Running head: BEHAVIORISM 1

The History and Current Applications of Behaviorism

Myrna Davis Washington

University of the Rockies

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Abstract

Behaviorism has made a powerful impact upon modern psychology. Examining the history and

current applications of behaviorism offers an opportunity to seek an understanding of

behaviorism by exploring behaviorist theory, behaviorisms premiere theorists Ivan Pavlov,

John B. Watson, and B. F. Skinner and their influence on the development of the behavioral,

cognitive, and cognitive/behavior therapies and learning theories used in contemporary

psychology. Although behaviorism, in its purest form, did not survive in America, it was,

nevertheless, successful in paving the way for potential-based learning, online education, and

distance learning.
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The History and Current Applications of Behaviorism

Behaviorism is the school of thought that given the response the stimuli can be

predicted; given the stimuli the response can be predicted (John B. Watson, as cited in

Goodwin, 2008). If there is to be any understanding of behaviorism, it must be derived through

earnest exploration of its genesis, which is evidenced in the powerful impact that behaviorist

theories have made in the world of psychology. Although these contributions have been

successful in implicating environment in shaping and controlling human behavior, it is

behaviorism as it is filtered through the theoretical views of psychologys premiere figures -

Pavlov, Watson, and Skinner that provides the foundation for todays behavioral and cognitive-

behavioral theories of psychotherapy (Goodwin, 2008; Mills & Mos, 1999).

What Are The Origins of Behaviorism?

From its acceptance as a legitimate discipline, psychology operated under the assumption

that its focus should be mental life and that introspection was the best way to engage and

observe it (Goodwin, 2008; Moore, 2011). Research reveals behaviorism to be evolved from a

number of antecedent philosophical movements, including: utilitarianism, the pragmatism of the

Progressivist movement, the objectivism of the newly emerging and institutionalized social

sciences, the philosophical functionalism of the New Realists, nineteenth century physiological

mechanistic and materialist thinking (i.e., Descartes), Darwinian evolutionary theory, Baconian

emphasis on controlling nature through science, British empiricism and associationism (i.e.,

Locke, Hume, Hartley, and Mill) with their emphasis on the importance of experience as the

determinant of an individuals mind and character; and Wundts new psychology (Goodwin,

2008; Moore, 2011). However, it was Comtes positivism that solidified behaviorisms

foundation by valuing practical knowledge and arguing that valid knowledge can only be
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obtained through inductive, systematic, objective observation (Goodwin, 2008; Mills & Mos,

1999; Molenda, 2008; Moore, 2011)..

By the early 1900s, the rapid acceptance of evolutionary thinking, the resulting growth of

animal psychology, and the questions initially raised by the imageless thought controversy

caused American scientists to refute introspective research in lieu of increased objectivity in their

measurements (Goodwin, 2008). As psychologys focus shifted from conscious experience to

human behavior, American psychology evolved from an experimental psychology to the new

behavioral psychology. At the 1904 St. Louis Worlds Fair, James Cattell denounced

introspection and announced that psychology should not be limited to introspective research of

conscious experience because previous research work had been as independent of introspection

as work in physics of in zoology (Cattell, 1904, as cited in Goodwin, 2008). The only recourse,

Cattell asserted, was the application of systematized knowledge to the control of human nature

(Cattell, 1904, cited in Goodwin, 2008).

At the same time that American psychologists were becoming more critical of and

disillusioned with introspection, Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov was making serious headway

in unraveling the mysteries of reflex and mind-body interaction first proposed by Descartes.

Summarily, Pavlovs classical conditioning provided the foundation for the objective study of

human reflex, Watson built on Pavlovs classical conditioning and changed the focus of

American psychology from conscious experience to behavior, and Skinner transformed

psychology into the science of behavior (Goodwin, 2008; Molenda, 2008; Rutherford, 2000).

What are the Theories of Pavlov, Watson, and Skinner?

Classical conditioning. As he had done in his Nobel prize-winning procedures, Pavlovs

classical conditioning strategy was to use controlled experimental conditions to avoid

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anthropomorphic speculation (Goodwin, 2008). After observing that the dogs presented

motor and secretory responses to the presentation of food, Pavlov decided that he would ignore

motor responses and measure only salivary reflexes (Goodwin, 2008). He then defined

conditioned reflexes in terms of their acquisition and extinction.

During acquisition, Pavlov first presented the dogs with meat (the unconditioned

stimulus, UCS), which stimulated the dogs salivation (the unconditioned response, UR).

Conditioning involved interjecting a neutral stimulus, the ringing of a bell (the conditional

stimulus, CS) prior to the presentation of the UCS. Eventually, the dogs made the association

between the two stimuli and became conditioned to salivating (now a conditioned response, CR)

at the ringing of the bell (CS) prior to the presentation of the meat (UCS). Extinction of the

conditioned response consisted of sounding a metronome (the CS) at 30-second intervals every

two minutes without presenting any food. Pavlov then measured and recorded the amount of

time between sounding the metronome and the onset of salivation (the latent period)

(Goodwin, 2008). Findings indicated that with subsequent extinction sessions, latency increased

(3 >13) and salivation measures decreased (10 > 3 drops) (Goodwin, 2008).

How did Pavlovs classical conditioning change psychology? In addition to the

concept that actions could be conditioned (a concept supported and favored by Russian

communists), Pavlov changed psychology by presenting additional conditioning phenomena,

including replication, generalization, differentiation, and experimental neurosis or pathological

disturbances ( (Goodwin, 2008). Unfortunately, Pavlovs work went unappreciated in America

until the late 1940s with the translation of his terms. Pavlov and his studies have not only been a

mainstay in the introduction to psychology, they have also become common in the literature of

learning and have forged the way for future explorations of learning (Goodwin, 2008).
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Ultimately, Pavlov laid the groundwork for the evolution of experimental psychology and

provided the model for todays behavioral science (Goodwin, 2008; Mills & Mos, 1999).

John Watson. John B. Watson (1878-1958) is called the father and founder of

American behaviorism, not because he discovered it or because of the volume of his

contributions, but because of the implications that his infamous maze studies have had on

human learning, because of his Behaviorist Manifesto which called for subjective introspection

to be replaced by objective observation, because he argued ferociously against both structuralism

and functionalism, because he emphasized observability, and because he took a public stance

against introspection suggesting that psychology should become a science of behavior capable

of enhancing knowledge of human learning (Goodwin, 2008). In addition to taking on the goal of

replicating Pavlovs work on conditioned responses, transforming it into what has become

Classical Stimulus-Response (S-R) Behaviorism, and revising behaviorism numerous times,

Watson is single-handedly responsible for instituting classical behaviorism as the first phase of

the behavioral revolution (Goodwin, 2008; Mills & Mos, 1999; Moore, 2011).

Watsons behaviorist approach to the study of learning included habit formation,

instincts, the comparative study of sensory processes, a set of applied problems including

psychopathology, and identifying conditioned reflex as a unit of learning (Riiling, 2000). Watson

also studied the emotional responses of infants and young children and is probably most noted

for his famous Little Albert (Watsons nine-month old son) experiment in which he

demonstrated that fears could be unlearned. After leaving Johns Hopkins, Watson finished his

professional career in advertising, where he continued to use his expertise in the area of child

rearing and parenting (Goodwin, 2008).

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How did Watsons theories revolutionize psychology? By assimilating classical

conditioning and adopting his theory of stimulus substitution, Watson connected behaviorism to

the discovery of conditioned emotional responses and a behavioristic explanation for the learning

of phobic behavior, and established learning as a central topic for basic research and application

in American psychology (Riiling, 2000).

Operant Conditioning. By 1925, the focus on learning as proof of changed behavior

was based on the identified correlation between the effects of reinforcement on learning, the

beliefs that all learners had identical understanding and, given appropriate environmental

influences, all students could learn (Bush, 2006). Although Watson had been unsuccessful in

improving Pavlovs classical conditioning, another psychologist, B. F. Skinner (1904-1990),

opted to refine Pavlovs work (Goodwin, 2008). Skinner called his system radical behaviorism

because rather than deducing hypotheses from theoretical statements, testing them, and adjusting

the theory accordingly as Hull and Tolman had done, he used an inductive approach that

involved studying behavior samples and looking for generalizable regularities (as Pavlov did).

Rather than following Pavlovian conditioning precisely, Skinner expanded Thorndikes law

(which used the term reinforcer to refer to any event that increases the frequency of a preceding

behavior) and defined his Operant Conditioning (to distinguish it from Pavlov) as conditioning

in which a behavior occurs, and the immediate consequences of the behavior determine its future

probability of occurrence (Goodwin, 2008; Mills & Mos, 1999; Molenda, 2008).

In operant conditioning, Skinner demonstrated that by manipulating three variables (the

stimuli, the responses, and the consequences that follow the response), experimenters could elicit

complex behaviors from laboratory animals (Molenda, 2008). Operant conditioning theorized: 1)

positive reinforcement as presenting a stimulus (i.e., a reward) to increase a desired behavior; 2)

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positive punishment as providing an aversive consequence to decrease an undesired behavior; 3)

negative reinforcement as removing an aversive stimulus to increase a desired behavior; and 4)

negative punishment as removing something desired to decrease and undesired behavior

(Goodwin, 2008; S. Hickman, personal communication, September, 20, 2011)

How did Skinners Operant Conditioning change behaviorism? Skinner transformed

behaviorism by developing unifying and programmatic research objectives, by establishing

behaviorisms dominating force as psychology's philosophy of science, and by creating

behaviorism's scientific and ideological foundations and practices (Mills & Mos, 1999). He is

most noted for his schedules of reinforcement, his explanation of explanatory fictions, his

narrow-minded rejection of contemporary cognitive psychology, his views on problem-solving

behaviors, and his call for a technical psychology; all of which are evident in todays theories in

child rearing, learning, and education (Goodwin, 2008; Mills & Mos, 1999; Molenda, 2008). At

the very least, Skinners concept of the operant and the principle of reinforcement gave

behaviorists an alternative to Thorndike's law of effect (Riiling, 2000).

What Is Cognitive Theory?

The role of cognition in behavior dates back to Descartes conceptualizations of derived

ideas and his famous quote, I think, therefore I am (Goodwin, 2008). Watson and Skinner

integrated cognitive theory into behaviorism in their learning theories: Watson with his maze

learning and Skinner with the application of operant conditioning to learning, thinking,

memory, and language acquisition (Goodwin, 2008; Molenda, 2008). During the 1940s,

however, psychologists and scientists became increasingly concerned that conditioning and

associationist principles could not account for all human behavior (Nystul, 2005). While they

became frustrated with the narrow constraints of behaviorism, they also continued to expand
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their research into areas that were not observable; Watson reduced behavior to reflex actions and

Skinner placed behavior at the mercy of reinforcement contingencies (Bush, 2006; Nystul,

2006). Cognitive theory simply recognized the role of cognitions/thoughts in behavior and

integrated them into behaviorism in the forms of behavior and cognitive/behavior therapies.

What Are Current Applications of Behaviorism and Cognitive-Behavior Theory?

Behavior Therapy. Behavior Therapy is one of the most popular applications of

Pavlovs classical conditioning (used in systematic desensitization processes to treat phobias),

Watsons learning theories (via his influence on social learning theory with its emphasis on

observation, modeling, and imitation), and Skinners operant conditioning (involves the use of

reinforcement and/or punishment; used in programmed learning, self-control, behaviorally-

oriented discipline procedures, and management of clients in institutions by use of token

economies) (Nystul, 2006). Behavior therapy tends to be brief and solution-focused, concentrates

on overt, observable behavioral processes and cognitions, focuses on the here and now, is

committed to the scientific method, defines maladaptive behaviors as learned, and uses well-

defined, concrete goals (Nystul, 2006). Behavior therapy is a structured process in which

counselors take an active and directive approach and incorporate problem-solving strategies and

self-monitoring and clients are expected to take an active role in bringing about desired changes

in behavior (Nystul, 2006; S. Hickman, personal communication, 2008). Due to recent studies

suggesting its effectiveness, there has also been a rapid increase in behavior-based therapies for

children with diagnoses of autism and other developmental disabilities (Wakefield, 2007).

Cognitive Therapy. Cognitive therapy, which emphasizes the role of cognitive processes

on mental disorders (i.e., anxiety and depression) and behavior, contends that the cause of mental

disorders can be directly attributed to cognitive dysfunctions; that people are products of
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interactions of innate, biological, developmental, and environmental factors; and that people

have the capacity for self-determination by controlling their cognitions (Nystul, 2006). Cognitive

theorists correlate psychological distress with disturbances and cognitive process and posit that

by modifying thoughts/ cognitions, clients can modify their behaviors and emotions (S.

Hickman, personal communication, September 20, 2011).

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapies. Behavioral counseling, which focuses on overt,

observable, and measurable behaviors) is founded on Skinners goal of promoting behaviorism

as the science of behavior psychology (Nystul, 2006). Cognitive-behavioral theories

emphasize the role of cognition and/or behavior in psychological functioning and combine both

therapies into one. Theories that originally had a cognitive focus incorporate behavioral

techniques (i.e., cognitive therapy and rational-emotive behavior therapy) and behaviorally-

oriented theories incorporate cognitive techniques and concepts (i.e., behavior therapy and reality

therapy) (Nystul, 2008). Cognitive therapy is also used in the treatment of five specific anxiety

disorders: panic disorder, social anxiety disorder, generalized anxiety disorder (GAD),

obsessive- compulsive disorder, and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (Robichaud, 2010)

Programmed Instruction. Skinners influence can be seen in Programmed Instruction

(PI), which Skinner invented by applying operant conditioning principles to academic tasks in a

personal experiment using one of his own children, Julie (Molenda, 2008).Skinner analyzed the

deficiencies of group-based traditional instruction and arranged contingencies of reinforcement

in small steps, or frames, of information (Molenda, 2008). Todays PI improves upon Skinners

operant conditioning by incorporating more human interaction, social reinforcers and other forms

of feedback, larger and more flexible chunks of instruction, and more attention to learner appeal

(Molenda, 2008). The most exciting contribution of Pavlov, Watson, and Skinners commitment
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to relentless, objective measurement, however, is that it paved the way for todays computer-

based instruction and distance learning.

Conclusion

Although Skinners PI is no longer visible, technologies derived from PI include

programmed tutoring, Direct Instruction, and Personalized System of Instruction (Molenda,

2008). Interestingly, all of the evidence presented above points to the understanding that while

Watson was credited with the founding of the behaviorist movement in America and is known

today as the father of American behaviorism, he only founded behaviorism because everything

was right for the founding (Goodwin, 2008; Mills & Mos, 1999). Not only did Watson explain

instrumental learning as an unsolved problem, he remained loyal to his goal of elevating the

topic of learning within American psychology (Riiling, 2000). Although he was unsuccessful in

replicating Pavlovs work, Watson was able to use Pavlovs methodology to identify emotional

learning in infants as an appropriate application of classical conditioning (Riiling, 2000). Given

the stimuli, we can predict that Pavlov would have responded similarly if the environment had

been right. However, there is solace in the fact that Skinner's view of learning, with its

emphasis on human potential, offers a solid foundation for the study of the adaptability of human

behavior (Bush, 2006).

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