Assuring Water Quality and Safety in Food Processing

By Richard F. Stier

Most people take water for granted. In the United States, Japan and in Western Europe, all that an
individual needs to do is turn on the tap at any time in the day or night to get clean, potable water.
Water is used for drinking, cooking, washing and myriad other tasks.

After listening to the rhetoric at a 2002 environmental conference in South Africa, it is apparent
that the right to clean water should be included in the list of unalienable rights for everyone in
the world. The reality is, however, that those who have abundant supplies of good, clean water
should consider themselves blessed. Anyone who has traveled overseas where the
recommendations include Drink only bottled water or Use the local tap water for rinsing your
toothbrush only, know how fortunate they are to have good water. There are still places in the
world where water must be drawn from public wells and carried home, and others where the people
are not even that fortunate.

Of course, even in places where water quality is considered good, problems crop up. The following
excerpt from the Centers for Disease Control and Preventions (CDC) Morbidity and Mortality
Weekly describes one such problem: In March and April 1993, an outbreak of cryptosporidiosis
in Milwaukee resulted in diarrheal illness in an estimated 403,000 persons. Following that
outbreak, testing for Cryptosporidium in persons with diarrhea increased substantially in some
areas of Wisconsin; by Aug. 1, 1993, three of six clinical laboratories in Dane County were testing
routinely for Cryptosporidium as part of ova and parasite examinations. In late August 1993, the
Madison Department of Public Health and the Dane County Public Health Division identified two
clusters of persons with laboratory-confirmed Cryptosporidium infection in Dane County
(approximately 80 miles west of Milwaukee).[1]

Water is, therefore, a major issue even in countries where the water quality is acknowledged to be
good. For example, during the later years of the Clinton Administration, they proposed lowering
the standards for certain elements. The Bush Administration held up implementation to allow for
additional study.

So, the bottom line is that water is essential for life, health and even doing business, but it cant be
taken for granted. Food processors need large quantities of good quality water for a range of
operations, including blending or mixing, cleaning, ice making, steam production and product
transport. It is absolutely essential that food processors take steps to assure that the water and water
systems in their plants are safe, wholesome and under their control.

Water as a Prerequisite for HACCP

The Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) regulations for both the juice and
seafood industries include eight areas where processors must have documented programs to assure
good sanitation.[2,3] One of these emphasizes the safety of water and ice used in food processing.
The following has been drawn from the U.S. Food and Drug Administrations (FDA) HACCP
regulation for the juice industry found in 21 CFR Part 123:

(a) Sanitation controls. Each processor shall have and implement a sanitation standard
operating procedure (SSOP) that addresses sanitation conditions and practices before,
during, and after processing. The SSOP shall address: (1) Safety of the water that comes
into contact with food or food contact surfaces or that is used in the manufacture of ice.

The Good Manufacturing Practices found in 21 CFR Part 110 also contains similar wording.
The question is, What can be done to assure that water quality is good? The regulations state
that the water supply shall be sufficient for the operations intended and shall be derived from
an adequate source. Any water that contacts food or food-contact surfaces shall be safe and of
adequate sanitary quality. Running water at a suitable temperature, and under pressure as
needed, shall be provided in all areas where required for the processing of food, for the cleaning
of equipment, utensils, and food packaging materials or for employee sanitary facilities.[4]

Most processors draw water from city water supplies or wells. The assumption is that these are
safe sources but this needs to be verified. There are many operations around the world that
draw from rivers or other sources and must treat water on site to assure its sanitary quality. In
the U.S. salmon canneries in remote locations in Alaska are such operations. Treatment plants
must, therefore, be an integral part of these facilities. In the early 1980s, two outbreaks of
botulism that were traced to canned salmon processors underscored the need for both good
sanitation and good water quality in these operations. Several operations installed reservoirs
for chlorinating can cooling water. Using information developed by the National Food
Processors Association, the waters were treated to achieve a 5-log reduction of spores of
Clostridium botulinum in an effort to reduce the potential hazard from water.[5]

There are also many operations that have additional treatment systems. They may be passing
water through a reverse osmosis (RO) system to ensure that the water is cleaner or of better
chemical quality when used as an ingredient. Other might chlorinate or ozonate their process
waters, and there are those who pass water through ultraviolet (UV) light systems. Each of
these kind of systems need to be included on the companys preventive maintenance program.
Records that filters or ultraviolet sources are changed regularly will ensure that the system will
function as designed, that is, it will keep water quality high and/or reduce the microbial load
in that water.

The water must also be delivered to different areas within the plant at with sufficient pressure
to do the job that needs to be done. For example, if a line contains a washer or washing step,
the water pressure must be high enough to properly wash the product or unit operation.
Operations that have problems with poor water pressure may be forced to install hold tanks
with pumps to assure both adequate supply and pressure.

Most food processors use hot water for cleaning and other operations. Processors need to assure
that they establish systems that allow them to heat sufficient quantities of water for all their
needs. Ideally, these systems should allow them to control temperature to within the necessary
parameters. For example, cleaners work best within set temperature ranges. If an operation is
involved with the production of meat or meat products, U.S. Department of Agriculture
(USDA) regulations mandate that there be sanitizing stations where the water is held at 82F or
above to assure that utensils may be properly sanitized.

The first step for a processor is to be sure that there are complete and updated plumbing
diagrams. Processors need to understand how fresh water comes into the factory, its source
and, perhaps, most important, that there are no cross-connections with sewage or waste water
lines. This is something that most new plants would have, but is not as common in older
facilities. Understanding water and wastewater flow is absolutely essential. The plant engineers
and/or maintenance people should conduct an internal audit to verify that plumbing diagrams
are accurate and up to date. Experience shows that as plants expand or are modified, these
operations tend not to make the necessary changes to their plumbing blueprints.

Processors should also examine all water lines and water handling systems to be sure that there
is no potential for contamination within the operation. Do you have back-flow prevention
devices on water lines? Are there air gaps between spigots or hoses and water sources? Are
hoses handled properly so that their use in the process will not contaminate product, equipment
or ingredients? Operators need to teach plant staff how to handle and store hoses. Line workers
often drag hoses across the floor, over equipment and use them to fill blending or mix tanks.
Wastewater and soil end up in the mix. Perhaps the greatest potential concern for
contamination is cross-connections. Processors need to verify that plumbing diagrams are both
accurate and current. The diagrams should show no cross- connections.

As noted, processors should conduct an audit of their water and plumbing systems. Such an
audit will also help processors determine whether there are any dead spots or deadends in
the lines. Water lines remain clean because they are constantly flushed. Unused lines off a
main or a large reservoir below the floor will not be flushed properly. Water remaining in these
dead areas can create potential health and quality problems. For example, a processor who
relies on clean water for blending might experience off-flavor problems if there is a dead spot
upstream of the blend tanks. Back-flow devices are designed to prevent dirty or contaminated
water from flowing towards a clean source. They allow water to flow in one direction only.
Operators must check to see that these are on lines as they can disappear. Air gaps are also
basic good sanitary design. Water sources and tanks must be separated.

Indeed, back-flow prevention has become a hot button in third-party audits. The plumbing
diagrams alluded to earlier should include all water systems and the locations of the back-flow
devices in the system. Ideally, these devices should be included in a plants preventive
maintenance program. There should also be an easily accessible back-flow device on all water
mains coming into the plant. There are plants where the lines are under ground and, therefore,
inaccessible. Yet, these plants tell the auditors that they are checked annually. In point of
fact, there are many states where it is mandatory that a food processor contract with an outside
firm to validate that the back-flow devices on their water mains are functioning as designed.
These companies conduct pressure tests on the devices and make any adjustments that are
needed. Their report will also serve as an auditable record to ensure that the work is being
done.
How ice is manufactured, stored and used is another issue that should be part of a processors
water management program. There is a sense that plant workers and their managers believe
that frozen water cannot be a source of contamination. In many operations, especially in the
seafood industry, water for chilling foods or blending is produced in large icemakers that
deposit the ice in bins. Workers often wade into ice bins with shovels to fill bins with ice for
production use. This is not a good practice since that ice may be used to chill foods.

The icemakers themselves also need to be cleaned and sanitized on a regular schedule.
Microbiologist Cliff Coles of California Microbiological Consulting has found a number of
operators to have filthy icemakers. To quote Coles, I have only seen a handful of places that
have a sanitation schedule for the ice machines. In fact, most still have the original cartridge
filter in place that was there 20 years ago.[6] Processors with ice making capacity should
sanitize their units on a weekly basis. They should also establish a regular maintenance
program for the water filters. A sticker or tag should be placed on the filter that can be easily
seen that indicates when the filter was serviced and when it is due to be serviced again. Records
of filter maintenance and icemaker cleaning and sanitizing should be maintained in the plant
to document that the work has been done. To further assure the quality of ice used in
production, processors are now treating water used for ice making with ozone. This helps
assure that the ice is of good microbiological quality and can even help control the microbial
load on certain products.

Water Quality Analysis

All food processors should test water in the plant from different outlets at least once each
yearand preferably more often. Operators should collect water samples from the farthest
faucet from the line in the facility and preferably from the cold side. This should be done even
if water is obtained from a city water system. The water quality as it leaves a treatment plant
and its condition when it gets to your plant may vary. This is especially true in cities where
pipelines are old. If the water pipes are iron, it is quite easy to pick up that metal from the lines.
High iron water, whether from old pipes or a natural source, is quite easy to detect. All one
needs do is look for iron stains wherever there are leaks or drips.

Along these lines, processors should always request that the city provide them with water test
results. These results are those obtained at the water treatment facilities. Having city water
records does not preclude the processor from testing water from their own operations, however.

If water from multiple

 sources is being used (wells, city or wherever), be sure that samples from each source are
tested. Both microbiological and chemical parameters should be tested. Table 1 shows the EPA
National Drinking Water Regulations for Microorganisms.[7] And keep in mind, that these
analyses may be used to do more than just assure safety of your food and ingredients. Knowing
the chemistry of the water coming into the plant will help in other areas. Microbial analyses
should include total counts and coliforms. If there are concerns that the water may have been
contaminated with runoff from fields or elsewhere, you may want to look for pathogens or
parasites. Chemical tests should include pH, water hardness, heavy metals, pesticides, iron and
nitrates. Water samples for complete chemical analyses should collected at least once a year
and submitted to a recognized water testing laboratory.

Testing the microbiological quality of the water should be done more frequently. Be sure to
establish documented programs for water sampling. These should include how to sample, how
often to sample and where to sample. These procedures should also include what tests should
be done and the methods for doing the work. If third parties are to be used for sampling and/or
testing, be sure that the follow your procedures. Maintain all your records and testing
procedures in a separate file or binder so that test results may be quickly and easily accessed.

Installing sample ports on water lines is a good idea, provided they are installed properly. Dont
leave a large deadleg. It is also a good idea to allow the sample port to run for a short period
to flush the port. If water samples are being collected for microbiological testing and the water
is chlorinated, be sure that the sampling program includes a step to neutralize any residual
chlorine. (Nasco provides Whirl-Pak bags that include a thiosulfate tablet that will meet this
need.) These bags are also safe to use in any kind of processing environment.

There are processors who have built additional safety into their systems by treating all waters
entering the plant with chemicals or by UV light systems. Whether the added costs are
worthwhile, only time will tell, but no effort to assure safety should be criticized.

Effects on Process Operations

Understanding water chemistry can benefit the processor in many ways. For example, baked
goods do not contain large amounts of water but the chemistry of the water can affect doughs
or batters, and eventually the finished baked good. Water acts as a solvent for salt, leavening
chemicals, sugars, emulsifiers and all polar molecules.

Water may also contain dissolved minerals, organic matter, gases, and microbial
contaminants. All of these factors are important to the bakery for overall quality assurance
and sanitation. The amount and type of mineral salts present in water is very important to
the baker. The degree of hardness is generally expressed as hard, soft, saline or alkaline. The
specific composition is expressed in parts per million (ppm) of the dissolved hardness-causing
minerals, mainly calcium and magnesium salts.
Dr. Kathleen Feicht of Asta Food Research in Torrance, CA provided the author with
examples of how water hardness may affect the quality of baked goods.[8] Calcium and
magnesium precipitate from hard waters in steam lines and can then be carried by the steam
used in bakery ovens to create spots on the top crust of breads and rolls. Calcium sulfate is
the primary component of scale formed on boilers and generally considered undesirable. However,
calcium sulfate in a dough system stimulates yeast activity and has a strengthening effect on gluten
structure. The salt is often added in areas of soft water. Calcium and magnesium bicarbonates
create highly alkaline water, increasing the buffer capacity of the water, and resisting the action of
acids to lower the pH. Yeast and enzyme activities are compromised in dough made with alkaline
water as the pH remains above the optimum range. Water treatment or formula adjustments must
be made to compensate for this condition.

Manufacturers of products such as infant foods or soft drinks may want to install the reverse
osmosis systems mentioned earlier. The feeling is that this will enhance both quality and safety of
the finished product.

Cleaning and Sanitizing Water is almost a universal solvent. Flushing with water is the all-
important first step in removing visible soil. According to Dennis Bogart of Randolph Associates,
flushing is the most important step in cleaning. Bogart emphasized this point again and again at a
recent symposium sponsored by the Institute of Food Technologists.[9] Cleaning compounds are
used with water to enhance the cleaning ability of the water. Water carries detergents to the soil to
be removed, it carries detergents and soils away from the surface and it can be used to sanitize a
surface; assuming it is hot enough or contains antimicrobial compounds or sanitizers. Before
selecting a cleaning compound, processors need to understand basic water chemistry and
microbiology. Water used for cleaning should be of good microbiological quality. Table 2 shows
recommended microbiological guidelines for water destined for cleaning.[10]
The chemistry of the water, particularly water hardness, profoundly affects the performance of
cleaning chemicals. Water hardness affects detergent consumption and may cause the formation
of films, scale or precipitates on equipment surfaces. Failure to properly understand water
chemistry can cost an operator money in both how much detergent is used and the time required
for cleaning. Hardness is easy to measure, however, and is measured in grains or ppm. Table 3
defines water hardness.[8]

When working with a supplier of cleaning compounds, be sure to be honest with them when they
are developing your cleaning program. It is especially important to let them know if water is being
drawn from multiple sources. The water chemistry from waters from different sources may differ
significantly.

Water chemistry can also affect sanitizer performance. Chlorine is more effective at lower pHs.
The lower the pH of the system, the more hypochlorous ion in the system, and hence, the greater
the antimicrobial activity. If the pH of your water is 8.5, the efficacy of chlorination will be
significantly reduced. If the water used is very hard, the processor may need to treat it. Water
softening may be necessary for both processing and cleaning applications.

Plant Water Systems

Care must be taken when designing a factory to assure that there is not only enough water to
meet the needs of processing, cleaning and employees, but that wastewater can be removed from
the factory. This is something that needs to be done up front. If a plant adds production capacity
without taking a close look at their water systems, significant problems can occur. The author
has observed a factory whose toilets backed up and overflowed into the plant during peak
production times. The wastewater systems simply could not handle both process water and
sewage. It is a good practice to label all water and sewage lines. The use of colored tape, arrows
or paint will provide plant personnel and visitors with a quick reference to what is flowing within
the pipes and the direction of flow.

An integral part of wastewater disposal is the drains in the plant. Drains must be designed to not
only handle peak water usage, but also to allow maintenance and cleaning. Of course, floors
must be properly graded to allow drainage. The design and maintenance of floors and drains is a
separate issue.

Operators also need to take look at their processes and products and be sure that the materials
from which materials their pipes are manufactured are compatable. The one material that
operators need to beware of is copper. Copper can be quite detrimental to certain foods and
ingredients. Copper is a strong pro-oxidant, so it is not advisable to use copper if your foods are
prone to oxidation. Copper will also react with certain flavors and ingredients. As an example,
many years ago the author was involved in troubleshooting a problem on off-flavors in a blended
product containing pineapple. It was determined that the copper water line to the blend tank
added just enough copper to the product blend that the product quality began to deteriorate after
a few days. The copper pipe was replaced with PVC and the problem disappeared.

Going With the Flow

Water is an integral part of almost all food processing operations, yet it is something that far too
many operators take for granted. It can affect food safety, quality and sanitation. It is also the one
material that each and every one of us needs to live. Processors need to understand how water is
delivered to their plant, how it is removed, and the quality of the water entering the operation.
Understanding water quality and how it moves through the factory is one part of the equation
needed to produce safe, high quality foods.

Richard F. Stier is a consulting food scientist with international experience in food safety
(HACCP), food plant sanitation, quality systems, process optimization, GMP compliance and
food microbiology. He has worked with a wide range of processing systems and products,
including canning, freezing, dehydration, deep-fat frying, aseptic systems, and seafood
processing. Rick served as Director of Quality Assurance for Dole Packaged Foods North
American operations. In this capacity, he was responsible for building programs targeted at
ensuring the quality of Dole value-added products packed in the U.S. While working on a USAID
funded project in Egypt, programs and technical assistance provided by Ricks technical services
group resulted in more than 80 firms enhancing quality, safety and/or sanitation programs,
which directly resulted in improved exports and an overall greater awareness of the importance
of these three areas in international trade. He is a member of the Institute of Food Technologists
and an editorial advisor to Food Safety Magazine. He can be reached at rickstier4@aol.com.

References
1. CDC. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly, 1994, Vol. 43:36, 1994.
2. FDA. Procedures for the Safe and Sanitary Processing and Importing of Fish and Fishery
Products. CFR, Title 21 Parts 123 & 1240. Dec. 18, 1995.
3. FDA. Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HAACP); Procedures for the Safe and
Sanitary Processing and Importing of Juice. CFR, Title 21 Part 121. 2001.
4. FDA. Current Good Manufacturing Practices in Manufacturing, Packing and Holding Human
Food. CFR, Title 21 Part 110. Dec. 18. 1996.
5. Ito, K.A. and M.L. Seeger, (1990), Effects of Germicides on Microorganisms in Can Cooling
Waters, Journal of Food Protection, 43:6, 484-487. 1990.
6. Coles, C.M. Personal comm. 2002.
7. Collettee, B., et al. Sanitation Control Procedures for Processing Fish and Fishery Products.
Chapter 1: Safety of Water. Florida Sea Grant Program, Gainesville, FL. 2000.
8. Feicht, K. Personal comm. 2002.
9. Bogart, D. Cleaning and Sanitizing Short Course: Prerequisite Programs as a Basis for
Ensuring Food Safety, sponsored by the Institute of Food Technologists. Orlando, FL. June 23-
24, 2006.
10. Ecolab, Inc. Making the Right Choice. Ecolab Food and Beverage Division. St. Paul, MN.
1995