Distribution Protection Coordination

Distribution Protection
Protection Schemes
Unit Scheme
Non-Unit Scheme
Non-Unit Scheme
Not clearly defined.

Requires some form of protection coordination
to achieve coordination.
Current
Time
Time & Current
1
Example Of Non-Unit Protection
e.g.
1
Diagram 1.1 : Example of non-unit protection

e.g.
2
A B C D
X X X X
Z1A (20 ms)
Z2A (150 MS)
Z1C (20 MS)
Diagram 1.2 : Second example of non-unit protection
Unit Scheme
Defined precisely by the location of the

instrument transformers.
Will operate if a fault occurs within a

particular zone
Costly
2
Example of Unit Protection
Unit Protection - protects on exactly defined part of system.
e.g.1: Difference in currents causes trip
87
Diagram 1.3 : Examples of unit protection
Example Of Unit Protection
e.g.2: Sum of currents in should be zero
64
High Impedance
Relay
Diagram 1.4 : Another examples of unit protection
3
Overcurrent Protection
Protection against excess current.

Non-unit protection.
This should not confused with overload protection,

which normally makes use of relays that operate in a
time related in some degree to the thermal capability
of the plant to be protected.
CO-ORDINATION PROCEDURE
The data required for a relay setting study are:
i. a one-line diagram of the power system involved, showing the

type and rating of the protection
ii. devices and their associated current transformers
ii. the impedances in ohms, per cent or per unit, of all power
transformers, rotating machine and feeder circuits
iii. the maximum and minimum values of short circuit currents that
are expected to flow through each protection device
4
CO-ORDINATION PROCEDURE (CONT.)
The data required for a relay setting study are:
iv. the maximum load current through protection devices

v. the starting current requirements of motors and the starting and
locked rotor/stalling times of induction motors
vi. the transformer inrush, thermal withstand and damage
characteristics
vii. decrement curves showing the rate of decay of the fault current
supplied by the generators
viii. performance curves of the current transformers
Protection against excess current.

Non-unit protection.
Relay coordination can be achieved by using either
Time
Current
Combination of both time and current
5
Discrimination by time
An appropriate time interval is given to ensure that the breaker nearest to

the fault opens first.
L K J H G
1.45 1.05 0.65 0.25

X X X X
Figure 2.1 : Radial System With Time Discrimination
Comprises a definite time delay overcurrent relay

The disadvantage is that the longest fault clearance time occurs for faults
in the section closet to the power source where the fault level (MVA) is
highest.
Discrimination By Currents
The fault current varies with the position of the fault.

0.24 0hms
X X x
11 kV F
1
H F2 G F
250MVA J
Figure 2.2 : Radial System With Current Discrimination
11 103
For a fault at F1, I
ZL = 0.24 ohms
3 Z S Z L
Where ZS = source impedance Hence I

11 10 3
11
2 3 0.725
=
2 50 = 8800 A
= 0.485 ohms
6
Discrimination By Currents
Relay setting of 8800 amp at J would protect the whole of the cable
section between J and H.
However, the disadvantage :
1. It is not practical to distinguish between a fault at F1 and a fault at
F2, which is a short distance.
2. Variations in the source fault level would not protect the
section concerned.
Not practical proposition for correct grading.

High Set Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay is an example of this relay
which can operate between 15 - 30 ms.
Usually used in combination with other relay such as IDMT relay.
Discrimination By
Both Time And Current
The relay operation time is inversely proportional

to the fault current level.
The actual characteristic is a function of both time
and current settings.
E D C B A
200 A
Xi Xi Xi Xi
150 A
0.36 PU 7.5 PU 1.98 PU 0.53
0.29 PU 17.5
132 kV 11 kV 3.3 kV
Figure 2.3: Radial system with discrimination by time and current
7
Discrimination By Both Time And Current
(cont.)
F1 F2
Time(second)
A
B A
B
1.0
0.6
0.5
Current (amp)
Relay Characteristics
Figure 2.5 shows that relay time-

current characteristics can be
divided into four classes:
1. Definite time relays

2. Very inverse time relays
3. Extremely inverse time relays
4. Inverse definite minimum
time relays (IDMT)
Figure 2.5
8
Definite Time Relay
This characteristic can be expressed as:

I0t = K
The definite time relay has some advantage over a

standard IDMT relay for low fault currents whereas for
high fault currents the IDMT relay has the advantage.
Very Inverse Time Relay
This relay curve follows the equation
K
t=
(I - 1)
This type of relay offers some advantages over the

standard IDMT relay for system where the source
impedance is low.
9
Extremely Inverse Time Relay
This relay has a characteristic where time is inversely

proportional to the square of current.
Warrington relates this as :
K
t=
2
(I - 1)
It is suitable to be used for the protection of feeders
subjected to a peak current on switching.
Very desirable for protection of apparatus against
overheating since the characteristic is almost similar to
the heating characteristic of most apparatus.
The Inverse Definite Minimum

Time (IDMT) Overcurrent Relay
Generates a trip signal after a delay.
This delay is short for heavy fault currents, long for lighter fault current,
and infinite for load currents.
The IDMT relay was developed from a modified kilowatt-hour meter.
A compromise between a true inverse and a definite time delay.
Fast operation with decreasing fault levels and also gives very rapid
tripping at high fault levels.
Normally used for back-up protection in large system.
Play an important role in Distribution Feeders (coordination with fuse).
The basic types of IDMT relay:
Electromagnetic induction
Solid state
Digital
Numerical
10
IDMT Relay
It is worthwhile studying the operation of this

relay in detail to understand the characteristics
adopted in the digital relays etc
Shaded
Pole
Unshaded
T 2 Pole
1
Moving
contact
Fixed
Coil contact
Disc
1 2

IC
E1
I1
Basic Principle and Construction

of Induction Disc Relay
They need only one electrical quantity for operation - the alternating
primary current.
Comprises an electromagnetic system : a metal disc.
This disc is free to rotate between the poles of the magnet

system.
The movement depends upon the torque produced on it.

This torque is produced by the interaction of two
electromagnetic fluxes, 1 and 2
These two fluxes are obtained by dividing the flux into two
components.
11
Figure : Shaded pole type induction disc relay
Overcurrenr Relay time inverse

Shaded Pole
Unshaded Pole
2 1
T
Moving contact
Fixed contact
Coil Disc
12
IDMT Relay
induction disc type
Overcurrent Relay Time Inverse

Shaded Pole
Unshaded Pole
2 1
T
Moving contact
Fixed contact
Coil Disc
1 and 2 - phase shift

1 induces voltage E1 where?
2 induces voltage E2
E1 and E2 produce eddy current I1 and I2
I1 and I2 flow in the disc
Interaction between [1 and I2] and [2 and I1]
will produce Torque
13
There is phase shift between 1 and 2 T
1
1 induces voltage E1 2
2 induces voltan]ge E2

E1 and E2 lag flux by 90 E1
I1
I2
E1 and E2 E2
Eddy currents I1 & I2
Interaction between [1 dan I2] and [2 dan I1]

produce Torque
Torque 1
2
T 1 2 Sin
1 & 2 are produced from I
So that
The greater the current, the greater will be the torque
14
Basic Principle and Construction

of Induction Disc Relay
The torque T is given by:
T 12 sin
but
I
Hence:
T = K I2
The purpose of the disc movement is to close a pair of

contacts.
The current I1 from the line CTs, sets up a magnetic flux A and also
induces a current I2 in the secondary winding which in turn sets up a
flux in B. Fluxes A and B are out of phase thus producing a torque in
the disk causing it to rotate. Now, speed is proportional to braking
torque, and is proportional to driving torque. Therefore, speed is
proportional to I.
But,
Hence
This therefore gives an inverse characteristic
15
Time-Current Characteristics
It was shown that: where, T is the driving torque

T=K I2 I is the current, and
K is a constant
The larger current will produce the larger torque and, therefore, the
faster operating time to trip.
The majority of overcurrent relays have a characteristic which has

been standardized by BS 142.
The plug setting multiplier (PSM), becomes the horizontal axis of this
relay characteristic while the vertical axis, is the operating time in
seconds.
The higher the fault current, the shorter the operating time. The
operating time then tends to be constant for high fault currents (the
definite minimum time).
IDMT Characteristic
16
Relay Adjustments
The time taken to close the contacts depends on the

speed of rotation of the disc (depends on the
current).
The time can, therefore, be varied by interchanging

either the tap of the coil, or the separation of the
contacts.
Therefore, there are two parameters for setting this

relay : the current plug setting (PS) and the time
setting multiple (TSM).
Current Plug Setting (PS)
Taps on the coil of the relay are used to adjust the current
setting which are called the current plug setting.
This adjusts the setting current by means of a plug bridge,

which varies the effective turns on the upper electromagnet.
The plug setting (PS) can be given either directly in amperes or

indirectly as a percentage of the rated current.
They are usually in the range from 50% to 200%, in 25%

intervals, of the rated relay current.
Effectively, the relay characteristic is moved horizontally by

altering the plug setting PS.
17
Figure : Wattmetric type induction-disc relay
Usually the following ranges of nominal current are used,
giving a 1:4 ratio in seven steps:
18
Factors influencing choice of plug setting
1. Load conditions: Must not trip for healthy conditions,

i.e. full load and permissible overloads, re-
energization and starting surges
2. Load current redistribution after tripping
3. Fault currents: High fault currents can cause
saturation of CTs. Choice of CT ratio is important
4. CT performance: Magnetization curve. Its internal
resistance
5. Relay burden: Increases at lower taps on
electromechanical relays
6. Relay accuracy: Better at top end of curve. Attempt to
use in tight grading applications.
Time Setting Multiple (TSM)
The distance traveled by the moving contacts can be controlled

by means of the time setting multiple (TSM).
This adjustment alters the position of the back-stop of the disc
with reference to the moving contact.
This effectively varies the operating time of the relay.
On most designs of relay, dial positions are available with
increments of 0.05 to the highest setting of 1.0.
The effect of altering the TSM is to move the characteristic
vertically.
Changing both PS and TSM results in moving the relay
characteristic both horizontally and vertically.
19
Choice of CT Transformer Ratio
The transformation ratio of the CTs is determined by the larger

of the two following values :
1. I nom
2. Maximum short-circuit current without saturation being

present.
To fulfil this condition and assuming that a C100 core is used
and that the total burden is 1 , then Isc(5/X) 100 A where Isc
is the short-circuit current.
[Note : With a CT of class C-100, the ratio can be calculated and
the error should not exceed ten percent if the secondary current
does not go outside the range of 1 to 20 times the nominal current
and if the load does not exceed 1 (1 x 5A x 20 = 100 V) at a
minimum power factor of 0.5]
20
Example of the calculation is as bellow :
Breaker Pnom Voltage Inom Isc (5/100)Isc CT

Number (MVA) (kV) (A) (A) (A) ratio
1 3 13.2 131.2 4640.0 232.0 300/5

1 3 13.2 131.2 4640.0 232.0 300/5
2 9 13.2 393.6 14714.8 735.7 800/5
21

1 3 13.2 131.2 4640.0 232.0 300/5
2 9 13.2 393.6 14714.8 735.7 800/5
3 25 13.2 1093.6 14714.8 735.7 1100/5

1 3 13.2 131.2 4640.0 232.0 300/5
2 9 13.2 393.6 14714.8 735.7 800/5
3 25 13.2 1093.6 14714.8 735.7 1100/5
4 25 115 125.5 4769.8 238.5 300/5
22
Relay
Background
Electromechanical relays of various types have been
available from the earliest days of electrical power supply.
Some of these early designs have been improved over the
years. One of the most successful types of
electromechanical protection relays has been the
previously discussed inverse definite minimum time
(IDMT) overcurrent relay based on the induction disk.
With the introduction of electronic devices such as the

transistor in the 1950s, electronic protection relays were
introduced in the 1960s and 1970s. Since then, the
development of relays has been related to the general
development of electronics.
Relay
What is a static protection relay?
Static relays are those in which the designed response is developed by

electronic or magnetic means without mechanical motion. This means,
that the designation static relay covers the electronic relays of both
the analog and digital designs. The analog relays refer to electronic
circuits with discrete devices like transistors, diodes, etc., which were
adopted in the initial stages. However, the digital designs incorporate
integrated chips, microprocessors, etc., which had been developed
subsequently. In recent years, very few relays of the analog type are
being developed or introduced for the first time.
Most modern overcurrent relays are of the digital type. There are many
reasons for this,
the main ones being associated with cost, accuracy, flexibility,
reliability, size, auxiliary power drain, etc. Many of these reasons will
become evident during the course of this chapter, which will
concentrate on relays of the digital type. Microprocessor relays are of
the digital type.
The main objective of using static relays is to improve the sensitivity,
speed and reliability of a protection system by removing the delicate
mechanical parts that can be subject to wear due to vibration, dust and
23
Relay
What is a microprocessor relay?
A microprocessor relay is a digital electronic relay, which derives its

characteristics by means of a pre-programed series of instructions and
calculations (algorithms), based on the selected settings and the
measured current and/or voltage signals. For example the formula used
to derive the inverse time characteristics in an overcurrent relay that
comply with IEC 255 and BS 142 is mathematically defined as
follows:
Where
T = operating time in seconds
K = time multiplier
I = current value
I> = set current value.
Relay
The unit includes four BS 142 specified characteristics with different
degrees of inverse. The degree of inverse is determined by the values
of the constants and .
24
Relay
Introduction to the numerical relay
The measurement principle is based on sampling of the

energized currents or voltages, analog to digital conversion
and numerical handling, where all settings are made in
direct numerical form in a non-volatile memory. Setting
can be performed either manually on the relay front or by
serial communications using either a personal computer or
a control/monitoring system. In addition, the operation of
the self-supervision is described
Grading Margin Time
The operating time of an IDMT relay must be long

enough to ensure that the circuit breaker nearest to
the fault trips first but short enough to trip its circuit
breaker.
This time interval, or grading margin, depends upon
several factors:
1. Circuit breaker interrupting time
2. Overshoot time
3. Errors
4. Final margin
25
Grading Margin Time
Circuit Breaker Interrupting Time

The circuit breaker must interrupt the fault current
completely before the back up relay ceases to be
energized.
Overshoot
When the driving torque is removed, the relay disc
continues to rotate.
The time of rotation after the relay is de-energised is
called the overshoot time.
Grading Margin Time
Errors
All measuring devices, including the relay, are
subject to manufacturer's error.
A tolerance must be allowed.
Final Margin
Some extra allowance is required to ensure that a
satisfactory operation of the relay is obtained. This
is also called safety margin.
26
Recommended Discrimination
Time
Normally, 0.5 seconds is taken as the discrimination

time.
With faster modern circuit breakers and lower relay
overshoot time, 0.4 seconds is reasonable.
Under the best possible conditions, 0.35 seconds
can be used.
In some instances, a variable time value are used.
These are normally:
(a) A fixed time of 0.25 seconds.
(b) A variable time
Recommended Discrimination
Time
Hence, the total time interval t' is given by

t' = 0.25 t + 0.25
Where
t' = time interval
t = nominal operating time of the relay nearer to
the fault.
27
Industrial Power System Protection
Directional Overcurrent Relays
Some typical networks require a special relay, the

directional relay, to protect the system.
Parallel lines or loops.
J
K
Earth Fault Protection
A A
B B
C C
Ph/F 51
E/F 51 64 E/F
64 51
(a)
(b)
C Use a relay which responds only to the

residual current of the system
Ph/F
51 51 64 E/F
The simple connection is shown in
Figure(a).
(c)
Only on two phases are provided
overcurrent relays. (Figure c)
28
High Set Instantaneous

Overcurrent Relay
Operate for close up faults very quickly but should not operate even
for maximum fault currents at the remote end of the feeder.
Protecting long transmission lines or transformer feeders.
Figure 2.14: Application Of Instantaneous High-Set Relay
Determination Of
IDMT relay Settings
Two methods:
Graphical (template) method
Mathematical analysis.
29
Calculation Of Relay Settings
(a) Radial Circuit
RSI = CT x PS/100 A
(CT ratio x Relay rating x PS/100 )
PSM = FC/RSI
RCOT = f (PSM) S
ROT = RCOT x TSM S
RjOT = RnOT + DT S
Example of Setting Radial System
Consider a radial feeder system as shown in Figure 2.15.
A B C D
400/5 400/5 200/5 100/5
Figure 2.15 An Example of Setting Radial System
30
Max Max.
CT Plug Load
Relay
Fault
(A) Ratio Setting Current TSM
(%) (A)
A 7850 400/5 420

?
B 4500 400/5 300
?
C 2690 200/5 130
? ?
D 1395 100/5 50
? 0.05
Table 2.1: Data For Radial System
At substation D:
CT ratio = 100/5A
Chosen relay plug setting, PS = 100% a primary current
RSI = CT x PS/100
= 100 x 100/100
= 100 A
The maximum fault at substation D = 1395 A (Table 2.1). Therefore :
PSM = FC/RSI
= 1395/100
= 13.95
31
Using this value of PSM (13.95), RCOT can be found (from characteristic
TSM = 1.0) as:
RCOT = 2.6 seconds
TSM = 1.0
The ROT is:
ROT = RCOT x TSM
= 2.6 x 0.05
= 0.13 second RCOT = 2.6
For substation C:
A grading margin of 0.5 is adopted in this example PSM=13.95
CT ratio = 200/5
Chosen relay plug setting, PS = 100% = 200A
RSI = 200 x 100/100
= 200A
The maximum fault current for grading relay C with relay D = 1395 A.
Therefore :
PSM = 1395/200
= 6.975
Using this value of PSM (6.975), the RCOT can be found as:
RCOT = 3.6 seconds
32
The required relay discriminating time RjOT is then:

RjOT = RnOT + DT
= 0.13 + 0.5
= 0.63 seconds
Therefore :
ROT
TSM
RCOT
= 0.63/3.6
= 0.175
The maximum fault current for a fault just outside the substation C
busbar is 2690A. Therefore:
2690
PSM
200
13.45
The relay characteristic operating time can be found as:

RCOT = 2.6 seconds
Then, the real operating time for this fault is:

ROT = RCOT x TSM
= 2.6 x 0.175
= 0.455 seconds
33
The results of these relay setting calculations are shown in Table 2.2.
PS=125%
PS=150%
Table 2.2: Relay Time Setting Calculation
Calculation Of Relay Settings
(b) Ring Circuits
Applied to a situation where the

continuity of supply is the
R (1,6) 6
R (5,6)
priority:
1 5
a) hospitals
b) mines
2 4
c) petrochemical plant
3
Directional relays are commonly

Figure 2.16: Grading of a Ring Circuit applied to ring systems.
34
Graphical Method
Figure 2.17: Transparent Template For Graphical Grading Method
Moving the template vertically alters the time multiplier setting (TSM)
and horizontally the current setting (PS).
35
Computer Method
BS 142 gives the equation as.

0.14
t xTSM
I0.02
1
The manual method of calculation can be carried out systematically as follows:-
Study the single-line diagram of the system and identify the system components
Model each individual systems component
Convert all these impedances to a per unit system on a common MVA base.
Form the appropriate sequence networks.
Simplify of the network using star-delta and delta-star transformations etc.
On the basis of the type of faults to be analysed, connect the sequence networks for
analysis.
Calculate the sequence component currents.
Transform the sequence components currents to phase currents.
Convert the per unit currents to actual currents in amperes.
Repeat (iv) to (ix) for baseload condition.
Exercise 1
An IDMT overcurrent relay has a current setting of

150% and has a time multiplier setting of 0.5. The relay
is connected in the circuit through a C.T. having ratio
500:5 amps. Calculate the time of operation of the relay
if the circuit carries a fault current of 6000 A. Use the
standard relay characteristic in your calculation with
relay rating of 5 amp.
36
Solution
RSI = CT x PS/100
= 500 x 150/100
= 750
PSM = 6000/750 = 8
RCOT = 3.35 seconds (from graph)
ROT = 3.35 x 0.5 = 1.675 seconds
Exercise 2
It is given that fault current level at 33 kV
side is 2,700 A, CT ratio at 33 kV side is
200 : 1 and 132 kV side is 100 : 1. If both
relays R1 and R2 are set for 100% plug
setting, determine the operation time for
both relays when time grading margin of
0.6 second is given and TSM for relay R1 is
0.15. Calculate also TSM for R2.
37
33kV
132kV
100/1 132/33kV 200/1
IF = 2700A
R2 R1
Solution :
At R2
At R1
On 132 kV side
RSI = 200X100/100 = 200
IF = 2700 x 33/132 = 675 A
PSM = 2700/200 = 13.5
RSI = 100 x 100 /100 = 100
From graph : RCOT = 2.6 S PSM = 675/100 = 6.75
RCOT = 3.7 S
ROT = 2.6 x 0.15 = 0.39 s
TSM = (0.39 + 0.6)/3.7
= 0.26
Fuses
Simple
Can be very fast
Limit fault energy
Require Coordination
38
FUSE
FUSES
BS Standard
DIN Standard :
Deutches Institut fur
Normung
(German Standard)
39
DIN FUSES
Fuse Element
If the current flow continuously from 1 to 6 times rated current,

fuse element will blow in a certain time.
40
Element of Fuse
Normal operation
Fuse is operating below its continuous current
rating
Electrical resistance of the link is low
Simply acts as a conductor
Overload current
Temperature of the link reaches a level that
causes
a restricted segment of the link to melt.
A gap is then formed.
An electric arc is established. (Figure 2.26(b))
Cut off
As the arc causes the link metal to burn back,
the gap width increases.
Arc cannot be sustained and it is extinguished
(Figure 2.26(c))
Figure 2.26
41
Fuse Classification
Fuses are classified into three categories :
1. High-voltage fuses
For protection of devices 1000V AC and above
2. Low-voltage fuses
For protection of devices up to 1000V AC and 1500V DC
3. Miniature and sub-miniature fuses

For protection of electrical and electronics apparatus up to 250 V
400A 250A
160A fuse
200A 160A 100A fuse 125A fuse not melted
operated arcing
Largest Largest
fuse fuse
100A 125A 160A
100A 100A
(a) Method 2 to 1 (b) Method I2 t
42
Cut Off Characteristic
Peak asymmetrical
current
Prospective
current
Cut-off current
Zero current
Pre-arcing time Arcing

time
Total
time
I2t Rating
Each size of fuse has certain rating.

The fuse operating time can be considered in two stages:
The stage before the fuse element
melts, known as pre-arcing stage. 1000000
Total I2t
The stage when the arcing is Pre-arcing I2t
taking place, known as arcing 100000
stage.
Need to consider: I 2t
10000
Total I2t - Minor Fuse
Pre-arcing I t - Major Fuse
2 80A 100A 125A 160A
1000
To obtain positive discrimination between
fuses, the total value of the smaller fuse
must not exceed that of the pre-arcing value
of the larger.
43
Time / Characteristic
A family of time/characteristic
curves for a standard fuse is
shown in Figure.
The curves published by the

fuse manufacturers usually
show the relationship of the
pre-arcing time to prospective
current.
Figure
Fuse cut-off characteristics
44
Selection Of Fuse For Motors
The fuse does not protect the motor

against overload, as the rating of
the fuse is always two or three
times of the full load current.
The main function of the fuse is to
prevent damage to the motor, cable
and contactor by limiting the energy
during a fault.
Figure 2.29 shows motor starting
conditions, where the fuse
characteristic is separated from the
motor starting current so that the Figure 2.29
diffusion process is not initiated.
45
Example Of Fuse Selection
A 415V distribution system is shown in

Fig.2.30.
415V
20 kW 30 kW 30 kW
LIGHTING HEATING MOTOR
Figure 2.30
Example Of Fuse Selection
10000
From Fig. shown, a 80A fuse would

1000
383A withstand 383A for only 6 seconds.
452A
100
A 100A fuse, which would withstand
383A for longer than 10 seconds, would
10 be necessary.
6s
Time
(s)
1
80A
100A
125A
160A
0.1
0.01
100 1000 10000
Current (A)
Figure
46
Example of Fuse Selection

To provide discrimination the fuse at A must meet the
following requirements. A
It must carry the normal load 32 A 50 A 100 A

27.8 + 41.7 + 54.7 = 124.2A
20 kW 30 kW 30 kW
It must carry the load plus the starting current of the
motor:
160A
27.8 + 41.7 +383 = 452.5A for 10s. 100A
fuse
125A
fuse
fuse
not
operate arcing melted
From Figure 2.31, a 125A fuse would withstand d
452.5A for more than 10s.

100 125 160
The pre-arching must be greater than the total of the A A A
100A fuse.
A 160A fuse would be required. Figure 2.32 shows
this in detail. Figure 2.32
Note that a 100M160 fuse would be suitable as the
normal load current is in excess of 100A.
Fuse Application
It can be seen that fuses
H, J and K will Rating
1000A
G
discriminate with fuse Rating H Rating J K Rating

G, but the 400A sub- 500A
500A 500A
circuit fuse L may not L Rating

Rating
discriminate with the 400A 30A each
500A sub-circuit fuse H M
at higher levels of fault

current.
47
Fuse Application
The solution illustrated G
Rating
in the abovr Figure is to 1000A
feed the 400A circuit L Rating

H J
K
direct from the busbars.

L 400A Rating
Rating Rating
100A
500A 500A
The sub-circuit fuse H

may now have its rating
Rating
30A each
reduced from 500A to a

value, of say 100A, M
appropriate to the
remaining sub-circuit
Summary
The fuse must be adequately rated to supply normal current

to the circuit.
The rating must take into account any normal healthy
overload conditions, e.g. the starting of motors or the
switching of capacitors.
An allowance must be made if an overload occurs frequently.
There must be an adequate margin if discrimination
between fuses is required.
The fuse must protect any equipment which is not rated at
the full short-circuit rating of the power system, e.g.
contactors, cables, switches, etc.
48
Coordination
Between Relay And Fuse
To achive proper coordination between fuses in

series, it is necessary to ensure that the total I2t
taken by smaller fuse is not greater than the pre-
arcing I2t value of larger fuse.
The basic approach should be, whenever possible,
to ensure that the relay backs up the fuse and not
vice versa
The relay characteristic best suited for this
coordination with fuses is normally that of the
extremely inverse relay which follows a similar I2t
characteristic.
Coordination
Between Relay And Fuse
Primary current setting of the relay should be

approximately three times the current rating of the
fuse and that the grading margin for proper
coordination,
when expressed as a fixed quantity, should be
less than 0.4s
when expressed as a variable quantity, should
have a minimum value of:
t = 0.4t +0.15,
where t = nominal operating time of fuse
49
COMPUTER METHOD
The use of digital computers has been revolutionized the
process of designing and analyzing electrical power systems
The characteristic curve has to be translated into an equation

and, of course, the simpler the equation the easier it is for
programming. BS 142 gives the equation as :
0.14
t xTSM
I 0.02 1
However, the characteristic can be simplified by applying curve
fitting techniques to a manufacturer's published curve. The
definite minimum time has been set at 2.2 seconds above 20
times the setting and 30 seconds at an below 1.3 times the
setting, each with a TSM of unity.
The five basic equations can be used to calculate the

relay setting :
RSI = CT x PS/100 A
PSM = FC/RSI
RCOT = f (PSM) S
ROT = RCOT x TSM S
RjOT = RnOT + DT S
With computers, this routine task of calculating fault

currents in radial networks is relieved from the engineer
with also the added benefit of speed .
50
The manual method of calculation can be carried out
systematically as follows:-
(i) Study the single-line diagram of the system and
identify the system components required for modeling
according to the types of faults to be investigated, determine
an adequate representation of the power source especially if
the supply is taken from the supply company.
Model each individual systems component such as overhead

line, underground cable, transformer, reactor, motor, generator
and neutral earthing in terms of impedances in ohms.
The IDMT Relay Setting For Ring

System
More difficult
Need to identify fault condition.
One-line diagram of the network
Data required
(a) S/C level for the bulk supply points

(b) Impedance of lines, cables & transformer
(c) Voltage levels and MVA base
(d) Information about the IDMT protection such
as current transformer ratings and load
protection settings.
(e) Ratings of lines, cables and transformer.
51
Generalized Fault Philosophy
Local
Remote
Rr Substation
The substation from which the grading is
started and then carried out towards the
Adjacent relays at neighboring substations.
Substation
Ra
Adjacent
Local
Substation
Any substation which is directly connected to
Rj the local substation is defined as an adjacent
substation.
Remote
Any substation which is directly connected to
an adjacent substation is called a remote
substation.
The Most Onerous Condition
Three-Phase Fault (General)
The most severe condition for grading relays is called

the most onerous condition.
The process of deciding the most onerous condition for each

case is called 'Fault Philosophy'.
52
Examples of
The Most Onerous Condition
Case A : To grade relay A with respect to relay D [Fig.
4.2] A B C
The Most Onerous Condition :
Three-phase fault at F one feeder in circuit
(To clear fault in the minimum time & to give a D
suitable discrimination time) F
Case B : To grade R1 with R2 [ Fig. 4.3 (i)] Load
Fig. 4.2
1 Adjacent 1
R1 R1
The Most Onerous
Condition :
Max fault flows through R1 2 Local
2
whilst, at the same time, the R2 R2
Local
minimum current flows through
R 2.
Fault at F. 3 3
R3 R3
Remove parallel feeder between 1
and 2 except R1, as Fig. 4.3 (ii). F
(i) Fig. 4.3 (ii)
Examples of
The Most Onerous Condition (cont.)
Case C: To grade R1 with respect to R2 (refer Figure 4.4)
The Most Onerous Condition: Fault occurred at point F.
Maximum fault current flows through R1.
Exact circuit condition:Remove incoming lines to
busbar 2, including the line parallel to relay R1, except
the line containing R1, as shown in Figure 4.4(ii).
1 1
R1 R1
2 2
R2 R2
F F
3 3
(i) Figure 4.4 (ii)
53
The Most Onerous Fault Condition

For A Delta-Star Transformer
The current on the Delta side is 15% more, on a pu basis,

than on the Y-side when a line-line fault occurs .
IA Ia IF
A a IF
IF
IP 3
VA Van
Vab 3
2I F
B B IF IF
n b 3
3
IF
C
c 3
Figure 4.5: Transformer in Power System Figure 4.6: Line-line Fault on side of
transformer
Numbering The Power System

Busbars
All busbars in the system must be code numbered first

The structural elements (radial, ring etc.) can easily be
identified
The bulk supply points are taken into account first, starting with
number 1, 2 etc.
The next step is to number all other busbars in the system
The example of system numbering is as in Figure
54
Example of power system numbering
PSG (1,1) PSG (1,2) PSG (2,1)

1 SALE2 2
SALE1
CB (2,4)
CT (2,4)
ASH3 PS (2,4)
3 SAL3 5
ASH6 7 SAL6 8
L1 L2 PS (4,2)
CT (4,2)
CB (4,2)
BAG3 6 11 4
BEN3 NOR3
BAG6 9 BEN6 12 10
NOR6
L3 L4 L5
The Structure Matrices
The rule for assigning the elements of the matrix MA are :
MA( a,b) = N Where 1 < N < 9

Where N is the number of cables or lines parallel
between a and b
MA( a,b) = N x 10 Where 1 < N < 9

Where N is the number of transformers parallel between
a and b
55
The structural matrix MA for the network is :
2 1 1
2 1 1
1 4 1 20
1 4 20 1
1 1 5 1 20
1 1 5 20 1
20 2
20 2
20 2
20 2
1 1 3 10
10 1
The choice of Critical Path

Approaches
During the setting process, the adjacent and remote

substation relays associated with a particular local substation
might have more than one set of conflicting relay settings if
they are connected to other local substations. These
conflicting settings must become unique settings, and this is
resolved by iteration along the critical path. The selection of
the correct critical path is very important in this exercise.
56
The Critical Path Approaches
Conflicting
settings.
Iteration.
The Largest Number of Substation
This critical path is defined as the route, or ring, from one source
(BSP) to any other source having the largest number of substations.
The Smallest Number of Substations
The smallest number of substations from one source to either the

same source or different sources.
Example of
The Critical Path Approaches
1 2
3 5
7 8
6 11 4
9 12 10
Figure 4.10:Two-source Network System
The Largest Number of Substation The Smallest Number of Substations

Critical path : 1 3 5 6 11 4 2 Critical path : 2 5 3 1
The Chosen Critical Path Critical path: 2 4 11 6 1
The largest number of substations - the last relay may need a long time to trip
57
Setting Procedure
Radial Circuits
In those parts of a network classified as radial circuits, each
group of branches is fed from only one end and therefore they
have only one busbar source. The other end is the load point
from where settings are started. Setting then progresses along
the radial circuit until the BSP or a bus on the critical path is
encountered.
Rings and Interconnected Ring Circuits
Each substation in a ring system has two infeeds. Such systems
are necessary to maintain continuity of supply to other
substations, in the event of a fault occurring on one line or
busbar. Even though the capital cost of providing such systems
is higher, the need to provide a continuous supply, such as to
hospitals, is more important.
Critical paths will be formed
Iterative procedure will be done, with the starting point is the lowest
setting.
PS Calculation
The minimum plug setting available on IDMT relay devices is 50% whilst the
maximum plug setting is 200%, in steps of 25%.
For each relay, starting with the minimum plug setting (50%), the relay
current setting in amperes is calculated.
The plant current rating for the feeder protected by the relay is then
compared with this relay setting.
If the plant rating is higher, the next increment of 25% is added to the relay
setting and the setting current recalculated.
This is repeated until the plant rating is less than the relay setting.
The plug setting is then calculated from:
PS = RSI x 100/CT
This procedure is repeated for all relays in the power system.
58
Time Setting (TSM)
The time settings for these relays are then calculated using the five
basic equations listed earlier. These five basic equations are:
Relay Current Setting = Plug Setting x CT primary ratio

100
Maximum Fault Current
PSM
Relay Current Setting
Characteristic Operating Time = f(PSM)
Actual Operating Time

TSM
Characteristic Operating Time
Operating time of back-up relay = operating time of local relay +

grading time interval (GTI).
Results
A 33/6.6 kV interconnected Network has been carried out for the

work.
SALE
1
ASH3 2 SAL3 4
ASH6 6 SAL6 7
BAG3 5 BEN3 10 NOR3 3
BAG6 8 BEN6 11 NOR6 9
59
1 100 11 5 13 1 0 4
2 4
3 SALE 33
4 ASH3 33
5 NOR3 33
6 SAL3 33
7 BAG3 33
8 ASH6 6.6
9 SAL6 6.6
10 BAG6 6.6
11 NOR6 6.6
12 BEN3 33
13 BEN6 6.6
14 1 2 1 1
15 1 3 1 1
16 1 4 1 1
17 1 5 1 1
18 2 4 1 1
19 2 6 20 2
20 3 9 20 2
21 3 10 1 1
22 4 5 1 1
23 4 7 20 2
24 5 8 20 2
25 5 10 1 1
26 10 11 10 1
60
27 1 2 (0.0128, 0.0143) 800 800 600 600
28 1 3 (0.0472, 0.0517) 400 400 325 325
29 1 4 (0.0155, 0.0187) 800 800 600 600
30 1 5 (0.0504, 0.0560) 400 400 320 320
31 2 4 (0.0198, 0.0217) 800 800 600 600
32 3 10 (0.0270, 0.0296) 600 600 325 325
33 4 5 (0.0178, 0.0202) 600 600 600 600
34 5 10 (0.0193, 0.0322) 600 600 304 304
35 10 11 (0.0000, 0.5000) 600 80 262 1310
36 2 (2.0,6.0)
37 (0.0000, 0.9800) (0.0000, 0.9800)
38 400 604 400 604
39 80 3020 80 3020
40 2 (4.0,7.0)
41 (0.0000, 1.0000) (0.0000, 1.0000)
42 600 604 600 604
43 80 3020 80 3020
44 2 (5.0,8.0)
45 (0.0000, 1.0000) (0.0000, 1.0000)
46 400 367 400 367
47 80 1835 80 1835
48 2 (5.0,8.0)
49 (0.0000, 1.0000) (0.0000, 1.0000)
50 600 604 600 604
51 80 3020 80 3020
52 1 6 125 .40 80
53 2 7 125 .40 80
54 3 8 125 .40 80
55 4 9 125 .40 80
56 5 11 125 .40 80
57 247.2 800 150 .40
58 164.8 600 175 .40
59 271.8 800 150 .40
60 181.2 600 175 .40
61 0.5
62 ####S
61
CODE SUBSTATION kV
1 SALE 33.0
2 ASH3 33.0
3 NOR3 33.0
4 SAL3 33.0
5 BAG3 33.0
6 ASH6 6.6
7 SAL6 6.6
8 BAG6 6.6
9 NOR6 6.6
10 BEN3 33.0
11 BEN6 6.6
RADIAL(1) : 6 2
RADIAL(2) : 8 4
RADIAL(3) : 9 5
RADIAL(4) : 7 3
RADIAL(5) : 11 10
CRITICAL PATH(4) : 1 4 2 1
RESIDUAL RADIAL(5) : 4 5
CRITICAL PATH(10) : 1 3 10 5 1
62
PREDICTED SETTING OF RELAYS ARE:
1 2 800.0 75.00 .65 800.00 50.00 .10
1 3 400.0 125.00 .95 400.00 50.00 .10
1 4 800.0 75.00 .67 800.00 50.00 .10
1 5 400.0 125.00 .97 400.00 50.00 .10
2 4 800.0 75.00 .44 800.00 75.00 .47
2 6 400.0 175.00 .16 80.00 125.00 .40
2 6 400.0 175.00 .16 80.00 125.00 .40
3 7 600.0 125.00 .14 80.00 125.00 .40
3 7 600.0 125.00 .14 80.00 125.00 .40
3 10 600.0 75.00 .79 600.00 75.00 .60
4 5 600.0 100.00 .10 600.00 100.00 .10
4 8 400.0 100.00 .27 80.00 125.00 .40
4 8 400.0 100.00 .27 80.00 125.00 .40
5 9 600.0 125.00 .14 80.00 125.00 .40
5 9 600.0 125.00 .14 80.00 125.00 .40
5 10 600.0 75.00 .81 600.00 75.00 .63
10 11 600.0 50.00 .44 80.00 .00 .00
Input
Critical Paths
Output
63
Assessment Of IDMT Relay

Settings
Normally the setting procedure does not meet all

protection performance requirements for all power system
models.
Especially for an interconnected ring system.
Radial circuits can be predicted easily.
Numbering The Busbars
(Similar with previous procedure)
bulk supply buses
radial generator buses
ring and interconnected ring buses
simple radial
64
Identification of System Plant
Y(a,b) , admittance between buses a and b
LN(a), Load at bus a
TSM (a,b)
etc
The Structure Matrices
MA( a,b) = N Where 1 < N < 9

Where N is the number of cables or lines parallel
between a and b
MA( a,b) = N x 10 Where 1 < N < 9

Where N is the number of transformers parallel between
a and b
65
Protection Failure Procedure
The unit protection has failed to trip any circuit breakers

to isolate the fault.
This procedure is also applicable to the situation where

the IDMT relays are used as the main, rather than back-up
protection.
Step 1
A fault calculation for a three-phase fault on the feeder side of the selected
circuit breaker, but adjacent to it, is carried out.
Step 2
The operating time of each IDMT relay is calculated by using the
following equation:
RSI = CT x PS / 100 amp
PSM = FC/RSI
RCOT = f(PSM) seconds
ROT = RCOT x TSM seconds
66
Step 3
In this stage, ordering of the substation is considered
A typical examples of this step for a fault at substation G for the power
shown in Fig 3.5a, is shown in Fig 3.5b. Only the relays looking in the
direction of the fault flow are ordered.
Step 4
Referring to step 3, a list of ordered substations with the operating times
of their IDMT relays is written. The list shows which relay will operate
first.
Step 5
When the operation of the circuit breaker whose relay operating

time is the shortest has been simulated, the new TSM of all relays
is calculated. The new TSM's are computed from equation below
and called the virtual time setting multiples (VTSM):
VTSM = (T-t ) x TSM

T
Where t = time at which the new TSM is calculated (s)
T= total time of relay operation (s)
67
Step 6
Redistribution of the fault current is now computed.
The procedure for this new situation is repeated starting from step 1 and
terminating at step 6 until all fault currents through the feeders are zero.
Step 7
The procedure described in step 1 to 6 is repeated until all branches

connected to a particular substation as the fault point are taken into
account.

GT
A C D
(1) (3) (4)
F
L2
G
(7)
F
L1
CB2 CB1 CB4 CB3

R2 R1 R4 R3
B E F
(2) (6) (5)
L3 H
(8)
L4
Figure 3.5a: A power system

network
68
3.92 s A
3.80 s B
3.65 s E
3.75 s
1.90 s F 3.62 s
D
0.81 s
G C A
1.40 s
F 3.40 s
Figure 3.5b: Ordering for fault at substation G of Figure

3.5a.
Substation Substation Operating Time (s)
G C (load) e.g. 0.81
C G 1.40
A C 3.40
D C e.g. 1.90
E D 3.65
B E 3.80
A B 3.92
F D 3.62
E F 3.75
E F 3.75
GT A 4.10
Figure 3.5c: Listing For Fault at Substation G of Figure 3.5(a)
69
GT1B GT1A GT2A GT2B
30 MVA 45 MVA 45 MVA 30 MVA
SALE
B.S.P
(1)
ASH3
793MVA SAL3
(2) 793MVA
(4)
ASH6
162MVA SAL6
(10) 160MVA
(7)
BAG3 BEN3 NOR3

747MVA 667MVA 667MVA
(5) (6) (3)
BAG6 BEN6 NOR6

158MVA 154MVA 154MVA
(8) (11) (9)
RELAY DISCRIMINATION DISPLAY
FAULTED SUBSTATION SALE

FAULTED FEEDER SAL3
SUB FEEDER CT PS TSM OPER. FAULT
STN. RATIO TIME MVA
SALE SAL3 800. 75.00 .85000 1.87000 865.00 1 4
SAL3 SALE 800. 50.00 .10000 ******** .00 4 1
ASH3 SAL3 800. 75.00 .85000 ******** .00 2 4
SALE ASH3 800. 100.00 .90000 ******** .00 1 2
BAG3 SAL3 600. 150.00 .36000 ******** .00 5 4
SALE BAG3 400. 100.00 .72000 ******** .00 1 5
BEN3 BAG3 600. 75.00 .66000 ******** .00 6 5
NOR3 BEN3 600. 75.00 .83000 ******** .00 3 6
SALE NOR3 400. 125.00 .95000 ******** .00 1 3
GT1B SALE 600. 175.00 .40000 2.71792 164.80 21 1
GT1A SALE 800. 150.00 .40000 2.14941 247.20 22 1
GT2A SALE 800. 150.00 .40000 2.01299 271.80 23 1
GT2B SALE 600. 175.00 .40000 2.42925 181.20 24 1
Figure 4.5: Relay Operatingtimes for a bulk supply point feeder fault. e.g.SAL3
(SALE-SAL3 is seen to trip first)
70

FAULTED FEEDER SAL3
STN. RATIO TIME MVA
SALE SAL3 800. 75.00 .00000 .00000 .00 1 4
SAL3 SALE 800. 50.00 .10000 2.09000 623.36 4 1
ASH3 SAL3 800. 75.00 .85000 4.30972 381.79 2 4
SALE ASH3 800. 100.00 .90000 4.81360 381.79 1 2
BAG3 SAL3 600. 150.00 .36000 3.48470 241.59 5 4
SALE BAG3 400. 100.00 .72000 4.42297 159.78 1 5
BEN3 BAG3 600. 75.00 .66000 5.73481 81.86 6 5
NOR3 BEN3 600. 75.00 .83000 6.73029 81.86 3 6
SALE NOR3 400. 125.00 .95000 8.00109 81.86 1 3
GT1B SALE 600. 175.00 .12479 3.13992 118.76 21 1
GT1A SALE 800. 150.00 .05200 2.24812 178.15 22 1
GT2A SALE 800. 150.00 .02841 2.05405 195.87 23 1
GT2B SALE 600. 175.00 .09209 2.70097 130.58 24 1
Figure 4.6: As Figure 4.5 but SALE-SAL3 has tripped

(GT2A-SALE is seen to trip first)

FAULTED FEEDER SAL3
STN. RATIO TIME MVA
SALE SAL3 800. 75.00 .00000 .00000 .00 1 4
SAL3 SALE 800. 50.00 .00172 2.05783 470.79 4 1
ASH3 SAL3 800. 75.00 .44488 3.50453 288.34 2 4
SALE ASH3 800. 100.00 .51595 3.97092 288.34 1 2
BAG3 SAL3 600. 150.00 .14780 2.85708 182.46 5 4
SALE BAG3 400. 100.00 .38563 3.65227 120.67 1 5
BEN3 BAG3 600. 75.00 .42361 5.43954 61.83 6 5
NOR3 BEN3 600. 75.00 .57669 6.66299 61.83 3 6
SALE NOR3 400. 125.00 .70611 8.47083 61.83 1 3
GT1B SALE 600. 175.00 .04316 2.44272 130.79 21 1
GT1A SALE 800. 150.00 .00449 2.08307 196.19 22 1
GT2A SALE 800. 150.00 .00000 .00000 .00 23 1
GT2B SALE 600. 175.00 .02206 2.23100 143.81 24 1
Figure 4.7: As Figure 4.6 but GT2A has tripped

(SAL3-SALE is seen to trip first)
71
FAULTED FEEDER SAL3
SUB CT PS TSM OPER. FAULT
FEEDER
STN. RATIO TIME MVA
SALE SAL3 800. 75.00 .00000 .00000 .00 1 4
SAL3 SALE 800. 50.00 .00000 .00000 .00 4 1
ASH3 SAL3 800. 75.00 .18365 ******** .00 2 4

SALE ASH3 800. 100.00 .24857 ******** .00 1 2
BAG3 SAL3 600. 150.00 .04135 ******** .00 5 4

SALE BAG3 400. 100.00 .16835 ******** .00 1 5
BEN3 BAG3 600. 75.00 .26335 ******** .00 6 5
NOR3 BEN3 600. 75.00 .39858 ******** .00 3 6

SALE NOR3 400. 125.00 .53457 ******** .00 1 3
GT1B SALE 600. 175.00 .00680 ******** .00 21 1
GT1A SALE 800. 150.00 .00005 ******** .00 22 1
GT2A SALE 800. 150.00 .00000 .00000 .00 23 1

GT2B SALE 600. 175.00 .00171 ******** .00 24 1
Figure 4.8: Fault isolated
Q1. The 11kV radial feeder shown in Fig. Q1 has three

tapping points and is fed by a transformer giving 5000A when
shorted phase to phase. The impedance of each of the feeders
is shown below together with the circuit breakers, which are
tripped by IDMT relays having the characteristics supplied.
Evaluate the phase to phase fault currents at each location and
suggest appropriate relay settings and the basis for your
choice. Plug multiplier settings of 50% to 200% in 25% steps
are available. Assume Z1 = Z2 (sequence impedances)
11kV
R1 R2 Z 1= R3 Z 1= R4
0.25 j 1.0 0.2 j 2.5 no other
protection
CT ratio 600/5 300/5 200/5 100/5
Load current 700 A 320 A 190A 75A
Nominal operate current for relay = 5A.

Time multiplier range = 0.05 1.00
Figure Q1
72
Thank You
Thank You
73

Distribution Protection Coordination

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Distribution Protection Coordination

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Distribution Protection

Not clearly defined.

Example Of Non-Unit Protection

Diagram 1.1 : Example of non-unit protection

Z2A (150 MS)

Z1C (20 MS)

Diagram 1.2 : Second example of non-unit protection

Defined precisely by the location of the

Will operate if a fault occurs within a

Example of Unit Protection

Unit Protection - protects on exactly defined part of system.

e.g.1: Difference in currents causes trip

Diagram 1.3 : Examples of unit protection

Example Of Unit Protection

e.g.2: Sum of currents in should be zero

Diagram 1.4 : Another examples of unit protection

Protection against excess current.

This should not confused with overload protection,

The data required for a relay setting study are:

i. a one-line diagram of the power system involved, showing the

ii. devices and their associated current transformers

The data required for a relay setting study are:

iv. the maximum load current through protection devices

Protection against excess current.

An appropriate time interval is given to ensure that the breaker nearest to

1.45 1.05 0.65 0.25

Figure 2.1 : Radial System With Time Discrimination

Comprises a definite time delay overcurrent relay

The fault current varies with the position of the fault.

Figure 2.2 : Radial System With Current Discrimination

Where ZS = source impedance Hence I

Not practical proposition for correct grading.

The relay operation time is inversely proportional

Figure 2.3: Radial system with discrimination by time and current

Figure 2.5 shows that relay time-

1. Definite time relays

Definite Time Relay

This characteristic can be expressed as:

The definite time relay has some advantage over a

Very Inverse Time Relay

This relay curve follows the equation

This type of relay offers some advantages over the

Extremely Inverse Time Relay

This relay has a characteristic where time is inversely

The Inverse Definite Minimum

It is worthwhile studying the operation of this

Basic Principle and Construction

Comprises an electromagnetic system : a metal disc.

This disc is free to rotate between the poles of the magnet

The movement depends upon the torque produced on it.

Overcurrenr Relay time inverse

Overcurrent Relay Time Inverse

1 and 2 - phase shift

Interaction between [1 dan I2] and [2 dan I1]

1 & 2 are produced from I

The greater the current, the greater will be the torque

Basic Principle and Construction

The torque T is given by:

The purpose of the disc movement is to close a pair of

This therefore gives an inverse characteristic

It was shown that: where, T is the driving torque

The majority of overcurrent relays have a characteristic which has

The time taken to close the contacts depends on the