Preliminary Chemistry Module 2: Metals

Metals have been extracted and used for many thousands of years

1.1 Outline and examine some uses of different metals through history,
including contemporary uses, as uncombined metals or as alloys:
Age Dates Name of Metal Uses of metal Properties of Metal
Copper 5000- Copper Ornaments Easy to work
Age 3000BC Tools Good conductor of
Weapons electricity
Cooking implements Nice and shiny
Electrical Wires Corrosion resistant
Water pipes
Bronze Age 3000- Bronze an Cutting tools Lower melting point yet
1000BC alloy of copper shields & armour harder than Copper
statues quite malleable and ductile
church bells
bearings
Iron Age From Iron Weapons and tools Very malleable and ductile
1000BC Magnetic application reasonably hard
Converted into carbon steels abundant in the crust
(iron-carbon alloys) quite heavy
used in building very magnetic
construction framework
cars
machinery
household appliances
Modern Present o Aluminium - Aluminium: saucepans, drink - Aluminium:
Era day o Titanium cans, cooking foil Low density
o Gold - Titanium: alloys used in high thermal conductivity
spacecrafts and aircrafts very high corrosion
- Gold: jewellery, electrical resistance
connections very malleable and ductile
- Titanium:
Quite strong
Quite malleable/ductile
- Gold:
Very malleable/ductile
Good electrical conductor
Shiny and lustrous
Corrosion resistant
 1.2 Describe the use of common alloys including steel, brass and solder
and explain how these relate to their properties:
Alloy Composition Properties Use(s)
Steel 99.8% Fe, 0.2% C Hard but easily worked Nails
Cables & chains
Brass 65% Cu, 35% Zn & small lustrous gold appearance, Plumbing fittings, musical
amounts of other elements eg. hard but easily machined, instruments, decorations.
Pb, Sn & Al polishes well
Solder 33% Sn, 67% Pb Low melting point Joining metals together (plumbing
Adheres firmly to other and electrical)
metals when molten
Stainless 74% Fe, 18% Cr, 8% Ni Resists corrosion Sinks, cutlery
steel

1.3 Explain why energy input is necessary to extract a metal from its
ore:

Energy input is necessary to extract a metal from its ore because

many metals are bonded very strongly with their ores which requires
energy to break the chemical bonds (the more reactive the metal, the
more energy input required)
Energy has to be supplied: to mine the ore, to purify or concentrate
the ore, to extract the metal, to purify the metal or form an alloy

1.4 Identify why there are more metals available for people to use now
than there were 200 years ago:

Only ten metals were in use before the 19th century because heat
energy alone was not sufficient to decompose their compounds
The invention of electrolysis in the 19th century allowed for metals
such as calcium, potassium and sodium to be discovered
Today metals have become readily available due to ongoing
improvements in mining, smelting techniques and transportation
due to the technological boom
 Metals differ in their reactivity with other chemicals and this influences
their uses

2.1 Describe observable changes when metals react with dilute acid,
water and oxygen:

Water: K, Na, Ca react with cold water to form hydroxide ions and
hydrogen gas
Mg reacts with hot water to form hydroxide ions and hydrogen gas
Al, Zn, Fe react with steam at red heat to form oxide ions and
hydrogen gas
Sn, Pb, Cu, Hg, Ag, Au No reaction

Oxygen: K, Na, Ca burn rapidly to form oxides

Mg, Al, Zn, Fe burn rapidly (if powdered or as fine fibres) to form
oxides
Sn, Pb, Cu, Hg become coated with oxide layers during heating
Ag, Au No reaction

Dilute Acid: K, Na foam rapidly producing metal salt and hydrogen

gas
Ca, Mg bubble rapidly producing metal salt and hydrogen gas
Al, Zn, Fe, Sn, Pb bubbles moderately producing metal salt and
hydrogen gas (faster in warm acid)
Cu, Hg, Ag, Au No reaction

2.2 Describe and justify the criteria used to place metals into an order of
activity based on their ease of reaction with oxygen, water and dilute
acids:

This reactivity series was made by combining three activity series

(oxygen, water and dilute acids) in order to determine the most to
least reactive metals:
Cold water K Ease of oxidation of Ease of reduction of
Na metal decreases metal ions increases
Li down the column. down the column.
Ba
Ca
Steam & oxygen Mg
Al
Zn
Fe
Dilute acids Sn
Pb
Oxygen Cu
Ag
Pt
Au
2.3 Identify the reaction of metals with acids as requiring the transfer of
electrons:

Redox reactions are reactions composed of two half reactions

(oxidation an atom losing electrons, reduction an atom gaining
electrons)
The reaction of metals with acids is a redox reaction as the metal is
being oxidised and the hydrogen is being reduced

2.4 Outline examples of the selection of metals for different purposes

based on their reactivity, with a particular emphasis on current
developments in the use of metals:

Gold because gold is the least reactive metal and is an excellent

conductor of electricity it is used in computers and circuits
Aluminium is suitable for the construction industry as it forms an
oxide layer which prevents further corrosion and is also a strong and
light metal
Magnesium because magnesium is very reactive it is attached to the
steel hulls of ships as it will corrode (as it is more reactive than the
iron in steel) first, protecting the ship from corrosion

2.5 Outline the relationship between the relative activities of metals and
their positions on the Periodic Table:

Most reactive to least reactive: Group 1 metals, Group 2 metals,

Group 3 metals, some transition metals, Group 4 metals, more
transition metals
As you move upwards (in groups 1 & 2) and (then) right, reactivity of
metals decreases

2.6 Identify the importance of first ionisation energy in determining the

relative reactivity of metals:

The first ionisation energy of an element is the energy required to

remove an electron from a gaseous atom of the element
It is the energy change for the process: M(g)->M+(g)+e-, where M is
any element
Ionisation energy is most commonly measured in kJ/mol
The lower the ionisation energy, the easier it is to remove an electron
The reactivity of metals increases as their ionisation energy
decreases
As metals and other elements were discovered, scientists recognised that
patterns in their physical and chemical properties could be used to
organise the elements into a Periodic Table

3.1 Identify an appropriate model that has been developed to describe

atomic structure:

Bohrs model:
The nucleus is the central part of the atom that contains protons and
neutrons
The electrons move through a relatively large space outside the
nucleus in shells
The electrons are kept moving around the nucleus by electrostatic
charges between the positively charged nucleus and negatively
charged electrons

3.2 Outline the history of the development of the Periodic Table

including its origins, the original data used to construct it and the
predictions made after its construction:

Dbereiner 1829 German pointed out that there were several

groups of three elements with very similar properties: Li, Na, K was
one triad and Cl, Br, I was another triad
Newlands 1834 English proposed Law of Octaves which was
that when the elements were arranged in order of increasing atomic
weight, Newlands found that every eighth element was similar in
properties
Mendeleev 1869 Russian proposed the periodic law, the
properties of the elements vary periodically with their atomic
weights, organised the elements according to atomic weight and
grouped elements of similar properties under one another to obtain a
table
3.3 Explain the relationship between the position of elements in the
Periodic Table and: electrical conductivity, ionisation energy, atomic
radius, melting point, boiling point, combining power (valency),
electronegativity, reactivity:

Relationship Trends
Electrical Conductivity - Decreases from left to right
- Increases down a group

Ionisation Energy - Increases from left to right as more

electronegative
- Decreases down a group as less electronegative
(electrons further away from nucleus

Atomic Radius - Increase down a group as each successive element

has one more electron shell
- Decrease left to right as more electronegative, the
charge in the nucleus increase so the electrostatic
force between the nucleus and the outer electrons
is stronger holding it closer to the nucleus

Melting and boiling The minimum melting and boiling points are the
points noble gases whereas the maximum points are less
well defined (C is highest melting point; maximum
boiling points occur roughly halfway between
minima)
Combining power - Same down a group
(valency) - Left to right, increase to group 4 then decreases.
1+ 2+ 3+ 4+- 3- 2- 1-

Electronegativity (how - Increases across a period as atomic radius

strongly an atom decreases
attracts electrons) - Decreases down a group as atomic radius
increases

Reactivity - Metals: reactivity decreases from left to right,

increase down a group
- Non-metals: when forming ions, reactivity
increases from left to right and decreases down a
group. When forming covalent compounds the
trend is similar but there are some exceptions

For efficient resource use, industrial chemical reactions must use

measured amounts of each reactant

4.1 Define the mole as the number of atoms in exactly 12g of carbon-12
(Avogadros number):

A mole is the same number of particles as there are atoms in 12g of

carbon-12
There are 6.02214 x 1023 atoms in 12g of carbon-12 (Avogadros
constant)
 One mole of any substance contains 6.02214 x 1023 particles

4.2 Compare mass changes in samples of metals when they combine

with oxygen:

The oxide formed during the reaction between a metal and oxygen
has a mass equal to the sum of the metals mass and oxygens mass
That is the law of conservation of mass
Metal Formula Mass Mass of metal Mass oxygen
of metal (g) oxide (g) used (g)
Mg 2Mg (s) + O2 (g) -> 2MgO (s) 48.62 80.62 32

Na 4Na (s) + O2 (g) -> 2Na2O (s) 91.96 123.96 32

Ca 2Ca (s) + O2 (g) -> 2Ca2O (s) 80.16 112.16 32

Al 4Al (s) + 2O2 (g) -> 2Al2O3 107.92 203.92 96

(s)
4.3 Describe the contribution of Gay-Lussac to the understanding of
gaseous reactions and apply this to an understanding of the mole
concept:

Guy-Lussac proposed the law of combining volumes: when measured

at constant temperature and pressure, the volumes of gases taking
part in a chemical reaction show simple whole number ratios of one
another

4.4 Recount Avogadros law and describe its importance in developing

the mole concept:

Avogadros law: when measured at the same temperature and

pressure, equal volumes of gases contain the same number of
molecules
From his law Avogadro could create relative scale of weights
between elements which is essential in determining the amount of
moles
Avogadros constant 6.02214 x 1023 atoms in 12g of C-12
 This number is one mole, and as there is a relative scale of masses
all the elements could be compared to C-12 to determine the
number of moles within any sample of a substance
4.5 Distinguish between empirical formulae and molecular formulae:

The empirical formula of a compound is the formula that states the

ratio in which the atoms are present in the compound (for ionic and
covalent lattice compounds)
The molecular formula of a compound is the formula that states how
many of each type of atom are present in a molecule of the compound
(for molecular compounds)
Calculating the empirical formula of a compound eg:
A 30g sample of Carbon and Hydrogen is found to contain 24g of
Carbon, find its empirical formula:
Carbon mass = 24g, carbon molar mass = 12g, N=24/12=2mol
Hydrogen mass =30g-24g=6g, hydrogen molar mass = 1g,
N=6/1=6mol
Ratio of C:H=2:6=1:3, empirical formula = CH3

The relative abundance and ease of extraction of metals influences their

value and breadth of use in the community

5.1 Define the terms mineral and ore with reference to economic and
non-economic deposits of natural resources:

A mineral is a pure crystalline substance compound that occurs in the

Earths crust
An ore is a compound or mixture of compounds from which it is
economic (profitable) to extract a desired substance as a meal

5.2 Describe the relationship between the commercial prices of common

metals, their actual abundances and relative costs of production:

The higher the abundance, the lower the commercial price of a metal
and vice versa
The higher the production costs (extraction, processing and
transport, etc), the higher the commercial price of a metal and vice
versa

5.3 Explain why ores are non-renewable resources:

Ores are non-renewable resources because they were formed when the
Earth was formed through sedimentation processes, volcanic processes
and other processes that take thousands and thousands of years to
replenish (some dont replenish at all)
5.4 Describe the separation processes, chemical reactions and energy
considerations involved in the extraction of copper from one of its
ores:

Many ores that copper is extracted from contain the minerals such as
chalcopyrite (CuFeS2)
Mined the ore is first mined out of the Earth
Crushed the ore is then crushed into smaller particles in preparation
for froth flotation
Froth flotation - A specific type of oil is added to the ore that causes the
sulphide particles to be not wetted. The ore is then immersed in a
solution where tiny jets blow air through creating bubbles. The air
bubbles then collect the non-wetted particles (sulphides) and pull
them to the surface. The layer of froth containing the copper and
sulphide is now skimmed from the surface.
Roasting - The copper concentrates are heated with sand (SiO2) which
produces two immiscible liquids, one containing copper sulphide and
the other iron silicate (FeSiO3).
Reduction - After separating from the iron silicates the Copper
Sulphide is further heated on its own, but with air being bubbled
through the molten salt. The oxygen reduces the Cu into metal. The
reaction between sulphur and oxygen produces a significant amount of
heat, which keeps the reaction going on its own.

5.5 Recount the steps taken to recycle aluminium:

Collection - Aluminium products, such as drink cans and car parts are
collected through local council initiatives, as well as from
organisations, e.g. Planet Ark
Sorting and Separation - Aluminium does not contain magnetic
properties; however steel does, so steel can be removed from the
products using a powerful magnet separation technique. To ensure
that the alloys of aluminium remain the same, aluminium cans are
separated from other aluminium products manually
Preparation - The aluminium products are then compressed to form
bales; separate bales used for cans, and are then transported to plants
for the last part of recycling
Remelting and refining - Baled aluminium is fed separately into a
rotary Furnace, which reaches temperatures of around 780 C, which
melts the aluminium; molten aluminium is then cast into Ingots,
which are then sent to create new drink cans, kitchenware and other
aluminium products

Note Below:
- Redox Reaction: Zinc has been oxidised, Hydrogen Ion has been reduced
- Neutral Species Reaction: Zn(s) + HCl(aq) -> ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
- Complete Ionic Reaction: Zn(s) + 2H+(aq)+2Cl-(aq) -> Zn2+(aq)+2Cl-(aq) +H2(g)
- Half Reactions: Zn(s) -> Zn2+(aq)+2e-, 2H+(aq)+2e- -> H2(g)
- Net Ionic Equation: Zn(s)+2H+(aq)->Zn2+(aq)+H2(g)