The secret of success in life is to eat what

you like and let the food fight it out inside.

Mark Twain
 I. INTRODUCTION

Food, cooking, and eating habits play a central role in every culture. Eating is never a
purely biological activity since the consumption of food, whether it is simply or elaborately
prepared, is always imbued with meaning, which is understood and communicated in various
symbolic ways. Preparing food for consumption, and eating socially, are activities that are
conducted for purposes other than mere nutrition. The symbolic meaning of food sometimes
has little to do with the food itself, as in the use of rice to shower newly-weds in certain
cultures, and eating socially has less to do with nutrition than with communication and
relationships. Food has also played an important part in religion, helping to define the
separateness of one creed from another by means of dietary taboos. The techniques utilized to
prepare and process foods and the ways of serving and consuming it, which vary from culture
to culture, can have an important influence on social and familial relationships.

American fast foods and the manner in which they are consumed, for example, do not
encourage those who favour such foods to spend an entire evening conversing with friends
over a meal, either at home or at a restaurant, which is a favourite social activity for many
continental Europeans. The fact that American families eat together as a family much less
often than those in Europe is reflected in the difference in family solidarity in the two
cultures. Food choices, eating habits, and the preparation of certain foods often reveal
distinctions of age, sex, status, culture, and even occupation.

Eating together is an important social act, being a recognition of fellowship and mutual
social obligation, and it is often accompanied by customs or rituals which are specific to the
cultural group concerned, or even to a particular class or subgroup within the larger social
group. People who eat very different foods, or similar foods in different ways, are often
thought to be different, and eating habits are often closely linked to the types of food
consumed.
Life is uncertain. Eat dessert first.

Ernestine Ulmer
 II. THE CULTURAL SIGNIFIANCE OF FOOD

People also connect to their cultural or ethnic group through similar food patterns.
Immigrants often use food as a means of retaining their cultural identity. People from
different cultural backgrounds eat different foods. The ingredients, methods of preparation,
preservation techniques, and types of food eaten at different meals vary among cultures. The
areas in which families live and where their ancestors originatedinfluence food likes and
dislikes. These food preferences result in patterns of food choices within a cultural or
regional group. Food items themselves have meaning attached to them. In many Western
countries a box of chocolates would be viewed as an appropriate gift. The recipient of the gift
would react differently to a gift of cabbage or carrots than to chocolate. In other countries
chocolates might be a less appropriate gift.

Nations or countries are frequently associated with certain foods. For example, many
people associate Italy with pizza and pasta. Yet Italians eat many other foods, and types of
pasta dishes vary throughout Italy. Methods of preparation and types of food vary by regions
of a nation. Some families in the United States prefer to eat "meat and potatoes," but "meat
and potatoes" are not eaten on a regular basis, nor even preferred, by many in the United
States and would not be labeled a national cuisine. Grits, a coarsely ground corn that is
boiled, is eaten by families in the southern United States. A package of grits is only available
in the largest supermarkets in the upper Midwest and would have been difficult to find even
in large Midwestern supermarkets twenty years ago.

Regional food habits do exist, but they also change over time. As people immigrate,
food practices and preferences are imported and exported. Families move to other locations,
bringing their food preferences with them. They may use their old recipes with new
ingredients, or experiment with new recipes, incorporating ingredients to match their own
tastes. In addition, food itself is imported from other countries. Approximately 80 percent of
Samoa's food requirements are imported from the United States, New Zealand, or Australia
(Shovic 1994). Because people and food are mobile, attempts to characterize a country or
people by what they eat are often inaccurate or tend to lump people into stereotypical groups.
Nevertheless, what is considered edible or even a delicacy in some parts of the world might
be considered inedible in other parts. Although food is often selected with some attention to
physical need, the values or beliefs a society attaches to potential food items define what
families within a cultural group will eat. For example, both plant and animal sources may
contribute to meeting nutritional requirements for protein; soybeans, beef, horsemeat, and
dog meat are all adequate protein sources. Yet, due to the symbolism attached to these protein
sources, they are not equally available in all societies. Moreover, even when the foods
perceived to be undesirable are available, they are not likely to be eaten by people who have a
strong emotional reaction against the potential food item.

Some food beliefs and practices are due to religious beliefs. Around the world,
Muslims fast during Ramadan, believed to be the month during which the Qur'an, the Islamic
holy book, was given from God to the Prophet Muhammad. During this month, Muslims fast
during daylight hours, eating and drinking before dawn and after sunset. Orthodox Jews and
some conservative Jews follow dietary laws, popularly referred to as a kosher diet, discussed
in Jewish scripture. The dietary laws, which describe the use and preparation of animal foods,
are followed for purposes of spiritual health. Many followers of Buddhism, Hinduism, and
Jainism are vegetarians, in part, because of a doctrine of noninjury or nonviolence.
Abstinence from eating meat in these traditions stems from the desire to avoid harming other
living creatures. Despite religious food prescriptions, dietary practices vary widely even
among those who practice the same faith. Such variations may be due to branches or
denominations of a religious group, national variations, and individuals' or families' own
degree of orthodoxy or religious adherence.

In addition to impacting food choices, culture also plays a role in food-related

etiquette. People in Western societies may refer to food-related etiquette as table manners, a
phrase that illustrates the cultural expectation of eating food or meals at a table. Some people
eat with forks and spoons; more people use fingers or chopsticks. However, utensil choice is
much more complicated than choosing chopsticks, fingers, or flatware. Among some groups
who primarily eat food with their fingers, diners use only the right hand to eat. Some people
use only three fingers of the right hand. Among other groups, use of both hands is acceptable.
In some countries, licking the fingers is polite; in others, licking the fingers is considered
impolite (and done only when a person thinks no one else is watching). Rules regarding polite
eating may increase in formal settings. At some formal dinners, a person might be expected
to choose the "right" fork from among two or three choices to match the food being eaten at a
certain point in the meal.

The amount people eat and leave uneaten also varies from group to group. Some
people from Middle Eastern and Southeast Asian countries might leave a little bit of food on
their plates in order to indicate that their hunger has been satisfied (Kittler 2001). Cooks from
other locations might be offended if food is left on the plate, indicating that the guest may
have disliked the food. Similarly, a clean plate might signify either satisfaction with the meal
or desire for more food.

Even the role of conversation during mealtime varies from place to place. Many
families believe that mealtime is a good time to converse and to "catch up" on the lives of
family and friends. Among other families, conversation during a meal is acceptable, but the
topics of conversation are limited. In some Southeast Asian countries it is considered polite to
limit conversation during a meal (Kittler 2001). Food plays an important role in the lives of
families in most cultures. However, the degree of importance varies from culture to culture.
For example, in American Samoa most family activities and ceremonies center on eating. A
host family demonstrates its prosperity or societal rank by providing large quantities of food
(Shovic 1994). Among other families in other locations, activities and celebrations include
food, but food is not necessarily the center of the event. Food traditions vary widely
throughout the world. Even among people who share similar cultural backgrounds and some
of the same food habits, eating patterns are not identical. Further, families vary from their
own daily routines on holidays, when traveling, or when guests are present. Men eat
differently from women. People of different age groups eat differently. However, in most
parts of the world, food is associated with hospitality and expression of friendship. Therefore,
sensitivity to food rules and customs is important in building and strengthening cross-cultural
relationships.
II.1. FOOD AS SOCIALISING PRACTICE (COLLECTIVISM)

Global trends of obesity continue to rise. The urgency for public health to improve
population nutritional status is of vital importance, given the central role that nutrition plays
in health, and chronic disease and obesity prevention. This is especially pertinent in
childhood, during which time nutrition-related health problems often become established).
Childhood obesity is an identified, immediate priority, given the unrelenting increase in its
prevalence worldwide a trend foretelling a future with generations of young adults burdened
with diabetes, among other chronic conditions that compromise wellbeing World-wide,
public health agencies at all levels are struggling to figure out how to deal with this mounting
problem.

The obesity crisis has been linked to obesogenic environments and societal trends that
encourage overeating and little physical activity. Preventing obesity, however, has
predominantly focused on the behaviour of individuals. This is also true for nutrition
education interventions. Generally, outcomes related to dietary behaviour change have been
disappointing. A review of school-based, cardiovascular disease prevention programmes,
which were comprehensive and well evaluated, achieved intended positive dietary behaviour
outcomes at 34 per cent (effect ratio 34%). While the promise of school-based nutrition
education has tended to centre on improving elements of the intervention programme and
evaluation, questions have been raised regarding the adequacy of theories underlying these
programmes.

Most population-based, nutrition and obesity prevention interventions have been

theoretically based upon Social Cognitive Theory and other models which aim to modify
psychosocial characteristics of individuals such as knowledge, self-efficacy and attitudes.
Travers explains that psychological models of behaviour emphasise individualistic,
behaviour change strategies which negates the role of the social context in shaping behaviour,
and thus implies a separation of people and their environment. Thus in most current
approaches food, bodies and eating are disembodied and disengaged from the social contexts
in which people live their lives.

Understanding how the social context, (social policy, environmental and sociocultural
influences) affects health behaviour is identified as necessary for more powerful
interventions. Specific reviews have addressed the determinants of healthy eating and support
models which conceptualise population perspectives for improving nutrition. Population
perspectives acknowledge that the collective characteristics of a society and its norms greatly
influence individual behaviour. For example, it has been observed that when support,
provided as part of clinical approaches for dietary behaviour change, is no longer available,
people tend to fall back into their normal routine. Deviation from normal routines requires
continual efforts to sustain alternative behaviours and might help to explain why
interventions based on individual behaviour change theories have achieved limited success
when implemented in populations. Population approaches, on the other hand, acknowledge
the integral role that normal routine plays in influencing behaviours and promote
modification of that role by creating conditions to support altered patterns of eating for whole
populations, not just for at-risk individuals. The relationship between social conditions and
population eating patterns is acknowledged as important; conceptual frameworks to study this
relationship for public health, however, have not been developed. In this paper we take on the
challenge of developing a truly population perspective by formulating a theoretical approach
that attends to the relationship between the social context and food choices, and how this
shapes eating patterns.

II.2. FOOD AS RELIGION PRACTICE (HOLLISAYS)

Food is an important part of religion observance and spiritual ritual for many faiths
including Christianity, Judaism, Islam, Hinduism and Buddhism. The role of food in cultural
practices and religious beliefs is complex and varies among individuals and communities.
Any introduction to such a diverse and complex topic will not be able to include everything,
Instead, here is a sample of some ways in which various religious groups include food as a
vital part of their faith. Understanding the role of food in cultural and religious practice is an
important part of showing respect and responding to the needs of people from a range of
religious communities. However, it is important to avoid assumptions about a persons
culture and beliefs. 1

Buddhism

1
Sara Garduno Diaz, Food and religion, published in November 15, 2016, available at
http://www.leeds.ac.uk/yawya/science-and-nutrition/Religion%20and%20food.html , accesed in December 4,
2016
 Buddhism considers living beings to be sacred, a belief that has translated into widely
practiced vegetarianism and veganism. Violence towards animals is considered to translate
into human aggression; hence most Buddhists will keep to the principle of ahimsa (non-
violence or harmlessness) and avoid all foods related to processes where harm was done.
Some Buddhists avoid meat and dairy products while others avoid only meat. Buddhists also
avoid the consumption of alcohol. Monks of this religion fast in the afternoon and rely on
alms or donations of food as they, along with Buddhist nuns, are not allowed to cultivate,
store or cook their own food.2

Buddhism holidays are: Buddha's Birthday, Abhidhamma Day, Asalha Puja Day, Kathina
Ceremony.

Traditional food in buddhism culture: Fried rice, Jiaozi (filled dumplings, guotie),
Potsticker (shallow fried jiaozi), Noodles, Fried noodles, Noodle soup, Kung Pao chicken,
Hotpot, Fried pancakes (including green onion pancakes), Zongzi (rice balls, wrapped in
leaves)3

Christianity

Food regulations differ from one Christian denomination or group to another, with
some groups not observing any restrictions at all. Some fasting days are observed by Catholic
and Orthodox Christians on certain days such as Good Friday or during Lent. In earlier
centuries, meat and dairy products were avoided during a substantial portion of the year, but
today it often just means eating fish on a Friday.4 The ritual of consuming bread and wine

2
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_holidays
3
Richard R. Wertz, Cuisine, available at http://www.ibiblio.org/chineseculture/contents/food/p-food-
c01s01.html, accesed in December 6, 2016
4
Christian Holidays, published in March 17, 2004, updated in November 18, 2016, avalaible at,
www.religionfacts.com/christianity/holidays, accesed in de December 3th, 2016
(Holy Communion or the Eucharist) is regularly celebrated but its symbolic or actual
meaning in relation to the body and blood of Jesus Christ depends on the denomination.

Christian holidays are: Advent, All Saints Day, Christmas, Eastern, Lords Day, St.
Andrews Day, St. Patricks Day, Valentine Day.

Tranditional food in Christian culture: Baklava Greece (it is supposed to be made with
33 dough layers, referring to the years of Christ's life), Christopsomo - Greece (a type of
Tsoureki bread served at Christmas), Easter egg (associated with Easter, as a symbol of new
life), Koulourakia - Greece (pastry dessert served on Easter Day in parts the country), Paska -
Poland and Ukrain (a sweet bread baked and often blessed with other foods for consumption
on Easter Sunday to mark the end of fasting), Religieuse France (a type of clair, made to
resemble a nun (which is the meaning of its name).

Hinduism

Hinduism is one of the most ancient religions in the world and, although meat was not
originally prohibited, many Hindus today regard vegetarianism as a way to maintain the
respect observed for life. Hinduism is characterized by the avoidance of the killing of any
animal, the cleansing of those involved in food preparation, which is a reflection on
previously existing caste-restricted practices, and the symbolism of certain foods. 5The cow is
held in high regard as a symbol of abundance and so it is not eaten by Hindus, yet products
such as milk, butter and yogurt may be eaten. Some Hindus fast on selected days as a mark of
respect to certain gods.

Hindu holidays are: Holi, Diwali, Mahashivaratri (Shiva Ratri), Ganesha-Chaturthi (Ganesha
Utsava), Rama Navami.

Traditional food in hindu culture: Ghee - sacred food of the Devas, burnt in the ritual of
Aarti, offered to gods, and used as libation or anointment ritual, Pongal - a Tamil dish

5
Paul Younger, Playing Host to Deity: Festival Religion in the South Indian Tradition
associated with many Hindu rituals and feast such as the Pongal feast, Modak - a sweet
dumpling with a filling of fresh coconut and jaggery made specially during Ganesh Chaturthi.

Ghevar - is a Rajasthani sweet traditionally associated with the Teej Festival

Islam

The main food practices in Islam involve specific ritual slaughtering procedures for
animals of consumption (haram practices), fasting during the month of Ramadan, the
avoidance of pork and of intoxicating liquor. Foods are categorised as halal (those than may
be eaten) and haram (those that should be avoided), as are other aspects of life. Most foods
are halal while the list of haram foods includes pork, alcohol and any products that may
contain emulsifiers made from animal fats (such as gelatines and margarines). Bread and
bread products fermented by yeast may contain traces of alcohol and in some cases may be
considered haram. Moderation in all things, including eating and dietary habits, are an
integral part of Islam.

Islam holidays are: Muharram (1 Muharram): The Islamic New Year, Mawlid al-Nabi (12
Rabi 1): Prophet Muhammad's Birthday, Eid al-Fitr (1 Shawwal): The Celebration
concluding Ramadan, Eid al-Adha (10 Dhu'l-Hijjah): The celebration concluding the Hajj. 6

Traditional food in islam culture: Baklava (associated with the fasting month of Ramadan
and Eid ul-Fitr by the Balkans and Ottoman Empire), Dates (traditionally dates are eaten at
the Iftar meal to break the fast of Ramadan, symbolically recalling the tradition that the
prophet Muhammad broke his fast by eating three dates), Halva (on the 7th and 40th days
and first anniversary following the death of a Muslim, the semolina or flour helva is offered
to visitors by relatives of the deceased; it is known in Turkish as helva of the dead. The
ritual is also performed in Afghanistan, Turkey, Iran), Ketupat (packed rice wrapped in a
woven palm leaf. Associated with Eid ul-Fitr among Muslims in Southeast Asia), Rendang
(spicy meat dish of Minangkabau. The ingredients of the food contains symbolism of the
Minangkabau culture: the chili symbolizes ulama and sharia, the meat symbolizes clan

6
Borgna Brunner, Major Islamic Holidays. Celebrations for Muslims around the world, available at
http://www.infoplease.com/spot/islamicholidays.html , accesed in December 6, 2016
leaders, the coconut milk symbolizes teachers, spice mixture symbolizes the rest of
Minangkabau society).

Judaism

In this religion foods are divided into kosher (allowed) or trefa (forbidden).
Characteristics of kosher foods include animals that have a completely split hoof and chew
cud (such as cows, goats and sheep), while kosher fish must have fins and scales. In general
all plant foods are kosher. In addition, a specific slaughtering process must be followed for
meat to be considered kosher. Meat and dairy products must not be prepared, stored or eaten
together and certain fasting days are observed (especially Yom Kippur). During the
celebration of Passover, food helps to tell the story of the Exodus from Egypt.

Judaism holidays are: Chanukah, Fast of Tevet 10, 15 Shevat, Passover, Lag B'Omer, The
Three Weeks, Rosh Hashanah.

Traditional food in judaisn culture: Maror (a bitter herb eaten at the Passover Seder meant
to remind of the bitterness of slavery), Matzo (a type of unleavened bread eaten at the
Passover Seder - and the following week, symbolically recalling the Jews leaving Egypt in
too much haste to allow their bread to rise in the ovens), Wine (for the recitation of kiddush at
the beginning of Shabbat and Festival meals, at the Havdalah service at the conclusion of the
Sabbath, and for the Seven Blessings of the wedding ceremony), Latkes (potato pancakes),
Hamantash (a triangular pastry filled with fruit, nuts, or seeds), Apples and honey.
Food selection is due to different reasons, with religion being one of the strongest
principles on which diets are based. Sacred space and time (altars, shrines, feast and fasting
days), as well as symbolism and myth (what foods represent or the stories they recall) are all
part of religious rituals linked to food. Regardless of religious views, it is important to follow
a balanced diet and favourable lifestyle for optimum health.
There is no sincerer love than the love of food.

George Bernard Shaw

 III. INDIAN CUISINE FOOD IN INDIAN CULTURE

III.1. THE HISTORY OF INDIAN FOOD

Indian cuisine is about as easy to explain as thermodynamics. Over 5,000 years of

history, India has welcomed a multitude of settlers with a variety of belief systems. In order
to understand the evolution of the indigenous cuisine of India, one must realize this country is
anything but homogenous. Regions and religions make up a large portion of the cultural
fabric of the food. Indian food has been coined a phrase that a native would surely laugh at
because such a phrase would be like saying to a sommelier North American wine. Like
Napa, Sonoma, Columbia, and Anderson Valley, for example, there are many areas within
India that have its own unique cooking methods, spices, and local ingredients. Tipping the
population scale at over one billion, the diversity of its food is as diverse as its people.

Hindu and Muslim are the two dominate religions that have influenced Indian cooking
and food habits the most. With each migration of settlers, they brought with them their own
culinary methods. The Hindu vegetarian culture is widely practiced. Adversely, Muslim
tradition is the most dominate in the cooking of meats. Mughlai food, kabaas, rich Kormas
(curry), and nargisi kaftas (meatballs), the biryani (a layered rice and meat dish), rogan josh,
and favorite dishes prepared in a clay over or tandoor are wonderful contributions made by
Muslim settlers in India. In South India, the cuisine is largely rice based with an accent of a
thin soup called Rasam. Coconut is an important ingredient in all South Indian cuisine. Dosa
(rice pancakes), Idli (steamed rice cakes), and fermented rice are very popular dishes with
Hindu vegetarian dieters. The Portuguese, Persians, and British made important contributions
to the Indian culinary scene as well. The British, for example, introduced tea or chai to India
and it is the favorite drink of most Indians today.

North, East, South and West are the four different main regional styles in Indian
cooking. North India was influenced by the Moghuls dynasty that ruled India for three
centuries until the British replaced them in the 1800s. Saffron and rich gravies made of
pureed nuts and cream were all derived from the Moghuls. Naan bread, which is made in a
tandoor, is not indigenously Indian. It is the everyday bread of the Afghani people. Naan is
not the homemade daily bread of Indians, yet for decades, this has been a mass misperception
of Indian food outside the country. South Indian food is the antithesis of Northern Indian
food. Their distinctive rice crepes and steamed rice cakes have been a favorite amongst
Southern Indians. Rice is eaten at all meals, and lunch is often three courses, again each
served with rice. Hindus are divided into meat and non-meat eaters.

Their common thread in the Southern region of Kerala is coconut, which is the
culinary mascot of the state. The Western states of Gujarat, Maharashtra and Goa all have
unique food experiences. Gujarat is mostly Muslim, Parsis, Hindu, and Jains, which each
having their own method to cooking. Parsis have a rich diet of chicken and seafood, unlike
Jains, who are strictly vegetarian for religious reasons. Gujaratis are predominately veggie
eaters and Gujarat is celebrated for being one of the best places to eat vegetarian food.
Maharashtra is a huge state with its fame capital Mumbai (formerly known as Bombay). This
large region has five-star hotels and restaurants that incorporate coastal favorites such as a
variety of seafood dishes with a slash of red chilies and a healthy helping of coconut. Eastern
states such as West Bengal, Orissa, Bihar, and Jharkhand are quite different from each other.
Bengali cuisine can be described as delicate and subtle, with fish and rice at the center of the
diet. The order of a Bengali meal begins with a mixed vegetable dish with a bitter flavor and
ends with a rich milk-based sweet dessert that Bengali is famous for. Orissa is known for
squash blossoms dipped in a paste made with rice and deep-fried or made into patties. Fish
and other seafood are also dietary stables. Chicken is very unlikely to be served here and in
general meat plays a minor culinary role. Bihar and Jharkhand enjoy their vegetables and
beans, however they have Western overtones with their diet including beef, pork, goat and
chicken.

III.2. THE INFLUENCE OF RELIGION ON INDIAN FOOD CULTURE

Religious Influence on Indian Food, Indian CuisineReligious Influence on Indian

Food has spawned in generating diverse variety of food in various regions of the country.
Indian cuisine reflects the culture and tradition of the country which comprises of countless
landscapes, different languages, magnificent festivals and multi-ethnicity. Indian food is as
diverse and wonderful as the colourful country itself. From the northern tip of Kashmir to the
southern state of Kerala, and from the Western Ghats of Gujarat to Nagaland in the east,
India's food habits are as varied as the people of India. However, a particular pattern exists
among all this diversity. The traditional religious Indian cuisine has also gained popularity
across the globe. Religious influence on Indian food has bechanced due to the invaders,
immigrations and intermingling of different people from the pre-British era. Moreover, the
Mughal period has considerably influenced Indian cuisine. The presence of diverse climatic
condition has also helped to broaden the sets of ingredients present in the cuisines. In India,
food has become a marker of different religious and social identity. Every religion is present
with varying taboos and preferences, such as Hindus do not consume beef, Muslims do not
eat pork but consume beef and Jain population do not eat roots or subterranean vegetables.
This eating habit further supports the fact that Indian cuisine has witnessed a heavy influence
of religion.

Influence of Hindu Religion

The main religious influence on Indian food is of the Hindu religion. The Hindu
influence on Indian cuisine is immense. The Hindus are mostly vegetarians for ethical
reasons and this has influenced their cuisine and eating habits. They consume a vast range of
different vegetables like tomatoes, cauliflower, spinach, green beans and potatoes etc to make
different lavish dishes. They include several other vegetables like cluster beans, beetroot,
eggplant, cucumber okra, and white radish. Brahmins are one of the highest castes in Hindu
religion. They are strict vegetarians and do not consume meat, fish or egg. However,
Brahmins of the eastern coastal regions are non vegetarians.

Influence of Muslim Religion

Religious Influence on Indian Food, Indian Cuisine Another dominating religious

influence on Indian food is by the Muslim community. The Muslim influence on Indian
cuisine contoured the Indian cuisine while offering it that desired shape with blessed aroma
and flavour. The Muslim culture has introduced the lavish Mughlai cuisine to Indian culinary
culture. Biryani, the rice-Pulao with the mixture of meat and several meat roasts and kebabs,
flavoured with Indian herbs and spices are some of the famous dishes. Due to the Muslim
influence on Indian food, these dishes are always served with almonds, pistachios cashews
and raisins. Muslims introduced Semolina, Phirni, leavened breads and the famous Tandoor
style of cooking. In Muslim cooking culture, meats can also be cooked in Tandoors
marinating them in yogurt and spices.
Influence of Buddhist Religion

Moreover, Buddhism has also adequately influenced Indian cuisine. Followers of

Buddhism are also generally vegetarians as they do not believe in hurting any form of life.
But Buddhists, to some extent, do consume meat, but only if the animal has died out of
natural causes and not hunted. Here also, vegetarian dishes reign supreme as a variety of
specifically created cuisines have been developed, which are mostly inspired by the Tibetan
culture. Various forms of soups, steamed and boiled vegetables and the most popular, Momos
have greatly influenced the food habits of Indian people.

Influence of Christian Religion

Another important religious influence on Indian food is the Christian religion.

Christian influence on Indian cuisine offered the touch of contemporaneousness, which later
reshaped Indian food style to a great extent. Soups, salads and grilled pork chops marinated
in spices and chillies are the famous recipes among Indian Christians. Dishes like sausages,
pudding, cutlets, roasted chicken and turkeys, baked foods and cakes, biscuits and jams are
famous Christian food items. Alcoholic drinks such as whisky, wine etc and spicy tea were
some of the major drinks came to existence in India due to this religion

Thus, Religious Influence on Indian Food has been profound and great and has
resulted in the formation of a diverse range of cuisines and dishes. The magic of Indian
cuisine lies not only in the taste and tang but in its diverse pattern which marks Indian cuisine
as the motley of several traditions, as the potpourri of various religion.

III.3. REGIONAL DIFFERENCES IN COOKING

Indias population is highly diverse, with cultural identities heavily influenced by

religious and regional particularities. Ayurvedic teachings, emphasizing equilibrium between
mind, body, and spirit, have exerted an influence over Indian cuisine in general, dictating
ingredient pairings and cooking practices. While this philosophy is a common influence
throughout Indian cuisine, the ways in which Ayurvedic food rules are applied differ
according to religion and regional culture. Approximately one-third of Indias population is
vegetarian, dictated by their Hindu, Jain, or Buddhist faiths. Consequently, a significant
portion of Indias dishes throughout the country are without meat. Additionally, religious
beliefs affect other dietary restrictions that shape Indias cuisine: Hindu followers abstain
from beef, because cattle are sacred in this faith, while Muslims believe pork to be unclean
and never eat it. Depending on the dominant religious beliefs of a region, the cuisine in a
particular area may omit certain ingredients to comply with religious law.

Northern Indian Cuisine

Perhaps the most prevalent culinary style found outside of India, Northern Indian
cuisine reflects a strong Mughal influence. It is characterized by a high use of dairy: milk,
paneer (an Indian mild cheese), ghee (clarified butter), and yogurt are all used regularly in
Northern dishes. Samosas, fried pastries stuffed with potatoes and occasionally meat, are a
distinctive Northern snack. Clay ovens known as tandoors are popular in the North, giving
dishes like Tandoori Chicken and Naan bread their distinctive charcoal flavor. A significant
number of Northern dishes make regular appearances on Indian menus. Dal or Paneer
Makhani are popular vegetarian dishes, consisting of dal or paneer cooked in a creamy sauce
of tomatoes, onions, mango powder, and garam masala. Saag Paneer and Palak Paneer are
two similar dishes made with spinach, cream, and paneer, differing slightly in consistency
and spices. Korma, another menu staple from Northern India, is a creamy curry of coconut
milk or yogurt, cumin, coriander, and small amounts of cashews or almonds. It can be served
with different meats, usually chicken or lamb, but sometimes beef, as well as with paneer for
a vegetarian dish.

Western Indian Cuisine

Western Indian cuisine is distinguished by the geographic and historical particulars of

its three main regions: Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Goa. Maharashtras coastal location is
responsible for its fish and coconut milk-dominant cuisine. Gujarati cuisine is mostly
vegetarian and has an underlying sweetness to many of its dishes due to Chinese influence.
Since the dry climate of this region produces smaller vegetables, this region is well known for
its chutneys, which are popular Indian condiments that use cooked, fresh, or pickled
vegetables and fruits with sweet, sour, or spicy flavors. Goa acted as a major trade port and
colony for Portugal, resulting in a distinctive and unique blend of Indian and Portuguese
culinary elements. Goan cuisine uses pork and beef with greater frequency than other
regional cuisines in India. Vinegar is also a characteristic ingredient of Goan cuisine, another
result of Portuguese influence. The prevalence of coconut milk, coconut paste, and fish in
Goan cuisine results from its coastal location. Vindaloo is a traditional Goan dish that is an
Indian restaurant mainstay, its name deriving from Vinho de Alho, a Portuguese marinade
consisting primarily of garlic, wine, vinegar, and chilies.

Eastern Indian Cuisine

Eastern Indian cuisine is primarily known for its desserts. These desserts are not only
favored by other regions in India, but are frequently found at Indian restaurants, their light
sweetness making an excellent finale to a meal. Rasgulla is a popular sweet treat consisting of
semolina and cheese curd (chenna) balls that are boiled in a light sugar syrup. Eastern dishes
favor mustard seeds, poppy seeds, and mustard oil, giving dishes a light pungency. Rice and
fish also feature prominently in Eastern cuisine. Overall, Eastern dishes are more lightly
spiced than those from other regions.

Southern Indian Cuisine

Southern Indian cuisine is not typically found on many Indian restaurant menus and
differs greatly from other regions. Its curries contrast differently in their textures and can
typically be categorized according to the drier consistency, or those favoring a more soupy or
stew-like presentation. Poriyals, dry curries consisting of a variety of vegetables and spices,
accompany rice dishes. Sambars, rasams, and kootus, three common stew-like dishes, each
differ in their primary ingredients and degrees of liquidity. Sambars are essentially tamarind
flavored pea and vegetable stews that are more watery than curries from other regions, but are
thicker than rasams. Rasams are more similar to soups in their consistency, and are composed
primarily of tomato, tamarind, and a myriad of spices. Kootus are more similar to curries
found in other regions, but, rather than being creamy like the dairy-based curries of the North,
kootus get their consistency from boiled lentils. Aside from curry-style dishes, Southern
Indian cuisine is known for its tasty fried or griddle-cooked snacks. Dosas consist of a large
crepe-like rice pancake that is usually filled with vegetables, chutneys, or masala curries.
Utthapams are similar to dosas, but are thicker with the filling sprinkled on top like a pizza.
Idlis and vadas are fried delicacies similar to savory doughnuts that are served as
accompaniments to sambars and rasams. Apart from restaurants that specifically serve
Southern Indian cuisine, the only South Indian food that is frequently found in Indian
restaurants are pappadams, a fried crispy rice cracker usually spiced with black peppercorns.

III.4. EXEMPLE OF WEDDING MENU IN INDIAN CULTURE

Apart from their lavish dcor and pomp celebrations, Indian weddings are known for
their sumptuous food. Any wedding is considered incomplete without delicious food. In
India, the arrangement of the wedding day food is done by the parents of the bride. Though
the menu is decided according to their wish, at times the approval of the groom's family is
also taken. The groom's family is given prime importance in any wedding alliance and
therefore, the preparation of the food is prepared in the best possible manner, in order to
please them.

Traditionally, the food for the wedding was cooked by skilled cooks. Nowadays,
people's preferences are changing and quite a number of them opt for catering services.
However, one should make this decision wisely. In case of catering services, the first thing to
do is to decide your menu. The menu is decided keeping in mind your budget. Remember the
idea is to choose a good caterer, who provides you with food of your choice within your
budget. After you choose the caterer, all the arrangements are done by them.

The Indian wedding feast usually commences with appetizers, which are served
before the main meal is served. The appetizers are usually both vegetarian and non vegetarian
to cater to all guest. It can comprise of traditional starter meals of the specific region the
couple belongs to. In some regional weddings, drinks are also served. At times, there are even
separate counters or stalls for beverages. The drinks which are usually served comprise of
soft drinks, mocktails, wine, whiskey, etc. This is followed by the main course meal. The
main course meal usually contains four to five vegetable dishes, different types of daals,
pulao and breads. This is complimented with various salads and other condiments. The main
course meal is strictly in accordance with the culture and region of the couple. It also
comprises of both vegetarian and non vegetarian dishes. The meal is the heaviest and
grandest of all and showcases the best delicacies of any cuisine.

After the primary meal is over, the guests are treated with desserts. Desserts are sweet
items, which are served to ease the spicy and tingling taste of the meal. The sweet section
comprises of traditional items depending upon the ethnicity of the families. However, the
seasonal sweets and ice creams are always given preference. This is because they are liked by
all owing to their universal popularity and appeal. Subsequently, the Indian wedding feast
comes to an end with Paan or 'Vida'. This is prepared by stuffing a betel leaf with betel nuts,
spices and sugar, according to taste.

Delhi Style Party Menu - elegant,perfect, charming

For starters:

Meat Kebabs with Mango Chutney

or

Cilantro and Mint Chutney or

Vegetable Pakoras with green mango chutney

For main Course:

Chicken Curry or Lamb Curry

Rajma Kidney Bean Curry
Cauliflower and Potatoes or other seasonal vegetables
Cucumber Raita
Plain Rice
Chapatties

For dessert:

Kheer
fresh fruits like Mangoes or Lychees
 IV. FOOD IN ROMANIA CULTURE

IV.1. INFLUENCE OF RELIGION (THE FAST)

The rule of fasting, which is dependent on the Church's cycle of feasts and fasts, is
contained in the Church's Typicon, chiefly in chapters 32 and 33, and is repeated in the
appropriate places of the Divine service books, the Menaia and Triodion. In general, fast days
for Orthodox Christians are all Wednesdays and Fridays throughout the year (except for fast-
free periods), the four canonical fast periods of Great Lent, Nativity Fast, Apostles' Fast, and
Dormition Fast, and a few special days: the Exaltation of the Cross (September 14th) and the
Beheading of the Forerunner (August 29th)which, even though they are feast days, are also
fast days (with wine and oil allowed) for the sake of the events commemorated thereon.

There are some local variations in the allowances of wine and oil, and sometimes of fish,
and so the indications in the present Calendar cannot be uniformly applied everywhere. In
particular, on the celebrations of the patronal feast of a parish or monastery, fish is generally
allowed, and when a saint is honored with a service of Sung Doxology or Polyeleos rank,
wine and oil are allowed. In the Russian Church, on the feast days of the more renowned
Russian saints, such as St. Sergius of Radonezh and St. Seraphim of Sarov, and of
wonderworking Icons of the Mother of God such as the Kazan and Vladimir Icons, of course,
wine and oil are allowed (except during Great Lent), although this is not mentioned in the
present Calendar because the Typicon leaves this to local practice, indicating only the fasts
and allowances that are of general application. The meaning of the Typicon in its allowances
is simple: the more one labors for the glorification of a saint or feast day, the more
consolation one is allowed in food. For one who has become accustomed to the Orthodox
fast, the allowance of oil on food, or fried foods, together with a little wine, is indeed a
consolation, as well as a source of physical strength. Where the Typicon itself indicates two
variant practices (as for a few of the weekdays of Great Lent), the present Calendar follows
the Typicon's preferred practice.

While most Orthodox Christians are perhaps aware of the general rule of fasting for Great
Lent and the Dormition Fast (wine and oil allowed only on Saturdays and Sundays, except for
a few feast days and vigils), many are probably not familiar with the precise rule governing
the less severe fast of the Nativity and Apostles' Fast. Therefore, we shall quote this rule,
from Chapter 33 of the Typicon:
 "It should be noted that in the Fast of the Holy Apostles and of the Nativity of Christ, on
Tuesday and Thursday we do not eat fish, but only oil and wine. On Monday, Wednesday,
and Friday we eat neither oil nor wine... On Saturday and Sunday we eat fish. If there occurs
on Tuesday or Thursday a saint who has a Doxology, we eat fish; if on Monday, the same;
but if on Wednesday or Friday, we allow only oil and wine. If it be a saint who has a Vigil on
Wednesday or Friday, or the saint whose temple it is, we allow oil and wine and fish... But
from the 20th of December until the 25th, even if it be Saturday or Sunday, we do not allow
fish." In these two fasts, the fast for laymen is the same as that of many Orthodox
monasteries, where Monday throughout the year is kept as a fast day in honor of the fleshless
ones, the Angels.

This rule of fasting, to be sure, is not intended to be a "straight-jacket" for Orthodox

believers, nor a source of pharisaical pride for anyone who keeps the letter of the Church's
law. It is rather the rule, the standard, against which each is to measure his own practice, and
towards which one must always strive, according to one's strength and circumstances.
Whenever, for sickness or any other reason, one falls short of the rule, he applies to himself
the spiritual medicine of self-reproach and strives to enter more fully into the spirit and
discipline of fasting, which is indeed of great spiritual benefit to those who sincerely strive to
follow it.

IV.2. REGIONAL DIFFERECES IN ROMANIAN FOOD CULTURE

FOOD CULTURE IN MOLDOVA

Moldova was most likely heavily forested in its pre-history and due to this, along with the
ideal weather and soil in the region, plant and animal life was ever present. Berries, small
fruits, nuts, and mushrooms were common on the forest floors, all of which made great food
sources. The animals present also made up a part of the diet, but most of this was in the form
of small mammals and anything else that could be caught. There is, however a notable lack of
fish and other sea life in the country.

Food in Daily Life

Mamaliga, a hard corn porridge, is regarded as the national dish. It is poured onto a
flat surface in the shape of a big cake and is served mainly with cheese, sour cream, or milk.
Non-Moldovan inhabitants joke that Moldovans would be unhappy if they could not eat
mamaliga once a week. The main foods in daily life are a mixture of vegetables and meat
(chicken, goose, duck, pork, and lamb), but the availability of vegetables depends on the
season. Filled cabbage and grape leaves as well as soups such aszamaand the
Russianborschalso form part of daily meals.Plcintis a pastry filled mainly with cheese,
potatoes, or cabbage that often is sold on the streets..

Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions

Orthodox Christian baptisms, funerals, and weddings are accompanied by large

gatherings where several meat and vegetable dishes, desserts, and cakes as well as wine are
served. Homemade vodka and brandy also are offered. At Easter, a special bread,pasca, is
baked in every household, and eggs are painted in various colors. Families go to the
graveyard to celebrate their dead kin; they eat food at the graves while drinking wine and
offering it to each other as they remember the dead.

Traditional holiday dishes in Moldova

Traditional holiday dishes include stuffed cabbage rolls with minced meat (known in
Romania as sarmale, and in Turkey as "dolma"), pilaf (a rice dish), pork jelly, chicken, etc.
The holiday table is usually decorated with baked items, such as pastries, cakes, rolls, and
buns, with a variety of fillings (cheese, fruit, vegetables, walnuts, etc.), known (also in
Romania) as cozonac, pasc, brnzoaice, and sfiniori.

FOOD CULTURE IN TRANSILVANIA

Transylvania's cuisine displays a variety of flavors with dishes spiced with thyme, red
pepper or tarragon. Meats, such as pork, mutton, veal, are among the most popular ingredient
in Transylvania's cuisine. The soups, to which sour cream and egg yolk are ofted added, also
include flour dumplings or homemade pasta. Romania is one the world's leading producers of
cabbage (varza). Make sure you don't leave the region without trying the delicious "Varza a
la Cluj" the Romanian version of lasagna - prepared from several layers of finely shredded
cabbage (fresh or sour) and minced pork or veal mixed with rice and bacon and baked in the
oven. Hungarian types of food that have found their place in the Transylvanian cuisine:
Gulys, Papriks, Vargables, Szilvsgombc, Szabgallr-leves, Tojsleves or even the tasty
Kurtoskalacs. Pork is by far the favorite meat in Transylvanian cuisine. Some particular
dishes are: cabbage a la Cluj, bean soup with smoked meat and cabbage rolls (Sarmale).
FOOD CULTURE IN OLTENIA

The people from Oltenia are famous for their delicious dishes. A feature of this way of
cooking is the preparing the food in earthen pots.

The peasants put an emphasis on cooking vegetables, such as: the stinging nettle, the
garden sorrel, the green onion. The leek is an emblematical dish in Oltenia. It is a vegetable,
similar to the onion, but it is hotter than the onion or the garlic. Its leaves are similar to the
ones of the garlic and they can be cooked in diverse dishes or they can be consumed in their
raw form, cut in circles (mostly used in salads). The leek must be added into he dishes after
they have been cooked, so that they dont lose their aroma. The soups are preferred sourer.
The people from Oltenia make them sour with cabbage and tomato juice. They prefer chicken
soups, vegetables, leek and pig weed. Usually, they spice their dishes with horse radish and
chili pepper and as greenstuff, they use the parsley and the lovage. Among the special dishes
from Oltenia, there are: the leek soup, leek with olives, traditional pottage, chicken cooked in
white sauce with maize porridge (mamaliga), traditional sausages.

When its Christmas or Easter, the people from Oltenia have all their tables full of
dishes. At Christmas, they dont forget to cook the steak in fat. They eat it with fresh leek,
jellied meat, thick sausage, forcemeat rolls of cabbage leaves (saramalute) and for Easter the
women cook the traditional pasca (sweet cream cheese cake) and they paint the eggs in red.
Together with these delicious dishes, people from Oltenia make a toast, they usually drink red
wine, plum brandy or the so called palinca (traditional drink).

FOOD CULTURE IN MARAMURES

Maramure is known for its small scaled agricultural character. Most villages are
agricultural settings where families have their own piece of land, a homestead, a few animals
and often an orchard. This means lots of villagers having a very self sufficient way of life,
providing their own families with home grown food and other self produced products.

FOOD CULTURE IN DOBROGEA

The cuisine of Dobrogea, mainly based on fish, as the region is close to the Black Sea, the
Delta and the Danube River, is a mix of Romanian, Greek, Turkish, Tartar and Bulgarian
flavors and receipies. One of the traditional dishes of the region is the Tripe Soup. To make
this delicious soup, beef tripe is mixed with carrots, onions, pepper and garlic. It is flavored
afterwards with vinegar or sour cream. The delicious local salad, called Salata Dobrogeana, is
made of fresh vegetables pepper, cucumbers, tomatoes, onion, to which boiled eggs, grated
cheese, minced dill or parsley are added.

The Sarailie cake, with walnuts or almonds dipped in syrup, makes an excellent
dessert. The most popular dish in the Danube Delta is the Fishermans Soup. In a big cast-
iron kettle, water is brought to a boil with vegetables and some 10 to 15 species of small fish.
The liquid is then strained and the small fish discarded. Big chunks of sturgeon, carp or pike
are then boiled in the broth. The fish soup makes two dishes: first, the broth is served with a
wooden spoon and then the big chunks of fish are sprinkled with chili pepper or garlic.
Afterwards, Saramura, prepared from big chunks of carp broiled on the stove or on a spit, is
served with polenta and garlic sauce.

Other local specialties:

Beef tripe soup served seasoned with vinegar or sour cream

Plachia de crap carp cooked with onions and oil

FOOD CULTURE IN BANAT

The cuisine from Banat is characterized by tasty, fat and nourishing meals. Ciorba
is soured with lemon, supplemented with cream and seasoned with tarragon. Soups are
cooked with home-made noodles, and with rantas, as well. Home-made noodles are much
used for snacks, meals and also for sweets. With home-made noodles, we may cook the
wellknown iofca with cabbage, nuts, milk, poppy; there is also the goulash, which is
cooked in most kitchens from Banat

V. FOOD IN THE GLOBAL WORLD

V.1. THE INFLUENCES OF GLOBALIZATION

 Romanian cuisine is a diverse blend of different dishes from several traditions with which
it has come into contact, but it also maintains its own character. It has been greatly influenced
by Ottoman cuisine, while it also includes influences from the cuisines of other neighbours,
including German, Serbian, Bulgarian, and Hungarian cuisine.

There are quite a few different types of dishes, which are sometimes included under a
generic term; for example, the category ciorb includes a wide range of soups with a
characteristic sour taste. These may be meat and vegetable soups, tripe (ciorb de burt) and
calf foot soups, or fish soups, all of which are soured by lemon juice, sauerkraut juice,
vinegar, or bor (traditionally made from bran). The category uic (plum brandy) is a generic
name for a strong alcoholic spirit in Romania, while in other countries, every flavour has a
different name.

In the history of Romanian culinary literature, Costache Negruzzi and Mihail

Koglniceanu were the compilers of a cookbook "200 reete cercate de bucate, prjituri i alte
trebi gospodreti" (200 tried recipes, pastries and other household things) printed in 1841.
Also, Negruzzi writes in "Alexandru Lpuneanu": "In Moldavia, at this time, fine food
wasn't fashioned. The greatest feast only offered a few types of dishes. After the Polish bor,
Greek dishes would follow, boiled with herbs floating in butter, after that, Turkish pilaf, and
finally cosmopolitan steaks". Cheese was known since ancient history. Brnz is the generic
word for cheese in Romanian. This word is from Dacian. In addition to cheese, Dacians ate
vegetables (lentils, peas, spinach, garlic) and fruits (grapes, apples, raspberries) with high
nutritional value. The Dacians produced wine in massive quantities. Once, Burebista, a
Dacian king, angered by the wine abuse of his warriors, cut down the vines; his people gave
up drinking wine. Legend says that the Dacian people created their own beer.[citation
needed] With the Romans, there was a certain taste, rooted in the centuries, for the perfect
pastry made from cheese, including alivenci, pasc, or brnzoaice. The Romans introduced
porridge, where different variations of millet porridges were developed. Maize and potatoes
became staples of Romanian cuisine after their introduction to Europe. Maize, in particular,
contributed to an increase in health and nutrition level of the Romanian population in the 16th
and 17th centuries, resulting in a population boom.

More than four centuries, Wallachia and Moldavia, the two medieval Romanian
principalities, were strongly influenced by their oriental neighbor, the Ottoman Empire.
Ottoman cuisine changed the Romanian table with appetizers made from various vegetables,
such as eggplant and bell peppers, as well as various meat preparations, such as chiftele
(deep-fried meatballs, a variation of kofta) and mici (short sausages without casings, usually
barbecued). The various kinds of ciorb/bor (sour soups) and meat-and-vegetable stews,
such as iahnie de fasole (beans), ardei umplui (stuffed peppers), and sarmale (stuffed
cabbage) are influenced by Turkish cuisine. The Romanian tomato salad is a variation of the
Turkish oban salata. There is a unique procession of sweets and pastries combining honey
and nuts, such as baclava, sarailie (or seraigli), halva, and rahat (Turkish delight).