Manufacturing systems

analysis and improvement

ERGONOMICS
Ergonomics and health and safety
Not only it is important to engage and develop
worker capabilities, it is also necessary to keep to
provide them with adequate working conditions
Therefore, ergonomics, as well as health and
safety are important concerns for management
Ergonomics
The primary guideline of work design is to design
the workplace to accommodate most individuals
with regard to the structural size of the human
body
The purpose is to ensure a comfortable working
posture for workers

See video:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QeDUCXfzl6U
Anthropometry and design
Anthropometry is the science of measuring the human
body
A kth percentile is defined as a value such that k percent
of the data values are at or below this value and 100-k of
the values are at or above this value

It is possible to find tables with data showing the standard

measures a given population
Anthropometry and design
There are three approaches to design are

Design for extremes

Design for adjustability

Design for the average

Human capabilities and motion economy
Achieve maximum muscle strength at the midrange of
motion

Astronauts position
Workplace design
Determine work surface height by elbow height
Upper arms should hang freely and the elbows flexed at 90, so
that forearms are parallel to the ground
Workplace design
Adjust work surface
height based on the
task being performed
(a) For fine assembly it
is more advantageous
to raise the surface by
20 cm.
(c) For rough assembly
involving lifting heavy
loads it is better to
lower the surface by 20
cm.
Workplace design
Adjust work surface height based on the task being
performed while seating
Same principles apply
Seated work stations should have adjustable chairs and adjustable
footrests
Feet should rest on the floor
The workstation should also be adjustable

For more details on this

picture see the textbook
Workplace design
Provide a comfortable hair for the seated operator
Seating helps reduce stress on feet and overall energy expenditure
It is very important to provide lumbar support to maintain lumbar
lordosis
Workplace design
Overall optimal working
posture and workstation
Workplace design
Encourage postural flexibility
A workstation should be adjustable so that work can be performed
standing or seating

The human body is not made for spending long periods of time
sitting down

Postural rigidity reduces blood flow and induces fatigue and

cramping

Provide anti-fatigue mats for standing operations

Human capabilities and motion economy
Begin and end motions with both hands simultaneously
Move hands symmetrically and simultaneously to and
from the center of the
body
Use the natural rhythms of the
body
Use continuous curved motions
Human capabilities and motion economy
Use the lowest practical classification of movement

Classification Movement Speed

First class Fingers High
Second class Fingers, wrist
Third class Fingers, wrist, lower arm
Fourth class Fingers, wrist, lower arm, upper arm
Fifth class Fingers, wrist, lower arm, upper arm, trunk (body) Low
Workplace design
Locate all tools and materials within the normal working
area
Workplace design
Locate all tools and materials within the normal working
area
Workplace design
Use gravity bins and drop delivery to reduce reach and
move times
Arrange tools, controls and other components optimally to
reduce motions

See video: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FGKLorZNIiU

Rest Cycles: How much is needed?
Rest may be needed if:
Average energy expenditure is too high,
Heart rate is too high,
Environment is too hot to allow body to rid its self of heat
Short, frequent rest cycles are best
W 5.33
R=
W 1.33
R= Time required for rest as % of total time spent working
W= Average energy expenditure for task
5.33 kcal/min is max allowable energy expenditure for men,
(substitute in 4 kcal/min for women)
1.33 kcal/min is the energy expended during rest.
Energy Expenditure
Work/rest cycles
Estimate how much rest needed for an average male
performing a shoveling task:

Task: shoveling dirt; with approximately 16 lb in each shovel.

Energy expenditure = W = 8.5 kcal/min (from previous slide)

Percent rest required

W 5.33 8.5 kcal/min 5.33

R= = =0.414
W 1.33 8.5 kcal/min 1.33

41 percent of the time needs to be rest

Lower Back Compressive Forces
The Lower Back is a Critical Region that is Easily Injured
during Work

The lumbar area is

particularly
vulnerable!
Lower Back Compressive Forces
 NIOSH Lifting Guidelines
Horizontal Distance
between load center
Recommended and body center Total vertical distance
Weight Limit traveled between
Vertical starting start and finish of lift.
location of load;
Load Constant e.g. height off of ground
= 51 lb

RWL = LC * 10/H * [1 - .0075|V 30| ] * [0.82 + 1.8/D] *

[1 0.0032*A] * FM * CM

Coupling Multiplier
Angle of twist (From Table 4 8, pg. 168)

Frequency Multiplier
(From Table 4 -7, pg 163)
NIOSH Lifting Guidelines
NIOSH Lifting Guidelines
HEALTH AND SAFETY
Health and safety
Figure 8-1 Accident Prevention Process

Identify Problem

Monitor Results Collect Data

Implement Remedy Analyze Data

Select Remedy
Domino theory of an accident sequence

Injuries, or damage losses, are the result of accidents involving contact with
a source of energy and subsequent liberation
Accidents are the result of immediate causes such as:
Unsafe acts from personnel
Unsafe conditions at the workplace (managements responsibility)
Immediate causes are the result of basic causes:
Unsafe acts resulting from personal factors such as lack of knowledge, skills, or lack of
motivation or care
Unsafe conditions caused by factors such as inappropriate labour standards, use and disposal,
deficient work environment or lack of maintenance
Basic causes are the result of general lack of control or adequate
management, that is, absence or failure of a health and safety program
Domino
Figuretheory of an
8-3 A domino
igniting a fire
accident
sequence for a sequence
grinder spark

1: Separate gas, grinder 1: Increase ventilation

2: Better inspection 2: Grinder material

Lack of Basic Immediate Accident Injury

Control Causes Causes (Explosion/ (Burns)
(1:Solvent (1: Less (Sparks ignite fire)
stored at volatile fumes
grinder, solvent,
2:Poor identifi- Fire protective suit
2:Grinder
cation of work creates 1: Use spark arrester
activities) sparks) 2: Less concentrated fumes

It is possible to apply remedies at different points in the sequence

The most effective approach is to establish controls at the beginning of
the sequence for the multiple factors that could intervene in causing the
accident and injury or damage
Unsafe acts and unsafe conditions
Unsafe Act
Performance of a task or other activity that is conducted in a manner that
may threaten the health and/or safety of workers
An element of unsatisfactory behaviour immediately prior to an accident
event which is significant in initiating the event
About 88% of accidents are caused by unsafe acts
Unsafe Condition
A condition in the work place that is likely to cause property damage or
injury.
Unsatisfactory physical condition existing in the workplace environment
immediately prior to an accident event which is significant in initiating the
event.
Around 10% of accidents have unsafe conditions as the immediate cause
The remaining 2% of accidents are unpreventable acts of god
Put together unsafe acts and unsafe conditions and you will very
probably see (or have) an accident
Unsafe acts and unsafe conditions
Examples of unsafe acts
Operating without qualification or
authorization.
Lack of or improper use of PPE.
Failure to tagout/lockout.
Operating equipment at unsafe speed.
Failure to warn.
Bypass or removal of safety devices.
Using defective equipment.
Use of tools for other than their intended
purpose.
Working in hazardous locations without
adequate protection or warning.
Improper repair of equipment.
Horseplay.
Wearing unsafe clothing.
Taking an unsafe position.
Examples of unsafe conditions
Defective tools, equipment, or
supplies.
Inadequate supports or guards.
Congestion in the workplace.
Inadequate warning systems.
Fire and explosion hazards.
Poor housekeeping such as slippery
floor and improper storage.
Hazardous atmospheric condition.
Insufficient illumination.
Excessive noise.
Poor ventilation.
Misplacement or blocking of fire
protection equipment.
Information from :
http://www.safetyportal.info/safety-at-work-unsafe-acts-
vs-unsafe-conditionsunsafe-act-unsafe-condition/
Unsafe acts and unsafe conditions
Accident ratio triangles
If a major injury occurs, it is quite possible that many more accidents
have already happened.
It is important to maintain vigilance of events and be proactive in
investigating no-injury incidents and unsafe acts in order to reduce
potential injury and property damage costs
Figure 8-4b Bird and Germain (1985)
Figure 8-4a Heinrich Accident Ratio Triangle Accident Ratio Triangle

Major injury Major injury

Minor injuries
Minor injuries
Property damage
Accidents
Near misses
Problem identification
For this purpose it is possible to use the tools of problem
selection previously considered at the beginning of the
course
Pareto analysis
Fishbone diagram
Gantt chart
Job/worksite analysis guide

Additionally, statistical chi square analysis can be used to

determine whether one department is significantly more
hazardous than the other
Collecting and analysing data
The basic tool used at this stage is Job Safety Analysis
(JSA)
Also called Job hazard analysis or methods safety analysis

The JSA process

1. Break down job into major components in sequential order
2. Examination of each component in search of potential hazard
of the possibility of accident occurrence
3. Identification of ways of improving safety

Major factors to focus on

Worker
Methods
Machine See video, click this box

Material
Collecting and analysing data
Job Safety Analysis form

Job description: Prepared by:

Issuing department: Reviewed by:
Location: Date:

Key job steps Potential health and Safe practices, apparel

injury hazard and equipment
Selecting remedy:
Risk analysis and decision making
Treatments for potential risks
Avoid:
Involves not performing the action or operation associated with risk. It
may imply a cost of opportunity
Control / mitigate:
Reduces impact or likelihood (or both) through intermediate steps

Transfer:
Share risk to third parties that can manage the outcome. e.g. financially
through insurance contracts or hedging transactions, or operationally
through outsourcing an activity
Accept:
Take the chance of negative impact (or auto-insurance), eventually
budget the cost (e.g. via a contingency budget line)
Selecting remedy:
Risk analysis
Figure and
8-8 -decision making
Risk analysis calculation

Avoid

Mitigate
or
Transfer

Accept
Selecting remedy:
Risk analysis and decision making
There will be a number of options available to deal with
the risk and it is necessary to make decision
Solutions can be evaluated in relation to their level of
effectiveness in reducing risk and their cost of
implementation
This analysis results in qualifying the solutions as:
Highly worthwhile
Justified
Of doubtful merit

See the next slide

Selecting remedy:
Figure 8-9 Risk analysis and cost
Risk analysis and decision making
effectiveness
Risk analysis and cost effectiveness

A
Implementing solution
The selected solution needs to be implemented

Install required safety devices or equipment.

Gain buy-in into the new approach, mostly from

personnel
If people doesnt follow procedures or has the wrong attitude,
then the potential safety benefits may not be achieved
Implementing solution
It is possible to use one or more of the E of the 3 Es
approach. Here they are in order of desirability
Engineering redesign
Ensures safety without relying on people compliance as it makes
undesirable behaviour very unlikely
Educate
Next best thing, however it is not always effective as people may not
follow procedures
Enforce
Last resort, as it assumes that people is not trustworthy and always
needs constant supervision and strict control, which can lead to feelings
of resentment
Monitoring and keeping statistics
Solutions implemented require monitoring and follow up in
order to evaluate their effectiveness

This monitoring is done through numerical data

Number of accidents and/or injuries
Insurance costs
Medical costs

Control charts are also used to keep track of the number

of occurrences and verify whether these are within
acceptable limits
Hierarchy of prevention and control
Risks should be avoided/eliminated and (if not possible)
reduced by taking preventative measures, in order of
priority.
The order of priority is also known as the hierarchy of
control. There different hierarchies of prevention and
control measures which have been developed by different
institutions.
However, usually there are five steps in the hierarchy of
control.
Hierarchy of prevention and control
The five steps are:
Step 1 Elimination: Elimination of hazards refers to the total removal of the
hazards and hence effectively making all the identified possible accidents
and ill health impossible.
Step 2 Substitution: Substitution means replacing the hazard by one that
presents a lower risk.
Step 3 Engineering Controls: Physical means that limit the hazard. These
include structural changes to the work environment or work processes,
erecting a barrier to interrupt the transmission path between the worker
and the hazard.
Step 4 Administrative Controls: Also known as organisational measures
administrative controls reduce or eliminate exposure to a hazard by
adherence to procedures or instructions.
Step 5 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): PPE should be used only as
a last resort, after all other control measures have been considered, or as
a short term contingency during emergency / maintenance / repair or as an
additional protective measure.
Hierarchy of prevention and control
The five steps are:

Elimination

Substitution

Engineering
Controls

Administrative
Controls

Personal
Protective
Equipment
(PPE)