Tuesday 9-12

Determining the Effectiveness of Soccer Headgear at Distributing and Minimizing the

Force from an Impact

Lindsay Epstein

5/16/17
2.671 Measurement and Instrumentation
Tuesday AM
Prof. Jeehwan Kim
Abstract
In contact sports such as soccer, players often experience impacts to the head that can cause
concussions. Various types of soccer headgear are sold in an effort to help prevent concussions
by reducing these impacts. In order to evaluate how different brands of soccer headgear affect
the maximum force and force distribution of an impact on a head, two different types of
headgear were tested and evaluated against a control a sweatband. An impulse hammer was
used to strike each headband, while three hand dynamometers provided measurements of the
force transmitted through the headband. Both the Storelli Exoshield Head Guard and Full90
Select Headgear were found to distribute the force, reducing the total impulse at the impact site
by approximately 25% as compared to the sweatband. The ratio of output impulse from the
central hand dynamometer to input impulse for the Sweatband was found to be 0.951 0.019,
while the ratios for the Storelli and Full 90 Headbands were found to be 0.692 0.022 and 0.706
0.011, respectively. Despite the more expensive price point of the Storelli headband there was
no significant difference in the performance of the Storelli and Full90 headgear.

1. Introduction
Concussions are a form of mild traumatic brain injury that affect over 1.7 million people
each year. They are caused by impacts to the head, face, or neck, which lead to neural tissue
strain or collision of the brain with the skull. The short-term effects of concussions include
amnesia, dizziness, nausea, sleep disturbances, and headaches, while long term effects can
include changes in behavior, depression, and cognitive impairment. These long-term effects are
particularly prevalent in youth, whose brains are still developing [1].
Sports and recreational activities are some of the leading causes of concussions, and recent
research has indicated that soccer in particular should be considered a high-risk sport for
concussion [2, 3]. Rates of head injuries and concussions in soccer are similar to those in
American football, lacrosse, ice hockey, and rugby [4]. In soccer, a concussion can be caused by
intentional contact of the head with the ball, known as a header, or unintentional contact between
the head and the ball, another player, the ground, or equipment such as a goal post. The increased
awareness of sports related concussion risks has led to many new educational campaigns and rule
changes, as well as a push for new means to prevent concussions [5]. One of these ways is
through protective soccer headgear. Soccer headgear (Figure 1) is intended to help prevent
concussion by adding a layer of padding between the player and the source impact, thereby
reducing and distributing the force experienced by a user. While soccer headgear is not required,
players have the option of wearing it when they play. In this study the effectiveness of two
brands of soccer headgear was determined by measuring how different brands of headgear affect
the maximum force and force distribution that a user experiences. This is intended to help
players determine what types of headgear could best help them avoid concussions.

1 Lindsay Epstein, 5/16/2017

 Figure 1: Two common types of protective headgear, the Storelli Exoshield Head Guard
(left) and the Full90 Select (right). The Storelli headband is made from viscoelastic
protective foams, while the Full90 is made of Force Bloc Foam [6, 7].

Two different types of headgear were tested the Storelli Exoshield Head Guard and the
Full90 Select. Both brands of headgear have a similar appearance and thickness, are made of a
foam material that works to reduce force in two ways reducing force by increasing the contact
time, and distributing the force across the skull. The Storelli headband is priced at $60 while the
Full90 is priced at $35. In this experiment, the two brands were compared both against each
other and against a thin fleece headband, which was used as control. An impact hammer was
used to hit each type of soccer headgear and measure the input force and impulse, while three
hand dynamometers serving as the forehead of the player measured the output force and
impulses at three adjacent locations on the interior of the headband. The data for the ratio of
input to output forces was used to determine which brand of headgear most effectively protects
against concussions by distributing and minimizing impact forces.

2. Background
2.1 Biomechanics of Sports-Related Concussions
Investigations into the mechanical basis of concussion show that the main cause of both
impact and non-impact concussions is the acceleration, or inertial loading, experienced by the
brain. This inertial loading consists of both a linear and a rotational component. In instances of
linear acceleration there is a high correlation between linear acceleration and internal brain
pressure, wherein increased internal brain pressure has been shown to cause neurologic
dysfunction. In instances of rotational acceleration fast rotations of the head produce shear forces
that lead to damage of brain tissue [8]. A Newtonian physics model can be used to discuss these
accelerations further.
Varney and Roberts have applied fundamental Newtonian formulas to the descriptions of
acceleration and deceleration experienced in head injuries in order to better quantify the stresses
and displacement of the brain under varied conditions [9]. The first parameter considered is
deceleration, which is defined as the rate of decrease of velocity over time, a negative
acceleration. The formula for acceleration is below, where a is the acceleration, v is the final
velocity, v0 is the initial velocity, s is the distance of travel during acceleration, and g is a
constant equal to the acceleration due to gravity.

2 Lindsay Epstein, 5/16/2017

 (! ! ! !!! ) (1)
= !!"

In the model for sports deceleration, the players head is assumed to be stopped by the end of
impact, so v is approximated as 0. This leaves the following formula for acceleration.
!! (2)
=
2
Given film of a contact sport, such as soccer, this formula can be used to calculate how much
acceleration a player experiences when their head is brought to a halt. Once this acceleration has
been calculated one can use Newtons second law of motion to calculate the force exerted on the
player. Newtons second law of motion states that for a mass m accelerating with acceleration a,
m must experience a force F that is equal to its mass multiplied by its acceleration. Combining
Equation 2 with Newtons second law produces the formula for force seen below.
! (3)
=
2
While the exact magnitude of forces necessary to cause a concussion are still unknown, this
formula demonstrates the importance of force, velocity, and stopping distance in collisions. As
seen in Equations 2 and 3, given a constant mass and travel distance, a decrease in impact force
leads to a decrease in acceleration, thereby reducing the likelihood of concussion. Another factor
that influences the severity of brain injuries is whether or not the player was braced for impact,
as failure to properly align the head and neck can lead to rotational accelerations, increasing the
likelihood of mild head injury [9]. This study worked to analyze one important factor in
concussion occurance, impact force, by quantifying the reduction in force due to use of a
protective headband.
2.2 Theory Behind Concussion Protection
Physics can be used to explain and predict how athletes can increase their protection against
head injuries. During an impact protective headgear, such as helmets or soccer-specific
concussion prevention headbands, work in two main ways reducing the force and distributing
the pressure. Temporally, padded headgear increases the time and distance over which
deceleration occurs, thereby reducing the force, as can be seen in Equation 3. Spatially, by
increasing the area of impact headgear is able to decrease the pressure experienced by the user.
This can be seen in Equation 4, where P represents pressure and A represents area.
!
= ! (4)
This technique of using padding to reduce peak forces and pressures has been extensively
studied, often in the context of the sport shoe industry [10]. The Storelli Exoshield headgaurd
and the Full90 select, which are made from viscoelastic protective foams and Force Bloc Foam,
respectively, use thick foam padding to reduce peak forces.
2.3 Previous Studies on Headband Effectiveness
Various experiments have been carried out to study the effectiveness of concussion
headbands in soccer and other sports. In one study the efficiency of 3 brands of soccer headgear
were tested Headers, Headblast, and Protector. All three brands were found to be effective at
reducing the peak impact force when struck with a soccer ball projected at 56.45 kph (35 mph)

3 Lindsay Epstein, 5/16/2017

[11]. In another experiment, the performance of protective headgear was measured in both low-
speed volunteer heading and high-speed ball dummy head impact conditions. The findings from
this experiment show that none of the headgear tested reduce the impact response of head to ball
collisions, however they all provide a measurable improvement when tested in head to head
collisions [12]. A final study was conducted to investigate the clinical side of headgear use. After
collecting data from 347 surveys of youth soccer players it was determined that athletes who did
not wear headgear were more likely to suffer a concussion during the 2006 soccer season [4].
While a variety of experiments have been performed to test soccer headgear, the research still
lacks a definite consensus as to whether or not headgear prevents concussions. Furthermore,
previous studies have not measured the force distribution inside the headbands, nor have they
directly compared these two particular brands of headgear. Similar to previous studies, this study
worked to quantify the exact reduction in impulse provided by two common types of protective
soccer headgear, the Storelli Exoshield Head Guard and the Full90 Select. Additionally, this
study assessed the validity of a proposed mechanism for the reduction in force distribution of
impact by measuring the impulse at two locations directly adjacent to the point of impact.

3. Experimental Design
3.1 Apparatus and Set Up
This experiment measured the effectiveness of each headband by simulating the conditions
of an impact to the forehead. To simulate heading conditions, three hand dynamometers (Vernier
HD, measures force in N) were secured side by side against a wooden mount, 3 mm apart with
force sensing pads facing outwards. This mount was disk shaped, with spaces for the hand
dynamometers cut out, so that a headband could be wrapped around the assembly as if it were a
head (Figure 2). The mount was then secured to a table using clamps.

Figure 2: A model of the wooden mount used in this experiment. The mount consists of
a round top piece with a large notch to house the hand dynamometers, and a raised base
to lift the headband above the surface of the table. The headband is placed around this
mount, which is then clamped to the table.
The hand dynamometers were linked to the computer directly through a LabQuest Mini
(Vernier LQ-mini), while the impulse hammer (Impact Hammer PCB Model 086D05, measures
potential in mV) was linked through an instrument amplifier (Vernier INA) to the LabQuest
Mini, which was then connected to the computer (Figure 3).

4 Lindsay Epstein, 5/16/2017

 Hand Dynamometers
Left Center Right
Hammer

Headgear
Location of
Impact

Instrument Lab Quest Lab Quest Laptop

Amplifier Mini 1 Mini 2

Figure 3: A schematic drawing of the set up used in this experiment. Three hand
dynamometers were lined up and secured beneath the headband. Force data was collected
from the hand dynamometers through two Lab Quest Minis. The potential signal from the
impulse hammer was sent through an instrument amplifier, where it was amplified 10x,
then routed through one of the Lab Quest Minis. All data was recorded using a laptop
with Logger Pro software.

After the hand dynamometers were secured in place, the impulse hammer was
calibrated by striking each hand dynamometer individually ten times directly on the
center. This yielded a calibration constant for the impulse hammer of 0.204 0.029
mV/N.

3.2 Experimental Methods

Once set up and calibration were completed, two headgears (Storelli Exoshield Head Guard
and the Full90 Select) were tested. One normal fabric sweatband, which is not expected to
protect players from impact, was also tested as a control. The force of impact striking the
headgear, as well as the resultant force on three sensors inside the headband, were measured and
compared in order to determine both the overall reduction in force provided by the headband, as
well as the distribution of force. To test each headband, the headband was stretched around the
apparatus over the hand dynamometers. The hand dynamometers were then zeroed to account for
any extra force caused by the pressure of the headband. The impulse hammer was used to strike
each headband individually directly over the vertical center of the central hand dynamometer.
The potential from the force hammer, as well as the output force from each of the three hand
dynamometers was measured and plotted as a function of time using Logger Pro Software. The
force hammer voltage was then converted into force using the conversion factor of 0.204 mV/N.
This was repeated for a total of 25 trials for each headband.

5 Lindsay Epstein, 5/16/2017

4. Results and Discussion
To determine the effectiveness of each headgear the ratio of output impulse from the left,
middle, and right hand dynamometers to the input impulse from the hammer was compared for
all three headbands. To find this ratio, the total impulse from each hand dynamometer (left,
middle, and right) was calculated by integrating the force versus time curves. This value was
then divided by the total input impulse from the force hammer, also found by integrating the
force versus time curve (Figure 4). Total impulse was used in this comparison rather than
maximum force because the hand dynamometer data contained a lag time that affected the value
of the maximum measured force.

Sweatband
Sweatband Storelli
StorelliHeadband
Headband Full90
Full90 Headband
Headband
80
Impulse Hammer
Left Force Sensor
Force (N)

70
Center Force Sensor
Right Force Sensor
60
Measured Force (N)

50

40
Measured

30

20

10

0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0

0.12 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12

Time (s)
Time(s)
Time (s)
Time(s)
Time (s)
Time(s)

Figure 4: Graphs showing the initial data collection of force versus time for the
Sweatband (control), Storelli, and Full90 headbands. As indicated in the legend, the black
peak shows the input force from the impulse hammer, which was calculated by dividing
the measured input potential by the conversion factor. Total impulse was measured by
calculating the area under each curve.

The initial force versus time graphs for the Storelli and Full 90 headband have a distinctly
different shape from the graph for the sweatband. In the control graph the left and right hand
dynamometers show no output force as a result of an impact, whereas in the Storelli and Full90
graphs both the left and right hand dynamometers display some force as a result of the impact
graphs (Figure 4). This illustrates that the control headband does not distribute the impulse,
whereas the two concussion prevention headbands both appear to. To better visualize the
distribution of force during impact, the output impulse for each sensor was plotted versus input
impulse from the hammer for each headband (Figure 5).

6 Lindsay Epstein, 5/16/2017

 Left Sensor Center Sensor Right Sensor
0.8
Sweatband
Storelli
0.7 Full90
x=y

0.6
Output Impulse (Ns)

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0
0.8 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Input Impulse (Ns) Input Impulse (Ns) Input Impulse (Ns)

Figure 5: Scatterplots showing the output impulse measured by each hand dynamometer
versus the input impulse from the impact hammer, plotted for each hand dynamometer.
25 trials were conducted for each headband. The line y = x is plotted to indicate equal
input and output impulses. In the control headband trials the center sensor data hugs this
line very closely, while the left and right sensor data is very close to zero. This indicates
failure to distribute the impact. For both the Storelli and Full90 the center sensor data is
below this line and the left and right sensor data is above 0, indicating some level of force
distribution

The ratio of the output to input impulses for the control sweatband for the left, center, and
right hand dynamometers were found to be 0.0085 0.0049, 0.951 0.019, and 0.0136
0.0036 respectively. The ratios for the Storelli Headgear were found to be 0.117 0.020, 0.692
0.022, and 0.092 0.021 respectively. For the Full90 Headgear these ratios were found to be
0.074 0.016, 0.706 0.011, and 0.105 0.020 respectively (Figure 6).

1
Ratio of Output Impulse to Input Impulse

0.9
Sweatband
Storelli Headband
0.8 Full 90 Headband

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
1 2 3
Left Sensor Middle Sensor Right Sensor

Figure 6: Bar graph showing the ratio of output impulses to input impulses for each of
the hand dynamometers (left, right, and center) for each of the headbands (control,
Storelli, and Full90).

7 Lindsay Epstein, 5/16/2017

 The Storelli Exosheild Head Guard and the Full 90 Select were both capable of reducing the
impulse on the location of impact, the central hand dynamometer, by distributing the impulse to
the right and left hand dynamometers. The control sweatband was not capable of distributing this
impact, as seen in the impulse ratio of 0.95. Based on a students t-test, the Full 90 Headband and
the Storelli headband were found to perform equivalently. The approximately 25% reduction of
impulse found for both brands of headgear, as compared to the sweatband, is consistent with data
from previous studies on protective headgear which report between 15% and 33% reduction of
forces [10, 11, 12].

5. Conclusions
The control headband was not capable of reducing or distributing the impulse from an
impact, while both the Storelli and Full90 headband were capable of reducing the magnitude of
the impulse on the center of the model, and distributing the impulse to the left and right of the
location of impact. The ratios of the output force to input force for the Storelli Headgear were
found to be 0.114 0.022, 0.692 0.022, and 0.092 0.021 for the left, middle, and right
sensors respectively. For the Full90 Headgear these ratios were found to be 0.074 0.016,
0.706 0.011, and 0.105 0.020 respectively. In testing, the Full90 Select headband and the
Storelli Exoshield headband performed equivalently. Neither was capable of reducing the overall
total impulse from the blow.
The results of this study indicate that protective soccer headgear does distribute impact
and significantly reduce central impulse experienced by a players forehead during an impact.
However, the direct effect of this reduction within the context of soccer has not been evaluated.
There is currently not enough research on the magnitudes and types of forces that cause
concussions to determine if the reduction and redistribution of force provided by the headband is
clinically relevant. In order to determine the real-world effect of the provided impulse reduction,
further studies should be conducted on the forces experienced by a players head under different
soccer collision conditions and the exact magnitudes of forces that can cause concussions.
Additional future testing should also look at the effectiveness of headgear under other soccer-
relevant testing conditions, including distributed load conditions, as well as different locations
and angles of impact.

Acknowledgments
Thank you to Dr. Barbara Hughey, Dr. Amy Carleton and Professor Jeehwan Kim for their
contributions to this project.

8 Lindsay Epstein, 5/16/2017

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