Reservoir Simulation Book Review

David Wood
DWA Energy Limited, Lincoln, U.K.
dw@dwasolutions.com
Saeid Mokhatab
Chemical and Petroleum Engineering Department, University of Wyoming
Laramie, WY, USA

Published in: Energy Sources Part A-Recovery Utilization and Environmental Effects,
(2007), v.29, No. 11, p.1159.

Review of - Petroleum Reservoir Simulations: A Basic Approach

J.H. Abou-Kassem, S.M. Farouq Ali, and M.R. Islam

Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, Texas, USA, 2006, 480 pages
ISBN: 0-9765113-6-3

A computer simulation of a real sub-surface petroleum reservoir, that can generate an integrated virtual
reservoir, is a valuable tool for a reservoir engineer in aiding life-cycle oil and gas reservoir management.
Such a virtual reservoir becomes an essential decision-making tool in field development planning,
reservoir performance monitoring and field operations optimization. To approximate reality it is
paramount that the numerical models on which reservoir simulation is based are reliable, versatile, and
flexible. Robust simulations are required to meet the challenging and complex decisions required to
generate optimal reservoir production profiles and reserves recovery. Petroleum Reservoir Simulations: A
Basic Approach presents insight to reservoir simulation through a series of numerical engineering models.
This book offers a practical, real-world approach to solving reservoir simulation problems. As a reference
for engineers in the field and in the office, it offers a new approach using more practical mathematical
models to devise their own approaches to particular problems.

The authors are some of the most respected names in the mathematical modeling discipline of reservoir
engineering. The book is composed of ten chapters, an appendix, and a CD companion dealing with novel
mathematical models including a single-phase simulator (programmed in FORTRAN 95) and worked
examples to provide readers the ability to understand applications and solve examples presented in the
book and apply them to other reservoirs. The appendix presents the users manual for a single-phase
simulator, while the CD comprises a compiled version of a singe-phase simulator, the usersmanual, and
data and output files for four solved problems. Each chapter of the book ends with a set of resourceful
questions and exercises. The exercises progress from basic to more complex problems to help the reader
consolidate learning outcomes and recognize practical applications of the material presented.

Chapter 1 introduces the book by providing an overview of reservoir simulation and the relationship
between a constrained mathematical approach and the broader engineering approach presented in this
book. The authors observe that reservoir simulation is the art of combining physics, mathematics,
reservoir engineering, and computer programming to develop tools for predicting hydrocarbon reservoir
performance under various operating strategies. They describe the major steps used to develop reservoir
simulators using both the conventional mathematical approach (obtaining nonlinear algebraic equations or
finite difference equations) and their new (first published in 2006) complementary and robust engineering
approach. This approach eliminates the shortcomings of Newtons approximation that is routinely made
in order to convert the mass balance equation into partial differential equations (PDE). Also eliminated is
the Taylor series approximation that goes with discretization of PDEs. The Engineering approach takes
the mass balance equations, converts directly into a set of algebraic equations and uses fictitious wells to
represent boundary conditions. The book does not focus on solving partial differential equations, but on
engineering problems and robust and easy solutions to them. This approach and structured methodology
of this book make this complex subject more easily understandable.

Chapter 2 addresses with single-phase fluid flow equations in a multidimensional domain the
conventional way of writing finite-difference equations. This requires a review of the main fluid
properties such as density, formation volume factor, viscosity and porous media properties including
porosity and permeability. The equations governing reservoir behavior are discretized, meaning that the
reservoir is described by a set of gridblocks or gridpoints whose properties, dimensions, boundaries, and
locations in the reservoir are well defined. Here the engineering approach is used to derive a fluid flow
equation involving three consecutive steps. First, the reservoir is discretized into blocks. Second, the
algebraic flow equation is derived for a general block in the reservoir using basic engineering concepts
such as material balance, formation volume factor, and Darcys law. Finally, the time integrals in the
algebraic flow equation derived in the second step are approximated. There is the recognition that even
though petroleum reservoirs are three-dimensional, fluids may flow in one direction, two directions, or
three directions. Flow equations are introduced for single-phase in a one-dimensional reservoir, extending
to two-dimensional and three-dimensional reservoirs in Cartesian coordinates. The derivation of the
single-phase flow equation is presented for a three-dimensional domain, defined in radial-cylindrical
coordinates, for use in a single-well simulation model.

Chapter 3 introduces the terminology used in the Control Volume Finite Difference (CVFD) method and
the relationship between this method and the traditional way of writing finite-difference equations
presented in Chapter 2. The main objective of CVFD terminology is to write flow equations in compact
form. Inaccuracies caused by applying Newtons assumption or the Taylor Series expansion are removed.
Flow equations using the CVFD terminology for gridblocks are identified by engineering notation or by
using the natural block ordering scheme in Cartesian and radial-cylindrical coordinates. These equations
describe flow in one-dimensional, two-dimensional, and three-dimensional reservoirs.

Chapter 4 deals with reservoirs discretized using a block-centered grid. It presents discretization of one-
dimensional, two-dimensional, and three-dimensional reservoirs using block-centered grids in Cartesian
and cylindrical coordinates. Construction of a block-centered grid for a reservoir and the relationships
between block sizes, block boundaries, and distances between points representing blocks are presented. A
general flow equation applicable for interior blocks as well as boundary blocks is developed along with
equations for directional transmissibilities in Cartesian and radial-cylindrical coordinates. The flow
equation for any gridblock has flow terms equal to the number of existing neighboring gridblocks and
fictitious wells equal to the number of boundary conditions. If reservoir symmetry exists, it can be
exploited to define the smallest element of symmetry. Planes of symmetry may pass along block
boundaries or through block centers. To simulate the smallest element of symmetry, planes of symmetry
are replaced with no-flow boundaries and new interblock geometric factors, bulk volume, wellblock rate,
and wellblock geometric factors for boundary blocks, in the element of symmetry. These factors need to
be computed before simulation commences.

Chapter 5 discusses reservoirs discretized using a point-distributed grid. It presents discretization of one-
dimensional, two-dimensional, and three-dimensional reservoirs using point-distributed grids in Cartesian
and radial-cylindrical coordinates. The construction of a point-distributed grid for a reservoir is described
together with the relationships between the distances separating gridpoints, block boundaries, and sizes of
the blocks represented by the gridpoints. Resulting gridpoints can be classified into interior and boundary
gridpoints. The treatment of various boundary conditions uses this approach and a general flow equation
that is applicable to interior gridpoints as well as boundary gridpoints. Equations for directional
transmissibilities in Cartesian and radial-cylindrical coordinate are defined and discussed in terms of
modeling symmetry in reservoir simulation. Differences between the block-centered grid discussed in
Chapter 4 and the point-distributed grid are highlighted.

Chapter 6 deals with well representation in simulators. The contribution of any reservoir block penetrated
by a well to the well flow rate is independent of the flow equation for that block. The estimated
contribution has to be substituted into the flow equation for the wellblock. The fluid flow toward a well in
a wellblock is assumed to be radial regardless of the dimensionality of the flow problem. A well is
modeled as a line source/sink term. The emphasis in one-dimensional and two-dimensional flow
problems is on the estimation of the well geometric factor. In three-dimensional flow problems the focus
is on the distribution of the well rate among the different blocks that are penetrated by the well. Equations
to estimate a wellblock production rate operating in specified pressure gradients and flowing bottom hole
pressures are developed.

Chapter 7 deals with single-phase flow equation for various fluids. Here, the specific pressure
dependence of fluid properties is required for the derivation of the flow equation for each type of fluid. A
single-phase multidimensional flow equation incorporating the wellblock production rate and boundary
conditions is presented for various fluids, including incompressible, slightly compressible, and
compressible fluids. These fluids differ from each other by the pressure dependence of their densities,
formation volume factors, and viscosities. Explicit, implicit, and Crank-Nicolson equations for slightly
compressible and compressible fluids are defined. Flow equations for block-centered grids and point-
distributed grids are shown to have the same general form. However, these two grid systems differ from
each other in the construction of the grid, the treatment of boundary conditions, and the treatment of the
wellblock production rate. The CVFD terminology is followed to express the flow equation in a
multidimensional domain. The flow equations presented are generally nonlinear. Material balance is best
checked incrementally every time a pressure solution is obtained. Such incremental checks are more
accurate than cumulative material balance checks.

Chapter 8 presents linearized flow equations for an arbitrary gridblock or gridpoint to obtain the pressure
distribution in the reservoir. The flow equation for an incompressible fluid is linear, but for a slightly
compressible fluid the flow equation has weak nonlinearity, which needs to be linearized. Linearization
involves treatment in both space and time of transmissibilities, well production rate, fictitious well flow
rate and coefficient of pressure. First, the nonlinear terms in the flow equations are identified. Then the
methods of linearizing these terms in space and time are considered and the linearized flow equation for
single-phase flow problems is then determined. In order to simplify the presentation of concepts, the
implicit formulation of the one-dimensional flow equation and a block-centered grid is employed in
discretizing the reservoir. Although single-phase flow equations can exhibit different degrees of
nonlinearity the authors point out that these equations are usually classified as having only weak
nonlinearities.

Chapter 9 focuses on writing and solving the linearized flow equations for each gridblock or gridpoint in
the reservoir. Solutions of the resulting set of linear equations use either direct or iterative methods. Basic
solution methods of both categories are discussed plus their applications to one-dimensional, two-
dimensional, and three-dimensional flow problems. The methods include Thomasalgorithm and Tangs
algorithm for 1D flow problems and the g-band matrix solver for 2D and 3D flow problems. The
objective of this chapter is to familiarize the reader with the mechanics of the basic methods of solution
for linear equations where the product of square coefficient matrix and vector of unknowns equals the
vector of known values.
Chapter 10 deals with the simulation of multiphase flow in petroleum reservoirs and discusses fluid-rock
properties. It presents the basics of modeling a black-oil reservoir. In black oil simulation, the components
considered are oil, water, and gas and engineering concepts for multiphase flow in porous media.
Capillary pressure between phases, phase relative permeability and phase potential gradient are among the
factors that affect flow properties in multi-phase reservoirs. The derivation of the flow equation for any
component in the system in a one-dimensional rectangular reservoir is developed. Solutions to the
component general flow equations in a multiphase multidimensional system, as applied to interior and
boundary reservoir blocks, are provided using the CVFD terminology. The incremental and cumulative
material balance checks in multiphase flow are performed for each component in the system. Finally, the
calculation procedure within each time step for a black-oil model is developed, for advancing solution in
time, since pressure and phase saturation distributions in multiphase flow problems change with time.

The engineering approach proposed by the book serves to add engineering meaning to the mathematical
differential equations and boundary conditions needed for reservoir simulations. The authors mingle a
thorough, clear, and robust approach to petroleum reservoir modeling and simulation. They show how it
is used, in a rigorous and clear way, to tackle compound modeling and simulation problems that the
petroleum engineers and geologists, among others, confront daily. This book is helpful in the prediction
and forecasting of the reservoir behavior during various field development activities. By revealing
possibilities to gain in accuracy and simplicity at the same time, the authors impart their valuable
knowledge of petroleum reservoir engineering and simulation. Overall, this book can benefit operational
and analytical reservoir engineers as well as those studying and teaching the subject.