Professional Documents
Culture Documents
August 2007
CIC numbers: TG143.5/-1 Document Code: A Article ID: 1672-6421 (2007) 03-175-07
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CHINA FOUNDRY Vol.4 No.3
is necessary for this method as the induction power applied to ZHANG Fu-quan et al [73] introduced a process of RE
the furnace bath provides sufficient stirring action. This method vermicularisation and post inoculation. This process is cheap
is suitable for medium section VGCI castings [57]. and simple; with measures of control and testing in front of
2.1.4 Two-step treatment the furnace, even for high sulphur (0.05%J0.07%) cupola
RE-Mg-FeSi alloy is placed inside the dam in the bottom of the molten iron, VGCI can also be produced successfully.
treatment ladle. Molten iron is tapped into the ladle and treated 2.3 Vermicularisers
into SG iron; more molten iron is tapped into the treatment The characteristics and quality of vermicularisers is one of the
ladle with addition of the inoculant; the SG iron then is changed essentials for stable and consistent production of VGCI. The
to VGCI by reducing the magnesium and RE content. The early vermicularisers used in China were all RE-FeSi alloy; the
treated iron is slagged off, and then poured. This method is problems with the RE-FeSi are:
suitable for the small and thin section castings [58]. 1). The addition range for producing VG is narrow
2.1.5 Wire feeding method 2). Lots of dross is formed on the iron surface which is difficult
The feasibility of using the wire feeding method was studied to remove
by several investigators [59-61]. The composition and addition 3). The resulting iron has a high chilling tendency
rate of the wire were analysed and processing parameters were Intensive investigations have been carried out to try and solve
determined. Wire feeding and ladle treatment were compared these problems and following results have been obtained [21, 74, 75].
and it has been shown that the wire feeding method has its 2.3.1 The difference between upper and lower limits for the
own advantages in the production of VGCI: the percentage of suitable range of addition
VG is stable and consistent, and cost is reduced. Since 1991, For producing VG, the range of vermiculariser addition, (i.e.
using wire feeding and induction furnace melting, the German the difference between under and over addition), is actually
Foundry, Halberg has been producing VGCI V8 cylinder blocks the ability to modify graphite morphology. A vermiculariser
for an Austrian company. The cylinder block has 3.0 litre swept having strong modification ability will produce SG more easily;
volume and produces 150 kW; it weighs only 74 kg and its whilst a vermiculariser having weak modification ability will
main wall thickness of the cylinder is only 3.5 mm. The alloy produce VG more easily. The addition range of vermiculariser
in the core of the wire is 5% Mg-FeSi and each treatment is Ca-FeSi alloy > RE-FeSi alloy > Mg-FeSi alloy. When using a
weight is 1 200 kg. For the cylinder wall section, where specified RE-high Ca-FeSi vermicularisor, after the addition of flux, its
properties are necessary, the percentage of VG needs to be strong dross forming ability is significantly reduced and its
greater than 90% [41]. absorption is greatly improved; the addition range is then RE-
2.1.6 Other methods FeSi alloy > RE-high Ca-FeSi alloy > RE-Mg FeSi alloy. From
In addition, other methods are also used in production including analysing the residual element content in the VGCI, the range
double ladle [62], tundish ladle [63], nitrogen blowing [64], powder for VGCI is RE > Mg > Ca. Therefore, for the same vermiculariser
injection [65] and in-mould treatment [66] etc. These methods are the range is very different depending on its absorption into
used very rarely now. the molten iron. In the early days, a Ca vermiculariser was
At present the most used methods are sprinkling considered to have the widest range for producing VG; actually,
vermiculariser in the iron stream at the furnace spout and this wide range resulted from poor absorption. Relatively
dam-ladle treatment. With the requirement for more accurate speaking, RE-FeSi alloy is the vermiculariser with which it is
control of the production process and the percentage of VG, the easiest to obtain VG, but was considered as the alloy having
the wire feeding method is being adopted by more and more the narrowest range. This is due to the poor melting condition
foundries. and poor iron quality (mainly high and variable sulphur content,
especially for cupola melting) in the early days in China. These
2.2 Inoculation
poor conditions should not be considered as suitable conditions
Normally, inoculation results in an increase in eutectic cells in
for the production of VGCI. Actually in China with the least
VGCI [68-70], this was recognised in the production of SG iron as
improved metling condition using cupola iron, many foundries
early as in 1960 [67]. Therefore, for the requirement of a high
have produced VGCI successfully with RE-FeSi alloy. This
percentage of VG, large eutectic cells are desireable and no
confirms the advantage of RE alloy.
inoculation is necessary for VGCI [54, 64, 71].
Research work showed that a vermiculariser containing
Some people thought that Ca is beneficial for forming VG
mainly RE is more suitable for VGCI production [76]. SHEN Ze-
because of its inoculation or deoxidation and desulphuration.
ji et al [77] considered further that the increased La in RE
ZHANG Zhi-shan [72] doubted the opinion above, since it is
vermiculariser is beneficial for stable and consistent production
difficult to explain some experimental results. The author
of VGCI and considered that a RE vermiculariser should contain
considered that in crystallisation, Ca may locally remelt the
mainly La as the RE content.
austenite shell, or weaken the strength of the austenite shell, The addition of other minor elements for widening the
making it easy to be broken and create beneficial conditions addition range has been studied.
for growth of vermicular graphite; maybe because Ca is Ti and Sb: in the two elements, Ti is used more than Sb in
absorbed on the surface of graphite crystals, the surface tension the production of VGCI. Until now, however, using these two
between the prismatic plane and the liquid iron is increased elements in vermiculaisers mainly containing RE, significant
to a level necessary for vermicular graphite to grow. and stable results have not been found yet [21, 74, 14, 78-80]. SU
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Special Review
August 2007
Ying-long et al [81] found that when RE in a vermiculariser is found that the SG plus RE-Mg-FeSi is good vermiculariser for
high, the addition range for producing VGCI is too narrow, thin wall VG iron castings.
thus the anti-spheroidal element content needs to be The effects of trace elements Ca, Zn, Bi, Cu, Al, Ti, Sn, As,
increased. The author considered that this fact is because RE Pb and Sb on the addition range for VGCI were studied [89-97].
neutralises the deleterious effect of the subversive element Based on the results, vermicularisers suitable for thin and thick
Ti on Mg; conversely it can be said that Ti consumes the RE. wall section castings were suggested.
Research has been carried out on low, medium and high Ti With the exception of these trace elements, carbon, the most
irons and the results showed that the limits of suitable addition important element in cast iron, has an important effect on the
range for a vermiculariser are moved up or down with Ti addition range (or residual range) for VGCI. Study showed
content, but the range is not widened. This indicates that that low carbon (2.58%J3.22%) iron has a wider addition range
when RE is high, the addition of Ti does not show a than high carbon iron. This is in agreement with the results
corresponding effect for low RE. The addition of other obtained by QIU Han-quan and JIANG Yi-jian [7]. In low carbon
subversive elements will have a similar result. For example, equivalent cast iron, due to its large austenite dendrites, carbon
Sb is normally considered to be a strong subversive element is not easy to change to spheroidal and similar to SGCI; its
for SG iron; but when the author added 0.1% Sb into RE shrinkage tendency is high.
VGCI, the nodularity was significantly increased. QI Meng- At present the vermicularisers used in production in China
diao et al [46] studied the stability of VGCI production and are listed in Table 3 [75, 99]. Many foundries in China have
found that when using RE-FeSi with a trace of Sb, for produced their own vermicularisers and since the 1980s, many
production of VGCI, using local pig iron having traces of alloy companies have produced commercial vermicularisers; some
vanadium and titanium, and the sulphur in the base iron is typical vermicularisers and their application are listed in Table 4
allowed to vary about 0.025%, satisfactory results were 2.3.2 The formation mechanism of dross
obtained. Actually the research by QI Meng-diao et al [46] When a vermiculariser, especially RE-FeSi or RE-Ca-FeSi, is
confirmed that a trace of Sb has a significant effect on added to molten iron, a large amount of dross will be formed.
increasing nodularity; when Sb is increased to certain content The author considered the cause of formation from chemical
it is beneficial for obtaining VG. The author considers that dynamics and concluded that when the alloy is added to molten
this is because subversive elements Sb and Ti consume RE. iron, high melting point oxides, sulphides of RE and Ca, and
LI Qiu-shu et al [82, 83] considered that Ti exists as a precipitated, silicates are formed on the surface of vermiculariser particles.
blocky compound in VGCI, which changes the distribution These compounds do not move away from the vermiculaiser
of spheroidsing elements in the iron and promotes VG; they particle surface immediately, but cover the particles and hinder
came to the conclusion that Ti expands the range of RE-Mg- further de-oxidation, de-sulphuration and vermicularsation of
FeSi alloy for producing VG. the alloy particles underneath the compounds. The compounds
Mg-Ti FeSi vermiculariser with trace RE (similar to Foote covering alloy particles will float up to metal surface, with
alloy) can significantly expand the range for Mg because of other compounds and form dross. Therefore the key measures
the existence of Ti. It is clear that this is due to the very small for solving the dross problem are to eliminate or reduce these
amount of RE, therefore the neutralisation of subversive covering compounds in the first place, then reduce the melting
element Ti is very little. HOU Yan-hong et al [84] considered point of the vermiculariser and increase the density of the
that the inherent Ti content in many local pig irons in China vermiculariser. Adding flux during treatment, using low melting
is similar to the Ti content of the patent Foote alloy and point alloys and adding a small amount of Zn and Al in
suggested using a vermiculariser without Ti. Using this alloy vermicularisers are all measures for reducing dross.
for local pig irons containing Ti, good results could be
2.3.3 Chilling tendency of VGCI
obtained in the laboratory. If industrial production of VGCI
RE has the strongest chilling tendency on cast iron in
can be realised using this alloy, certainly it will be a very
vermicularisers. Therefore, if the vermiculariser has a high RE
significant development.
content, graphitisation needs to be increased; for example,
Al: Shandong University studied the production of VGCI
strengthening inoculation or increasing graphitisation elements
using RE-FeSi and RE-Al-FeSi. The results showed that RE
in the vermiculariser. Thus from a technological point of view
VGCI with Al has a much larger range than the RE VGCI [85].
the ideal composition of a vermiculariser should be beneficial
YU Hua-shun et al [86] studied the fading of VG containing
for forming VG, have a low dross forming tendency, easily
0.87%J4.20% Al and compared this with other VGCI. Using
absorbed by molten iron and have a low chilling tendency.
the same amount of vermicularising element, the fading of
Up to now more than thirty different vermicularisers, among
VGCI with Al can be delayed by 5 minutes. YU Hua-shun et
al [87] showed that with 0.87%J4.20%Al, the percentage of VG nine types, have been studied and corresponding technical standards
is increased, ferrite is enhanced, strength and elasticity are and treatment procedures have been set up; these vermicularisers
improved and the hardness is reduced, with less variation. can satisfy the production of VGCI castings of varying section sizes,
The anti-oxidation properties are improved with the increase under different conditions. However for those vermicularisers used
of Al content. Using optical microscope and computer to produce thin section castings (as references 88, 90, 94, 96
analysing YANG Xiang-shou et al [88] studied and analysed recommended), more experiments need to be carried out to verify
the thin section Fe-C-Si alloy samples treated with RE-Mg- whether they can obtain high percentages of VG.
FeSi alloy and the patent alloy SG plus RE-Mg-FeSi; and
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CHINA FOUNDRY Vol.4 No.3
Compared with the above alloys the Suitable for cupola and Used for induction furnace iron for EQ140
addition range is less; no much dross is induction furnace iron for small engine manifold and gear housing in an
Low RE-Mg-Ti formed; chilling tendency is the lowest and high chilling tendency automobile factory. Used to treat cupola
alloy and the critical addition is larger castings iron for gears in textile machine in a textile
machinery in Beijing
The addition range and chilling tendency Suitable for cupola iron for Used with salt in dam-ladle for cupola iron
are similar to that of RE-Zn-Mg- Al alloy; small to medium VG castings for cylinder liner in a diesel engine company
RE-Ca-Mg-FeSi
dross is less than for RE-FeSi, but more in Jiangsu
alloy
than for RE-Mg-FeSi; more fume is formed
Compared with above five alloys the Suitable for cupola iron for Used for cupola iron with double ladles for
addition range is less; the dross is less medium and thick section VG steel ingot moulds in an iron and steel plant
than for RE-Ca-Mg-FeSi alloy and more castings in Shanghai. Used for cupola iron with dam-
RE-Mg-FeSi alloy for RE-Ca-Mg-Al-FeSi alloy; chilling ladle for steel ingot moulds in a iron and
tendency is low. Has high nodularising steel plant in Hangzhou
ability therefore the critical addition for
VG is less
The addition range is slightly more than Suitable for cupola iron for Used for cupola iron with dam-ladle for
for RE-FeSi; the dross is more than for medium to large and thick engine cylinder liners in a diesel engine
RE-FeSi alloy plus RE-Mg and RE-Zn-Mg-Al alloy; need two section VG castings plant in Jiangsu. Used for cupola iron with
RE-Mg-FeSi alloy kinds of the alloys; it may be convenient dam-ladle for glass moulds in a medical glass
for the foundries having the two alloys, plant in Gansu province.
otherwise may not convinient
Note: the basic characteristics of vermicularisers indicate that for a similar kind of treatment alloy, the alloy with high RE will have a high
chilling tendency; the alloy with high Ca will produce more dross; the alloy with high Mg will have a small addition range and it will be easier
to produce spheroidal graphite.
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August 2007
Table 5 Resistance to thermal shock of GI, VGCI and SGI (cycles when first crack appears)* [105]
Test temperature Grey iron Pearlitic-ferritic VGCI Pearlitic SG iron
o
C Cycles Cycles Cycles
Room temperature _ 300 590 >1000 (no crack) >1000 (no crack)
Room temperature _ 600 65 190 100
Room temperature _ 900 10 43 28
* The number of thermal shock cycles (heating/cooling) before the first crack appears on the sample surface
3.2 Study on three-dimensional morphology but are part of the vermicular graphite. Normally under
What is vermicular graphite? There were dif fer ent conventional 2-D microscopy inspection, the small isolated
understandings on it in the past. With the development and nodules are not included as VG. Therefore the VG percentage
application of the Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) it is (not including the isolated nodules) is only a nominal
clear now that the observed isolated vermicular graphite flakes percentage, which is lower than the actual VG percentage. It
and some spheroids observed using conventional optical is reported that the 85% VG actually is 100% VG [116].
microscopy are actually connected to each other in space within Using TEM (Transmission Electron Microscope) and SAED
the eutectic cell. Some nodules are not really isolated nodules, (Selective Area Electro Diffraction) techniques it was found
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CHINA FOUNDRY Vol.4 No.3
that there are two kinds of VG: VG connected by many nodules FAN Rui-xin et al [125] showed that the solidification of VGCI
and VG connected by prism type graphite. An SAED study consist of two stages. The continuous redistribution of
also showed that the base face of prism graphite (0001) is vermicularising elements in molten iron is the important factor
partially coherent with ferrite (111) face; the mismatch is 5% [117]. affecting graphite modification.
ZHANG Guo-zhi et al [118] showed that under a pulse electro- LI Ke-guan et al [126] considered that from the cooling curve
magnetic field, the amount of branches of austenite is reduced two transformation stages could be observed. Firstly, graphite
significantly and graphite becomes coarse, but after nodules form before eutectic transformation and the nodules
spheriodisation the amount of spheriodal graphite is reduced grow with the growth of the austenite shell. Secondly, VG
and the percentage of VG is increased significantly. It was forms. This is because part of the austenite shell remelted and
considered that the stirring action by pulse electro-magnetic VG grows with the contacting melt. Thus the nodules formed
field and the thermal effect from an induced current destroy at the eutectic stage become the start of VG growth.
the stability of the austenite shell and promote branching of ZHU Zhen-hua et al [127] showed that there are three types of
graphite, SG is easy to change to VG and VG is easy to change eutectic cells: VG without branching within the cell; VG
to flake graphite. The author considered that this may be a originating from larger graphite nodules within the cell and
solution for over vermicularisation. VG with many branches within the cell.
WANG Liang-yang et al [119] pointed out that VGCI containing
3.4 Matrix structure
oxygen has less heteromophic graphite, graphite consists of
The properties of VGCI are mainly dependent on graphite
small blocky units; the edge of graphite is round and the ratio
morphology, which has been concentrated on by great research
of length over width is smaller. Using pig iron rich in Sn, As
work; but the properties are also affected significantly by the
and Pb elements for the production of VGCI will promote
matrix structure.
more heteromorphic graphite [120].
Some literature abroad considered that a pearlitic structure
Using unidirectional solidification research, the results showed
is very difficult to obtain in as cast VGCI. However in China,
that the main structure of VG is combined prism type of graphite
as early as in the late 1960s, pearlitic VGCI (ferrite <5%) machine
with flower or star type of graphite around the prism [121].
tool castings were produced using cupola melted high sulphur
3.3 Eutectic cells of VGCI iron without any alloying addition [24]. By adjusting molten
Due to the low sulphur and phosphorous content it is difficult iron composition, adding alloying elements and using different
to clearly show and calculate the eutectic cell count of VGCI. treatment methods high pearlite content VGCI cylinder liners
After many experiments and using alternate polishing and and steel ball grinding plates were produced, using centrifugal
etching techniques, a method has been found to detect the and sand casting techniques [128-131]. The effects of Si, Mn, Cr,
eutectic cells in VGCI. The eutectic cells model of VGCI has Mo, V, Sb, Cu, Sn and B on graphite morphology and matrix
been developed and photos of VGCI eutectic cells have been structure of VGCI were studied in detail [132]. The results showed
published [122-124]. Similarly with grey iron the vermicular graphite that by properly adjusting carbon equivalent and adding a
flakes in VGCI are interconnected and the cell sizes are similar certain amount of Mn and other alloying elements, VGCI with
to those in grey iron. However, unlike in grey iron, the more than 90% pearlite could be obtained consistently. The
vermicular flakes are not mesh with the vermicular flakes in tensile strength reached 430J470 MPa, transverse strength 900 MPa,
the neighbouring cells; VG in neighbouring eutectic cells is deflection 4J6 mm and hardness 249 HB ( 30 mm test bar).
segregated by a layer of metal matrix. Normally there are some In the early 1980s, VGCI microstructures were studied and
graphite nodules in VGCI; within the eutectic cell the spheroidal understood more thoroughly in China. Based on these results
graphite nodules are not a real nodules, but the ends of some companies have compiled metallography of vermicular
vermiculars; the nodules at the eutectic cell boundary are bigger graphite and VG metallography standard. In 1984, The
than those within the eutectic cell and they are the real isolated Metallography Standard for Vermicular Graphite Cast Iron,
nodules. The boundary of VGCI eutectic cells is not shown as (JB/T 3829-1984) [116,133-139] was issued by the former Machinery
clearly as those in GCI, this because the impurity elements in Ministry of China; and it has been used in teaching, research
VGCI are much lower and not uniformly distributed as in GCI. and production as an inspection standard since then.
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Special Review
August 2007
inclination direction of a twin face changes continuously and the beginning, VG is not formed from the distortion of
graphite forms a vermicular shape due to distortion. With more spheroidal graphite and grows into various VG. ZHOU Qing-
modification element the direction of a twin face inclines along de and SU Jun-yi [16] and HONG Zhong-cheng et al [105] thought
one direction and graphite forms a spheroidal crystal [142]. that the growth crystallisation of VG is similar to that of SG
Using a scanning microscope, the observation of liquid and grows with spiral dislocation steps.
quenched VGCI samples showed that at the early solidification PAN Zhen-hua [148] considered that the formation of VG is
stage eutectic cells are enveloped entirely by austenite; part of realised by many different ways. Using liquid quenching it
vermicular graphite branch still directly contacts with liquid was suggested that virtually the vermicularisation is kind of an
iron. The spacing morphology of the VG eutectic cell is un-completed even distorted spheroidisation. The formation
dissimilar to that of grey cast iron; some growth ends of of liquid channels within the austenite shell indicates the
ver micular graphite have spiral dislocation growth completion of SG distortion and the beginning of
characteristics [143]. Further study showed that during the entire vermicularisation. The distortion of VG front condition and
crystallisation of VG there exist liquid channels contacting the formation of secondary liquid channels are the indicators of
ends of VG and remaining liquid; these liquid channels result re-branching. Spheroidal graphite at the interface between
from enrichment of alloying elements, which reduce the austenite and liquid is the origin of a VG unit. The eutectic
solidification temperature of the liquid. These liquid channels cells of VGCI consist of several VG units and these units are
not only supply a source of carbon but affect the branching not connected to each other; but their eutectic austenite
[144]
and morphology of VG as well . dendrites are continuously connected. However, WANG Gui-
Using optical and scanning microscopes ZHOU Qing-de and sen [104] suggested that the vermicular flakes are from the same
[16]
SU Jun-yi observed the graphite growth morphology of the origin and connected to each other within one cell.
liquid-solid regions in the samples made from unidirectional GAN Yu and Loper [149] considered that the graphite
solidification. It was found that starting from SG distortion; morphology is not dependent on the structure of nuclei but
VG grows in branching and finishes in the form of mushroom depended on the local growth condition of the graphite particles.
type ends. Starting from flake graphite, VG grows along the a- Because of the variation of local growth condition, very different
direction as facet crystal, contacts with liquid cooperating with and complicated graphite morphology can be developed.
the growing of austenite. Towards the ends VG grows as facet Using simulation and decomposition/combination methods
along c-direction with spiral dislocation, forms mushroom type FAN Zhi-kang et al [150] studied the orientation relationship of
ends and gradually enveloped by austenite. Small graphite the base face of graphite in two-dimensional intercept and three-
nodules can also gather together, distorted, branch and grow dimensional space. It is important to understand the relationship
to VG. LIU Bai-cheng et al [143] observed gathered small nodules between the growth model and spatial morphology.
under scanning microscope with magnification of 100. The With the LMV unidirectional solidification technique YAO
author considers that this may lead to a mistake thinking the Xin et al [151] showed the whole continuous process of VG
origin of VG is gathering of small nodules. Using deep etching growth: from crystallite to complete vermicular gaphite. It was
technique and scanning microscope with high magnification found that vermicular crystallites precipitating between
the author found these small nodules are the some section of austenite dendrites are quite normal in hypoeutectic VGCI.
branches of VG within eutectic cells. Using liquid quenching ZHOU Bing et al [152,153] observed
Simulating the solidification of 250J300 mm castings with and analysed VGCI samples with different cooling rates. It
the same composition as the VGCI and by quenching and was found that with increased cooling rate more spheriodal
taking samples during different cooling stages of the VGCI growth characteristics appeared in the graphite; the increased
liquid, NIU Yin-yi et al [145] studied the growth of VG using cooling rate will make the iron crystallise under large
optical and electron microscopes. The results showed that at undercooling and increase nuclei, inclined twins are formed,
the early stage of eutectic growth, the major growth is the the tendency of spiral dislocation is increased, branching and
graphite front branching growing along (10T0) with the front growth velocity are increased, the tendency of eutectic growth
directly contacting liquid; the minor growth is the side face of graphite and austenite is reduced. Therefore the percentage
growing spirally along (0001). At the late stage of eutectic of VG is reduced, eutectic cell size becomes small and the
growth, graphite grows within the austenite envelope; graphite formed morphology of VG becomes more distorted and
fronts mainly grow spirally along (0001). Some people thought rounder.
that at the very beginning VG grows like a graphite nodule; more Using liquid quenching LI Xiu-zhen et al [154] revealed that
recently, it was realised that due to the breaking of the austenite the frequent bending of VG is the result of interaction between
shell and the existing channels along the shell, graphite grows graphite and austenite, and not due to the modification
[146, 70]
preferentially and locally and forms a vermicular shape . elements; through the direct effect on the growing interface,
Using the deep-etching method, SUN Guo-xiong and Loper [147] modification elements change the growth of graphite and
took all the VG from a sample and observed it under a SEM. It crystallized morphology.
was shown that many kinds of VG grow along the a-direction, Extensive research work has been performed on the primary
indicating that VG is closer to flake graphite in growth crystallisation of VGCI and it seems that more work needs to
characteristics; branching of VG happens at the late stage and be carried out to obtain a deep and common understanding
the graphite ends can form a spheroidal shape. Normally at of the primary crystallisation of VGCI.
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