UNIT 11 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS : WILDLIFE

Structure
11.0 Objectives
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Environmental Impacts
11.3 Components of Wildlife Management
11.4 Evolution of Wildlife Policy
11.4.1 Pre-Independence Period
11.4.2 Post-Independence Period
11.4.3 Milestones in Policy Evolution
11.5 Other Schemes and Strategies
11.6 Survey and Documentation
11.7 Conservation Projects
11.7.1 In-Situ Conservation
11.7.2 Ex-Situ Conservation
11.8 Legislations and Enactments
11.9 International Conventions
11.10 Wildlife Tourism in India
11.11 Voluntary Organisations Involved in Wildlife Conservation
11.12 Wildlife Strategy Problem Areas
11.13 Eco-Tourism Resources
11.14 Let Us Sum Up
11.15 Clues to Answers

11.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit you will be able to:
list the components of wildlife management,
have an understanding of conservation projects,
know about the evolution of wildlife policy in India,
know briefly about wildlife legislation, and
appreciate the role of various agencies in this regard.

11.1 INTRODUCTION
Understanding of environmental impacts is crucial for the future of tourism. Wildlife, forests,
mountains, islands and beaches, etc. are the natural resources that bear the impact of tourism. The
three Units of this course (Unit 11, 12 and 13) deal with these aspects. There is an ongoing debate
whether wildlife should be open to tourism or not. This debate is centred around the impacts of
tourism on wildlife (both positive and negative). In this Unit, we shall analyse various components of
wildlife management. In the process, as a case study, we will try to explore the problems of wildlife
protection in both pre and post independence India and also conceptualise the evolution of various
policies, programmes and projects.

While enumerating the possible components of wildlife management, we shall also elaborate upon
these components. An attempt will also be made to discuss the loopholes and drawbacks in Indias
wildlife management strategy and how these can be taken care of. Since in courses TS-1 and TS-2
you were already made aware of the tourism impacts on wildlife the emphasis in this Unit is on
policies adopted to mitigate the negative impacts. However, we start this Unit with a brief discussion
on environment impacts of tourism in general.
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11.2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
For a long time the emphasis remained on economic aspects as far as the understanding of tourism
impacts was concerned. It was gradually realised that more important is to analyse the impacts on the
tourism resources, nature and environment being the prominent ones. Any devastation of natural
resources would ultimately lead to the devastation of all economic gains, leave aside tourism along. If
one destination declined because of environmental exploitation, the tourists, in the short run will
move to another one. But how many destinations can be destroyed like this and how many new
destinations tourism will find? In the very first Unit of this course you were made aware of the
sustainable development concept, the debate around it and the Rio declaration on environment. There
is an ongoing debate on the tourism impacts on environment:
i) According to one view tourism leads to protection of environment and the proponents of this view
cite examples of wildlife sanctuaries, waterfalls, etc.
ii) On the other hand is the view that tourism effects the environment in almost all aspects be it water
pollution or air pollution to the overuse of natural resources.
iii) Another view gives a clean chit to tourism but accuses the tourism industry and bad management
which leads to environmental degradation.
iv) Many compare the environmental impacts of tourism with those of the other industries. Some
have gone to the extent of describing tourism as a smokeless industry.
No one view can be accepted or can hold true for all tourism destinations. The nature of impacts
would vary from destination to destination. No doubt, the positive impacts have to be spoken well off
but more crucial is to understand and analyse the negative impacts. Only then we will be ab le to
initiate measures to mitigate them and plan for tourism. Let us start this with a discussion on wildlife.

11.3 COMPONENTS OF WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT

Wildlife management is a complex job. A comprehensive set of issues to be addressed in the
formulation of any strategy or action plan. Any strategy has to be a multi-pronged one protecting
both, the animal and its habitat and ensuring continuity of any species. Let us now discuss some of the
important components of wildlife management.
Survey and documentation: There has to be a major sustained effort to survey and document
different forms of wildlife. In India many institutions and universities are involved in this task.
Conservation projects: Several conservation projects have been launched by the government for
both in-situ and ex-situ conservation of wildlife.
Legislations and enactment: Conservation efforts have to be supplemented by acts and
legislations. Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, 1960 are two
notable examples .
International conventions: The conservation of wildlife has to be an international effort. India is
a signatory to many global conventions on wildlife.
Wildlife tourism: As a policy matter has to be carefully regulated.
Education and awareness generation : Every effort should be made to educate the masses about
the importance of wildlife conservation.
NGO and peoples involvement: The efforts of the government should be amply substantiated
by peoples support.
Management of wildlife is a multi-faceted job. Merely enacting legislations or setting up national
parks is not a solution. Any approach to wildlife conservation has to be a total approach where all
elements, animals, plants, microorganisms, their habitats, etc. have to be incorporated. Sometimes
international agreements also need to be arrived at in this regard.
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 COMPONENTS OF WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT

Survey and NGO and people

Documentation involvement

Conservation and Education and

preservation projects awareness generation

National Parks, Sanctuaries

Project Tiger, Lion, etc.

Legislations and Wildlife tourism

Enactments,
W.P. Act, 1972

International Conventions
CITES, IUCN, CBD, Ramsar

11.4 EVOLUTION OF WILDLIFE POLICY

Conservation and protection of wild animals has been there in the informal domain since time
immemorial. One can cite the Ashthom inscriptions in this regard in ancient India besides numerous
other literary texts. However, it was only with the coming of the British and later in the post colonial
India that formal acts aimed at direct or indirect management of wildlife were taken up. Let us now
have a look at the efforts made in the direction.

11.4.1 Pre-Independence Period

Wildlife conservation and management has been in Indian way of life and ethos for a long period of
time now. In ancient times, the concept of aranya with all its con-commitants was a respected
concept. Many animals were deified in the evolving religions and many gods and goddesses
themselves came to be associated with wild animals. Indian mythology is replete with stories
associated with the importance of preserving life forms. There was, however, no formal policy of
conservation or preservation. The first recorded game laws promulgated by Kautilya in the 3rd
century B.C. were an attempt to regulat e the hunting of wildlife. It was assumed that if forests were
preserved, wildlife would flourish. The notion of hunting reserves of the ancient times or
shikargah of the medieval times, however, also flourished side by side. When the British took over,
the balance between the natural regeneration of forest cover and human consumption started breaking.
With the conversion of the forests into an industrial resource, ruthless decimation of forest cover took
place. No wonder, wildlife suffered tremendously. Side by side the state forests, private forests also
co-existed which were basically a hunting domain for the big zamindars and the royal houses. The
Colonial forest policies also tried to nationalise the exploitation of the forest resources. The only
change in relation to wildlife policy during the colonial regime was the amendment of the Indian
Forest Act, 1927 and the introduction of the Indian Game Act, 1935. Done with the intentions to
give a legal status of wildlife conservation, this was not an effective piece of legislation.

11.4.2 Post-Independence Period

The post-independence phase was hardly different initially. However, one major qualitative change,
however, was the abolition of proprietary rights in forest and removal of the colonial totalitarian
controls. The use of forest resources continued unabated. Forest development had to pave way for
agriculture and other development projects. Industries (particularly forest based), irrigation schemes,
power projects, mining leases, etc. were promoted at the cost of forest cover. The first step towards
wildlife preservation was taken with the constitution of Indian Board for Wildlife in 1952. This
body was only an advisory body to the government on matters related to wildlife. Thereafter, there
was a huge gap. Forests continued to be exploited and wild animals continued to suffer. Many animals
like cheetah, mountain quail, and pink-headed duck became extinct. Others like Asiatic lion (Gir
forests of Gujarat), Hangul (Kashmir), brown antlered deer (Manipur), etc. became regionally

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confined. Still others like tigers, Gangetic gharial, marsh mugger, Great Indian bustard and white
winged wood duck massively dwindled in numbers. This is in addition to many species which became
extinct without being noticed. No major policy decision, however, was taken. Only very general
programmes, (centrally sponsored) were initiated. It was only in 1972 that the Wildlife Protection Act
was enacted to protect the rapid rate of decline of wildlife.
Almost simultaneously in 1973-74, Assistance for Development of National Parks and
Sanctuaries was implemented as a part of the fourth five year plan. The plan allocations for wildlife
conservation went up from 664 lakhs in the fifth five year plan to Rs.1244 lakhs in the sixth plan.
1981-82 saw the introduction of a central scheme for assistance for development of selected zoos.
Under this financial and technical support is provided to selected zoos in the country. Wildlife
Exhibitions also started around the same time. These efforts climaxed in the establishment of the
Wildlife Institute of India in 1982. But as yet a clear positive policy aimed at wildlife conservation
did not take shape. It was only with the formulation of an action plan in 1983 that some broad
guidelines were laid in this regard. By and large, the general governmental philosophy had been
TAKE CARE OF THE FORESTS AND WILDLIFE IS TAKEN CARE OF AUTOMATICALLY.
Let us now discuss some of the milestones in the evolution of wildlife policy.

11.4.3 Milestones in Policy Evolution

EVOLUTION OF WILDLIFE POLICIES

Wildlife Advisory Committee, 1996

National Wildlife Action Plan, 1983

Development of National Parks and Sanctuaries

Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 (amended 1991)

Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960

Indian Board for Wildlife, 1952 (reconstituted)

In this section, we mention some of the milestones in the evolution of wildlife policy of India.
1) Indian Board for Wildlife (1952) was formed to advise the Government on wildlife matters. It is
the apex advisory body and has been reconstituted over a period of time. At present, it is headed
by the prime minister and consists of 10 non-officials, 5 NGOs, 2 MPs and 30 official members.
2) Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 was enacted to govern all aspects of wildlife conservation and
protection of endangered species. It was adopted by all states excluding Jammu and Kashmir
which has its own act. It attempts three-tired protection of wildlife:
protecting the survival interests of the animals, e.g., hunting prohibited.
protecting the habitat, e.g., national parks, sanctuaries, game reserves, etc.
protecting trade and commerce in wild animals and trophies.
WPA has certain peculiar features:
a) Wildlife is defined in a very technical sense. Under the provisions of the Act, wildlife
includes any animal, bees, butterflies, crustacean, fish and moths; and aquatic on land
vegetation which forms part of any habitat.
b) It divided animals into five schedules. Schedule 1 animals are treated as the most prized
animals, to be protected at any cost.
c) It calls for control of poaching and illegal trade in wildlife products.

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 d) Provides for captive breeding programmes for endangered species of wildlife as also for
wildlife education and interpretation.
e) Provides for development of zoos.
f) Conservation of rhinos in Assam and protection of tiger, elephant, etc.
g) Provides for penal liabilities for different categories of offenders.
The act also envisages an administrative infrastructure. Under the provisions following persons
have to be appointed:
A Director of Wildlife Preservation at the centre assisted by 4 Regional Deputy Directors to
be posted at Kolkata, Bombay, Delhi and Chennai.
At the state level A Chief Wildlife Warden assisted by wildlife Wardens. The act also
enjoys all the states and union territories to appoint Wildlife Advisory Board.
The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 was amended in 1991 to make it more effective in terms of
penalties, procedures and legal protection to forest and wildlife staff. An inter-state committee has
also been set up to revie w the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and other laws. A comprehensive
idea of WPA, 1972 and the amendment can be had from the Appendix.
3) National Wildlife Action Plan (NWAP) resulted from the deliberations of the Indian Board for
Wildlife in October, 1982. It laid a broad framework on which wildlife policy could be based.
NWAP is in tune with World Conservation Strategy, the World Charter for Nature and the
Bali Action Plan. As has already been said, its genesis is traced to Prime Ministers statement in
the 15 th meeting of Indian Board for Wildlife. The action plan aims to preserve and conserve our
rich heritage. It comprises:
Establishment of representative network of protected areas,
Management of Protected Areas and habitat restoration,
Wildlife protection in multiple use areas,
Rehabilitation of endangered and threatened species,
Captive breeding programmes,
Wildlife education and interpretation,
Research and monitoring,
Domestic legislations and International Conventions,
National Conservation S trategy,
Collaboration with voluntary organisations/bodies.
The action plan thus provides only the framework of strategy and the programme for wildlife
conservation. Though it is basically a set of guidelines, its importance lies in the fact that for the
first time wildlife issues have been addressed positively and independent of a general forest
policy. Given the fact that an inter -state committee is looking into the functioning of Wildlife
(Protection) Act 1972 (amended in 1991) and other related areas, the action plan will be of great
help to it in the formulation of a comprehensive wildlife policy.
4) Wildlife Advisory Committee has been constituted on 17th October 1996 to advise on various
aspects of wildlife conservation and related matters.

11.5 OTHER SCHEMES AND STRATEGIES

Apart from the policy matters and legislations, there are various other ways through which
government seeks to promote wildlife conservation and protection. Let us discuss the major ones.

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 National Co-ordination Committee has been formed under the chairmanship of Additional
Inspector General of Forests (Wildlife) to promote effective inter -departmental co-ordination for
the control of illegal trade in wildlife and wildlife products.
Eco-development in and around National Parks and Sanctuaries: The centre has been
providing assistance to states for pursuing programmes of Eco-development around National
Parks and Sanctuaries including tiger reserves to achieve ecologically sustainable economic
development of these areas and to reduce the biotic pressure on protected areas to ensure
conservation of eco-systems.
Regulation of EXIM Policy trade and commerce is strictly regulated under Wildlife (Protection)
Act, 1972 within our country. External trade is governed by export policy which is stringent in
relation to wildlife. Only a very limited number of common animals and their derivatives are
allowed to enter the export market.
Wildlife Education and Training though a network of forest colleges as well as Wildlife
Institute of India forms an integral component of wildlife conservation as are the zoos and
botanical gardens.
Awareness generation and promoting public participation in wildlife conservation is
achieved through a variety of ways. Wildlife Week is celebrated every year. Awards and
Fellowships like Rajiv Gandhi award and Salim Ali/Kailash Sankhla Fellowships are instituted
by the Ministry of Environment and Forests for giving recognition to eminent officers and field-
workers for exemplary work in the field of wildlife conservation and research. A Task Force has
been set up by Indian Board of Wildlife to draw up report for eliciting public support. Audio
Visuals on wildlife play an important role in mobilising public opinion for the cause.
At the same time for purposes of tourism in wildlife areas various methods are adopted to promote
responsible tourism:
sensitising the tourism as well as tour operators,
training programmes for forest guards,
timings in national parks and sanctuaries, etc.

Check Your Progress - 1

1) Enumerate some of the components of the Indian wildlife management scheme.

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2) Mention the basic features of Wildlife Protection Act (1972).

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3) Name two fellowships awarded by Ministry of Environment and Forests for wildlife conservation.
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11.6 SURVEY AND DOCUMENTATION
India has a strong network of institutions mapping various life forms and undertaking taxonomic
studies. The three premier institutions in this regard are:
a) Botanical Survey of India
b) Zoological Survey of India
c) Forest Survey of India
Now let us discuss these organisations briefly.
a) The Botanical Survey of India was established in 1890 with the objectives of surveying and
identifying the land resources. It has its headquarters in Kolkata and there are nine circles located
in different phyto-geographical regio ns of country.
b) The Zoological Survey of India established in 1916 has its headquarters at Kolkata. It has 16
regional stations established in different parts of the country. Its main objective is exploration and
survey of faunal bio-diversity of the country.
c) The Forest Survey of India was established in 1981 and has its headquarters at Dehradun. Its four
regional offices are at Bangalore, Kolkata, Nagpur and Shimla. Its objectives are to prepare a
state of forest report and national forest vegetation map every two years, prepare thematic maps
using remote sensing data, collect, store and retrieve necessary forest related data for national and
state level planning and to create a computer based national basic forest inventory system.
In addition to these three organisations, the National Institute of Oceanography and several other
specialised institutions and universities further strengthen Indias survey and documentation
capabilities. At the same time we must acknowledge that documentation related to wildlife tourism is
not weak but fragmented also.

11.7 CONSERVATION PROJECTS

Many conservation projects have been launched with the aim of long-term survival of wildlife. The
following flow chart gives some idea of the kind of approach being adopted.

Conservation of Wildlife

In-Situ Ex-Situ

National Specific Zoological Botanical

Parks and animal gardens gardens
Sanctuaries projects

Biosphere Special programmes

Reserves for fragile ecosystems

11.7.1 In-Situ Conservation

In-situ conservation aims at the conservation of wild species in respective habitats and eco-systems.
Let us now discuss some aspects of in-situ conservation.
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Protected area network; National parks and sanctuaries; and Resources. Any area where special
protection is offered to wildlife is called a protected area. Let us understand the connotation of certain
terms.
i) National Park is an area dedicated to conserve the environment, natural and historical objects
and to conserve the wildlife therein, and at the same time, to provide for enjoyment from them for
compromising with the long-term survival of the park. In such parks, all private rights are non-
existent and the forestry operations and other usages such as grazing of animals are prohibited.
ii) Wildlife Sanctuary is a sanctuary where killing, hunting, shooting or capturing of any species of
birds and mammals is prohibited except with prior authorised permission. Private ownership
rights and forestry and other usages may be permitted to the extent that they do not adversely
affect wildlife.
iii) Reserves and areas demarcated for the protection of wildlife:
a) Biosphere Reserves: The Biosphere Reserve programme is a pioneering effort towards
conservation of bio-diversity. The Biosphere Reserves set so far not only aim to protect the
representative eco-systems but also serve as laboratories for evolving alternative models of
development. 8 Biosphere Reserves have been set up so far. Table-1 gives the details of the
reserves. Efforts are on to set up Biosphere Reserves in Little Rann of Kutch, Gujarat;
Dehang-Debang in Arunachal Pradesh; Kanchenjunga in Sikkim; the Cold Desert area
adjoining Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir, Abyhmarh, Kanha, Panchmarhi and
Amarkantak in Madhya Pradesh.
b) Specific Animal Projects: The government of India has launched specific conservation
projects for individual endangered species. Over the past projects like Hangul (1970), Lion
(1972), Tiger (1973), Crocodiles (1974-75), Brown-antlered Deer (1981) and Elephant were
launched. Let us now discuss some of the major projects.
The Gir Lion Project is located in Gir forests of Gujarat. It was launched by the
Government of Gujarat in 1972. Apart from conservation of the lions in their national
habitat, it also provided for the social upliftment of the pastoral maldhari tribes, whose
cattle frequented the lion habitat.
The Crocodile Breeding Project was undertaken from the 1st of April, 1975 for all three
types of crocodile species found in India, based on the advice of a FAO expert. (3 species
are Gharial, Saltwater crocodile and Mugger or freshwater crocodile).
Project Tiger: This centrally sponsored scheme was launched on 1 st April, 1973 to
ensure a viable population of tigers in India. For scientific, economic, aesthetic, cultural
and ecological values. It also aimed at preservation for all times to come areas of such
biological importance as national heritage for the benefit, education, and employment of
the people. At present there are 23 Tiger Reserves (2 more are in offing) in 14 states of
our country, covering an area of 33,000 sq. km.
Project Elephant was launched in 1991-92 to assist states having free ranging
populations in wild elephants to ensure long term survival of identified viable populations
of elephants in their national habitats. States are being given financial, technical and
scientific assistance to achieve the objectives of the project.
Specific Programmes for fragile ecosystems There are programmes also for such ecosystems like
Coral reefs, Mangroves and wetlands. Let us first familiarise ourselves with such ecosystems.
Wetlands which include a wide range of inland, coastal and marine habitats share the
characteristic of both wet and dry environments. They exhibit enormous diversity based on their
genesis, geographical location, hydrological regimes and substrate factors, and include marshes,
flood plains, tidal marshes, swamps, etc. Wetlands are important.
Mangroves are salt tolerant forest eco-systems found mainly in tropical and sub-tropical inter-
tidal regions of the world. They are reservoirs of a large number of plant and animal species.
Coral Reefs are shallow-water tropical marine ecosystems, characterised by a remarkably high
biomass production and a rich floral and faunal diversity.
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Realising the importance of these fragile ecosystems, the government has constituted a national
Committee on Wetlands, Mangroves and Coral Reef, to advise it on policy guidelines for
implementing programmes on conservation, management and research of these ecosystems. Based on
the recommendations of this committee many specific schemes have been launched for Mangroves,
Coral Reefs and Wetlands, for intensive conservation and management. State level Steering
Committees have also been set up to facilitate these objectives.

11.7.2 Ex-Situ Conservation

Ex-situ conservation involves conservation of species outside their respective habitats and
ecosystems. This includes zoological and botanical gardens.
Zoological Gardens: There are ar ound 275 centres of ex-situ wildlife preservation in the form of
zoos, deer parks, safari parks and aquarium. A Central Zoo Authority supports, overseas, monitors
and co-ordinates the management and development of zoos in the country. The zoological parks
are essentially looked upon as centres of education and recreation and have played an important
role in conservation of species such as Manipur Thamin Deer and White-winged Wood Duck.
Botanical Gardens: There are around 70 Botanical Gardens including 33 University Botanic
Gardens. Several schemes have been launched to assist the botanical gardens.

11.8 LEGISLATION AND ENACTMENTS

The urge to conserve wildlife resources and prevent gene-erosion manifests itself in enactment of
various legislations. The Wildlife Protection Act (1972) is the supreme legislation in relation to the
protection of wildlife. The Wildlife Act has already been discussed upon in the earlier Sections of this
Unit. Besides there are other legislations, though not so direct, as well to aid the cause of wildlife
conservation. The various forest acts (Indian Forest Act 1927, Forest Conservation Act, 1980),
Environment Protection Act, the acts related to biodiversity as also the legal status of national parks,
sanctuaries and conservation projects are also of paramount importance in the preservation of wildlife.
The Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act 1968 and the Animal Welfare Board have their own role to
play in wildlife management.

11.9 INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS

India is a party to many International conventions on wildlife conservation. Depending upon the
nature of conventions/ agreements, whether they are in the form of hard laws or soft laws, they
definitely help to create a moral pressure or at times an obligation to take necessary action. It also
speaks of a global effort to come to terms with an alarming problem. The worldwide concern for
wildlife resulted in the formation of International Union for Conservation of Natural Resources
(IUCN) and its appendage, the Survival Service Commission which supplies up to date information
about every species in danger of extinction. The Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF) affiliated to
IUCN is closely associated with conservation problems. Let us discuss some of the international
conventions to which India is a signatory or a party.
CITES: This convention came into force on the 1st of July 1975 as a result of Inter-governmental
Conference between 10 countries. India became a signatory to this in 1976. It draws upon the
technical resources of IUCN and is funded by UNEP. The aim of the convention is to establish
worldwide control over trade in endangered species and their products. For this purpose, the
endangered species have been listed under three appendices depending upon the agreed degree of
protection required. The export and import of live specimens or any derivatives is either
prohibited or subjected to a uniform licensing procedure recognised by all countries. Under the
convention, each country has to create its own Management and Scientific Authorities for the
enforcement of the control measures on trade. In India, the Inspector General of Forests and the
Directorate of Wildlife Preservation were designated as the management authority, whereas the
Botanical Survey of India, the Zoological Survey of India and the Central Marine Fisheries were
together called as the scientific authority for the purpose of CITES.
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 India is also a signatory to the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance,
especially as Waterfowl Habitat, generally referred to as Ramsar Convention (1971). The six
wetlands designated by India under the Convention are Chilka (Orissa), Keoladeo Ghana National
Park (Rajasthan), Sambhar (Rajasthan), Wullar (Jammu and Kashmir), Loktak (Manipur) and
Hariko (Punjab). The Ramsar Convention calls upon its signatories to formulate and implement
plans to promote the wise use of wetlands in their territories and to ensure that the ecological
character of these habitats is preserved.
Convention on Biodiversity (CBD): The Biodiversity Treaty was signed at the Earth Summit in
Rio de Janeiro in June 1992. Pursuant to the ratification of the Convention on Biological Diversity
(CBO) by India on 18th of February, 1994, several steps have been initiated to meet the
commitments under the Convention as also to realise the opportunities offered by it. Those efforts
aim at bringing the legislative, administrative and policy regimes in tune with the objectives of the
convention. A National Action Plan on biological diversity is under finalisation.
Siberian Gane Experiment: India is a signatory to the Memorandum of Understanding (MoU)
concerning the conservation of Siberian Ganes. In addition to India, countries such as
Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, Iran, Khazakistan, Pakistan, Russian Federation, Tourkien and
Uzbekistan and Wild Bird Society of Japan are also signatories to the Convention.
In addition to all this, India is also a signatory to the International Convention for Regulation of
Whaling (1946) and Convention on Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (1979).

11.10 WILDLIFE TOURISM IN INDIA

Wildlife Tourism is a crucial element in wildlife protection. It is the tourists who can be potential
force of wildlife conservation and conversely it is also tourists who can adversely affect a wilderness
area through excessive pressure on fragile eco-system. It is upto the developer and the tourists to the
wilderness to decide which path they want to pursue. Although the term eco-tourism is used often,
this cant become a reality without the active participation of the tourists. Lot many precautions are
regularly taken, yet when development reaches wilderness, it brings along with it many imbalances
to the wildlife. Impacts on wildlife resulting from development can be classified into two general
categories:
1) Impacts resulting from increased human use of the area,
2) Impacts resulting from different levels of surface disturbing activities, such as, road
construction or mineral development.
(Source: aurora.ak.blm.govt/squirrel/node98.html)

Human presence bring along with them vehicles, vehicular pollution and noise, boats, planes and
general disturbance. For example, animal who normally forage along the river corridor during the
summer would move to other areas if the presence of additional humans, boats or planes disturbed
them. Also animal life is likely to be destroyed to protect human life. However, it takes time, some
years for any impact to be noticeable. For example, poaching and hunting have led to the extinction
on Indian Cheetah, but it took a long time for the impact to be noticeable. Development in general has
an adverse impact on most species of wildlife by displacing them from habitat. Moreover, the
clamouring for the development of tourist related facilities in itself present significant threats to fish,
wildlife and wilderness value. One tends to forget that its the wilderness, which is allowing us to
experience itself and go overboard on the mission of development.
Take the example of now fragile environment of Annapurna region of Nepal. Ever since
mountaineering and trekking became a popular Western pastime in the 1970s and 1980s, the
Annapurna range has been a focus for many of the estimated 2,00,000 annual visitors that Nepal
receives most of whom come from Europe, Canada and Japan. One-third of these visitors are
estimated to trek into the area each year, outnumbering the local population by a ratio of two-to-one
(Annapurna Conservation Area Project, 1993). What they have left behind in a fragile environment,
which can barely sustain its own local inhabitants, is a world increasingly blighted by their presence.
In January 1994, a conservationist with the Annapurna Conservation Area Project pointed out that:
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 70,000 visitors a year may not seem a lot of people compared with the number of tourists to
other places. But for an environment like the Annapurnas, with its delicate ecological balance
between human presence and natural resources, it is rapidly becoming 70,000 visitors too
many.
The negative environmental impact is obvious to any sensitive visitor to the area. The poor, native
villages scattered along the main valley to the mountains have now been complemented by numerous
guesthouses and lodges, which continue to be built every year. These are almost entirely constructed
of wood from the surrounding forests, and the need to feed and heat thousands of visitors has led to
further encroachments on scarce resources.
The resulting soil erosion is evidenced in the large swathes of terrain that have literally been washed
away by the heavy monsoon rains. The statistics make disturbing reading: 96 per cent of Nepals
energy comes from the forests. Current figures show that these are disappearing at the rate of 3 per
cent every year. One hectare of cleared forest loses 30-75 tons of topsoil annually. In Nepal as a
whole, approximately 4,00,000 hectares are cleared each year, resulting in devastating landslides and
floods as water sweeps off the unprotected mountains. The lodges in one small village along the major
Annapurna trekking route consume one hectare of virgin rhododendron forest each tourist season to
service the needs of their foreign visitors.
The strain on local systems of waste management and disposal has also proved overwhelming. Litter
lies in scattered piles on the outskirts of villages or strewn along the banks of rivers. Trekkers and
mountaineers bring many non-biodegradable items into the valley such as beer cans, tins and
wrappers. It has been calculated that if the number of plastic bottles imported into the area each year
were placed end to end they would reach the peak of the highest mountain in the Annapurnas.
Annapurna Regions fragile eco-system supports both wildlife and humans and its imbalance is
affecting both. (Source: unrisd.org/engindex/publ/list/dp/dp53/dp53.07.htm)
Similar cases are being observed world over. For example, according to some conservationists, the
tourist carrying capacity for some of the fragile park eco-systems in Zimbabwe has already been
exceeded. Studies have shown soil compaction caused by trampling and vehicles in several parks,
which has led to increased water run off, erosion and changes in vegetation. Excessive trampling of
vegetation by walking, photographic and hunting safaris may affect plant diversity and lead to the loss
of several species, cautioned one geographer (Heath, 1989:39). As in several of the Kenyan national
parks, observable changes have also been noted in animal behaviour. Loss of ground cover, changes
in water quality and increased noise have disrupted mating and feeding habits. Some animals have
begun to rely upon food supplements acquired through campsite raids. This is already evident among
the honey badger, hyena and elephant populations at the Mana Pools National Park in Northern
Zimbabwe. Whether due to increased familiarity with humans or irritation due to their presence,
attacks by crocodiles, hippopotami and buffalo along the Zambezi River has also been witnessed in
recent years. In several cases, this has led to the shooting of animals, which have become too
persistent. One bull elephant in Mana Pools recently had to be shot due to its habit of overturning cars
in search of oranges (Interview, park officers, April 1993).
In a 1992 study carried out on the Matusadona shores of Lake Kariba, where houseboat tourism is
popular, researchers noted several adverse consequences from the increasing numbers of visitors
(Rogers, 1992). Firstly, pollution of water by sewage was also recorded, with an unacceptably high
level of faecal coliforms. The impact on the behaviour of animals along the Matusadona shores also
caused concern. Parks staff had observed the displacement of hippos from rivers and inlets,
increasingly aggressive behaviour of crocodiles, the disappearance of bird species from their nests as
a result of disturbance of boaters and the disappearance of herds of elephant from their former habitat
near the lake. The report stated,
According to interviews with the staff of Fothergill, Spurwing and Sanyati, the numbers of
boats, the behaviour of the staff and guests on the boats and the noise they generate all serve
to disrupt the feeding and drinking behaviour of elephant herds and possibly black
rhinoceros. It is possible with the increase in the number of boats using the same inlets and
rivers as are preferred by hippopotami, that such disturbance will, if not now, in future affect
the annual increase or reproductive success of the species (Rogers, 1992:15).
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Ecological damage is often difficult to reverse. This is evident in Victoria Falls, whose unique rain
forest, watered by the spray from the Zambezi River, is said by some botanists to be in a state of
almost irreparable damage due to excessive trampling of vegetation by the thousands of visitors who
frequent the area (McIvor, 1994). Yet as tourism becomes bigger and bigger business, and as the
government is pressured to issue more licences for more operators, safari companies, canoe
enthusiasts, etc. the lure of quick money for an economy desperate for foreign currency is a
temptation that is difficult to res ist. Perhaps some of the negative consequences of unregulated
wildlife tourism in Eastern Africa can provide an instructive warning.
Though East African states have a policy for the conservation of wildlife through the
establishment of national parks and reserves, tourism still has disastrous effects. The lure of
reward from wealthy foreign visitors often induces tour guides to harass the animals in the
parks. In the Kenyan Abozoli National Park a lion was demeaned and humiliated by hordes
of tourists who wanted to photograph it. On another occasion, a cheetah, a shy creature,
nearly starved to death because tourists never gave it peace to hunt. Speeding vehicles,
driving off roads and night driving have contributed to wildlife mortality and alteration of
wildlife habitats. Unregulated sewage and garbage disposal around lodges and campsites also
creates problems as it attracts animals and disturbs traditional feeding patterns (OGrady,
1990:35).
A recent, more thorough, investigation on the Impact of Tourism in Kenya by Mike Crawley state
that tourism generates an estimated US$500 million per year in hard currency earnings. In the same
study, Baraza Wangila, who examined tourisms impact on bio -diversity, warns that Kenyas
wildlife could become a victim of its own success at attracting tourists. Disruptive human presence in
parks could reduce the number of wildlife, which could in turn cause a drop in the number of tourists.
We should work out the carrying capacity of our parks so that animals are not put under undue threat,
says Dr. Wangila.
His research found that off-road driving in parks is affecting the habits of animals, that the presence of
lodge restaurants is changing the food intake of birds, and that baboons are often found eating
garbage. The research team also discovered traces of lead in vegetation along park roads. On the
coast, tourists have driven crabs an important link in the marine food chain from beaches in front
of large hotels and are harming the intertidal zone by crushing molluscs underfoot.
India has also faced much problem with wildlife tourism, which is an integral part of both domestic
and international tourism. More than 500 species of mammals, 1220 species of birds, 1600 species of
reptiles and 57,000 species of insects probate on our sub-continent. Along with this diverse fauna,
India also harbours 50% of Asian elephants, 80% of the one-horned rhinoceros and the entire
remaining population of the Asiatic Lion. This colourful combination of fauna attracts both the
tourists and the environmentalists. There is more and more pressure to be eco-friendly so as to both
protect and promote the wildlife. Recent past has shown reason for concern as with the expansion and
growth of the urban areas, as well as due to the natural disasters occurring in India, the wildlife is
suffering. There is a possibility of extinction for over 77 species of mammals, 72 avian species, 17
reptile species, 3 amphibians species and a large number of insects are also considered to be
endangered. The depleting faunal count has shifted the focus from wildlife tourism towards eco-
tourism.
The wildlife tourism centres on the 80 national parks, 440 wildlife sanctuaries and 23 tiger reserves.
The travel and tour company is promoting tourism focussing on them. The pressure on these wildlife
sanctuaries from both domestic as well as international tourists is forcing both the government and
NGOs to come up with plans for damage control.
The Global impact on wildlife due to tourism has made a few things very clear.
1) T here is a need to determine the carrying capacity of each eco-system and not allow anyone to
cross the limits. For example, the boats on the rivers should be limited so as to ensure minimum
waste release and disturbance to the fresh water life.
2) Resorts should be restructured, and in most cases should be allowed outside the sanctuary so as to
restrict the contact with wildlife and also help ensure baboon, etc., dont turn scavenger of
garbage.
3) Government should try to put up a tourism -monitoring units, etc.
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The list of dos and dont is endless. As a tourist one should remember that it is a privilege to enter the
wilderness and one should not overstep the privilege, we are the guest and shouldnt venture into the
domain of our hosts.
At times very good example of living with the nature and trying to maintain the eco-systems balance
can also be seen. One such example of the intermingling of nature and tourism can be seen at Maho
Bay Campground in the U.S. Virgin Islands National Park (Source: Expanding Partnerships in
Conservation, Edited by Jeffrey A. McNeely).

The site overlooks Maho Bay Beach, on the North Coast of St. John. It is a steep hillside property that
rises 100 metres in just 600 metres. Below is a crescent of white sand beach fringed in places with
coral reefs, supporting endangered turtles and abundant marine life. Conventional building techniques
could cause devastation to the beach and reef as if the ground cover was destroyed or the site disrupt
the heavy seasonal rains would wash topsoil into the ocean, silting and smothering the coral. So,
elevated walkways were constructed to protect the rare vegetation at Maho Bay from pedestrian traffic
and avoid erosion. The 5 m 5 m tent cottages were also sited above the ground within the existing
trees and plants. The elevated stairs and walkways connected these dwellings. The project was called
Maho Bay Campground. The only permanent ground cover disturbance was the postholes for the
columns that supported the walks and structures. Construction materials were wheeled along the
walks and carried into place. Pipes and electrical cables were hidden under the walks rather than
buried in trenches. The finished walkways flowed naturally through the trees and foliage. Guests
walked safely from their tent cottages to the beach without trampling the ground. People fit
comfortably into this natural setting. The 114-unit campground won the 1978 Environmental
Protection Law Award, was featured in the New York Times Travel Section, and attracted the travel
programmes of major cultural and environmental groups. It seems that the developers anticipated the
growing market for eco-tourism.
Maho Bay is now one of the most profitable and highly occupied resorts in the Caribbean. In fact, its
so popular that, long ago, they suspended most of their advertising programmes. And after more than
15 years of operation and almost one million guest days, the property has been restored to a healthier
wildlife and horticultural habitat than before it was developed. Recycling the water supply account for
much of this. Each year the camp use and reuse over four million litres of fresh water for drinking,
washing, and flushing. The treated water is then used to irrigate the hillside. From a distance one can
hardly see the 120 structures hidden in the trees. This sensitive land use stimulated massive free
publicity with attendant high occupancy.
Thus, tourism concerning wildlife should be planned in such a way that it aids the cause of wildlife
conservation and generate interest in their long-term survival. The government has already laid down
certain guidelines in this regard. There is need is to promote eco-tourism taking into account the
carrying capacity of the area and fragility of the eco-system concerned.
There are all round efforts being made both at the government and the non-government level to
educate the people about the importance of wildlife conservation. Some of the measures taken in this
regard have already been mentioned in this Unit. The need is to make this programme more broad-
based and people -oriented. As such it is almost imperative to give greater support to grass root
organisations. The World Tourism Organisation has published Guidelines for the Sustainable
Development and Management of Tourism in National Parks and Protected Areas . In order to
disseminate sustainable practices in the development and management of eco-tourism WTO
continues to organise seminars.

11.11 VOLUNTARY ORGANISATIONS INVOLVED IN WILDLIFE

CONSERVATION
There are various voluntary organisations involved in conservation of wildlife in India. While for
reasons of space, it is not possible to discuss all of them here, let us focus ourselves on three major
organisations:
Bombay Natural History Society

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 The Wildlife Preservation Society of India, Dehradun
Worldwide Fund for Nature India
Bombay Natural History Society started as a private organisation in the year 1893. The society
has been actively involved in collecting research data pertaining to India, Burma and Ceylon. It
has been instrumental in eliciting opinion both official and public on matters related to wildlife
conservation in India. It has a very rich reference collection of animals and plants. The Societys
main publication is its journal. The Society sponsors research activities while also undertaking
research itself.
The Wildlife Preservation Society of India, Dehradun is another non-governmental
organisation aimed at conservation of wildlife. Started in 1958, the society is involved in
dissemination of knowledge related to wildlife and collaborates with government and other
organisations working in the area of wildlife conservation. It assists in enforcement of legislations
related to wildlife and publicity and propaganda of wildlife conservation through audio-visual
methods. It also conducts tours to nearby national parks and sanctuaries and brings out a bilingual
journal called Cheetal.
World Wide Fund for Nature -India formerly known as the World Wildlife Fund India,
started as a wildlife conservation organisation with a focus on protecting particular species of wild
fauna. Over the years, the perspective broadened to encompass conservation of habitat, eco-
systems and support to the management of the countrys protected areas network. The
organisation has its headquarters in Delhi and a network of branches across the country. It is one
of those 27 independent national organisations which together form the WWF Global Network.

11.12 WILDLIFE STRATEGY PROBLEM AREAS

Protecting wildlife in a country as scattered populous and huge, like India is in itself a daunting task.
India accounts for a good proportion of worlds floral and faunal diversity, nevertheless the rate of
depletion of this gene pool is also alarming. A lot of measures have already been taken to take care of
the problem but certain problem areas remain to be addressed to.
a) The strategy of conservation by a network of protected areas and specific animal conservation
projects itself has some major problems.
The protected areas, national parks and sanctuaries do not have adequate infrastructure and
manpower to monitor vast forest tracts.
The displacement of tribals and other forest people from the demarcated areas has not augured
well for the health of the forests and wildlife. The displaced tribals have either been
rehabilitated in the neighbouring forestlands or continue to derive their livelihood from the
forest by aiding the poachers or smuggling wildlife and forest products. Some experiments in
the joint forest management areas have shown that the tribals can be successfully incorporated
in any programme of forest and wildlife management.
The protected areas account for only 4% of Indias total landmass and as such there is a
massive depletion in the biological health outside these protected areas. Perhaps it has rightly
been said that islands of diversity is surrounded by oceans of devastation.
b) The tendency to treat forests and wildlife as separate entities and as such separate legislations
often accounts for the lack of a coherent comprehensive policy. There is thus the need for a broad-
based wildlife strategy.
c) A great deal of emphasis has been put on the big game. Big mammals and other animals have
received a great deal of attention in our wildlife programmes while many species of plants and
microorganisms have been neglected.
d) The state has failed to respond effectively to the new problems like insurgents and terrorists
taking shelter in forests and increased instances of poaching and smuggling of wildlife products.

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e) There are many species of wildlife that have not been documented yet. Fear is being expressed
that they may be lost to mankind forever even before getting detected.
f) The Wildlife Protection Act, though a protection act does not protect species enumerated under
Schedule V.

Check Your Progress - 2

1) Name some of the organisations involved in survey and documentation of wildlife in India.

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2) Discuss some of the specific animal conservation projects initiated by the Government of India.
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3) Name three major non-governmental organisations involved with the work of wildlife
management.
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11.13 ECO-TOURISM RESOURCES

Pristine natural resources and environments have always been the critical requirements of successful
tourism. Recently, the 13th PATA adventure travel and eco-tourism conference and mart held in Sri
Lanka, had as its theme Bio-diversity: challenges for this century. 36 buyers interacted with 81 sellers.
According to J.A. McInerney, CEO, PATA, the environmental challenges facing tourism are major.
With population growth, economic pressures and diminishing bio-diversity, there will be serious long-
term problems. The long-term solutions developed ranged from hotel bio-management, Green Globe
Certification, case studies on islands, rain forests and regions with unique eco-systems, all of which
have become tourist destinations. The Asia Pacific region, if it is to conserve its bio-diversity, should
go beyond putting its flora and fauna on display for the discerning consumer from the west who wants
to play a role in the conservation of natural and cultural resources for economic advantages, which
tend to be short-term benefits, since the market for eco tourism is highly competitive.
The United Nations has Eco-tourism Year planned for 2002, and looks at Eco-tourism as a
community initiated nature-culture activity. It is using two definitions as its major input:

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i) International Eco-Tourism Society defines eco-tourism as responsible travel to natural areas that
conserves the environment and sustains the well being of local people.
ii) The WWF defines eco-tourism as responsible travel to natural areas that is determined by local
people, sustains their well being and conserves the environment.
Eco-tourism should be operated with a deep sense of commitment and understanding to serve the
needs of all living beings, and the emphasis in the two definitions given above shows the man-in-
nature conflict, which our sanctuary and nat ional park movement has not been able to resolve. The
poaching of tiger parts, tuskers from bull elephants and encroachment of land around notified areas in
India are an indication that tourism has not been able to police the mafia. One of the reasons for this
conflict may be the uneasy relationship that has existed between the forest bureaucracy and the people
who were displaced through the notification process. We have seen the declaration of Independence
by the indigenous people of Nagarhole in Karnataka when they took over the forest after the state
government allowed the Taj group to expand the forest lodge and stop access to local people. They
have not benefited from eco-tourism activity. In fact, as the recent conflict in Dewas, M.P. between
tribals and forest guards over timber rights for house construction indicates, they have lost their access
to survival resources and have become easy prey to the smugglers and mafia trading in such products.
Such concern is, however, not evident in the preamble of the draft Tourism Policy which has been on
the anvil for two years. Conservation of the heritage and the environment is a part of the sustainable
development agenda, but only through the process of establishing the carrying capacity limit. For this
the Indian tourism establishment is to create planning guidelines, which are to be strictly enforced. It
is, however, the spread of mass tourism into the world of nature has raised the issue of eco-efficiency
and environmental management since tourism has often proved to be a wasteful and polluting activity.
It is also an activity that brings ethnic communities and indigenous peoples into conflict with tourists
and tourism developers.
According to Herman Daly the human economy is embedded in and dependent on the natural eco-
system of our planet. We have seen a five fold increase in economic growth since 1950. This is true of
tourism and particularly eco-tourism. These activities have put pressure on renewable resources like
energy, water, food, etc. and have put limits on the environmental sink function of the earths renewal
system and ecological balance. It is for this reason that the ecological footprint of tourism needs to be
minimised. Alan Durning has identified three socio-ecological classes. These are the over consumers,
the sustainers and the marginals. The over consumers, amongst who we may include tourists,
represent 20% of the worlds population that consumes 80% of the worlds resources. The marginals
represent 20% of the population with almost no access to the worlds resources. The sustainers
represent 60% of the population, some of whom would be eco-tourists. Reduction of resource
consumption, in this context has become more important than carrying capacity, because the former
puts the environment before commerce. Industry practices, ethics and fair trade are likely to introduce
some regulation into the unrestrained growth of eco-tourism, of which the wildlife sanctuaries are a
part.
As mentioned above, when we deal with wildlife tourism we have to cons ider the success of the
sanctuary or notified area approach. It extends to conservation of wetlands and forests, habitats that
have become more important after the Rio declaration and the on going Convention on Bio-Diversity.
In both these international processes eco-tourism has been identified as an activity that can reduce the
ecological footprints of development in its more formal and functional sense. However, this potential
is subject to conditionality and regulation.
The US Aid Tourism policy states that forests and marine life are being threatened by hunting,
logging, agriculture and fishing that have led to the destruction of habitats. This is particularly the
case in developing countries for the following reasons:
Lack of funds for the protection and management of notified and reserved areas,
Eco-tourism has the potential to conserve them,
However, the conditions for realising this potential lie through creating the awareness in local
communities of the value of bio-resources,
This will only happen when local people benefit through bio-diversity conservation,
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 Eco-tourism can raise the funds for bio -diversity conservation.
Our Eco Tourism policy reflects this market approach by identifying critical policy areas as:
1) Funding for protection and managem ent,
2) Fiscal policies that regulate fees, incentives and land use zones,
3) Information exchange, both national and international,
4) Promotion of green tourism through energy conservation, recycling of water and waste, and re-
education of the consumer and staff of eco-lodges.
5) Funding research on the impacts of such tourism since the risk of poor management of resorts is
evident in Costa Rica, Nepal and Thailand where such projects have been implemented.
6) Distribution benefits to be targeted to the non-urban sector, since the gain to national economies is
between 20-30% with very little benefits to the local economy.
7) Change the perception that this is an elite business.
8) Change mass tourism behaviour by including one eco-tourism spot on the itinerary for
introducing purer tourism.
However, we have to look at the manner in which the industry has promoted environmental
safeguards in the accommodation sector, whilst being completely ignorant of the transport sector
without which no tourist can access the hotel room! Tour operations and visitor activity, though more
visible, are much smaller in their impact on resources. However, their visibility creates social conflicts
as well as impacts that go beyond the period of the visit. The tourist does not evaluate that he/she is
one of thousands who are likely to visit a sanctuary or national park. Each of them demands energy,
water, food, transport, guides and accommodation and transport. Their demand for services
establishes standards and practices that are extended to others. In this way mass tourism replaces
sustainable tourism.
The NGO view is that the indigenous community bears the cost of eco-tourism through displacement
because of the land use zoning as well as the appropriation of forest and other resources by the
tourism industry and government. Cultural and bio-diversity are also destroyed through the imposition
of the six dominating urban tourism cultures of the affluent countries that are the tourism generating
markets. Traditional economic diversity is also undermined. The possibility of sex tourism and child
labour are also opened up. The support that policy gives to foreign investment without conditions is
also resisted since this type of project is not integrated into the regional or development needs and
priorities of the area. The greatest fear is that of bio-piracy since the tourist could be looking for flora
and fauna to commercialise and patent through the WTO regime.
The most vexatious issue that NGOs have raised is that of social equity. It is their belief that the
market is unable to deal with the scale of economic activity and cannot include the price of its
impacts. In general, it embraces issues concerned with human rights, worker rights, environmental
impact, community rights and involvement, business ethics and governmental commitment and
regulation. The United Nations is working out a Global Compact to create a voluntary commitment by
business, particularly trans -national business, to these issues of social equity. Such a compact suggests
a precautionary approach to environmental challenges, to show greater responsibility towards
environmental problems and needs and encourage the development and diffusion of environment
friendly technologies. Here we can see that there is very little focus on resident and community needs,
staff management, health and safety. For other business, this may not be an immediate problem. For
the Tourism business social responsibility is a part of the unique and quality aspects of the product.
Developing cou ntries and areas of high tourism volume need to take up the challenge of social
responsibility if they are to deal with the environmental challenge.
Many surveys in the origin markets attempt to show that tourists are willing to share the cost of social
responsibility. However, major tour companies feel that their experience is to the contrary. Consumers
have the potential to be selective, but in practice their range of motivations put the environment at the
bottom of their preferences. The Danish Institute of Tourism Research and Planning interview 30,000

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European tourists of which 10-27% wanted to visit unspoilt places. None of them, however, said that
they were influenced by environmental concerns. They wanted to see natural beauty before it
disappears.
It is interesting to review the experience of the North American Definitions and Applications group,
which discussed the problems discussed above last May. They attempted to define the phenomenon of
eco-tourism as it has developed over the last 15 years. The group felt that a single, commonly agreed
definition was essential to understanding how to develop tourism and meet the obligations of
sustainability. It was particularly important for planners, operators and governments, and the
definition should have w orldwide application. The first difficulty was to distinguish eco-tourism from
similar activities like adventure and nature tourism.
Sustainable tourism would be an umbrella concept, covering environmental, social and economic
integrity and well being of natural and cultural resources in perpetuity. Eco-tourism, as a subset refers
to tourism that is located in relatively undisturbed natural settings and areas, from the pristine to the
less degenerated, and which should be a tool for the conservation and sustainable development of
local communities. Nature tourism need not have the above restrictions. It would include white water
rafting, mountain biking, hunting, etc. even where the use for tourism is neither wise nor sustainable.
Adventure tourism was a commercial label for nature tourism. Accordingly, the term eco-lodge was
seen as an industry label used to identify a nature dependent tourist lodge that respected the
philosophy of eco-tourism. It would be different from ski and fishing or mountain lodges and luxury
retreats. Therefore, eco-tourism standards generally referred to the IUCN definition where 1000
delegates from 100 countries participated. Their definition that Eco tourism is environmentally
responsible travel and visitation to relatively undistributed natural areas, in order to enjoy and
appreciate nature (and any accompanying cultural features both past and present) that promotes
conservation, has low visitor impact and provides for beneficially active socio-economic involvement
of the local population was endorsed by the group. It was felt that there should be a major
international event where the single definition could be announced and endorsed. There was a need
for this as eco-tourism had already developed a vain and affected reputation.
To lead by example in one of the methods to bring in the interests of all stakeholders as identified by
the definition. By giving knowledge to stakeholders they would know how to identify eco-tourism.
Therefore, it was suggested that all the countries that have accepted the IUCN definition should
present best practice examples on the basis of which guidelines could evolve. In the process the
stakeholders, like tour operators, eco-lodge owners, consultants, planners, designers, academics,
conservationists, public sector park managers and employees, government representatives, tourism
industry associations and local communities could discuss key issues to identify tourism impacts on
the natural and cultural environment to manage the impacts for the maximum benefit. Guidelines,
standards and codes would then emerge from such an interface. However, the big operators did not
take this approach.
Let us look at the history of Environmental Codes of Conduct to understand where the environmental
concerns have been most effective in developing and implementing conservation ethics and
regulation. The movement for international codes begins in the late 1970s and early 80s. The main
emphasis was on visitor behaviour and the changing environmental and social impacts of tourism
businesses. The solutions related to visitor management and environmental management. For the
industry it meant that sectoral relevance in terms of the quality of the product would determine
commitment and expenditure on implementing the suggested codes. An illustration is the Annapurna
Conservation Area Visitor Guidelines. However, beyond raising awareness, it did not include a
monitoring mechanism.
Manuals were first developed in the 1980s. Their emphasis was on the promotion of eco-efficiency.
Again they focussed on visitor management or the hotel sector. These related to recycling, pollution
reduction and best practices in Eco-tourism based on energy and waste management. TIES guidelines
for tourists and operators followed this thrust. The weakness of manuals is that they are international,
lead by example and are in English. They do not address specific local problems. They also depend
heavily on technological solutions and are poor in capacity building.
Competitions and awards also developed from the 80s. They were aimed at eco and nature based
business and the larger business. Awards like Green Hotels, AMEX, etc. do create awareness amongst

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the consumers, but they focus on specific topics of interest. However, they do not have transparent
judging processes. They recognise the efforts of the best and focus on eco-tourism to the exclusion of
other destinations.
Certification programmes tried to address to weaknesses of other initiatives. They emerge in 1992 as a
part of the voluntary initiatives encouraged by the Rio process. They emphasise environmental
efficiency and focus on Hotels and accommodation, destinations and tour operators. Illustrations are
Green Globe, Blue Flag and other international programmes as well as national programmes set up by
countries like Australia and Costa Rica. These include an annual review, third party verification and
award of logo for consumer attention. Again these certification programmes look mainly to
environmental issues, are expensive to maintain, require significant time inputs and promote niche
markets. The greatest footprints are in the mass market, which is ignored or ignores such schemes.
They focus on management rather than on social and marketing issues.
Indicators and benchmarks emerge post 1992, to measure progress towards sustainable tourism. It is
easier to measure environmental criteria rather than the social one. An illustration is the WTO
indicators of sustainable tourism, which puts out a methodology for a business to follow. However,
this methodology rests on data and technology, which exclude the small businesses, which often are
greater in number.
Lifecycle assessment of destinations is also a tool of the 90s. Its focus is on the impact of tourism
activity and it qualifies the importance of different impacts on specific destinations. These methods
are complex, difficult to implement and not yet tested.
Supposing you were to ask which is the best eco-tourism destination, the reply would be difficult.
How are we to judge the best when we do not have common perceptions? Membership of clubs and
societies that claim to be conservationists do not insist on members compliance with guidelines on
behaviour and consumption. Taking a pledge on joining such clubs is not necessarily the result of a
commitment to conservation and the well being of local people. Ethics sounds good and self-
regulation grows out of good intentions or good business sense, but there is no audit of compliance,
no penalty for misconduct.
Let us see how we can define eco-tourism, as the ser vice, which unites environmental concerns with
tourism concerns. Eco-tourism is often described in the following ways:
1) Tourism activity carried out in a relatively undisturbed natural setting.
2) It is a subset of sustainable tourism, since it should serve as a tool for conservation.
3) It is nature dependent tourism.
4) It improves the well being of local people through their involvement in eco-tourism development.
5) It is tourism in a natural setting, where the tourist should be educated through interpretation and
awareness, to be conservationist.
6) The use of tourism to conserve eco-systems and/or cultures.
As we can see these descriptions indicate a greening of tourism, as we can see environmental concern
and action in other industrial sectors, both urban and rural. In the case of tourism, it is the larger
resorts that have the finances to be greener, but they are the least beneficial to the local economy.
Similarly, there are consumers who are willing to be green, but they may not reduce their
consumption in all areas of their lifestyle. For the industry, certification and eco-labels are a
marketing tool. It would help one operator differentiate his product from that of another. It would help
them to keep out those who do not follow the rules set up by industry leaders. For this to be possible,
the rules must be developed through participation land transparency. This means greater local
participation, control and monitoring.
Eco-tourism cannot survive without the mass travel and tourism industry and all the services that
support it. The Physical infrastructure industries will benefit most from its development. Local people
will get the low paid or menial jobs, which do not require the learning of any new skills. On the other
hand, they may lose their traditional skills and knowledge through imposition of the tourist culture

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and values. A study conducted at an eco-tourism project at Taman Negara, a national park in western
Malaysia shows that two thirds of the tourist expenditure goes to the airlines and the tour operator. A
significant proportion is spent in large cities and tourist centres through which the eco-site is accessed.
Very little is spent in the local economy. Like conventional tourism, eco-tourism has succeeded in
disrupting the local economy, displacing food production and self-reliance. There is also the fear that
once eco-tourism succeeds then mainstream tourism will follow.
The criminal trade in animal skins and parts has led to a rising number of species becoming
endangered. Despite our efforts to save the tiger, the rhino and the elephant, consistent poaching has
undermined conservation efforts. The Wildlife Preservation Society of India has identified several
loopholes in the continuing trade in animal skins and parts. They are demanding an amendment to the
law that would not allow the transfer of skins from one state to another. Such trophies should not only
be transferred by inheritance and sale should be banned. Wildlife crimes have inter -state and
international ramifications. 90% of the animals killed are for smuggling. To ensure a proper handling
of such cases three ministries have to come together, Environment and Forests, Home and Finance.
The police do not have powers of investigation, other than in the state of West Bengal. It is this
weakness that international syndicates make use of.
The Environmental Protection Act of 1974 and the ban on Asian Ivory in 1996 have been infringed
with impunity by smugglers and poachers. In April this year 11 cat skins and 26 kgs. of ivory goods
were seized by the Delhi Police. They could only seize the goods, but could not carry on the
investigations into the nature of the smugglers ring, the conduit routes and the market. Taiwan, China
and Japan constitute the major market for tiger parts and ivory. Country protocols to apprehend
smugglers and education of the people against the use of such raw materials and artefacts have to go
hand in hand as a part of any eco-tourism policy.
Like all tourism myths, the 21 st century is exploring the eco-tourism myth. It opens opportunities for a
whole range of investors to gain access to remote rural, forest, coastal and marine areas. As transport
and accommodation networks penetrate into remote areas or the last frontier there are likely to be
more encroachments, more logging, mining and plunder of biological resources, including bio -piracy.
The last is a multi-million dollar business. The World Customs Organisation at the WTM in London
confirmed this in 1998. They warned of the unprecedented movement of items including valuable
flora and fauna, causing economic losses to third world countries.
Bio-technology companies are sending scouts around the world, often in the guise of tourists, to
discover genes that have value for the drug and food industry. These bio-pirates are hunting for seeds,
medicinal plants, endangered species and even human genes, and once they acquire them to patent
them under intellectual property rights. Local people often unknowingly aid such piracy since they
have the traditional knowledge of sources and us es of bio-diversity.
Another aspect that rides on the eco-tourism wave is the use of these resources for adventure holidays.
This indicates the link between eco and mass tourism. Today we can see an immense increase in the
number of middle class families that are river rafting in Rishikesh, paragliding in Manali, skiing in
Narkanda, rock climbing in Panchgani or trekking in Ladakh. The number of operators has increased
but there are no regulations they need to follow. Danger is a part of the attraction, but safety and
environmental norms are ignored for the commercial gains. According to the Department of Tourism,
both at the Centre and at the State level, have codified the safety and environmental norms through
the Himalayan Tourism Advisory Board. Operators have to get their papers cleared from the Ministry
and should be members of the Indian Association of Adventure Tour Operators as well as affiliated to
the specialised sporting authority.
For river rafting, for example, there is a three-tired process. The State Tourism Authority has to issue
a no objection certificate after a thorough scrutiny of the operator, his guides and equipment. Then the
forest department has to give a NOC that sanctions the rafting and camping operations on the
riverbank. A third party insurance cover is also essential for the boats. The operators are divided into
the safe few, with imported gadgets and trained personnel catering to those who can pay and the
spurious operators who are cashing in on the promotion and banking on the ignorance of the client
and his low budget. Himachal Pradesh which is the major state for adventure and nature based tourism
requires registration as a Travel Agent and not as a specialist operator. Approval of the district tourist
officer costs Rs.100/-. Manali has more than one hundred paragliding operators who indulge in unsafe

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flying. Most small operators do not have access to institutional finance to improve the quality of their
operations. They cannot hire the best instructors or guides and the best equipment.
Similarly, mountaineering and trekking also play to the amateurs motivation of thrills and novelty. It
is for this reason that mountains have become the highest garbage dumps. The economic benefit,
especially hard currency, from climbing fees has caused crowding and debris in once pristine
environments. Amazingly, the attitude of reverence for local beliefs and customary practices, which
should have emerged from greater exposure have been ignored, and power and egoism characterise
many expeditions. Trekking routes have also put commerce before conservation. The mindless
expansion of such tourism is finally beginning to cause conflicts in areas which were once renowned
for their hospitality. The number of deaths and murders of trekkers by their guides is a warning that
we are not developing tourism with the caution it deserves. In the words of a Lama in Kinnaur,
climate change is the result of the vengeance of the Gods for the greed and over consumption of the
people.
It is clear from our discussion that there is a need for a change in the relationship and new ways of
thinking between the three major components of the realm of tourism and the resources they bring
into play in their activity. These are the tourists, the tourism industry and the hosts. All three must
approach the environment with greater awareness and sensitivity. Tourism is a fashion industry with a
life cycle. Tourists will move on. Has tourism encouraged diversification of the local economy along
more responsible lines and made it possible to sustain such development without the crutch of
tourism? Will governments retrain and fund redevelopment when tourists stop coming? Will
conservationists develop from among the community to regenerate the ecology? These are the
questions that have to be answered before policy decisions are implemented.
We already have a response in the trouble at Ranthambhore National Park in Rajasthan.
Environmentalists claim that rising tourist numbers are rendering the efforts at conservation difficult
and the tiger is at the receiving end. A two day symposium on Habitat conservation showed that
tourism was taking over the wild life sanctuary and replacing education and awareness with profit and
commerce. The seminar celebrated 25 years of project tiger. The Park has a delicate eco-system
located at the junction of the Aravallis and the Vidhyas. It is this system that supports the diversity
and density of its fauna. Of the 274.5 sq. kms. of the core region, 150 sq. kms. is constantly disturbed
by tourist traffic for nine months of the year (October to June). The number of tourists has been
increasing every year (43,714 visitors in the last year). Tourists occupy the core as well as the buffer
area. 60% of the park staff time is devoted to servicing tourists. The practice of keeping villagers
away from the tourist tracks has generated ill feeling since they used to visit the park for worship at a
number of places. There was a move to open Kailadevi and Sawai Man Singh Sanctuaries to relieve
pressure on Ranthambhore, with the involvement of local villagers, who should form village
committees for the conservation of the park. A corridor for the free movement of wild animals was
also proposed. The State Government has issued orders for enlarging the Tiger reserve. No steps have
been taken to implement the other complementary decisions.
As state and central governments go out of their way to promote eco tourism projects, a unique
project to set up a garden of medicinal herbs by the Malabar Botanical Garden Society is languishing
for attention. The Department of Tourism is not interested in bio-diversity! The project would redress
the erosion of the vegetation, which has changed extensively in the Malabar region over the past three
centuries. The project envisages the 691 medicinal plants mentioned in the Hortus Malabaricus,
published in Amsterdam in 1678, to be collected and grown for the benefit of future generations.
In India, the true wilderness is shrinking. By definition this means an area both terrestrial and aquatic,
where there is no human impact and which is not used by many for anything but temporary transit.
Two areas conform to this definition, areas over 5000 metres above sea level and the 0.1% of the area
that comes under our national parks and sanctuaries. These protected areas are both small and
isolated. They are islands and lose species as fast as their size is small. This isolation causes faunal
collapse. In the debate on the protection of these areas and creating corridors as against the demand to
denotify them, some participative exercise has to be undertaken to explain to the people affected that
the PA movement is in the interest of their present and future generations. Joint management is yet to
succeed and to develop into a peoples movement. Until it does our bio-diversity is under threat both
from tourism, poaching and affected people.

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In the words of Prince Sadruddin Aga Khan, the founder of Alp Action, of all the isms of the 20 th
century, tourism is the worst in its records of environmental degradation.
Some illustration of tourist behaviour, the crosses all norms, is illustrated by observations at wild life
sanctuaries in the South. At Periyar boatloads of tourists, 100 at a time heckle the herds of elephants;
men ritually urinate into the lake at the end of the trip. Tourist buses go right up to the bund at
Vedanthangal to disturb the nesting birds. Boatloads of tourists are taken to the nesting area at
Srirangapatina and Bharatpur bird sanctuaries. In season private vehicle line up to view wildlife, and
paths become crowded like busy intersections in Delhi. Tourists peer, prod, shout and heckle like they
are teasing animals at a zoo. What is forgotten in the Pas are for the security of animals. Tourism is
incidental. A mere trip to the sanctuary does not qualify as eco-tourism. In India, as in many other
countries the recreational context of tourism is not de-linked from eco-tourism.
We find fault with the management of wild life tourism as well. Until very recently the Gir forest had
a lion show, Bandavgarh and Kanha had tiger shows. These shows create new behaviour on the
part of the lion and tiger. Tourism managers do not consider tourists as trespassers in the wild; they do
not leave anything to chance. For this purpose they justify roads in sanctuaries and safaris. Animals
consider roads a barrier. Roads fragment their habitats and territories. Roads also encourage the
emergence of exotic vegetation like Parthenium. The impact of roads on weathering can encourage
forest fires. Roads make the forest accessible to the timber mafia, poachers and the film crews. Using
horses and elephants or walkways, we can manage human intrusion butter, since the media and policy
makers have promoted wild life tourism to all mass tourists.
Management based on the model of Kenya cannot be replicated in India. We have much less carrying
capacity for animals and a very different habitat. Rain forests and mangroves replace dry scrub and
Savannah. Our wildlife stock is as small as the size of the PA and tourism in India is much beyond the
carrying capacity of the sanctuary. The tourist is also not visiting for the jungle experience but to spot
a privileged animal or a sensational event like a kill, feeding or mating. In this context, the promotion
of Kerala as Gods own Country, an eco-tourism destinations, does many things that are against the
culture of conservation. They allow construction beyond the high tide line; they do not assess the
carrying capacity. In the wake of the Prime Ministers Kumarakom holiday there has been a rush to
the lake Visitors troop into the serene surroundings; buses and cars brush through the vegetation on
narrow roads. Locals people have rushed in with rice boat and country boat cruises. Birds and humans
vie for place on the lake. The Golden Waters resort advertises fishing from your cottage window or
Vembanad Lake! Arti and drummer welcomes make a mockery of the traditions of Kerala. The Alex
Resort built on land reclaimed from the backwaters has a huge swimming pool and water cascade.
Facilities are five star and there is more emphasis on novelty foir the tourist rather than environmental
concern.
If eco-tourism is to come of age in India, we have a take stock of our resources, see the threats and
conflicts in its conservation and protection and manage the demand for its viewing by tourists as well
as the legitimate demands of the resident population for a share in the decision making, planning and
implementation of projects which bring them into the centre of the activity rather than leaving them
on the periphery. Site specific and Issue specific evaluation and documentation along with private-
public interface and Regulatory measures will create value for our wildlife and natural habitats.

11.14 LET US SUM UP

Wildlife policies and acts have evolved over a long period of time. There has also been an attitudinal
change in the notion of wildlife management. From the assumption that forest policies can take care
of wildlife, India has now evolved a comprehensive and multi-pronged strategy of wildlife
conservation.
Wildlife management is a comprehensive exercise. Survey, Conservation Projects, Legislations,
International Conventions, Education and Awareness all form an integral part of the governments
wildlife strategy. There is also a need to involve people more actively in any such programme of
forest conservation.

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Wildlife tourism has both positive as well as negative impacts. In order to minimise the negative
impacts it is necessary that the tourists as well as those who package wildlife tours should be
sensitised to the issues involved in wildlife management.

11.15 CLUES TO ANSWERS

Check Your Progress - 1

1) See Sec. 11.1.

2) See Sub-sec. 11.2.3.

3) See Sec. 11.3

Check Your Progress - 2

1) See Sec. 11.4.

2) See Sub-sec. 11.5.1.

3) See Sec. 11.10.

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