Cherubino's
second aria Voi che sapete. "S'io lo nel cor". The [i] needs to be held out
for three 16ths, while the [] gets just one.

Chapter 2 - French

The French, quite unlike the Italians, have a highly regimented

approach to their language. They have committees dedicated to the
preservation of the spoken and written word within the context of
historical change. The aforementioned Warnant dictionary is highly
edited and exhaustive. So it can be said that we are using a codified and
standardized pronunciation in French, the so-called "Parisian" French.
Unsurprisingly then, there are two different codified styles of
spoken French, one for casual conversation, and one for more formal
usage. This is a prime example of the French people keeping a
disciplined eye on the development and use of their language and the
power it conveys on its own. A noted contrast between Italian and
French is the difference between "Luca di Lammermoor" and "Lucie",
both written by Gaetano Donizetti in 1835 and 1839, one for the Teatro
San Carlo in Naples and the revised version rewritten for the Thatre de
la Renaissance in Paris, France. The French version is the "leaner,

27
meaner" version, using the bite of language to convey intense emotion,
as opposed to greater verbiage of the first version (notably at the end of
the first act, when Edgardo discovers that Luca has signed the wedding
contract).

A word about the soutenu vs. the courante

The Warnant describes the "soutenu" as the style "in which the
language is monitored". The "courante" is described as the style "in
which the language is simply treated". In French one can use the
soutenu style of pronunciation when addressing elders, superiors, or
strangers. The courant would be used with equals, subordinates, or
family members. So this soutenu style is more of a formal "tone" of
address. The Warnant goes on to say that the courante or soutenu could
be used in reciting texts that are serious vs. comical, important vs.
whimsical.
Casual conversational French, then, is considered the "courante",
or "current" style. The formal French is the "soutenu", or "sustained". If
one thinks, again, of elocution (spoken or sung) that relies on projection
without amplification, open vowels are arguably more sonorous than
closed vowels, and easier for the speaker/singer to project. This goes
right back to the assertions of the early Italian (and some
contemporary) Italian teachers of singing. In contrast, however, the
French don't apply this to unaccented syllables (generally speaking,
although there are some exceptions), but rather to shorter words and
lesser parts of speech. The Warnant uses the abbreviations (sout.) and
(cour.) to establish which style uses which vowels. One can almost
guarantee that the (sout.) will utilize the open vowel. Of course this style
of speaking was not necessarily developed with singing in mind, but it is
important to denote the difference between the two styles of speaking.
Another interesting point about French is the difference between
poetry/libretti and prose. Students of French will notice that in spoken
French one generally never pronounces an unstressed 'e', 'es', or 'ent' at
the end of many French words. However, most musical settings of the
late 19th/20th c. do in fact set the mute as a syllable. There are a couple
of reasons for this:

1) French versification - Many styles of French poetry utilize the e-

muet. For example, one of the most common styles of French verse, the
alexandrine, is traditionally a 12-syllable line. Syllable count is crucial in

28
French verse, and often the mute-e (or e-muet, or e-atone, meaning
"unstressed") is part of that syllable count. So if you are reciting French
poetry, you need to in fact pronounce the mute (if, and only if, it is part
of the syllable count), as it is part of the line (which means you need to
understand the style of the French verse. This of course becomes less
clear when you enter the world of vers libr and the Symbolists). Of
course, when you get to composers such as Debussy (who focused on
the more spoken aspect of French) or Ravel (who often set prose) you
find the setting of the e-muet losing its impact on the melody, or even
being eliminated altogether. One can read more about this topic in the
fascinating book Understanding French Verse: A Guide for Singers by
David Hunter. It is a small but precious resource for comprehending the
vast difference between the spoken vs. lyrical French.

2) The melodic contribution. Looking at a composer like Massenet, for

example, one sees time and time again where the setting of the e-muet
serves as a resolution of a suspension, or moving from a chromatic (or
note with a lower hierarchy) to a note that solidifies the key (such as the
root or fifth), or for other ways of shaping the melody to fit the dramatic
intent. It is clear that the poetic flow of the French was part of the
discussion between librettists and composers of opera in the Romantic
period.

So the setting of the e-muet is not a random act, but rather a

reflection of the highly regulated flow and charm of French verse and
melody. Mr. Hunter rightly states that the e-muet is "one of the greatest
expressive resources of French verse, lending the line a mellifluousness
and flexibility it would otherwise lack." This, of course, then brings up
the question of pronunciation, which will be covered later.

As with all languages, there are hallmarks of French that set it

apart from other languages. And, as with the Italian above, here are a
couple things to keep in mind:

1) The French legato - Italian has its strong identification with stress
within a word. English and German utilize tonic stress, or the stress of
the root of a word. French stress of words, in contrast, depend on their
position within a phrase. A lovely example used by Mr. Hunter is the
contrast of the phrases "un joli matin" and "un matin brumeux". In the

29
first phrase the final "in" of "matin" is the destination of the speaker.
However, in the second phrase, the destination would be "meux" of
"brumeux". The common usage of liason and elision underscore the
phrasal movement. French is described as seamless, fluid, and flowing,
so this is a necessary focus for the successful singing of French.

2) The brightness and roundness of vowels - This is something the

French have in common with German and Italian. The French 'a' , in
fact, is generally brighter than its European counterparts. The other
thing to keep in mind is the rounding, of course. I often say to my
students "when in doubt, round it out". The Handbook of the
International Phonetic Association states that all back vowels are
rounded. So basically aside from the [a], [],[i], [e], and [], all French
vowels need to incorporate the lips. Of course rounding can also be
accomplished further back within the vocal tract, so some teachers will
seek to "round in the back". Students should consult with their teachers
to determine what is the most effective and vocally viable route.

3) The non-aspirate nature of the consonants - This is similar to Italian.

The stop/plosives [d], [l], [n], and [t] are dental as well.

VOWELS

There are 12 vowels in French as opposed to the seven that are in

Italian, so we have some new concepts to introduce.

The [a] - "bright-a" vowel

As mentioned before, this is the brightest 'a' vowel. The next
vowel on the chart would be [], so this vowel is quite frontal and lifted.
If the lips continue to spread the [a] will become the [], so keep this
vowel narrow.

The [] - "dark-a" vowel

We have seen this vowel before in Italian. As Nico points out, this
vowel is not produced much at all in contemporary French. However,
we are in fact dealing generally with 19th and 20th c. texts, so the usage
of [] is generally more accepted. In my experience, students struggle
with the brightness of any 'a', much less trying to differentiate between
the two different 'a's in French. However, it is a necessary skill to

30
incorporate, and advanced singers can look to incorporate this into their
elocution.

The [] - "open-o" vowel

This is a revisit of the Italian "open-o". Remember to keep height
as well as rounding.

The [o] - "closed-o" vowel

This is NOT a revisit of the Italian. This vowel in fact has much
more rounding to it, or some refer to it as more "closed". This vowel has
more in common with German, so we will not use the [o2] symbol as we
did with Italian. Practice with words like "eau" and "oiseaux" and "mot"
to differentiate between the French [o] and the Italian [o2].

The [u] - "little-u" vowel

This vowel is exactly the same as its Italian counterpart. The same
pitfalls apply for this vowel as the singer may not keep the tongue as
low as it needs to be, or as rounded.

The [i] - "little-i" vowel

This vowel is exactly the same as its Italian counterpart. Often
native speakers of English do not make this vowel high enough in
singing, although in speech we use this vowel frequently.

The [e] - "closed-e" vowel

This vowel is not a revisit of the Italian [e2], but rather a much
higher and more fronted vowel. This functions in the same way with the
difference between the closed 'o's, in that the position moves away from
the middle (Italianate) and more to the extremities (French and
German).

The [] - "open-e" vowel

This vowel is common to English, French, German, and Italian. As
with the [] vowel, it does sit higher in the European languages as
opposed to English, but words like bed and said will be very close to
the European equivalent. French words like "pre" and "frais" use [].

The [y] - "little-y" vowel

31
 This is a new vowel used in both French and German. It is not
present in Italian or English. This vowel is described as a high, fronted,
rounded vowel. So the tongue position is at its highest point and the lips
are at the most rounded. I usually like to have students start by saying
[i], then [u], then [y]. You can also start with [u]. It doesn't matter, as
long as the lip rounding and high tongue occur simultaneously.

The [] - "o-slash" vowel

This is also a new vowel, and one of the more difficult sounds to
produce. This is described as a high, fronted, rounded vowel. However,
it is not quite as high or as rounded. It is a combination of [e] and [o].
Most often students do not incorporate enough height in the tongue. Do
the same exercise as above, except with [e] and [o]. The biggest
problem is that [e] and [o] don't occur as pure vowels in English, so
native speakers of English struggle with the production of the closed-e
and closed -o right off the bat. Students should practice this sound often.

The [] - "siamese-oe" vowel

This is yet another new vowel, and also a difficult sound to
produce. However, native English speakers have the advantage of
finding this sound through vowels we use, namely [] and []. This
sound is described as a mid-central, fronted, rounded vowel. Use the
same procedure described above to make sure both the tongue position
and the rounding are equal and simultaneous.

The [] - "E-muet" vowel

This vowel is a close mid-central, rounded vowel. The actual IPA
symbol that best describes this vowel is a "barred-o", which looks like
[].
This is another example of the difficulty of a lack of distinguishing marks
that illuminate the exact quality of the vowel. Also, the title of this vowel
is somewhat problematic as it will be used for stressed vowels as well as
unstressed ones. The "mute" in French specifically refers to vowels that
are unstressed and often elided in speech. We will see this symbol in
German as well as English, and it will have a distinctly different sound. A
few resources do not use this symbol at all. The Warnant does, however,
and so I will tailor my use to reflect the Warnant. However, if a student
has learned to substitute [] for every instance where a so-called "e-
muet" is present, there is no problem. Generally if a student can

32
produce the [] correctly and is observant of the phrasing, the
substitution is completely functional.

SYLLABIFICATION
Before we can proceed to the vowels, we need to understand how
the French syllabify, as this will from the outset be a major player in the
pronunciation of the vowels. In my experience, this relatively short list
of rules should help the student through most words encountered in
their singing life.
1) a single consonant between two vowels will be grouped with
the second vowel. "Y" will count as a consonant. So a word like "depuis"
will look like de/puis. Other examples (the (e) refers to the mute,
sometimes part of the syllable count and sometimes not):
se/rei/n(e) /tour/di(e) m/lo/dieus(e)
re/te/nu(e)
sereine tourdie mlodieuse retenue

Exception: any vowel followed by "x" will be grouped with the 'x'; so
exactement will be ex/ac/te/ment

2) The consonant combinations 'ch', 'gn', 'ph', 'th', and consonants

followed by 'l' or 'r' will be grouped with the following vowel.

Examples: ma/r/chal ma/gni/fi/qu(e) m/ta/mor/pho/s(e)

marchal magnifique mtamorphose
marshal
re/trou/ver tro/ph(e) su/pr/m(e)
retrouver trophe suprme

Exception: If an 'r' and 'l' occur in sequence, they will be split down the
middle
hor/lo/ge par/lez re/pliaient
horloge parlez repliaient
They were folding back
3) A group of two consonants, including double consonants, will
be split down the middle.
mur/mur(e) re/non/ce em/bar/quer in/ter/dit

33
murmure renonce embarquer interdit
"prohibited"
oc/cu/p efi ex/cel/len/c(e) en/tour
occup effroi excellence entour
(around)

Exception: Double 'mm', 'nn' and 'ill' must be grouped with the first
vowel. Also, the combination of 'mn' must be grouped with the first
vowel.

[pill/ag(e) flemm/(e) ann/(e) au/tomn(e)

pillage flemme anne automne
"loot" "laze"

aill/eurs
ailleurs
"elsewhere"

4) Three consonants will be grouped as 1+2

mor/bleu scep/tr(e) in/con/stan/te es/clav(e)

morbleu sceptre inconstante esclave

5) A vowel with a dierisis will be one syllable. When a vowel with

a dierisis is preceded by a vowel, the first vowel will be grouped with
the preceding consonant.

na/f no/l ha/r a//o/li

naf nol har aoli
"hate"
6) 'E's with an accent mark will be one syllable, if followed by a
vowel.
[de/s]
Desse nant relle
"nothingness"

34
ACCENT MARKS
The French have four accent marks that affect the pronunciation
of the vowel.
Accent grave = `
Accent aigu =
Accent circomflex =
Accent dierisis -
The rules and application will be discussed in the vowel rules section.

VOWEL RULES
I have had students describe the French rules to be like "if the
woman standing on the corner has a blue umbrella and it's Tuesday and
11:47 in the morning, then the 'e' will be..." The French rules are indeed
both lengthy, and there are a tremendous amount of exceptions. But the
student should take heart; if you have access to reliable resources like
the Warnant you can always look something up. Also, resources like this
book (or other notable resources like Thomas Grubb's Singing in French
as well as the Moriarty Diction) can be helpful to have around.

1)Rules for [a]

a) Use [a] when there is an 'a' or '' that is not in combination with
other vowels, and not when followed by a single 'm' or 'n' in the same
syllable.
[paf] [sa] [la] [mam ]
parfait sage l maman

b) Use [wa] when there is an *'oi' spelling, unless oi is followed by

'm' or 'n' in the same syllable.
[mwa] [vwa] [vwala] [wazo]
moi revoir Voil oiseaux
"revise"
* The Warnant states that sometimes 'oi' after 'r' can be transcribed as
such:
[tw] [w].
trois or roi
Both solutions (using [a] or []) are appropriate.

35
 c) Use [waj] when there is an 'oy' spelling. 'Oy' is generally not
followed by 'm' or 'n' in the same syllable.

[vwa:j] [deplwa:j ] [wa:jom]

Voyons dployant royaume

2) Rules for []

a) Use [] for , but not when it is followed by 'm' or 'n' in the

same syllable.

[m] [pl] [f]

me ple fcheux (unfortunate)

b) Use [] when followed by an 's', silent or sounded.

[els] [l] [kstz] [b] [ms]
Hlas las extase bas masse

Exceptions = too many to list. This is a grey area. One can find many
exceptions to this (i.e. chasser), or one can look in dictionaries that do
not even use the [] at all. According to the Warnant, people who were
born in 1950 or later don't use the [] at all, in either the courante or the
soutenu. If one is to stay consistent with the concept that we use the
appropriate style for the appropriate time period, we should follow the
Warnant. Instead of listing many exceptions here, I encourage the
student to use the Warnant to look up words that have 'a' followed by
's'.

Otherwise, when "a" is not in combination with other vowels, use [a].

3) Rules for [u]

a) Use [u] for "ou" and "o" when not in combination with other
vowels. 'Ou' is generally not followed by 'm' or 'n' in the same syllable.

36
[su] [tu]
sous tout

4) Rules for [i]

a) Use [i] for 'i', ',''' , or 'y' when not in combination with other
vowels. Do not use [i] when the above is followed by "m" or "n" in the
same syllable.

[isi il tais]
ici le Thas

5)Rules for [y]

a) Use [y] for 'u', '' and '' when not in combination with other
vowels. Do not use [y] when the above is followed by 'm' or 'n' in the
same syllable.
[ky fyz]
cr refuse
"increase"
b) Use [y] for some forms of the verb 'avoir' (pass simple,
imperfect subjunctive, and the compound tenses)
[il a y ym]
il a eu emes
"he had" "we had"
6) Rules for [e] - Use [e] when:

a) [tuble] [etyd] [emwa]

troubl tude moi

b) the verb infinitive ends in '-er'.

[mte] [pale] [me]
monter parler aimer

c) the noun/adjective ends in -cher, -eiller, -ger, -ier, and -yer.

[p e] [:je] [be] [pmje] [p:je piznje]

pencher oreiller berger premier payer prisonnier collier
sentiers

37
"to lean" 'pillow' 'shepherd' 'first' 'country'

Exceptions:
[ i or j fj]
cher - dear hier - yesterday fier - proud

d) for the conjunction 'et' ('and').

e) for the word 'gai' ('cheerful') and all its permutations

[ge gem gete]

gai gaiement gaiet

f) For verbs that end in '-ai'

[kupe e ie]
coupai j'ai irai
'I cut' 'I am' 'I was angry'

g) for the noun 'baiser', meaning 'kiss'.

[beze]
baiser

h) for any word that ends in '- ez'

[ne ale pje e]
nez allez priez chez

i) for the nouns 'quai' and 'clef', meaning 'dock' and 'key'.
[ke kle]
quai clef

7) Rules for []

[p]
a) pre - 'father'

[fnt]

38
 b) fentre - 'window'

[nl]
c) Nol - 'Christmas'

d) *for the words 'ces', 'des', 'es', 'est', 'les', 'mes', 'ses', 'tes'
*Remembering that these words are closed in the courant, but open in
the soutenu, according to the Warnant.

e) for 'ai' or 'ay' followed by anything except: 'il' or 'ill' in the same
syllable, or 'm' or 'n' in the same syllable. If followed by 'il' or 'ill' in the
same syllable, the 'a' stands alone and will be treated as a single 'a'.
[f l tava:j p m p:jza]
faire aile travail paix j'aime paysage

f) for the adjective 'vrai', meaning 'true', and any derivatives

(vraiment, etc).

g) for nouns ending in "ai", like "mai", "essai", and "balai" ('may',
'essay' and 'broom'). "Un balai te suffira" (Carmen)

h) for 'ei' followed by anything except 'm' or 'n' in the same

syllable. 'Ei' followed by 'il' or 'ill in the same syllable will be [:j].
[n pn m:j vm:j sm:j ]
neige peine meilleur vermeil sommeil
"snow" "pain" "better" "scarlet" "sleep"

i) for 'e' followed by another consonant except 'm' or 'n' in the

same syllable.
[sklav pmt bk tutl] [et]
esclave permettre bec tourterelle ther

j) for the third person past subjunctive verb ending '-aient'

[pal i]
parlaient riraient ils aient
'they were speaking' 'they were laughing'

39
 *Optional - words with the prefix 'eff-' and 'des-'

[fau des d]
'effarouche' and 'descendre'
"scare off"

* Warnant of course opens both these vowels in the soutenu, but the
courant has made its way back in sources like the Nico Castel. Once you
have considered vocal harmonization and other essentials of the words
and melody, you can decide what works best for you.

8) Rules for []

a) Use [] for 'e' when it ends a syllable and has no diacritical

mark ([] will not occur in elision, discussed later).

[pmje dpi sli fnt]

premier depuis celui *je fentre
"first" "since" "the one" "I" "window"
*I go back and forth about using [] for stressed positions. Some
methods prefer using [] for all of the [] rules and never using the []
at all for any position. In many ways this can help alleviate the bleed
from the Germanic schwa into the French e-muet and vice versa, but
even Grubb makes a point about the differences in the two sounds, as in
the sentence 'le coeur de ce petit'. Some voice teachers prefer the [] as
students will be more likely to sing through the sound. This is also a
gray area, and students should use whatever makes them sound more
French! I defer to the Warnant in this instance and vive la diffrence!

b) Use [] for the ending '-es' when it indicates a plural.

[ppl l lam fad]

peuples elles larmes fades
"people" "They(f)" "tears" "bland/insipid"

40
 c) Use [] for the second person singular ending '-es' and the third
person plural ending '-ent'. Be aware that sometimes the pronoun will
not be present, so the student needs to be sure of the translation to
determine if the '-ent' is a verb ending or part of an adjective like
'humblement'.

[ty m ty t dm ilze ]
tu aimes tu chantes demeurent ils changent
"remain"
d) [] is used for some forms of the verb "faire" (to do or to make)

[fz] [fz] [fz ]

faisons faisais faisant
We are making I was making doing

e) [] is used for the words "ressembler" , "dessus", and "dessous"

[s ble dsy dsu]
ressembler (and the derivatives) dessus dessous
"To resemble" "over" "under"

f) [] is not sounded when it is final and preceded by a vowel.

[k [bl swa wa]

queue bleues soie joie
"train" "blue" "silk" "joy"

f) [] is not sounded when it is preceded by a vowel internal in a

word.

[gem devum ]
gaiement dvouement
"gaily" "devotion"

9) Rules for [o]

There are five reasons to close an "o". As my dear instructor Terry
Decima would say "If there is no reason to close it, an 'o' is open!" This
is a terrific rule of thumb to have.

41
 a) Use [o] for
[dol kote]
drle ct
funny coast
[tl pital]
*Two very important exceptions...htel and hpital

b) Use [o] for "au" and "eau", except when 'au' is followed by 'r'

[bo o fo pov iso]

beau eau faut pauvre ruisseaux

[]
aurore

c) Use [o] for 'o' followed by a silent final consonant.

[po mo pino plo]

repos mot pinot plot

d) Use [o] when 'o' is final

[spano eko kilo]

soprano cho kilo

e) Use [o] when 'o' is followed by a voiced alveolar fricative ([z])

[poze oz]
poser rose

Otherwise, all 'o's in French will be open.

mort dort
"death" "sleeps"

42
10) Rules for []

a) Use [] for 'eu' when 'eu' is final, or followed by a silent final

consonant.

feu deux peu Dieu

b) Use [] for "eu" when 'eu' is followed by a voiced alveolar

fricative ([z]).

heureuse chanteuses berceuse

11) Rules for []

a) Use [] for 'eu', 'oeu', and 'ue' when followed by a sounded

consonant other than [z].

coeur fleur oeuf seul heure

b) Use [:j] for 'eu' ,'oe', and 'ue' when followed by il in the same
syllable

oeil cercueil cueillir feuille deuil

NASALS

Use [ ] for the following spellings when followed by a single 'm' or 'n' in
the same syllable:

am - jambe
an - tant
em - temps
en - enfant
ean - Jean
aen - Messiaen
aon - Paon

43
Saint-Sans -

Use - [ ] for the following spellings when followed by a single 'm' or 'n'
in the same syllable

im - timbre
in - fin
ym - thym
yn - syncope ("contraction")
aim - faim
ain - main
eim - Rheims
ein - peintre
oin = [w ] loin
ien = [j ] bien Exc. words like "patientes": this
will be solved as [pasj t], so the 't' and the nasal will resolve in an
unusual way.
yen = [j ] moyen Les Troyens

Use [] for the following spellings when 'o' is followed by a single 'm' or
'n' in the same syllable:

om - ombre
on - profond
eon - mangeons

Use [] for the following spellings when 'u' is followed by a single 'm' or
'n' in the same syllable"

- um parfum (except album)

- un dfunt
"late"/"deceased" /"former"

'Em - ' and 'rem' prefixes, and other unique words with 'e'

Often words with the prefix 'em-' and 'rem-' in French will begin with a
[ ], even though there is more than one 'm' or 'n' in the same syllable.
There are other words that simply don't follow the rules at all, but have

44
a unique solution. It is best if these words are memorized. This is not an
exhaustive list, but one that is rudimentary.

femme solennel prudemment ennuie

"ceremonial"

remmener emmener ennemi emmler

"to bring back" "to take" "to tangle up"

ardemment
"fervently"

Glides

We have three glides in French, the [w], the [j], and the [].

The [j] is used for any 'i' or 'y' that is unstressed and followed by a
vowel. It is also used for 'il' and 'ill' if 'il' or 'ill' is in the same syllable.

ciel Dieu sillon moyen ailleurs

"furrow" "elsewhere"

The [] is used when 'u' is unstressed and followed by a vowel

nuit suis lueur depuis lui fuyez

"light"

The [w] is used when 'ou' is unstressed and followed by a vowel (rare)

oui ouest fouet allouette

'whip'
Consonants

45
Final consonants

The most important final consonants that are generally silent when final
are 'p', 's', 't', and 'x'

'b' is a sounded consonant when final except when preceded by a nasal

vowel

Jacob aplomb Mab

"balance/nerve"

'c' is a sounded consonant when final except for the following:

[bl b ]
- When preceded by a nasal vowel - blanc, banc
- the words croc, estomac, and tabac
"fang" , "stomach", "tobacco"

lac bec sec

"Donc" is problematic. My students who are native speakers all say
'toujours" when asked whether or not to pronounce the 'c'. The
Warnant says "beginning a sentence, or before a vowel and before a
consonant, every time we encourage using slightly the sound [k];
everywhere else, and especially after an imperative or in an
interrogative phrase it is just [d]." And yet Nico points out that many
singers use it in the instance of "Frappe moi donc!" in Carmen, which is
clearly an imperative phrase. I would go with the Warnant on this one,
but if a native speaker encourages you to pronounce the [k], then do so.

[pul k]
Poulenc is also an exception

'd' is silent except "sud"

'f' is sounded

'g' is silent

46
'l' is sounded when not preceded by 'i'.
seul bal nul
"alone" "dance" "invalid"

Sometimes 'l' is sounded when preceded by 'i'

Avril il subtil exil fil (and fils) myrtil pril

"thread/threads"

vil

but for these words the 'l' is silent

gentil fusil sourcil

"gentle "gun" "eyebrows"

'm' is silent, except for [albm] - Poulenc - "La dame d'Andr"

"album"

'n' is silent

Pan maman

'p' is silent

trop coup galop

Except: - cep cap

"stock" "cape"

'q' is sounded

coq = [kok] (check "travail du peintre")

'r' is sounded EXCEPT

1) when part of the verb ending '-er'

47
2) the adjective endings '-cher', '-eiller', '-'ger' -ier', and '-yer'

sentir courir fier hiver enfer

"to feel" "to race/run" "proud" "winter" "hell"

's' is silent EXCEPT

1) hlas
2) 'lys' or 'lis'
3) Caf Momus
4) jadis "formerly"
5) fis when it means 'son' or 'sons'
6) tous when it is a pronoun meaning "us" - "Entre tous, je le brave"
7) Francis, Saint-Sans, Damis, Tircis, Thas, Lilas Pastia

't' is silent EXCEPT

1) Chut - Offenbach's Tipsy aria
2) est/ouest - meaning 'east' and 'west'
3) "soit!" (so be it)

[ks]
'x' is silent except Aix - en - Provene

Initial/interior consonants

b=[b] , unless internal in a word and followed by an unvoiced

consonant. Then it becomes [p].

obtien subtil absence beau aube

"obtain" "subtle" "absent" "beautiful" "dawn"

c = [s] when:
1) 'c' is followed by an 'e', 'i', or 'y'

incertitude cerlce ciel cygnes

"uncertainty" "circle" "sky" "swans"

2) = [s]

garon glaon soupon menaant

48
"boy" "ice cube" "suspicion"

c=[k] when followed by 'a', 'o', 'u', or any consonant other than 'h'.

clair colre coin calmes

"clear" "rage" "corner"

'ch' = []

Chat cherche blanche chrie

'd' = [d]

dlaisses cependant dent mordue

"abandonded" "however" "tooth" "bit"

'f' = [f]
fond faire ferai
"depths" "to do/make" will make

g = [] when followed by 'e', 'i', or 'y'

girafe germe gens gymnaste

"giraffe" "seed" "people" "gymnast"

gu = [g] except: 'aiguille', 'aiguiller', 'aiguillon' and other forms of this

word that means "needle", " to switch", "sting", respectively. However,
the word 'aiguiser' ("to sharpen") is pronounced [gize]
Also, "alguazil" is [algwazil] (officer) (Hugo)

guerre guette
"war" "wait"

gn = [] agneau magnifique

49
'h' is always silent, but an 'h-aspire' will affect liason (discussed later)

'k' = [k]

kilomtre

'qu' = [k]

quand Marquis qu'on

'l' = [l]
(remember that 'ill' will generally give us [i:j], except for the famous
exceptions under "A thousand tranquil villages", mille, tranquille, ville

lourde ville voler

m = [m], unless single and preceded by a vowel in the same syllable.

n=[n], unless single and preceded by a vowel in the same syllable.

'p' = [p]

ple pntrons puisque Psych

'r' in spoken French is of course a voiced uvular trill []. However this is
not used in singing, so all French 'r's are (when pronounced), by default
[]. However, certain uses of [r] are acceptable, for instance in a word
like "bruit", which means 'noise'. But use [r] sparingly. Overuse will
make your French sound Italian.

's' = [z] when intervocallic ("rose" rule)

roses pose dangereuse

's', when final and usually silent, becomes [z] in liason.

50
Otherwise 's' = [s] in all other cases

salut psychologie

't' generally = [t]

However, 't' will = [s] in the following suffixes (and note that the 'ien'
combination that usually gives us [j ] gives us [j ] instead:

-tiable insatiable
[pasj s]
- tience patience
- tion nation
- tient patient
- tieux ambitieux
- tieuse ambitieuse

but verb endings of -tion will always use [t], as in btions ("let's build")

'x' will be [ks] when followed by a consonant, and in the following

words

fixer axis sexe luxe extase

'x' will be [gz] when intervocalic, as well as when followed by 'h'

exhale exhumer exister exactement

Liason/lision
Elision is defined as the omission of a final vowel within a line in order
to loose the unstressed connection to the following word in the same
sentence.

Liason is defined as the connection of a final consonant to a following

word beginning with a vowel in the same sentence.

51
GERMAN

English is a Germanic language. And, just to clarify, English is a

Germanic language. So native English speakers have a familial bond
with German. Not to say that there are times when it seems so
exquisitely foreign, but we should remember that the way we speak
English is directly related to the pronunciation of German. We share the
idea of tonic stress and expressivity through consonants. Certain
elements like inflected endings and participles makes what Rufus
Hallmark in his German Lieder in the 19th Century describe as "the
structural difference between German and English, which does not offer
its poets a superabundance of unstressed final syllables, can explain at
least partially why German lyric poetry strikes many ears as particularly
'musical'." But what we do share should make at least the pronunciation
of German not as foreign.

What makes German sound German:

1) As stated before, expressivity through consonants. All words in

German begin with a consonant. When words in German (or root
elements) begin with a vowel, there should always be a glottal stop
present before the vowel, just as in English. How we deal with glottal
stops will be discussed in detail, as this is one of those spoken aspects
that can seem at odds with vocal viability. As one of my dear colleagues
Dr. Jerrold Pope aptly states, "We don't want singers to sound like
trained seals". This does not need to be the case. Nevertheless, a
student should always work closely with their teacher to figure out the
healthiest way for words in German as well as English to be
communicated in a way that supports vocal health and good technique.

52
2) The differences between a long and a short vowel. Consider the
length of time you take to say bead and bid, or sit and seat. The [i] vowel
in both of these examples will be vocalized slightly longer than the [I]
vowel. This is similar to how Italian works in that if the vowel is short
you go to the consonant faster. If the vowel is long you linger on the
vowel and delay the consonant as much as possible.

3) Ending 'e's cannot be round like French! I believe teaching these

languages in tandem and utilizing the same symbols for different sounds
gets us all in trouble. Also, the [] in German for ending 'e's tends to sit
higher and brighter. Again, linguists can clarify this difference using
other symbols. So not all schwas are created equally, in this case.

The vowels of German

German has the most vowels of all the languages we study.

The [] vowel - This vowel is the equivalent of the Italian. It sits slightly
higher than English, but not as bright as French

The [] vowel - This vowel is the same as in Italian. Remember to keep

it slightly higher than English

The [o] vowel - This vowel is the same as the French vowel, not the
Italian! This vowel needs to be very round and high.

The [] vowel - We call this 'hook-u', to help us derive the sound. This
vowel is just the same as English, except slightly more rounded. Words
like 'wood' and 'could' (and of course 'hook') use this vowel.

The [u] vowel - This vowel is virtually the same in all languages.

The [i] vowel - This vowel is virtually the same in all languages.

The [I] vowel - We call this vowel 'big-I'. This vowel is just the same as
English, except it sits just a little higher, similar to [] and []. Words
like 'sit' and 'bit' and 'with' use this vowel.

53
The [e] vowel - This vowel is the same as the French vowel, not the
Italian! This vowel needs a very high tongue position, very close to the
[i] vowel

The [e2] vowel - This vowel is the same as the Italian closed -'e' vowel.
The tongue position should be slightly lower than the above vowel.

The [] vowel - This vowel is the same as Italian and English. Words like
'said' and 'wed' use this vowel.

Compound (or mixed) vowels

The [y] vowel - This vowel, the 'little-y',is just like the French. This
vowel is described as a high, fronted, rounded vowel. So the tongue
position is at its highest point and the lips are at the most rounded. I
usually like to have students start by saying [i], then [u], then [y]. You
can also start with [u]. It doesn't matter, as long as the lip rounding and
high tongue occur simultaneously.

The [Y] vowel - This vowel is called the 'big-y' vowel. This does not
occur in French. This vowel is described as a mid-high, mid-rounded
vowel. The two combination vowels are [I] and []. Put your tongue in
the [I] position and then round your lips into a []. Again, the order
doesn't matter, as long as the lip rounding and tongue position occur
simultaneously. Many students find this a problematic vowel.

The [] vowel - ('o'-slash) This vowel is just like the French. This is
described as a high, fronted, rounded vowel. However, it is not quite as
high or as rounded. It is a combination of [e] and [o]. Most often
students do not incorporate enough height in the tongue. Do the same
exercise as above, except with [e] and [o]. The biggest problem is that
[e] and [o] don't occur as pure vowels in English, so native speakers of
English struggle with the production of the closed-e and closed -o right
off the bat. Students should practice this sound often.

The [] vowel - ('siamese-oe') This vowel is just like the French. As

stated before, native English speakers have the advantage of finding this
sound through vowels we use, namely [] and []. This sound is
described as a mid-central, fronted, rounded vowel. Use the same

54
procedure described above to make sure both the tongue position and
the rounding are equal and simultaneous.

The [] vowel - ('upside-down' a). This is a vowel that I have just

recently incorporated, and is used for 'r's in German. The official term is
'vocalic-r'. Some linguists ascribe this sound to be rhotic and therefore
incorporate it into symbols that look like [] (r-colored schwa). I
differentiate between the r-colored schwa and other vocalic-r sounds,
but the difference is minimal. Prefixes like 'er-' [] and words like
'dir'[di] and fr [fy] are good examples of how this symbol is used. I
used to use [], but I have found this sound over the years to end up
being too dark. This sound sits higher, although very much mid-central.

The [] vowel - This is not the French equivalent!! This vowel should
never be rounded!! We use this sound in English, with words like
'heaven' [hvn]. A good example of a German word would be
"Himmel" [hIm:ml]. This vowel is low and central, lower than the [].

The [] vowel - This vowel occurs in English with words like father
[f]. Words in German utilize this 'r'-colored schwa in the same
fashion, like Vater - [ft]. This vowel is known as a rhotic vowel, in
which the approximate [] is sounded after a vowel.

Important Grammar Considerations

Understanding the grammatical structure of a language is critical to any

language, and German is no exception. One of the most helpful elements
of German grammar to students is the fact that all nouns are capitalized,
for instance the words Haus, or Bchlein. 95% of German verbs end in
-en. There are common prefixes and suffixes that are quite similar to
English. But perhaps the most critical skill for students of German
Diction to acquire is finding the root of the German word.

The best way to do this is to look at an English example. Consider the

words 'live', 'lived', 'lively', and 'living'. What are the letters in common
with all of these examples? 'liv'. We have three verb forms and one

55
adverb. The root of this word is therefore 'liv', regardless of the part of
speech, in this instance. Other words can just be roots in and of
themselves, like "Mond", "hin", "der", etc. The Odom talks about
'elements' and being able to take apart a German word (if necessary) to
break it down into its particular elements. A German example showing
how to find a root is this: 'leben' in German means "to live". The
following words that are the equivalent of the English are 'lebe', 'lebte',
'lebhaft' and 'das leben'. The letters 'leb' are what each word has in
common, reading from left to right. Therefore the "root" of the word is
"leb". This is crucial to understand because determining the
open/closed nature of the vowel will depend on how many consonants
follow this vowel in the "root".

German words can consist of prefixes, suffixes, verb/inflected endings,

and compound words.

Examples of German prefixes are 'an', 'ge', 'be', 'vor', 'emp', 'ent', 'er',
'ver', 'zer', 'un', 'aus', 'auf'

Examples of German suffixes are 'ung', 'ling', 'heit', 'haft', 'chen', 'lich',
'ing', 'sal', 'sam'

Compound words - Aussprache Wrterbuch, Mondeslicht, Weltschmerz,

Important: Stress (not necessarily in words NOT of German origin) falls

on the first syllable of the root.

56
The following chart helps us identify which vowels are identified as
"closed" and "open". The letters directly under the vowels are possible
spellings for the phonetic symbols.

Closed Open
[i] [e] [e2] [o] [y] [] [u] [I] [] [Y] [] [] []
______________________________________________ ___________________________
ie e o u i o u
i ee oo h h uh e
ih eh oh y y

'a', when not in combination with other vowels, = []

In other words, the following vowels have the following possibilities:

'i' - can be either [I] or [i]

'e' - can be either [] or [e] or [] or []
'o' can be either [] or [o]
'u' can be either [] or [u]
can be either [] or [e2]
can be either [] or []
can be either [Y] or [y]
y can be either [Y] or [y]

Determining which vowels are closed or open

There are seven rules that will close a vowel in German:

1) When doubled
2) When final and stressed (rare)
3) When followed by 'h'
4) When followed by one and only one consonant in the root element
5) When on the Mond/Erde/"to greet the sweet feet" list.
6) When final in a monosyllabic word 'du', 'je',
7) When 'u' or '' is followed by 'ch', 'ch' counts as one consonant.

57
[zux bux by]
suche Buch Bcher

wir Mdchen Vglein rufen

Symbols in German
- the "umlaut" or "for sound"
- the "eszett" or "scharfes-s" - this will always be transcribed [s:s].
Using [] in the IPA will mean to use a voiced bilabial fricative, so don't
ever write it in your IPA transcriptions unless you are transcribing
Spanish and other languages that might contain this phoneme. The , in
common contemporary usage, generally indicates a closed vowel
preceding it. However that is not the case in older German. It is used
more in 18th -19th c. German in writing, and it also tends to be more
prevalent in poetry than in other genres.

The Mond/Erde/"To Greet the Sweet Feet in the desert" list

Mond - moon
Montag - Monday
Obst - Fruit
Trost, trster, etc - comfort, comforted
gross - large
hoch - high (exc. Hochzeit- wedding)
Scho - lap (scho meaning "shoot" is open, i.e. "Die Forelle")

Erde - earth
erst - first
Erz - metal
Schwert - sword
Beschwerde - complaint/cares
Herd - hearth
Pferd - horse
stets - always
Wert - worth

58
werden - to become

"To Greet the sweet Feet in the Desert"

Gru, grssen - (A) greeting, to greet
Fu, Fssen - foot, feet
sss (sssen) - sweet
Wste - desert

There are three reasons to use an open/neutral vowel in German:

1) When unstressed (except 'o', which is always closed when

unstressed). When 'e' is final and unstressed it will be []

lebe Ende mglich Verlassen

I live end "possible" "abandonment"

entrckt Jngling Bewegung

"carried/transported" "youth" "motion"

2) When followed by more than one consonant in the element

mchte Hlle flstern Bitte sich

"I want" "hell" "rustle" "please"

Locken wenn
"tresses" "when"

3) When on the bin/bis list

6 [I]

bin "am'
bis - "until"
im - "in the"
in - "in the"

59
hin - "forward/there"
mit - "with

5 []

darum/drum/d'rum - "around"
um -"around"
un - "un" (negative prefix)
warum - "why"
zum - "towards"

4 []

es - "is"/"it"
des - genitive article
weg - (when a verb, not the noun "Weg" meaning "path) weggehen,
wegarbeiten, but NOT 'bewegen'
wes - genitive form of "wer" meaning "whose" (rare)

3 []

ob - "whether"
vom - "of the/from the"
von - "of the/from the"

NB - 'vor' is not on this list! vor = [fo]

Foreign-origin/unusual words

[n'tu mu'zik nxtigl:l po'fil mYtn tsy'ps:s]

Natur Musik Nachtigall Profil Myrthen Zypresse

[me'tYstn] [js'mi:n] [melodin]

Ametysten Jasmin Melodien

60
Chart of 'e's

prefixes poststress - e poststress - er final -e

be=[b] will be [] when it will be [] will be []

ge=[g] is not in final position
emp=[mp] and followed by a
ent=[nt] consonant other than
er=[] 'r'.
ver=[f]
zer=[ts]

geksst entrissen Empfindung belauschen

"kissed "snatched" " "sensation" "observe/watch"

erobert verzweifelt zerrissen (Zerreien)

"captures" "despairing" "torn/ripped"

Schlagenden lispelnden Abend ausatmenden

"beating" "whispering" "evening" "exhaling"

Kummer Zauberflte schimmernden wandern

"worries" "magic flute" "shimmering" "wandering"

Liebe geschwinde wandle Kunde

"love" "quickly" "stroll" "knowledge"

Halbversunkenen

61
Diphtongs

There are three in German:

[:]
'au' - Maus, Haus, Taubenpost traurig
"mouse" "house" "pigeon-post" "sad"

[:I]
'ai' or 'ei' Mein Hain seit Feierabend
"mine" "grove" "since" "knock off work"

[:Y]
'u, or 'eu' Feuer trumen teuer Brutigam
"fire" "to dream" "expensive" "groom"

The accurate perception/transcription of the secondary vowel in any

language is tricky to determine. Many dictionaries and singer resources
use a variety of symbols, for instance [:e], [:o], and [:y] or [:I], or
even [:]. I find for singers that the open choice of vowel is the more
vocally viable option. The closed vowels, like [e], are tricky for singers
to find at the first go, especially if they are being taught to close the [e]
properly in German and French. Also, the second vowel is secondary
and should occur at the last second, if at all, for native speakers of
German and English, as these are phonemes in these languages. The
other benefit of using a more open vowel as the secondary one is that
there is less movement required of the vocal tract to form the secondary
vowel.

Glides

There is one glide in German -[j]

ja jauchzet Jngling Jger

"yes" "jubilate" "youth" "hunter"

Jahr jeder
"year" "every/each

62
German consonants

Glottals - All words in German that begin with a vowel have a [] before
them. All roots that begin with a vowel should also have a glottal.

aus ich und erobert Vorahnung

"from/out" "I" "and" "captures" "premonition"

'b'=[b] when
- not final
-not final in a root and followed by a consonant
-part of a consonant cluster (a group of two or more consonants in
which 'b' is poststress)

Bildnis Beobachter besser blau

"Picture" "observer" "better" "blue"

ck = [k:k]

'f', 'ph', and 'v'=[f]

Phantasie ffnen vor Kopf verloren

"fantasy" "open" "in front of" "head" "lost"

'g' = [g]

Final -'ig'

When -'ig' is final in a word it will be [I].

When -'ig' is final in a root and followed by a consonant, it will be [I].
The only exceptions to this will be 'l' and 'r' (unsurprisingly these
consonants cause issues). When '-ig' is followed by 'l' or 'r' it will be
[Ik].
When '-ig' ends a root and is followed by a vowel, it will be [Ig]

ewiglich Seligkeit wonniglich Knigreich

63
Ewiger mssig Zrtlichkeit

l= [l]

Leide allmlich Lust

"sorrow" "gradually" "pleasure"

m=[m]

Mdchen nehmen misgnnt melodien

"girl" "to take" "begrudging" "melody"

n=[n]

necken Namen nett nichts nchte

ng = []

Wangen Angel Engel Bang singen

nk = [k]

danken wanke sank

p=[p]

pocken Pferd Knospe Kopf

"to beat" "horse' "bud"

qu = [kv]

erquicken Quelle Qual

64
't', and 'th'=[t] 'dt' = [t:t]

Tau Thal bitterlich Stadt Bluth roth

"dew" "valley" "bitterly" "city/town"

v= [f]

Vorber Veilchen verlangen

w= [v]

wandern willst gewinnen Wagen

Final 'b', 'd', 'g', and 's'

When 'b', 'd', 'g', and 's' are final in a word, they become their unvoiced
cognates [p], [t], [k], and [s].

When 'b','d','g', and 's' are final in root and followed by a consonant, they
become unvoiced.

When 'b','d', 'g', and 's' are final in root and followed by a vowel, they do
NOT become unvoiced.

Wildnis Mdchen Mdel Haus hab'

mag Land Tubchen Abendempfindung

glaublich ewiger legst

Exceptions - When 'b', 'd', 'g', and 's' are part of contractions or inflected
forms

65
Take a word like Vogel..When it is combined to make the diminutive
with "lein" it becomes Vglein (little bird)..The 'g' REMAINS voiced
even though it ends a root and the next letter is a consonant. However,
the 'e' has been elided from the middle of the word, therefore the 'g' is
not, in its purest form, followed by a consonant.

Other words like 'edle', 'wandle', 'seidle', and 'goldnes' are missing a
vowel. Therefore not only does the 'd' stay voiced in each of these cases,
the 'e' in 'edle' should be closed, as the original form is 'edele'. A word
like 'wandeln' is a verb that can mean "to change", "to turn into" or "to
stroll". In a piece such as "Er, der Herrlichste von allen" from
Frauenliebe und Leben, the young lady sings "Wandle, wandle seinen
Bahnen" ("Strolling, strolling (on your) paths"). The 'd' remains [d], so
the word is transcribed as [vndl]. As stated by the Odom, it takes
some understanding of the German language to be able to catch all of
these forms. So this is the list I require my students to memorize (or at
least be aware of):

1. seidle (from seideln) ("tankards")

2. edle (from edele) ("noble")
3. ebne (from eben) ("even/level")
4. goldne (from golden) ("golden")
5. andre (from ander) ("others")
6. Wandrer (from wandern) ("wanderer")
7. regnet (from Regen) ("raining"")
8. unsre (from unser) ("our")

h= [h] when:

1. Initial in word or root

2. In the exclamations "aha" and "oho"
3. In the suffixes "haft" and "heit"

In ALL other instances "h" is silent in German.

Lebhaft Schnheit frher ruhiger Geheimniss

66
hren hilft

s= [z] when:

1) Initial in word or root

2) Intervocalic ("rose" rule)
3) part of the suffixes '-sal' and '-sam'
4) the "unser" rule - When 's' is preceded by a voiced consonant and
followed by a vowel.

Otherwise, s=[s]

Sandmann Felsen lispeln Schicksal

"fate"/"destiny"

bse Einsamkeit unsere versunken

Bremsen
"horseflies"

sp = [p] when initial in word or root

st = [t] when initial in word or root
sch = []

tsch = [t]

Stndchen Glockenspiel Stunde spa

gestanden Aussprache schlimm Deutsch

67
pltschert mrrisches
"splashing/pattering" "grumpy"

'ch' = [x] when preceded by 'a', 'o', 'u', or 'au'.

doch noch brauchen Buch sacht

However, when 's' is part of the root, the solution for 'chs' = [ks]

wachsen wechseln Fuchs sechs

"to grow" "change" "fox" "six"

'ch' = [] when preceded by anything else.

nchste Becher dich mchte manches

"next" "beaker" "your" "I want" "some"

z = [ts]

zhne jetzt bezaubernd zittert

"teeth" "now" "enchanting" "tremble"

R's

R's in German are tricky. Generally speaking 'r's in German are all []
(voiced uvular fricative). But of course we don't use this symbol in
singing. But the solution is not as straightforward as French. R's in
German can be solved four ways:
1) []
2) []
3) []
4) [r]

Use solution number 1 when 'e' is post-stress and followed by 'r'.

Use solution number 2 in the following words:

68
mir dir er der ihr wir wer fr vor
"me" "you" "he" "the" "her"/"you" "we" "who" "for" "before"

as well as the prefixes er-, ver-. and zer-.

One can also look at the pattern of closed (or pre-stress) vowels
followed by 'r' and apply this to other words. The most important idea
is that your choices are vocally viable and the word is still
comprehensible.

To flip or roll?

Generally speaking, using the tap/flap is the best solution for 'r' when it
begins a word or root, or when it is in the middle of a word. Some words
will lend themselves to a roll for purposes of meaning or onomatopoeia.

rauschendes knurren girret zerrissen

The problem with a roll is that it can cause the German to sound
Italianate, so be careful not to roll any 'r' to the extent that one might in
Italian. This is something to be undertaken by any student with the
careful monitoring of teachers and coaches.
That being said, sometimes a vocalic-r will be easier or more
difficult to execute than a tap/flap, so considerations like tessitura and
length of vowel preceding/following as well as the general
emotional/dramatic context of a phrase/piece will need to be folded
into the conversation. Generally I find that most singers have a fairly
good instinct for the correct solution.

69