C 2-Traffic Studies

CHAPTER 2
TRAFFIC STUDIES
CH-2 Traffic Studies 1

Traffic Studies
Studies done for the analysis of the traffic
characteristics.
Traffic Census: Survey done for the collecting
traffic data.
OBJECTIVES:
To collect facts on traffic & parking situations.
To analyze: geometric design, traffic control
measures, future traffic prediction and road
improvement.

Types of Traffic Studies
1. Traffic volume study
2. Speed study;
a. Spot speed study
b. Speed and Delay study
3. Origin and Destination Study
4. Traffic flow characteristics
5. Traffic Capacity study
6. Parking Study
7. Accident Study

Traffic volume study
the number of the vehicles crossing a section
of road per unit time at any selected period.
Traffic volume used as a quantity measure of
traffic flow.
Unit :vehicle/day, vehicle/hour etc.
volume of different type of vehicle is usually
converted into passenger car unit (PCU)

Passenger Car Unit (PCU)
Different type of vehicles offer different
degree of interference to other traffic & it is
necessary to bring all types to common unit.
By using certain equivalency factor the flow is
converted to the equivalent passenger car
unit.
The flow is expressed as PCU/day or
PCU/Hour.

Passenger Car Unit (PCU)
Nepal Standard Equivalency factor
Types of vehicle PCU (equivalency factor)
1 Car, light van, pick up 1

2 Truck (2.5T, 10T, 15T, 25T, 40T) 1.5, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0
3 Buses (40T &>40T) 3.0, 4.0
4 Bicycle/Motor cycle 0.5
5 Hand carts 2.0
6 Bullock carts 8.0
7 Pedestrians (no separate footpath) 0.25
8 Porters (no separate footpath) 0.5

Objective and use of traffic volume
study:
It is the true measure of relative importance of roads,
which is important for improvement and expansion.
Traffic volume is used in planning, traffic operation/control
of existing facilities and for planning new facilities.
Classified volume is used for structural design of
pavements.
It is used to analyze traffic pattern and trends.
It is used for design intersections, signal timings,
channelizations, and other control devices.
For the determination of one-way street or other
regulatory measures.
Pedestrian traffic volume is uses for planning and design of
sidewalks, cross walks, subways, and pedestrian signals.
Types of Traffic Volume:
Average annual traffic flow: expressed in vehicle per year.
Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT): expressed in vehicles
per day. It is (1/365) th of the total annual traffic flow. Total
number of vehicles passing the site in a year is divided by
365 days. All vehicles are converted into passenger car unit.
Average Daily traffic (ADT): If the flow is not measured for
all the 365 days, but only for few days (less than one year)
the average flow is known as Average Daily Traffic (ADT).
Average Annual Weekday Traffic (AAWT): An average 24
hour traffic volume occurring on weekdays over a full year.
Average weekday traffic: An average 24 hour traffic
volume occurring on weekdays for some period less than
one year, such as one month or one season.
Hourly flow: vehicle/hour, peak hour volume.

Types of traffic counts
Short term counts:
For determining traffic flow in peak hours.
To measure saturation flow at signalized intersection
Count for full day
To determine hourly fluctuation of flow
Used intersection counts
Count for full week:
To determine hourly and daily fluctuation of flow
For traffic survey in urban highways.
Continuous count:
To determine fluctuation daily, weekly, seasonal and yearly flow.
To determine annual traffic growth rate
Very commonly used in developed
CH-2 Traffic Studies
countries at selected sections.
9
Methods of Traffic Counts:
1. Manual count
2. Combined Manual and Mechanical
counter
3. Automatic devices
4. Photographic Method.
5. Moving observer method

Methods of Traffic Counts:
1) Manual Count:
The prescribed record sheet is provided
for manual count.
Vehicles are counted by the method of five
dash system.
Nos. of observers are needed to count the
vehicle on the basis of the no. of the lane
and desired information.
Normally used for less than one day.

Traffic count analysis sheet
Road Link: EW Highway, at Lahan Station:
Name of Road: Belbari Chauharwa (B-C) Surveyed by: Manoj Prajapati

Seasonal Variation Factor: 0.85 Supervised by:Firoj Shrestha
Motorized Vehicle Non Motorized

Truck Bus
Car/Jeep/Taxi
Total
Auto Rikshaw
Utility/Pick up
Motor Cycle
Power triller
Animal cart
Start Time
Rikshaw
Tractor
Bicycle
3-Axle
2-Axle
Large
Micro
Mini
Mini
a b a b a b a b a b a b a b a b a b a b a b a b a b a b a b a b (a+b)
06:00 - 18:00 2108

24 19 77 81 16 19 96 83 41 40 112 108 90 82 16 16 42 59 52 52 4 1 625 594 18 8 38 38 857 888 2088 4196
18:00 - 06:00 585

41 40 46 39 10 3 103 60 12 5 16 13 17 21 8 5 6 7 31 31 3 0 87 134 11 2 7 9 187 169 538 1123
Sub-Total 65 59 123 120 26 22 199 143 53 45 128 121 107 103 24 21 48 66 83 83 7 1 712 728 29 10 45 47 1044 1057 2693 2626 5321
Total (a+b) 124 243 48 342 98 249 210 45 114 166 8 1440 39 92 2101 5319
Composition,
2.3 4.6 0.9 6.4 1.8 4.7 3.9 0.8 2.1 3.1 0.2 27.1 0.7 1.7 39.5 100
%
PCU Factors 4 3 1.5 3 2.5 1.5 1 1 0.75 1.5 1.5 1.5 8 1 0.5
PCU, ADT 496 729 72 1026 245 374 210 45 86 249 12 2160 312 92 1051 7158
AADT, PCU 422 620 61 872 208 317 179 38 73 212 10 1836 265 78 893 6084
Note:
Diection a: East to west
Diection b: West to East CH-2 Traffic Studies 13
2. Combined Manual and Mechanical Counter
Multiple pen recorders.

The chart moves continuously at the speed of
clock.
Different pens records the occurrence of
different events on the chart.

3. Automatic Devices
- Consists of a detector/impulse/simulation
a. Pneumatic tube (Road Tube)
b. Electric contact
c. Co-axial cable
d. Photo-electric
e. Radar
f. Infra-red
g. Magnetic Field

a. Pneumatic tube (Road Tube)
Flexible tube with one end selected is

clamped to the load surface at right angles to
the pavement.
Other end connected to a diagram actuated
switch.

Pneumatic tube Recorder

b. Electric contact: A pair of steel strip is
contained in a rubber pad which is buried
beneath the road surface.
c. Co-axial cable: A co-axial cable is clamped
across the road surface, with the capability of
generating signals with passage of axles.
d. Photo-electric: A source of light is installed on
the one side of the road, which emits a beam
of light across the road.

e. Radar: A radar may detect the vehicle moving
at a speed.
f. Infra-red :Infra-red sensors can detect the heat
radiated from a vehicle.
g. Magnetic Field :Magnetic field is provided by
a wire coil which is buried beneath the road
surface.

4. Video Photographic Method:
Its analysis can be done at office by replaying
the cassette.
5. Moving observer Method:
The volume as well as speed can be measured
by travelling in a car against and with the
traffic flow, noting down the journey time, the
number of vehicles overtaking the test
vehicles.
Presentation and analysis of traffic volume
data
Data collected during the traffic volume study
are sorted out and are presented in any of the
following forms depending upon requirements:
Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT): It is
1/365th of the total annual traffic flow. It is
expressed in terms of PCU & used for future
development of the road.
Trend Chart: It shows the volume trends over
the period of years. By extrapolating the data
we can estimate the future volume
prediction.
Presentation and analysis of traffic
volume data
Variation Chart: For the presentation of hourly, daily,
weekly variations such charts are prepared.
Traffic flow at intersection shown by thick lines: The
thicknesses of the lines are made as per the traffic
volume.
Traffic Flow Maps : Graphical representation of traffic
volume along the routes of the road network.
30th highest hourly volume: It is the hourly volume
that will be exceeded only 29 times in a year & all
other hourly volumes of the year will be less than this
value. The Traffic volume is taken only after 29 years.

Trend chart
4500
yearly trend of AADT (Trend Chart)
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010
Hourly Variation
Hourly variation of traffic flow
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Count at Intersection
1050
400
250
250
450
900 300
350
300
300
1200
250
850 500
300
250

Traffic flow map

Poissons Probability distribution.
Known as counting distribution in traffic
engineering.
Most widely used situation of Poissons
distribution is the arrival pattern of
vehicles, which is random phenomenon.

Probability having n vehicles arriving in time t is
( t ) n e t
P ( n)
n!
t Duration of the time interval over which vehicles
are counted, second;
n Vehicles number;
Average flow rate in vehicle per unit time veh/sec.
Empirically, the Poisson distribution arrival time is most
realistic in lightly congested traffic conditions.
As traffic flows become heavily congested, this model
is not appropriate

Example:
A roadway has an average hourly volume of
360 vehicles/hour. Assuming the arrival of
vehicles in Poisson distributed, estimate the
probability of having 0, 1, 2, 4, and 5 or more
vehicles arriving over a 20 sec time interval

Solution: 360 veh/h=0.1 veh/sec.
(0.1 * 20)0 * e0.1*20
P(0) 0.135
0!
P(1) = 0.271
P(2) = 0.271
P(3) = 0.18
P(4) = 0.09
For five or more vehicles P(5) = 1-P(n<5)
= 1-0.135-0.271-0.271-0.18-0.09=0.053.
2. Speed Study
Speed is factor influencing traffic flow on
existing road.
Speed studies are essential for:
Traffic operation like sign location and
timings, establishing speed zones etc.
Geometric design of elements like
curvatures, super elevation, stopping sight
distance etc.

Spot speed
an instantaneous speed of a vehicle at a specific
location. i.e.55-60 m/hr.
For determination of spot speed fixed distance is
given.
From first point to end point time is recorded.
From this the spot speed is calculated.
Running speed
the average speed of vehicles along a given
section or road excluding delays at controlled
intersections.
Length of Route Lenght of Route
Running Speed
Running Time Journey time - delay time
Journey speed
Length of Route
Journey Speed
Total journey including delay
Average speed:
average spot speed of several vehicles passing
a specific section
Application of average speed:
For the traffic control & regulation in geometric
design, accident studies etc.
effect of traffic flow constraints like bridge &
intersection.
Average speed is affected by physical characteristics of
road like pavement width, curve, sight distance and
grade

There are two types of average speed
Space mean speed : Average speed of vehicles
over a certain road length at any time. It is the
harmonic mean of speeds observed at a point.
It is calculated using the average travel time
and length of the roadway.
3.6 * n * L
Vs n
ti 1
i
Vs- Space mean speed, kmph

n - Number of individual vehicle observation;
L- Length of the road section; m
ti - observed travel time in sec for the i th vehicle to travel L m.
Time mean speed(spot speed): Average speed
at a point over a period of time. It is the
arithmetic mean of the speeds observed at a
point. It represents speed distribution of
vehicles at a point. n
Vi
i 1
Vt
n
Vi observed instantaneous speed of the i th vehicle

Vt-Time mean speed in m/s
Example :
Three vehicles are travelling 1km distance;
Vehicle A: 1.2 min
Vehicle B: 1.5 min
Vehicle C: 1.7 min
What is the average speed of three vehicles?

Types of speed studies
a. Spot speed study
b. Speed and delay study

a. Spot speed study
Uses of Spot Speed study
Geometric Design
Regulation & control of traffic operation
Analyzing the causes of accidents
Determining the problems of congestion in
the road section
Capacity study

Spot speed are affected by
Physical features of the road like pavement
width, curve radius, sight distance, gradient
etc.
Environmental conditions like weather.
Traffic condition, driver, vehicle etc.

Methods of Spot speed measurement:
Direct timing method

Enoscope method
Pressure contact tube method
Radar speed-meter
Photographic method

General consideration for the site selection for
spot speed measurement:
Location selection should be according to the
specific purpose;
Minimum influence to the traffic flow and
their speed by the survey team and
equipments;
Generally straight, level and open section
should be selected.

Direct timing procedure
Simple method
Two reference points are marked on the pavement at a
suitable distance apart and an observer starts and
stops an accurate stopwatch as a vehicle crosses these
two marks.
One observer stands at the first reference point and
gives signal to the observer standing at last reference
point (with stopwatch).
From the known distance and measured time intervals
spot speed is calculated;
Large effects may occur due to the parallax effect;
Reaction of individual observer may affect the result.
Enoscope method
It is a simple device consisting of L-shaped
mirror box, open at both ends. It has a mirror
set fixed at 45 degree to the arms of the
instrument as in figure
50 m
Light for night

An enoscope is placed in such a way that the
image of the vehicle is seen by the
observer, when the vehicle crosses the section
where the enoscopes is fixed, and at this
instant the stop watch is stopped.

Pressure contact tubes
In this method detectors are used to indicate
the time of entering and leaving the base
length by the vehicle.

Radar speed meter
This automatic device works on the Doppler
principle that the speed of a moving body is
proportional to the change in frequency
between the radio wave transmitted to the
moving body and the radio wave received
back. It directly measures speed.

Photographic and video camera method
Time-lapse camera photography has been

used to determine the speed of the vehicles.
In this method, photographs are taken
By projecting the film on the screen, the
passage of any vehicle can be traced with
reference to time.
Video camera also can be used to measure the
speed of the vehicle

Presentation and analysis of spot
speed data
i. Tabular presentation
ii. Graphical presentation
iii. 15th percentile speed
iv. Arithmetic mean or average spot speed
Tabular presentation:
grouping of spot speeds into speed ranges to
facilitate easy computation.

speed data
Graphical presentation:
Histogram and cumulative frequency curves
Modal speed: peak of the frequency curve.
(Mode of the distribution)
Median Speed: 50th percentile speed
98th percentile speed: below this speed 98% of
vehicles move, and it is taken as design speed for
the geometric design.
85th percentile speed: 85% of the vehicles
move below this speed. It is used to establish
upper speed limit for traffic management. It is
taken as limit of safe speed in the road.
speed data
15th percentile speed: 15% of vehicles move
below this speed. It is used for determining
minimum speed limit for major highways.
Arithmetic mean or average spot speed:
Summation of all variable speed divided by
the number of observations.

Numerical Example
1. Spot speed studies were carried out at a
certain stretch of a highway and the data
collected are given below.
Class 26- 30- 34- 38- 42- 46- 50- 54- 58- 62-
Limit 29.9 33.9 37.9 41.9 45.9 49.9 53.9 57.9 61.9 65.9
Freq.
9 74 79 75 66 33 17 6 1 3
Determine:
(i) 15th percentile speed(Lower speed limit),, (ii) 50th
percentile speed (iii) 85th percentile speed(Upper speed
limit) (iv) Speed to check design elements,
(V) Modal speed

An example of frequency distribution table is shown below, in
which a total number of 363 observations are grouped into class
mid intervals of 4 km/h.
value
Class % cum. xi - aver (xi-aver [(xi-aver
limit (xi) freq(fi) freq Freq fi*xi x x)^2 x)^2]*fi
26-29.9 9
30-33.9 74
34-37.9 79
38-41.9 75
42-45.9 66
46-49.9 33
50-53.9 17
54-57.9 6
58-61.9 1
62-65.9 3
363 14424 1713.13 16550.62
An example of frequency distribution table is shown below, in
which a total number of 363 observations are grouped into class
intervals of 4 km/h.
mid
value
% cum. (xi-aver [(xi-aver
Class limit (xi) freq(fi) freq freq fi*xi xi - aver x x)^2 x)^2]*fi
26-29.9 28 9 2.5 2.5 252 -11.73 137.59 1238.34
30-33.9 32 74 20.4 22.9 2368 -7.73 59.75 4421.71
34-37.9 36 79 21.8 44.6 2844 -3.73 13.91 1099.12
38-41.9 40 75 20.7 65.3 3000 0.27 0.07 5.47
42-45.9 44 66 18.2 83.5 2904 4.27 18.23 1203.37
46-49.9 48 33 9.1 92.6 1584 8.27 68.39 2256.97
50-53.9 52 17 4.7 97.3 884 12.27 150.55 2559.40
54-57.9 56 6 1.7 98.9 336 16.27 264.71 1588.28
58-61.9 60 1 0.3 99.2 60 20.27 410.87 410.87
62-65.9 64 3 0.8 100.0 192 24.27 589.03 1767.10
363 14424 1713.13 16550.62
Average speed 39.73
Variance (s^2) 45.72
St. Dev. () 6.76

Histogram:
LLR Smoother

20. 00

15. 00
%Frequency
10. 00

5. 00

0. 00
30. 00 40. 00 50. 00 60. 00
speed, km/h

The cumulative percentage frequency
diagram:
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
20 30 40 50 60 70
speed, Km/h
Numerical Example
The following table gives the consolidated data of
spot speed studies on a section of a road. Determine:
(i) 15th percentile speed(Lower speed limit),, (ii) 50th
percentile speed (iii) 85th percentile speed(Upper
speed limit) (iv) Speed to check design elements,
(V) Modal speed

Parameters of Distribution
The frequency table, histogram and the
cumulative frequency curve give only the
rough idea of the distribution.
An accurate idea about distribution can be
expressed from the parameters of
distributions.
central tendency (Mean)
Dispersion (Range, Variance)

Arithmetic mean
Central tendency (arithmetic mean or mean):
If individual observations
x1 x 2 x3 ..........x n
x
n
n
xi
i 1
n
Arithmetic mean
If data are grouped into classes
m
xi f i
x i 1
m
fi
i 1

variance
Variance: The variance (s2) of a set of
observations is the average of the squares of
the deviations of the observations from their
mean..
Individual observation
n
( xi x) 2
Variance s 2 i 1
n 1
variance
If observation of Grouped data, fi is the
frequency
m
(x i x) f i
2
2
i 1
m
fi 1
i 1

Standard Deviation
Square root of variance
Observed individual data
n
i
( x x ) 2
i 1
n 1
Grouped data:
m
(x i x) 2 f i
i 1
m
f
i 1
i 1

Speed and Delay Study
Speed & delay studies give the running

speed, overall speed, fluctuations in speed &
the delay between two stations of a road
spaced far apart.

Uses of Speed and delay study
Find out journey during economic study.
Evaluate congestions, capacity, service level &
improvement needs.
Delay study at intersections for traffic control
devices.
Traffic planning studies for the determination of
travel time.

Methods for speed & Delay study
Floating car Method: (Moving observer
method/riding check method)
License plate or vehicle number method
Interview technique
Elevated observation
Photographic technique

Floating car Method
A number of test runs are made along the study
section.
Group of observers record the various details
First observer: (with two stop watches)
To record the time at various control points like
intersections, signals, stop sign, bridges, etc.
To find the duration of individual delays
Second observer:
To record the time, location & cause of these
delays (tabular form/voice recording)

Floating car Method
Third observer:
To note the number of vehicles overtaking the test
vehicle & that overtaken by the test vehicle in
each trip.
Fourth observer:
To note the number of vehicles travelling in the
opposite direction in each trip.
In mixed traffic flow more observers will be required to
count different classes of vehicles.
Nos. of test runs are made along the study section and
group of observers records various details.
Floating car Method
q- flow of vehicles in one direction of the stream

x- average number of vehicles met in the section when
the test vehicle travelling against the stream
y- average number of vehicles overtaking the test
vehicle minus the number of vehicles overtaken when
the test vehicle travelling with the stream
ta - average journey time in minute when the test
vehicle is travelling against the stream q
tw - average journey time in minute when the test
vehicle is travelling with the stream
Mean journey time of all the vehicles
in the stream
Mean Journey Speed =distance /average t
Mean running Speed =distance /(average t delay)

Numerical example
The following tables give the particulars
collected for a section of road 0.7km long
during the course of a moving observer study:
Calculate the flow in PCU per hour in both
directions of traffic assuming an equivalency
factor of one per car, 3 for bus and 2 for trucks.
Calculate the journey speed and running speed.

Journey: North bound
Run no Journey Stopped Vehicles met with in the opposing direction Vehicles in the same
time(min) time(min) direction
Car Bus Truck Overtaking Overtaken

vehicles Vehicles
1 1.01 0.04 11 0 5 1 0
2 0.92 0.1 13 0 0 2 1
3 0.77 0.08 19 2 11 1 1
4 1.03 0.14 14 2 4 1 0
5 0.84 0.08 2 0 11 0 1
6 1.06 0.13 19 1 7 2 1

South Bound Journey
Run Journey Stopped Vehicles met with in the opposing Vehicles in the same
no time(min) time(min) direction direction
Car Bus Truck Overtakin Overtake
g vehicles n
Vehicles
1 1 0.05 10 0 2 1 1
2 0.87 0.07 2 0 3 1 0
3 1.2 0.11 23 1 6 2 1
4 1.18 0.12 7 0 1 2 0
5 1.06 0.09 8 0 1 1 1
6 1.02 0.1 11 0 8 2 0

Journey: North bound
Run no Journey Stopped Vehicles met with in the opposing direction Vehicles in the same
time(min) time(min) direction
Car Bus Truck Overtaking Overtaken

vehicles Vehicles
1 1.01 0.04 11 0 5 1 0
2 0.92 0.1 13 0 0 2 1
3 0.77 0.08 19 2 11 1 1
4 1.03 0.14 14 2 4 1 0
5 0.84 0.08 2 0 11 0 1
6 1.06 0.13 19 1 7 2 1
Total 5.63 0.57 78 5 38 7 4
PCU= 78 + 5x3 +38x2=169

Av 0.94 0.1 169/6=28 1.2 0.7

South Bound Journey
Run Journey Stopped Vehicles met with in the opposing Vehicles in the same
no time(min) time(min) direction direction
Car Bus Truck Overtakin Overtake
g vehicles n
Vehicles
1 1 0.05 10 0 2 1 1
2 0.87 0.07 2 0 3 1 0
3 1.2 0.11 23 1 6 2 1
4 1.18 0.12 7 0 1 2 0
5 1.06 0.09 8 0 1 1 1
6 1.02 0.1 11 0 8 2 0
Total 6.33 0.54 61 1 21 9 3
PCU = 61 + 1x3 +
21x2=106
Av 1.06 0.09 CH-2 Traffic Studies
106/6=18 1.5 0.576
=
q- flow of vehicles in one direction of the stream

==
= 0.89min
=0.99min

Mean journey speed in North bound direction
Mean journey speed in South bound direction

Mean running time in north bound direction:
=average tn-Stoped time=0.89-0.1=0.79min
So; Running speed in North bound direction=
Mean running time in South bound direction

= average ts-Stoped time=0.99-0.09 =0.9min
So running speed in North bound direction=

License plate/vehicle number methods
The timing of the vehicle numbers are noted
by the observer of the selected sample.
Observers are stationed at the entrance and
exit of the test sections. From the
computation travel time of each vehicle could
be found (does not give important
information)

Interview Technique:
By interviewing & collecting details from the road
users on the spot.
Elevated observation and Photographic techniques
methods are used for specific situations like in
intersection etc.
Observer stationed on top of an elevated
building.
Select vehicles randomly and follow their course
along the road record the entry time to the test
section, duration and nature of delay suffered
and outing time of leaving.

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CHAPTER 2

CH-2 Traffic Studies 1

CH-2 Traffic Studies 2

CH-2 Traffic Studies 3

CH-2 Traffic Studies 4

CH-2 Traffic Studies 5

Types of vehicle PCU (equivalency factor)

1 Car, light van, pick up 1

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CH-2 Traffic Studies 11

Name of Road: Belbari Chauharwa (B-C) Surveyed by: Manoj Prajapati

Motorized Vehicle Non Motorized

06:00 - 18:00 2108

18:00 - 06:00 585

Multiple pen recorders.

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Flexible tube with one end selected is

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Hourly variation of traffic flow

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Vs- Space mean speed, kmph

Vi observed instantaneous speed of the i th vehicle

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Direct timing method

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Time-lapse camera photography has been

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Variance (s^2) 45.72

St. Dev. () 6.76

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Speed & delay studies give the running

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