Disaster Risk and

Impact Management
Some Ecohydrological and
Strategic Issues
EDITORS
Dr. Anil K Gupta: Ecologist and policy professional by
education and experienced disaster management and climate
resilience professional, he is Head of Policy Planning Division,
Associate Professor since 2006 at National Institute of Disaster
Management, New Delhi. His pioneering contributions were in
climate change adaptation integration with disaster management
and developmental planning, ecosystem based approach,
national human resource and national disaster management
planning, institutional strengthening, and international cooperation. He is Core
Group Member of International Union of Conservation of Nature Council of Ecosystem
Management, South Asia.
Sreeja S. Nair: An international staff of the United National
Human Settlement Programme (UN-HABITAT) in Myanmar,
looking after the Myanmar Consortium for Disaster Risk
Reduction, is known data and risk mapping professional, besides
expertise on policy, capacity and coordination. She is completing
her doctoral treatise on drought vulnerability and mitigation
analysis with reference to climate change impacts in
Bundelkhand. Prior to her UN job, she worked with NIDM as
Assistant Professor, and looked after aspects of disaster database, legal framework,
planning, chemical disasters, risk mapping and climatic resilience integration into
development.
Prof. Vinod K. Sharma: Pioneer of disaster management
capacity building system in India, founder of National Centre of
Disaster Management (NCDM, now NIDM), Senior Professor of
Environment and Disaster Management at Indian Institute of
Public Administration, New Delhi, is also Executive Vice
President of the Sikkim State Disaster Management Authority
(Minister status), and Member of Scientific Committee of the
United Nations International Strategy of Disaster Reduction UN-ISDR in the Asia
Pacific. Prof. Sharma has served in several countries in various academic and
technocratic positions contributing to disaster risk management and emergency
response.
 Disaster Risk and
Impact Management
Some Ecohydrological and
Strategic Issues

Editors
Anil K. Gupta
Sreeja S. Nair
Vinod K. Sharma

2018
Daya Publishing House
A Division of
Astral International Pvt. Ltd.
New Delhi 110 002
 2018 EDITORS

Publishers note:
Every possible effort has been made to ensure that the information contained in this book is accurate
at the time of going to press, and the publisher and author cannot accept responsibility for any
errors or omissions, however caused. No responsibility for loss or damage occasioned to any person
acting, or refraining from action, as a result of the material in this publication can be accepted by the
editor, the publisher or the author. The Publisher is not associated with any product or vendor
mentioned in the book. The contents of this work are intended to further general scientific research,
understanding and discussion only. Readers should consult with a specialist where appropriate.
Every effort has been made to trace the owners of copyright material used in this book, if any. The
author and the publisher will be grateful for any omission brought to their notice for acknowledgement
in the future editions of the book.
All Rights reserved under International Copyright Conventions. No part of this publication may be
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written consent of the publisher
and the copyright owner.

Cataloging in Publication DataDK

Courtesy: D.K. Agencies (P) Ltd. <docinfo@dkagencies.com>
Disaster risk and impact management : some ecohydrological and strategic
issues / editors, Anil K. Gupta, Sreeja S. Nair, Vinod K. Sharma.
pages cm
Contributed articles.
Includes index.
ISBN 9788170358527 (hardbound)
1. DisastersRisk assessment. 2. Emergency management. 3.
Ecohydrology. I. Gupta, Anil K., 1970- editor. II. Nair, Sreeja S., 1976-
editor. III. Sharma, Vinod K., editor.
LCC HV553.D57 2018 | DDC 363.34 23

Published by : Daya Publishing House

A Division of
Astral International Pvt. Ltd.
ISO 9001:2015 Certified Company
4736/23, Ansari Road, Darya Ganj
New Delhi-110 002
Ph. 011-43549197, 23278134
E-mail: info@astralint.com
Website: www.astralint.com

Laser Typesetting : Classic Computer Services, Delhi - 110 035

Printed at : Replika Press Pvt. Ltd, Sonepat

This copy is for sale in Indian Sub-Continent.

 Acknowledgements

The present outcome in form of edited book volume is result of the hard work
and excellence of the learned authors who contributed specific chapters and case
studies on particular themes. Their support and long patience is gratefully
acknowledged. I take opportunity to express deep sense of gratitude to the senior
editor of this volume, Prof. Vinod Sharma, Vice Chairman of the Sikkim State Disaster
Management Authority, for his continuous support, encouragement and guidance
throughout the process of developing this volume including structure, design and
editing. Co-editor Ms. Sreeja Nair has been a great support by her endeavours in
editing and proof reading as well, besides knowledge organization and presentation.
Prof. Rajiv Shaw (Keio, Japan), a senior and learned academic friend, who has
always been a source of inspiration and support, deserve a special mention who
agreed to write the foreword to this book. Art of edited volume learnt from Prof.
Mohammad Yunus, Vice Chancellor, Mohammad Al Jauhar University, Rampur,
UP, is an asset and is gratefully acknowledged. Encouragement from colleagues
especially Prof. C. Ghosh, Dr. Sushma Guleria, Dr. A. D. Kaushik of NIDM, Ms. Swati
Singh of Sustainability and Resilience Academy (SURE), Dr Shalini Dhyani (IUCN
CEM South Asia), Dr Anand Kumar (UNDP), Prof. Jugal Kishore (VMMC), Prof.
Shiraz A Wajih (GEAG) and Shashikant Chopde (ISET USA) are gratefully
acknowledged.
Editors express special gratitude to the academic and supportive environment
facilitated by Shri Bipin Mallick, Additional Secretary (MHA) and Executive Director
(Incharge) NIDM New Delhi, and the Joint Secretary (Disaster Management) in
Government of India Shri Sanjiv Jindal. Any ambitious and promising endeavour is
possible by the grace of almighty brought in with the support and bestowment of my
beloved parents Dr. Dashrath Lal Gupta & Mrs. Urmia Devi, family members Dr Alka
Gupta, Dr. Vinod, Vanya, Vibhu, and all. Family members of senior editor and co-
editor are equally gratefully acknowledged. Last but not the least, mention of support
by the Astral International and its editorial team is important whose continuous
follow up and patience has made this publication possible.
Dr. Anil K. Gupta
Principal Editor
 Foreword

With the new global disaster framework called Sendai Framework for Disaster
Risk Reduction (SFDRR) in place from 2015, and its monitoring indicators adopted
and accepted in 2017, we are at the new crossroad of disaster risk reduction. Disaster
risk needs to be looked at more comprehends way than before, with a combination of
so-called natural and technological disasters; and the mitigation measures also
need to be implemented by a wider stakeholders.
This book is a unique attempt on addressing disaster risks on eco-hydrological
and strategic perspectives. Drawing lessons on climate related hazards as well as
bioterrorism, the book provides a new outlook on integrated risk reduction. The cases
presented in the bookare drawn primarily from India, as well as other from parts of
the world. These cases provide innovative solutions to different aspects of disaster
risks, with space application, drought and dry land management, landslide risk
reduction, watershed management, and treating hazardous waste. The book also
exemplifies some strategic approaches with community participation, environmental
risk assessment, health risk reduction and stakeholder participation. The chapter
authors come from wide range of practitioners, academics and policy makers, which
makes the book a truly inter-disciplinary in nature.
I am sure that the book will be a very good reference document for researchers,
scholars and academicians. I firmly believe that the readers will find this book as
extremely useful. I congratulate the esteemed editors of the book to compile such a
volume with rich examples, practical experiences and new outlook in risk reduction.

Dr. Rajib Shaw

Professor, Keio University, Japan
Member, UN ISDR Science Technology Advisory Group
Former Executive Director UN-ISDR (IRDR) Beijing, China.
 Introduction

Environmental and hydro-ecological science-policy interface offers multifarious

opportunities in addressing hazards but also in reducing underlying causes of
vulnerability, and thus, brings in systemic prospects in disaster risk reduction. Policy
environment for integrated approach comprising efficient governance and planning,
along ecological, social and engineering solutions, under a holistic framework is,
therefore, called in the recent international frameworks, viz. Sendai Framework of
Disaster Risk Reduction, Paris Climate Accord, and Sustainable Development Goals,
for 2015-30.
Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the environment through
depletion of resources such as air, water and soil; the destruction of ecosystems,
habitat and the loss of natural homeostasis. It is defined as any change or disturbance
to the environment perceived to be deleterious or undesirable, be it quantitative or
qualitative. Environmental degradation is one of the Ten Threats officially cautioned
by the High Level Threat Panel of the United Nations including World Resources
Institute, UNEP, UNDP and the World Bank. Disasters are the events of environmental
extremes which are inevitable entities of this living world. Over the years, with the
increasing human intrusion in the natural systems and the changing global
environment, the frequency and impact of the disasters is augmenting. Following are
the three major faces of environmental change primarily responsible for causing or
aggravating hydro-meteorological disasters:
Climate-change
Land-use changes
Natural resource degradation
Environment and disasters are inextricably linked, particularly in context of
hydro-meteorological hazards, climatic risks and epidemiological challenges. It is
now widely recognized in terms of following interface:
 x

a) Environmental degradation leads to disasters Environmental degradation

can occur owing to natural processes or due to human induced impacts.
Alteration of natural systems and processes, destruction of habitats, loss of
quality of environment and exploitation of resources are the broad indicators
of environmental degradation. Climate-change, land-use and natural
resource degradation are known to generate or aggravate disasters especially
of the hydro-meteorological origin. Increasing trend in these disasters like
floods, drought, cyclone, pest-attack and fires, worldwide and especially in
continents of Asia and Africa is a serious concern for governments and
communities.
b) Environmental degradation causes or aggravates vulnerability. Besides
causing new hazards and aggravating precursors of disaster risks,
degradation of environment increases socio-economic vulnerability by
reducing bioproductivity, livelihoods, water, food and nutrition, sanitation
and health, housing, entrepreneurship, and thus, overall economic settings
jeopardizing coping capacity of the people. Low capacities result in high
exposures to hazardous prone locations and conditions of high disaster
risk. Poor environmental quality and degraded natural resources also cause
social conflicts and political instability.
c) Disasters impact environment Disaster events are also known for causing
serious impacts on environment affecting natural processes, natural
resources and ecosystems, and thereby creating conditions for secondary
or future disasters including complex emergencies. Natural disasters can
also trigger chemical or technological disasters. Environmental
sustainability is also compromised during disaster management operations
and recovery process due to improper disposal of disaster and relief wastes,
acute exploitation of natural resources and inappropriate land-use/
landscape modifications.
d) Environmental Management and Disaster Management Cycle Knowledge
of environment are crucial in all stages of disaster management cycle
including pre-disaster prevention and mitigation, and during post-disaster
response, relief, reconstruction and recovery. Experience of the past disasters
indicated that environmental services like shelter, water, food safety,
sanitation and waste management form crucial components in emergency
relief especially in case of water and climate related disasters. On the other
hand, concern on disaster risk and mitigation is equally important in all
stages of environment management from prevention of hazards and
environmental degradation, control, impact minimization, remediation,
rehabilitation overall sustainability in environmental systems.
A well-managed environment can act as a buffer against disasters. This can
happen in two ways. A healthy or well-functioning ecosystem can regulate or mitigate
the hazard itself, thus preventing a disaster from taking place or reducing its impacts.
In addition, healthy ecosystems reduce peoples vulnerability to disasters by increasing
the resilience of communities through meeting basic needs (water, food, health, energy,
etc.) and supporting sustainable local livelihoods and economies. Opportunities of
 xi

integrating environmental management and disaster risk management together,

hence, are a prime concern emerged globally. Environmental laws and instruments
viz. EIA, Risk & Vulnerability Assessment, Ecological modelling and predictions,
auditing, environmental laws facilitate at key stages of disaster risk management.
The book Prospects in Disaster Management: Some Eco-hydrological and
Strategic Issues offers a range of issues with strategic philosophy, tools and case
studies across finding solutions to disaster risk through improved environmental
management and ecological safeguards with emphasis on hydrological, ecological
and some technological hazard features. The book is unique in its coverage to diverse
factors associating underlying factors of disaster vulnerability in hilly, coastal, riverine,
agriculture, industry and urban settings. The book is constituted in three sections,
viz. Disaster risks: overview, Case Studies, and Strategic Approaches.
The Section on Overview encompasses four chapters. Chapter 1 disaster risk
management and sustainability advocates integrated understanding of ecological
dimensions for drawing the framework of reducing risk. Dimensions of climate change,
with contributions due to increasing atmospheric methane concentration are detailed
in the chapter 2. Chapter 3 brings in the dimensions of coastal hazards with reference
to erosion and strategies of risk mitigation to reduce vulnerability to disaster events.
In the present global era of technological win over the nature and ecology, risk of
technological hazards, for example, bioterrorism is prevalent. Chapter 4 of the overview
section tried to address gaps in knowledge on biological hazards of anthropogenic
origin.
Presentation of knowledge and skills through case studies under the second
section of the book aims at bringing suitable examples from across the world, in
addressing climatic disaster risks and associated impacts. Remote sensing and
geographical information system offer great opportunity for mapping of hazards
and risks including vulnerability and capacity, to enable efficient planning (chapter
5). African nations are highly prone to water scarcity hazards in form of drought and
follow Indian scenarios in terms of risk and impacts on agriculture and water security.
Chapter 6 brings a holistic view of drought in Kenya. Hydro-ecological disasters can
follow a purely climatic or geological phenomenon. Chapter 7 presents a case study
of post-earthquake occurrence of landslides in Pakistan. Dimensions of social security,
entitlements and capacity in terms of alternative resources and support system are
important in drought risk management, as discussed in chapter 8.
Dry-lands which suffer lack of water holding can be improved with application
of mulching, as evidenced through the case study under chapter 9. Rain fed areas
which suffer with dry spells as well as flooding risks particularly under impact of
climate change, can adapt to the changes through agro-forestry (chapter 10). Pre-
disaster risk information is important especially for hydro-meteorological disasters
like floods, and choice experiment methods may be very useful as witnessed in Poland
(chapter 11). Chapter 12 advocated the science policy framework on watershed
management strategies offering integrated approach of land-water management for
disaster risk reduction. Hazardous wastes management presents specific issues of
risk in industrial and chemical intensive settings besides urban industrial commercial
 xii

agglomeration and unorganized manufacturing formulation sectors. Chapter 13

presents technocratic viewpoint and solutions of dealing with hazardous wastes.
Disaster risk management strategies revolve around environmental, community
and governance centric aspects in addition to science technology applications.
Community centric risk and vulnerability assessment tools are important (chapter
14) as argued in the section on strategies. Conventional dimensions of risk assessment
are inadequate as witnessed by earthquakes in Fukushima, China and Bhuj, and
super cyclone of Orissa, where chemical released added dimensions of complex
emergency. Chapter 15 presents a toxicological approach of risk assessment to cover
such aspects. Public health aspects seek prime concern in preventive risk management
and in effective response, as discussed in chapter 16. Disaster management is an
interdisciplinary and multi-sector affair, to be dealt with concerted efforts involving
all stakeholders. The process of stakeholder participation in planning and execution
has been discussed in chapter 17. Overall, the book attempts to address the critical
gap areas in existing knowledge on disaster risk management dimensions.
(Editors)
 Contents

Acknowledgements v
Foreword vii
Introduction ix
List of Contributors xv

Disaster Risks: Overview

1. Disaster Risk Management for Sustainability 3
Anil K. Gupta, Sreeja S. Nair and Vinod K. Sharma
2. Climatic Effects of Increasing Concentrations of 15
Atmospheric Methane
R.S. Khoiyangbam and Anil K. Gupta
3. Coastal and Sea Erosion: Risk Profile and Mitigation Strategies 37
Sushma Guleria, Sreeja S. Nair and Anil K. Gupta
4. Bioterrorism: A Technological Hazard for Ecology and Mankind 53
Manish Kumar Verma, Brijesh Kumar Singh, Rajeev Niranjan and
Anil K. Gupta

Case Studies
5. Space Application in Disaster Assessment and Mitigation: 85
Case of Haryana State
B.S. Chaudhary
6. Drought Occurrences and Management in Kenya 95
Jones F. Agwata
 xiv

7. Approach to Landslides Risk Management: 107

Case from Earthquake
K. Sudmeier-Rieux, R.A. Qureshi, P. Peduzzi, M.J. Jaboyedoff,
A. Breguet, J. Dubois, R. Jaubert, and M.A. Cheema
8. Empowerment Planning as a Strategy in 125
Drought Management
Shweta Singh
9. Application of Mulches in Conservation Dry Areas 137
Kumud Dubey, Anubha Srivastav and V.K. Singh
10. Utilization of Rainfed areas through Agroforestry 145
Ram Newaj and Shabir Ahmad Dar
11. Choice Experiment Method to Inform Flood Risk 167
Reduction Policies
Ekin Birol, Phoebe Koundouri and Yiannis Kountouris
12. Watershed Management: An Integrated Mission 179
Anil K. Gupta, Pallavi Saxena and Apoorva Mathur
13. Hazardous Waste: Treatment and Disposal Technique 189
S. Pandey, F.Z. Siddiqui and Anil K. Gupta

Strategic Approaches
14. Community Based Risk and Vulnerability Assessment 231
Pallavee Tyagi and Anil K. Gupta
15. Toxicological Approach to Environmental Risk Management 241
Pallavi Saxena and Anil K. Gupta
16. Health Impacts of Natural Disasters: 257
Environmental and Emergency Response
J Kishore, Ravneet Kaur and Anil K. Gupta
17. Role of Stakeholders in Disaster Responses 269
Avanish Kumar, Meena Raghunathan and Yogita Nandnwar
Index 273
 List of Contributors

1. Agwata, Jones F. (Dr.): Senior Lecturer, Centre for Advanced Studies in

Environmental Law and Policy, University of Nairobi, Kenya.
agwatas@uonbi.ac.ke
2. Birol, Ekin (Dr.): Head of Impact Research Unit & Senior Research Fellow,
HarvestPlus, IFPRI, Washington D.C., USA.
3. Breguet, A. (Dr.): The University of Lausanne/Institute for Geomatics and Risk
Analysis, Switzerland (UNIL-IGAR).
4. Chaudhary, B. S. (Prof, Dr.): Professor, Department of Geophysics, Kurukshetra
University, Kurukshetra - 136 119 (Haryana) India. bsgeokuk@gmail.com
5. Cheema, M.A. (Dr.): The World Conservation Union-Pakistan (IUCN-P).
6. Dubey, Kumud (Dr.): Scientist at Centre for Social Forestry and Eco-Rehabilitation,
Allahabad, U.P., India. dkumud@yahoo.com
7. Dubois, J. (Dr.): The University of Lausanne/Institute for Geomatics and Risk
Analysis, Switzerland (UNIL-IGAR).
8. Guleria, Sushma (Dr.): Research Associate, Division of Policy Planning, National
Institute of Disaster Management (Govt. of India), New Delhi 110002, India.
sushguleria@gmail.com
9. Gupta, Anil K. (Dr.): Associate Professor and Head Division of Policy Planning,
Lead: Policy, Environmental & Capacity Issues, National Institute of Disaster
Management (Govt. of India), New Delhi 110002, India. anilg.gov.in@gmail.com
10. Jaboyedoff, M. J. (Dr.): The University of Lausanne/Institute for Geomatics and
Risk Analysis, Switzerland (UNIL-IGAR).
11. Jaubert, R. (Dr.): The Graduate Institute for Development Studies, Geneva
Switzerland (IUED).
12. Kaur, Ravneet (Dr.): Assistant Professor of Community Medicine, All India
Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India. ravneetk08@gmail.com
13. Khoiyangbam, Raju S. (Dr.): Assistant Professor, School of Environmental
Sciences, Manipur Central University, Imphal (Manipur) India.
khoiyangbam@yahoo.co.in
14. Kishore, Jugal (Prof., Dr.): Director Professor and Head, Deptt. of Community
Medicine, Vardhman Mahavir Medical College, New Delhi, India.
drjugalkishore@gmail.com
 xvi

15. Kountouris, Yiannis (Dr.): Department of International and European Economic

Studies, Athens University of Economics and Business, Athens, Greece.
ykountouris@aueb.gr
16. Kumar, Avanish (Dr.): Assistant Vice President, GMR Varalakshmi Foundation,
Hyderabad, Telangana, India. avanish.kumar@gmrgroup.in
17. Mathur, Apoorva: Formerly at University of Delhi School of Environmental
Studies. Currently at 2719 pepper landing lane, Houston 77089 Texas, USA.
apoorvataurean@gmail.com
18. Meena Raghunath (Dr.): Director, Community Services at GMR Varalakshmi
Foundation, Bangalore, India.
19. Nair, Sreeja S.: Consortium Coordinator Myanmar Consortium for DRR, United
Nations Human Settlement Programme, Yangon, Myanmar (formerly Assistant
Professor, NIDM New Delhi). Sreejanair22@gmail.com
20. Newaj, Ram (Dr.): Principal Scientist, Indian Council of Agriculture Research
(Agroforestry), Jhansi, U.P., India. ramnewaj@nrcaf.ernet.in,
ramnewaj@gmail.com
21. Niranjan, Rajeec Kumar (Dr.): Assistant Professor, Degree College Lalitpur,
Bundelkhand University, Jhansi, U.P., India. ndmk143@yahoo.com
22. Pandey, Suneel (Dr.): Director, The Energy and Resources Institute, New Delhi
110002, India. spandey@teri.res.in
23. Peduzzi, P. (Dr.): U.N. Environment Programme -GRID/EUROPE, Division of
Early Warning and Assessment.
24. Qureshi, R. A. (Dr.): World Conservation Union, Islamabad, Pakistan, and
Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad
25. Saxena, Pallavi (Dr.): DST Fast Track Young Scientist, School of Environmental
Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU), New Delhi, India.
pallavienvironment@gmail.com
26. Sharma, Vinod K. (Prof., Dr.): Senior Professor Indian Institute of Public
Administration, New Delhi-110002 India, and Vice-Chairman (Minister Status),
Sikkim State Disaster Management Authority, Gangtok (Sikkim).
profvinod@gmail.com
27. Siddiqui, F. Z. (Dr.): Associate Professor, Department of Chemical Engineering,
Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, U.P. India
28. Singh, Brijesh Kumar: Institute of Environment and Development Studies,
Bundelkhand University, Jhansi, U.P., India. ndmk143@yahoo.com
29. Singh, Shweta (Dr.): Associate Professor, Chicago School of Social Work, Loyola
University Chicago, USA. ssingh9@luc.edu
30. Singh, V.K. (Dr.): Scientist at Centre for Social Forestry and Eco-Rehabilitation,
Allahabad, U.P., India.
31. Srivastav, Anubha (Dr.): Scientist at Centre for Social Forestry and Eco-
Rehabilitation, Allahabad, U.P., India.
 xvii

32. Sudmeier-Rieux, Karen (Dr.): Senior Researcher, Institute for Earth Science,
University of Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland. karen.sudmeier@gmail.com
33. Tyagi, Pallavee (Dr.): Sustainability Head, Namo eWaste Management Ltd.
Mathura Road, Faridabad (Haryana) India. palavee1@rediffmail.com
34. Verma, Manish Kumar (Dr.): Assistant Professor, Institute of Environment and
Development Studies, Bundelkhand University, Jhansi, U.P., India.
ndmk143@yahoo.com
2018, Disaster Risk and Impact Management , Pages 313
Editors: Anil K. Gupta, Sreeja S. Nair and Vinod K. Sharma
Published by: ASTRAL INTERNATIONAL (P) LTD., NEW DELHI

1
Disaster Risk Management for
Sustainability
Anil K. Gupta, Sreeja S. Nair and Vinod K. Sharma

Concept of Environmental Disaster Reduction, natural and man-made, is now

suggested to includes the identification and characterisation of potential causes of
hazards or risk, maximum probable environmental impact, consequence analysis,
prevention and control systems, impact minimisation planning, emergency
preparedness and post-disaster management.
The lacunae here is that, these techniques for assessing the risk and potential of
natural disaster, are highly expensive and give little emphasis on the cause, control or
hazard prevention. Ecological risk assessments traditionally have been used to
evaluate the adverse impacts of new chemicals or old contaminants on a particular
environment. But a growing realisation that the degradation of eco-systems, and the
onset of many common disaster can be caused not only due to chemical factors but
also due to physical and biological factors, has created a demand for the disaster
reduction strategies based on ecological risk assessment. In addition, the existing
focus emphases mainly the importance of relief-after-the-event strategy and
rehabilitation. Separative consideration of natural and man-made hazards in disaster
management policy and non-consideration of disaster risks in industrial or
developmental planning makes the problem complex and increases the vulnerability.
Assessment of hazards, especially the ones based in nature has been a concern
for the scientific community for a long time. Better instrumentation, global networks,
collaboration among the relevant institutions and agencies over the decades have
resulted in improved hazard assessment techniques and data. Modern technology
offers increasingly simple, reliable and low-cost methods for disaster mitigation. Yet
4 | Disaster Risk and Impact Management

paradoxically, the human and environmental impact of such events continues to

increase at an alarming rate in almost all countries. There is still more to do in knowing
the hazards, especially in relation to slow-onset disasters or environmental-natural
hazards such as drought, flood, fire and ecological degradation (Aysan, 1993).
However, understanding the vulnerability and damage-risk is only part of the picture.
The principal aim, that is, the reduction of natural disasters can not be achieved unless
there is good an understanding of what are the interactive influences and their root
causes leading to the prevalence of natural hazard.
The distinction between natural hazards or disasters and their man-made (or
technological) counterparts is often difficult to sustain. Many researches have called
the naturalness of natural disasters into questing, though the circumstances of
purely anthropogenic hazards, such as oil spills and chemical explosions, are usually
very different from those of, for example, earthquake and floods. Nevertheless, in
terms of the consequences there is a sizeable overlap (Alexander, 1993). Hence, much
that is of benefit to the study of natural catastrophe can be learned from technological
risks and disasters, and from the manner these interact with their natural counterparts.
Man-made risks are important here as the technology has created new sources of
risk, and increased old ones. It is also considerable that many aspects of disaster
management and risk reduction, developed in response to technological impacts, are
applicable to natural disasters.

Understanding Natural Hazards and Environmental Consequences

Natural hazards are those events that occur in nature and are capable of
producing injury or death to people and/or damage to property. Human activities
and ecological deterioration are likely to alter the frequency, increase or decrease
their severity or intensity, alter the damage distance, influence the rate of exposure
and vulnerability of hazard exposed persons and property (Petak and Atkisson,
1987). At the simplest level, humanity has the options either to live in harmony with
the natural environment, by a symbiosis in which ecological life support systems are
enhanced, or to exploit resources by a form of parasitism, in which hazards are
ignored until they strike (Alexander, 1993). The former provides opportunities for
sustainable development and protection against environmental extremes (natural
disasters), while the later relies on careless exploitation of non-renewable resources,
places little emphasis on hazard prevention and more on post-disaster relief, rescue
and rehabilitation
Many small to moderate earthquakes have been provoked by the superpowers
programmes on nuclear testing, and hence, the size of the interaction at seismic
network also reflects investment in intelligence work designed to monitor such trials.
Some induced seismicity is, however, inadvertent (Judd, 1974). The phenomenon was
first noticed in Greece in 1929, and on the filling of the Hoover Dam on the Colorodo
River, which provoked about 600 earthquakes, the largest of which reached a
magnitude of 5.0. In 1967 in West Central India, the Koyna Reservoir, which had a
capacity of 2,780 million meter cube of water, caused a magnitude 6.5 earthquake
which killed 177 people, injured 2,200 and left thousands homeless (Gupta and
Combs, 1976). Reservoir induced seismicity can be a problem when hydraulic
conductivity is strong are the way down to highly fractured rocks situated deep
Disaster Risk Management for Sustainability | 5

beneath the impoundment, and where water pressure is high in the saturated clefts
between rock blocks. Whether caused by the seasonal increase of inland rivers or the
storm rise of coastal waters, flooding results from the inability of these soil, vegetation,
or atmosphere to absorb the excess water (Cornell, 1982). Adjustment to floods can
broadly be classified into structural and non-structural, according to whether they
use engineering or administrative methods (Thampapillai and Musgrave, 1985). Long-
terms measures of flood prevention are based on the management of catchment
involving: (1) afforestation, (2) other vegetational changes (3) agricultural measures
(4) management of snow-covered areas, (5) management of urban areas, and (6)
implementation of efficient water resource conservation strategy. Land use control
combined with integrated water management programme, can be one of the most
important activities in reducing flood hazards. Statutes, regulations and public
motivations campaign can be employed in this line. Clearly, flood mitigation involves
some difficult dilemmas. For instance using dams as a structural measures of flood
control is problematic. It is difficult to decide between the paralle absence of a large
number of head-water dams, which may exert a limited effect on a trunk river, or a
measure down-stream dam, which may be vulnerable to failure and collapse. In
general, up-stream dams are best at controlling erosion and sedimentation, while
down-stream ones act best to restrict flooding. The later may need to be kept half
empty if they are to reduce high discharge rates, but this way this may limit their
value for water supply, power generation or recreational uses. Perhaps for this reason,
only 17 of Indias 1,554 large dams were built with objectives of flood control.
Drought can be defined as a condition of abnormal dry weather resulting in a
serious hydrological imbalance, with consequences such as losses of standing crop
and shortage of water needed by people and livestock (Alexander, 1993). In
hydrological terms, a precipitation drought is caused by lack or rainfall, a run-off
drought by lack of stream-flow and an aquifer drought by lack of ground water.
Drought result from a prolonged period of moisture deficiency. One concept is of that
particular use in the identification of drought condition is albedo. At the global scale
albido represents the total power of the earths surface and its atmosphere to term
back incoming solar radiation. As moisture conditions can often be detected by remote
sensing as an increase in surface reflectivity, caused by desiccation of the land surface
and wilting or death of vegetation and crops (Idso et al., 1975).
Main draw back of the existing drought management practices is the non-
consideration of long term key influences causing droughts and the expansion of
drought affected areas. Scientifically, it can be considered that floods are also one of
the principle causes of drought. The existing systems involved only post-event relief
or pre-disaster planning for emergencies, but no proper emphasis has been given on
the strategies of water-resource conservation practices to prevent these hazards (Gupta
et al., 1997). Many episodes of landslides and most of the forest fires are the
environmental consequences of human activities.

Relationship between Natural and Man-made Hazards

Natural Hazards are known to be as old as nature but man-made hazards are of
recent origin. Beginning with the industrial era mans activities started to cause
considerable changes in the natural environment. Presently they have reached such
6 | Disaster Risk and Impact Management

a high level that their physical, chemical or biological effects become sometimes similar
to the effects of natural hazards and even to the natural phenomena causing disasters
(Jovanovic, 1988).
Table 1.1: Interacting influences on consequences between the natural and man-
made hazards.
Natural Hazards Man-Made Hazards

Tsunami P Coral reef destruction

P Destruction of beach forest and other protective features
P Low settlement location
P Natural forest fire P Bad planning of long distance transport electric lines
P Fires due to lightning P Poor management of forest areas
P Fire due to volcanic explosions P Lack of protective corridors
P Negligence of fire sensitive areas
P Landslide P Bad road engineering
P Rock slides P Open mining
P Deforestation
P Poor drainage system
Earthquakes P Underground nuclear testing
P Bad planning of water development projects
P Deep mining
P Sensitive material and construction design of buildings
P Dense settlement
Floods P Deforestation
P Expansion of denuded areas
P Destruction of vegetation cover
P Erosion of soil cover
P Environmental modifications
P Poor design of community infrastructure
Droughts P Destruction of vegetation
P Environmental modifications
P Over exploitation of water resource
P Pollution/siltation oriented eutrophication leading to death of
water body
P Alteration of evapotraspiration system
P Cyclones Similar to hazards described under earthquakes, floods, tsunamis
P Hurricanes
P Typhoons
P Tornadoes

Contd...
Disaster Risk Management for Sustainability | 7

Table 1.1Contd...
Natural Hazards Man-Made Hazards

Modifications of temperature P Technologic trace gases and biomass burning influences on

homeostasis of planet earth
Ozone layer variations
Soil carbon depletion
formation of greenhouse effect and climate change
P Technological influence on trace gases concentration leading
to ozone layer depletion and UV-B increase and biological
perturbations
P Breaking of biogeochemical carbon cycle in agricultural areas
P Over removal of biomass resources and man-made fires

Table 1.1 reveals the interacting mixed influence on onset or severity of

consequences between the natural and man-made hazards. Interactions between
these two types of disasters, based on the effects are presented in Table-1.2. Aspects of
these relationships are presented (Modified after Jovanovic, 1988) in Table-1.3.
Table 1.2: Classified relationship between man-made and natural hazards according to
effect.

Man-made Activities Natural Phenomena

Changes of location of Changes caused in human P Earthquake

P Development practice activities-behaviour P Droughts
P Development projects or history due to P Volcanoes
P Floods
P Tsunamis
Changes in civilisations locations // Climate belts shifts of
patterns, ethnical invasions, geosolar origin
migrations, wars, etc.
Challenges from natural Severity of Challenges from man-made
environment: consequences environment:
Water, food, fodder, energy increased by P Epidemics
supply, environmental quality P Fires
difficulties P Pollution

Table 1.3: Aspects of relationship between man-made and natural hazards.

Man-made Hazards Natural Hazards

Water pollution Reversible P Sewage disposal and river

Water rehabilitation biota destruction
P Water treatment
Air pollution Irreversible Acid rain
Arithmetic effect
Man-made event + natural event = Disaster
Resonance Effect
Small explosion-resonance-earthquakeLow magnitude-resonance-high magnitude
8 | Disaster Risk and Impact Management

Disaster Assessment and Environmental Risk Mapping Based

Guidelines
Appropriate evaluation of a hazard requires determination of the occurrence of
a natural event at its various intensity levels. To appropriately assess the levels of risk
associated with natural hazard exposures in India, it is required to carry out following
studies :
1. Identification and characterisation of natural hazard problems,
2. Selection of potential hazards and past accident analysis,
3. Study and formulation of cause-effect interactions and influence network
modeling,
4. Exposure-response assessment and vulnerability studies,
5. Identification and measurement of the major primary, secondary and high
order effects,
6. Identification of the cost and characteristics of the appropriate technologies
for preventing/mitigating the hazards,
7. Assessment of associated public policies and improvements based on
ecological/scientific and anthropological factors.

When it is considered that both type of disasters, natural and man-made, are of
environmental origin, and have inter-influencial relationship, it becomes imperative
to adopt an integrated approach for hazard reduction/prevention and hazard control
(from becoming a disaster). This has been the experience that unplanned development
and other human activities have increased the occurrence and intensity of disasters
to an alarming consideration. A hazard becomes a disaster either due to increases
vulnerability of land uses. Environmental Risk Mapping Based Developmental
Planning is a preventive approach for designing Disaster Management based
sustainable development.
In India, Ecological Carrying Capacity based Developmental Planning concept
has been initiated by a CSIR Institute - NEERI, and prepared plans for Doon Valley,
National Capital Region (NCR), Jamshedpur region and Satna region etc. In an another
effort to plan better industrial siting based on environmental considerations, Central
Pollution Control Board designed a tool Zoning Atlas for Siting of Industries and
prepared the Zoning Atlases for around 20 districts in the country. However, major
thrust of both these activities was on supportive capacities and positive effects of
development. Zoning Atlas procedures consider the existing land-uses for industrial
siting but fail to evaluate short-term and long-term vice-versa impacts giving rise to
potential hazards. Disaster risk due to siting of hazardous/chemical installations
and natural hazards (increase in risk and vulnerability due to man caused stresses)
potential of a site is required to be considered imperatively. Ecological Risk
Assessments may be the tool for understanding the risk of slow-onset disasters of
environmental origin. Carrying Capacity based Planning is a very expensive and
time taking project; and Zoning Atlas is a district planning tool. But as the inter-
district or inter-regional influences are now very strong and citizen settlement or
Disaster Risk Management for Sustainability | 9

other developmental activities add to it, Zoning Atlas fails to project any prediction
on the future land-uses and hazard probabilities. Therefore a new tool Environmental
Risk Mapping Based Guidelines for Developmental Planning is conceptualised.
The procedural framework for this is designed by the authors. Important among the
aspects to be considered in Risk Mapping are as :
P Resource (natural, human and infrastructural) supportive capacities,
P Assimilative capacities (resilience, resistance and dilution/dispersion),
P Risk zoning of hazardous installations/highly polluted sites (damage/
impact distance),
P Risk intensity of natural and ecological hazards,
P Population/land-uses vulnerability and hotspots (categorisation),
P Land-use and land-cover classes, Waste lands,
P Tribal settlements, Mining sites, Hazardous waste sites etc.,
P Historical and cultural monuments, Dense settlements,
P Watershed, Airshed, Meteorological characteristics,
P Area specific notifications/regulations,
P Ecologically sensitive sites, Tourist spots,
P Major dams, Rivers and Seismic zones,
P Past disaster cases and predicted hazards,
P Sites of probable mass emergencies (pilgrims etc.).
P Existing Disaster Response Centres.

While mitigation is often taken to mean increasing structural strength, it is more

useful to view it within a broader context: mitigation is a management strategy that
balances current actions and expenditures with potential losses from future hazard
occurrences. More generally, mitigation objectives are those that eliminate or reduce
the probability of occurrence of a hazard event, or those that reduce the impacts of
hazard occurrence. Preparedness activities are necessary to the extent that other
mitigation measures cannot prevent disasters. In the preparedness phase,
Governments, organisations and individuals develop, test and maintain plans to
save lives and minimise disaster danger (Petak and Atkisson, 1982).
Ecological risk assessment provides a methodology for evaluating the threats to
ecosystem function associated with environmental perturbations or stressors and
likely to cause a hazard or an increase in the probability (Lowrance and Vellidis,
1995). The objective of the regulatory development activities during the last two decades
was to improve our nations environmental quality. Environmental quality may be
defined as a level of measurable ecosystem-health (Gupta, 1996) that is desired, which
an organisations activities and strategies are designed to achieve such with reduction
in the risk of a natural hazard or preservation of a geographic area of significance.
The scientific and technological information requirements may be classified as: (1)
research and development activities aimed to improve the risk assessment process,
and (2) innovative disaster prevention approaches and impact minimisation
10 | Disaster Risk and Impact Management

technologies (Rao, 1995). Following are the important aspects to be covered in

environmental risk analysis:
1. Identification of potential hazards.
2. Probability of occurrence and prediction/warning,
3. Maximum credible damage scenario,
4. Damage distance analysis,
5. Secondary hazards, and
6. Environmental risk mapping.

Research and Training: Approach to Disaster Management

Education
Many recent disasters had their main impact in human settlement sites where
there is a large concentration of people with severe (direct or indirect) stress on natural
factors and dependency of civil infrastructure and services. Environmental
degradation has often increased the vulnerability, in particular of low-income groups.
Technological risks increasingly play additive role in urban and industrial societies.
Increasing carbon depletion (in soil-nature system) is adding to the problem as the
increase in risk (frequency X intensity) of hazards like floods, droughts, landslides,
and epidemics etc.
It is the foremost need that the science of Disaster Management should be
brainstormed and conceptualised. A "National Mission for Disaster Reduction and
Resilience should be established under the Ministry of Environment/MOEFCC and
now there is no wisdom in keeping natural and man-made disasters separately
while reviewing the National Policy for Disaster Reduction. The integrated approach
should necessarily incorporate the epidemiology, environmental risk analysis/
auditing and community psychology/medicine. The disaster management goal
should imperatively focus on research priorities of hazard prevention through
environmental management and planning, vulnerability reduction and impact
minimization.
Organisations involved with emergency response or recovery work view a disaster
as providing an opportunity to promote economic development (Bekre, 1994). In
particular, collaboration between external donors and local organisations can lead to
a strengthening of local organisational capacity to undertake development projects.
Recovery communities need to acknowledge the constraints to development posed by
natural hazards. In many instances, housing had not failed because the raw material
was inadequate, but because they were improperly used. In other cases, population
growth, increasing urbanisation, shortage of low-cost land, and impoverishment
meant that people incurred severe losses because they were forced to live on marginal
land, such as hazardous flood plains in Jamaica (Berke, 1994). Flooding in low lying
areas was also intensified because of poorly maintained storm drainage system.
Ecologically damaging development practices also compounded the risk, as in the
case of deforestation in several countries that induce watershed erosion and flooding,
and in tern drought in summer. Relationship between sustainable development and
Disaster Risk Management for Sustainability | 11

disaster reduction should be recognised as natural disasters can be reduced only if

the risks are analysed and taken into account in an overall regional planning.
Communities need to have a realistic understanding of the risk to which they are
exposed, and have the knowledge, ability, and guidance to take adequate preventive
action and protective measures.
Training is a means to improve performance and problem solving capabilities in
difficult situations. It is also a continuous process to build capability, in sufficient
number of concerned individuals, to bring about planned changes in the system or to
plan preventive measures to reduce the risk of a hazard. The disaster management
training should involve both preventive and protective approach. The information
flow should be based on research on causes of hazards and their reduction. Therefore,
in order to fulfil the objectives of IDNDR, training should focus on following issues;
P Causes and probability of hazards,
P Risk analysis and hazard prevention measures,
P Disaster reduction, impact assessment and minimisation,
P Disaster preparedness and emergency management,
P Loss analysis and mitigation analysis,
P Rescue, relief and rehabilitation,
P Risk mapping based guidelines.

Disaster Preparedness and Role of Data Management

Many people now accept that human activity itself has created the conditions
for disaster events. This partly because of growing awareness that through negligence
or inappropriate response, the working of social systems have made a disaster out a
situation which otherwise might not have been so serious. There has also been a
growth in understanding that it is hazard that are natural, but that for a hazard to
become a disaster it has to affect vulnerable people (Cannon, 1993).
Aligning national and local efforts into the adoption of a preparedness and
protection strategy may be no easy task. Such a strategy has to make its way into the
face of the adopted relief management policy, and in the face of competing claims
of national policies for poverty alleviation, integrated rural development, food security
agriculture, economic structure adjustment and environmental protection (Oakley,
1993). Principle problem is that the relief-after-the-the-event strategy is still being
followed as the issue of natural disaster prevention and management is being dealt
chiefly by the civil officers and the resource-scientist community is not appropriately
made involved in planning better hazard reduction approach. In fact, it requires to
establish a National Disaster Management Service. Ministry of Environment and
Forests, Government of India has issued a notification (August, 1996) for the
constitution of Central Crisis Group, State Crisis Group, District Crisis Group etc.
However, it still lacks proper execution. In order to formulate an effective network
these agencies may be given following responsibilities:
12 | Disaster Risk and Impact Management

P Help define with communities the nature of their vulnerability

P Help ensure the most effective use of scarce resources
P To motivate the people on issues of hazard reduction strategy
P Encourage the establishment of Local Emergency Preparedness Office
P Advice on the undertaking of mitigating actions
P Offer training opportunities and manuals
P Encourage the application of Environmental Impact Assessment of
developmental projects,
P Introduction of Strategic Environmental Assessment (of policies) and
consequence modeling.

To serve such plans, systems and procedures for disaster prevention and
emergency management a comprehensive disaster information system is required.
The identification and selection of data for disaster planning has to be based on the
availability of reliable information on the range of topics. Existing risk assessment
methods assume highly conservative exposure assumptions and toxicity/
consequence estimates. By adopting conservative point estimates, the opportunity to
quantitatively and more accurately address the input factors as a range estimates
(Finkel, 1990). Risk estimates based on worst-case exposure scenario do not provide risk
managers with lower risks of long-term ecological hazards ultimately leading to
environmental/natural disasters (Rao, 1995). The data on these aspects are likely to
be well defined, and logically organised whilst other information may not exist, or
where available may be both fragmentary and of debious quality. These are the typical
difficulties and discrepancies in a disaster planning system for an industrialising
society, so within a developing country even wider gaps can easily be imagined in
view of their limited professional resources to process and apply data.

Conclusion
Countering natural disasters continues to absorb the efforts of a number of
branches of science and engineering and a wide range of institutions, both national
and international. It has been estimated that, as a result of natural disasters, during
1970s and 1980s three million lives were lost world-wide, the number of disaster
increased threefold, the economic losses per decade almost doubled and the insurance
losses per decade quadrupled. Emphasis of Reduction should be considered
primarily on Prevention and then on Impact Minimisation through preparedness
of rescue, relief and rehabilitation. The issues of disaster reduction should be observed
in context with the objectives of efficient resource management, water conservation,
poverty eradication and environmental protection through public motivation and
statutory support.

References
Alexander, D. (1993). Natural Disasters. UCL press, London.
Aysan, Y. F. (1993). Vulnerability assessment. In : Natural Disasters (Ed: P.A. Merriman
and C.W.A. Browitt). Thomas Telford, London pp. 1-14.
Disaster Risk Management for Sustainability | 13

Berke, P. R. (1994). Sustainable development : Putting the principle in Practice in the

Caribbean. DHA News, 7 : 108.
Cannon, T. (1993). A hazard need not a disaster make: Vulnerability and causes of
natural disasters. In : Natural Disasters (Ed: P.A. Merriman and C.W.A.
Browitt). Thomas Telford, London pp. 92-105.
Cornell, J. (1982). The (Great International) Disaster Book. Charles Scribners Sons,
New York.
Finkel, A. M. (1990). Confronting uncertainty in risk assessment - a guide for decision
makers. Centre for Risk Management, Resources for the Future, Washington DC.
Gupta, H. K. And J. Combs (1976). Continued seismic activity at the Koyna Reservoir
site in India. Engineering Geology, 10: 307-313.
Gupta, A. K. (1996). Forest Fire and Ecosystem-Health : An Ecologists Overview. En-
voice (A NEERI Journal), 6: 46-49.
Idso, S. B. et al. (1875). The dependence of bere soil albedo on soil water content.
Journal of Applied Meteorology, 13: 343-347.
Jovanovic, P. (1988). Modeling of Relationship between Natural and Man-made
hazards. In : Natural and Man-Made Hazards (Ed: M.I. El-sabh and T. S. Murty).
D. Reidel Publishing Company, Boston. pp. 9-20.
Judd, W. R. (Ed) (1974). Seismic effects of reservoir impounding. Engineering Geology,
8: 1-212.
Lowrance, R. And G. Vellidis (1959). A concept Model for Assessing Ecological Risk
of Water Quality Function of Bottom Land Hardwood Forests. Environmental
Management, 19 (2): 239-258.
Mandal, G.S,. (1993). Tropical Cyclones and their Warning Systems. In: Natural
Disaster Reduction (Ed: G.K. Mishra and G.C. Mathur), Reliance Publishing
House, New Delhi, pp. 128-155.
Oakley, W.J. (1993). A National Disaster Preparedness Service. In: Natural Disasters
(Ed: P.A. Merriman and C.W.A. Browitt). Thomas Telford, London. pp. 270-281.
Petak, W.J. and A.A. Atkisson (1982). Natural Hazard Risk Assessment and Public
Policy. Springer-Verlag, New York.
Rao, V.R. (1995). Risk Management: Time or Innovative Approaches. Environmental
Management, 19(3): 313-320.
Thampapillai, D.J. and W.F. Musgrave (1985). Flood Damage and Mitigation: a review
of Structural and Non-structural Measures and Alternative Decision Frameworks.
Water Resource Research, 21: 411-424.