CURRICULUM STUDIES SHORT NOTES

TOPIC 1 : Concept and Issues in Curriculum

An interactive process developed among learners, teachers, materials and

Definition of environments.
curriculum A mirror that reflects cultural beliefs, social and political values of an
organisation.
Open, or public, dimension and includes current and historical
interpretations, learning experiences, and learning outcomes.
Planned
Statements of what every student must know and be able to do by
curriculum
some specified point in time.
(overt)
Content standard
Textbook, lesson plan, learning kits
Hidden Which are learned but not openly
curriculum Transmission of norms, values, and beliefs conveyed in the classroom
Daily curricular experience of a student within instructional settings
Enacted
Assignments, instructional practices and managed content (lesson
curriculum
plans)
When a topic is never taught:
Null curriculum
Too unimportant, too controversial, too inappropriate
1. Political
Selecting the most important aspects of culture for transmission to
the next generation.
A covert tool in the ploy of politics
Forces that
2. Economics
influence
Curriculum is constructed based on the needs of the economy.
curriculum
construction
3. Social
Responsive to stsudents diverse social and cultural values and at
the same time capable of creating a national identity based on
core values and practices
Reflect the change in society
Environmental groups insist that students should be taught about
conservation and preservation and the inculcation of values to love the
environment. E.g.: caring for our rivers, industrial pollution.
Consumer advocates are keen to see that students are taught about
Concerns of
their rights and responsibilities as consumers.
different
Health groups have also suggested that schools introduce
shareholders in
the Malaysian programmes about HIV Aids awareness, nutritional information, and
context other health related issues.
Government is also determined to ensure that students are taught
about their rights and responsibilities as citizens. Citizenship education
has been proposed in an effort to politically socialise students with
democratic ideals, principles and practices
 Community Concerns: sex education, crime prevention and
substance abuse
Education is at STAKE!
Stakeholders Learners
Teachers
Administrators
Parents
Community members
TOPIC 2 : Models of Curriculum Designs

Definition of
Consists of interacting parts that serves as a guide or procedure for action.
models
Purpose of To provide a structure for examining the elements that go to make up
models curriculum planning, and how these elements interrelate.
Curriculum design is deciding about the shape or configuration of a
curriculum plan.
It involves the selection of content in line with the goals and objectives
What is
of the curriculum.
curriculum
The selected content will have to be arranged in a form that will help
design
the teacher in choosing and organising appropriate learning
experiences for the classroom.
Curriculum design is also referred to as curriculum organisation.
4 Elements SOTE
Subject matter (content)
Elements in
Objectives
curriculum
Teaching-learning experiences
Evaluation

Balanced (Well-adjusted)
What is a good Coherent (Clear/Rational/Intelligible)
curriculum? Appropriate (Suitable/Fitting)
Relevant (Pertinent/Significant)
1) Scope
refers to both the breadth and depth of content and includes all topics,
learning experiences and organising threads in curriculum
Three threads: Cognitive, affective and spiritual learning
Narrow with simple listing
Principles of 2) Sequence
curriculum Refers to the organisation of content and the extent to which it fosters
design cumulative and continuous learning. It should be based on
psychological principles and understanding of human development and
learning:
3) Integration
Bringing together of the concepts, skills and values of different
subject areas to reinforce each other.
 1) Planning
Objectives
Educational objectives in 3 domains
Cognitive, Affective and Psychomotor
Content
Information to be learned in school
Subject centered or learner centered
Learning Experiences
Instructional strategies and methods
Link to curriculum experiences and use of content to produce
outcome (E.g. Inquiry approach or constructivist)
Steps in Educational activities (E.g. Field trips, conducting experiments
Curriculum and interacting with computer programs)
Design in relation Evaluation
to Models Quality and effectiveness of the program
Also refer to 2) Implementing
comparison of Factors in determining implementation
models Adjusting personal habits
Pupils ways of behaving
Program emphasis
Learning spaces
Existing curricula and schedules
3) Evaluating
Importance of Evaluating
Determine the extent of effectiveness
Whether implementation has achieved positive outcomes
Identify and describe the curriculum and its objectives
Check for accuracy, depths, timeliness, comprehensiveness
and quality

TOPIC 3: Principles in Curriculum Design

Aims mean overall

purpose or
rationales.

Indicates what
should be learned.
1 Content and
Selection learning standards

Most common is
cognitive outcomes
and performance
outcomes

Criteria for selection:

1) Simple to complex
2) Spiral concepts may be introduced on a simple level in the early
 grades, and then revisited with more and more complexity
3) Prerequisites It works on the assumption that bits of information
or learning must be grasped before
4) Whole to part Content is better understood if an overview (whole)
is first presented to show the connections
5) Chronology Useful organiser for sequencing content especially in
subjects such as history, political science and world events
6) Vertical organisation This simply means that content and skills
are arranged so that they build on one another; align with the
general sequence of cognitive development.
7) Horizontal organisation It involves how skills and content that
are taught during one level or one period of time relate to another.

In TESL context, all students will achieve English language proficiency

2 while meeting or exceeding content standards.
Grading The grading should be appropriate to the level of students.
A clear list of band to indicate the achievement of students.

Sequencing is the order in which content are organised.

According to Ornstein and Hunskins (2014), there are 2 basic
organisational dimensions:
Horizontal Organisation
Blends curriculum elements by combining history, and sociology
to create a contemporary studies
Vertical Organisation
Sequencing of curriculum elements
E.g. The family is placed in Grade 1 while The community is
placed in grade 2 Social Studies
6 dimension for consideration in sequencing of content:
Scope
The coverage of curriculum.
Sequence
3 Organisation of content to which it fosters cumulative and
Sequencing continuous learning
Contents are arranged in hierarchical manner
Simple to complex learning
Content is organised from easy to difficult (concrete to
abstract)
Prerequisite learning
Bits of information must be grasped before other bits can be
comprehended
Whole-to-part learning
Content in an overview or general idea
Chronological learning
Content whose sequence reflects the rimes of real-world
occurrences. (History)
Continuity
Repetition and recurring appearances of content that provide
continuity in the curriculum
 Spiral curriculum (George Bruner) developed and
redeveloped in a spiral fashion in increasing depth and breadth
Integration
Organisation is drawn from the world themes from real-life
concerns
Life is a series of emerging themes
Articulation
Vertically: Contents arranged from level to level
Horizontal: Happens at the same time (e.g.) social studies in
grade 6 is related to science in grade 6
Balance
Equitable assignment of content, time, experiences and other
elements to establish balance
Keep curriculum balance requires constant fine-tuning

Teaching and learning is important but it should also bear in mind that
emphasis should be placed on overall learning
4
Each stage should build upon earlier knowledge and achievements.
Staging
Students progress at a rate which meets their needs and aptitudes.
Progression in experiences and outcomes.
A curriculum model will include a needs assessment, goal setting,
selecting of content, staging of the content, and lastly, on-going
evaluation/ recycling of the curriculum
5 Learning is most effective when students receive feedback.
Recycling Feedback can be generated through assessments. (Self-assessment,
peer assessment and tutor assessment)
Assessment can be formative or summative

Development of Malaysian Curriculum

Set the values and principles of Malaysian education from primary to
tertiary level
Relate to National Philosophy of Education

National
Philosophy of
Education

s
 KSSR has one new word in it Standard. In this new curriculum, there
are set standards of learning that our children have to achieve
The new curriculum has also been designed to go beyond acquiring
communication skills, self-development and the childs immediate
Malaysian
environment
English
To enhance and embrace the use of science and technology, develop
Language
values, understand humanitarian issues and also focus on the childs
curriculum
physical and aesthetical development.
3Ms (reading, writing and counting), the new curriculum has 4Ms, with
Reasoning added to the original 3Ms.
Produce individuals with high self esteem
The Integrated Divided into two phases that is Phase 1 (Year1-3) and Phase II (Year
Primary School 4-6).
Curriculum The content is divided into six components: basic skills, humanities, art
(ICPS) KBSR and recreation, values and attitudes, living skills and communication
skills.
The Integrated
Put emphasis on providing a general education and consolidation of
Secondary
skills acquired in the primary grades.
School
Curriculum Continued to focus on the development of positive attitudes and values
(ICSS) KBSM among students.

TOPIC 4 : Considerations in Designing a Curriculum

Process of collecting and analysing information about learners in order
to set goals and contents of a language curriculum based on their
needs (Kayi, 2008).
Need analysis Aware of the learners strengths and weaknesses.
It examines what learners already know and what they need to know
Therefore, the needs analysis can guarantee that the course will
contain the relevant and useful things for students to learn.
Who is the target audience? For whom we design our curriculum?

CAI MPV
Consider pupils Individual needs
Abilities
Interests
Multiple intelligence
Potentials
Various learning styles or learning modes (hands on, discovery
Target group learning, experiential; learning, distance learning )

Curriculum should be appropriate for:

personal development (attitudes, behaviours)
social development (communication)
aesthetic development
interpersonal/intrapersonal development
physical development
Intellectual development
Multiple intelligence
 Aims tell students the likely results of study.
Aims should relate to the combined impact of the curriculum, the
Aims and pedagogy and the assessment of the various elements.
objectives Desired learning outcomes need to be student oriented, and should
point to the knowledge, skills, competencies and attitudes of those
students who successfully complete the course.
Principles of content selection :
1) It should be relevant to the outcome of the curriculum (what
do we seek to achieve, in line with aims/ objectives)
- purposive and focus on the planned outcomes
2) The content should be appropriate to the level of the target
Content selection group
3) It should be up-to-date
4) The content should be valid
- contents should be double checked to determine its accuracy
5) Feasibility (capable of being done)
- take into considerations the constraints of time, expertise of
staff, funding, and other educational resources

Learning theories, methods and approaches

1
1. Academic subject designs:
Subject-Centred
Based on the belief that humans are unique because of their intellect
Designs
and the quest for and acquisition of knowledge is to feed this intellect
Focused on how to Easy to interpret, commercially available textbooks, easier to
best present the communicate ideas using textbooks, and ppl are familiar with the
knowledge, skills format.
and values of Critics argue that this design deemphasises the learner by taking
subjects away their rights to choose the content that is most meaningful to
them.

2. Discipline designs:
Specific body of knowledge that has its own methods of inquiry,
jargons and terminology and also tradition.
E.g. a student who studies biology would approach the subject as a
biologist
The school is a mini version of the world of intellect and disciplines in
it

3. Broad field designs:

interdisciplinary design
Bring together content from different subjects to form one logical
subject (Sociology, political science, geography and history Social
Study)
Issue: breadth versus depth. some may argue whether students need
such in-depth knowledge of a particular subject

4.Correlation designs:
Lies in between the academic design model and the broad fields
 design.
Eg: in a history lesson the class learns about the Japanese
occupation of Malaysia. During the literature class, students read
novels about life during that time period.
However, each subject retains its own distinct identity.

5. Process designs:
Stresses the learning of general procedures and processes that are
not applicable to any particular discipline.
The teaching of thinking skills.
2
1. Child-centred design:
Learner Centred
Learners should actively participate in the teaching-learning process.
Design
Focused on the Learning should be related closely to the daily lives of students
development of a While the subject-centred design tends to separate content from the
whole child daily lives of learners.
John Dewey argued that children are not blank slates and they bring
with them four basic impulses the impulse to communicate, to
compare and contrast, to inquire and to express themselves through
language.
Teachers and students should participate in planning lesson units, its
purposes, the focus of the content and learning activities that are
interesting to the learners to be introduced in classrooms
Project Method as popular pedagogical strategy.

2. Romantic/radical design:
The focus is the learner which is quite similar to the child- centred
design; the difference being that greater emphasis is placed on the
need for the curriculum to reform society.
Assume that society is corrupt and repressive. Children should be
educated towards the goal of social reform.
Paulo Freire opposed treating students as empty vessels to be filled
with knowledge by the teacher.
He objected to the teacher-student dichotomy (contrast) and
proposed the relationship between teacher and student be reciprocal
(mutual), which is, the teacher who learns and the learner who
teaches.
Learning is reflective and not externally imposed by those in power.
Knowledge is not the finished product to be acquired by learners
because this is indoctrination.
Learners should challenge content and be allowed to give their
opinions.

3. Humanistic design:
Empower learners to achieve their full potential
Greater emphasis was placed on the affective domain (feel and
value)
Carl Rogers argued that the aim of education is the facilitation of
learning
 To facilitate learning, the teacher accepts learners as persons,
placing importance on their feelings and their opinions; while caring
for them
With such a curriculum, learners become fully functional persons capable
of intelligent choice; are critical learners able to approach problem
situations with flexibility; and are able to work cooperatively with others
(Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998)
Stress the development of positive self-concept
3
1. Life-situations design
Problem centred
It was argued by its advocates that it makes educational sense to
design Focused on
the problems faced organise a curriculum around such life situations (healthy living,
by society ethics, racial tolerance, citizenship skills)
Students will direct relevance in studying such social issues when
they are related to their world.
Having students study social or life situations will encourage them to
seek ways to improve society.
The life-centred situations curriculum has been criticised because
students do not learn much subject matter.
The content is organised in a manner that allows students to see
problems faced by society
Content is drawn from different subject areas to explain and find
solutions to address current issues

2. Core design
Focus is still on the pressing problems of society; the difference being
that certain problems are selected to form the core.
It is carefully planned before students enter school and adjusted
when necessary.
Student select problems and collect data, analyse, interpret and
present findings in class

Personnel:
Curriculum developers need to think at a strategic level about the
resources required and how these can be used effectively and
efficiently.
There should be sufficient staff to deliver and support the delivery and
assessment of the course.
Personnel and
material Materials:
selection Equipment including IT and AV equipment, models and simulators,
laboratory and clinical equipment, whiteboards, flip charts.
Finances
Books, journals and multimedia resources
Teaching rooms, office space, social and study space
Requirements for supervision and delivery of practical teaching
(practicum) availability of schools, mentors, supervisors
Assessment and
Assessments must check that students have achieved the learning
evaluation
 outcomes in various contexts and thus that the content has been
covered
Evaluation is a system of feedback, providing information to planners,
teachers, students, parents and decision makers
Purpose of evaluation:
To identify successes and failures of the curriculum and enable
correction on weaknesses
To measure if stated objectives have been achieved
To assess if the curriculum is meeting the needs of learners
To measure the cost effectiveness of the curriculum
Considerations during Evaluation:
Practical and realistic objectives
Interrelation of different parts of the course
Learners entry requirements match the content
Balance of teaching and learning methods (enough time for
learning)
Aspects to Monitor:
Student recruitment and selection processes
Candidates must meet the selection of relevant criteria)
Teaching staff
available, motivated and capable of teaching the subject matter
Address the training needs of the teachers
The teaching and learning process
Translate written curriculum to practice
Monitoring and Appropriate learning methods
support Balance between types of learning in achieving the outcomes
Assessment
Appropriate assessments
Have reliability and validity
Appropriate regulations and procedures
Learning resource
Sufficient learning materials to support the content delivered
Performance standards
Pupils must achieve minimum performance standards

5 TYPES of constraints:
1. Technological: ICT, lab, LCD etc.
2. Timing: Implementation and readiness
Constraints
3. Duration: Length of lectures
4. Co-curriculum: Practicum and internship
5. Cost of training: Allowance, or other payments

TOPIC 5 : Curriculum and the teacher

Teachers are central in curriculum implementation
Topics to be addressed when implementing new curriculum:
Curriculum and
the teachers Programme philosophy
Understand how the philosophy may impact students, parents
administrators and other stakeholders
 Content
Curriculum introduces content that are unfamiliar, hence, they must
be aware and upgrade their own knowledge
Pedagogy
Need to practice to become familiar with new pedagogical approach
Components of the programme
Need to have early exposure of the components of new programme
1) School ethos: school beliefs towards new curriculum
2) Adequacy of resources: resources, facilities required for
implementing new curriculum
3) Professional support: support for teachers within the school and
outside
7 Factors
4) Professional knowledge: Knowledge and understanding which
influencing the
teachers possess of the new curriculum
implementation
5) Professional attitudes: Attitudes and interest of teachers toward the
of a curriculum
new curriculum
6) Time: Time available for preparing and delivering the requirements of
the new curriculum
7) Interest: Teachers own ability and competence to teach the
curriculum
Ethical responsibilities to Students
Teachers will educate students to high standards of achievement
Teacher shall use best professional practices and materials and the
teacher is knowledgeable of and delivers the standards-based
curriculum.
Ethical Responsibilities to Family/Community
Inform families regarding the curriculum
Code of ethics Involve them in significant decisions
Maintain confidentiality of information, and communicate regularly
Ethical Responsibilities to Colleagues
The teacher shall show respect for the diversity found among staff
members, and to resolve matters collegially.
Affect change through constructive action among the organisation
The teacher shall exercise care in expressing views regarding the
professional behaviour.

Roles of Teachers

Practitioner of Skills
Is competent in applying his theoretical knowledge in various
pedagogic contexts.
Understands the central concepts, tools of inquiry, and structures of the
discipline he teaches and creates learning experiences that are
Practitioner meaningful to the students.
Understands how children learn and develop and can provide learning
opportunities that support their holistic development
Eclectic in the sense of being able to synthesise rather than merely
select what is available
Adopt technology as a means for becoming more effective in producing
 his own materials, accessing the Internet to gain information, ideas and
core materials as basis for teaching
Practitioner of Care (Educere)
Guides and supports students to ease them through difficult transitions
Nurturing process in which a more skilled or more experienced person,
serving as a role model, teachers, counsels and befriends to propose
future development of an individual
Develop individuals strengths to maximise their potential

Educare is to lead, draw or bring out; to unsheathe/uncover.

Educere is to rear or bring up; allow emerging as needed.
Educare &
Educere Educere is very parental, almost feminine approach to education
because it focuses on the nurturing and caring or what emerges when
a student is engaged in the learning process.

The student tends to expect that the teacher will influence the learning
environments
Agent of Change The teachers role may be including the management of the social
(Analyst) interaction that is conducted as part of the learning process.
The teacher is often a motivator for pupils, encouraging or reproving
them as appropriate.

A change agent is an individual who influences clients innovation

decisions in a direction deemed desirable by a change agency
Agent of change develops his/her own professional learning which has
encompassed strategies and interpersonal skills essential for
managing change within the school
Decision Maker
Through significant steps, one has to update and improve the culture of
the school
To influence the staff to become more collaborative and reflective in
their practice
To be flexible and more responsive to the positive outcomes of change

Involves the commitment to systematic questioning of ones own

teaching as a basis for development.
The commitment and skills to study ones own teaching and concern to
questioning and testing theory in practice by using skills and readiness
to allow other teachers to observe your work directly or through
recordings and to discuss it with them on an honest basis.
Researcher The benefits for teachers who attempt to become researchers in their
own classrooms are:
The development of clearer theory of language and learning
Increased knowledge and understanding of classroom practice,
and increased teaching skills
Easier collaboration with pupils and the potential to develop a
shared commitment to the desired improvements
Structures the learning environment
Manager Teachers are environmental engineers who organize the classroom
space to fit their goals and to maximize learning
 It involves modelling a positive attitude towards the curriculum and
towards school and learning in general
Teachers are required to manage and process great amounts of
clerical work
Fidelity of Use
Staying very close to the prescribed written document
Leads teachers to become curriculum transmitters who use the
students book as the only source of instructional content
Textbook Mutual-Adaptation
Selection and Individual, creative versions of the written curriculum
Evaluation Teachers become curriculum-developers who use various sources
in addition to curriculum materials
They adapt existing materials and topics, add new topics, leave out
irrelevant elements, use flexible lesson plans, respond to student
differences and use various teaching techniques
Belief are constructs that is essential in many aspects of teaching, as
well as in of a teacher life.
Relationship
Teachers are highly influenced by their beliefs
between teacher
beliefs and Teachers are most effective when their beliefs are aligned with each
other and with the field (Korthagen, 2004).
curriculum
implementation Effective teachers act on the belief that all students can learn, meet
the needs of diverse learners and believe that teachers can intervene
to make a difference.

TOPIC 6 : Current Issues and Curriculum Implementation

Putting into practice the officially prescribed courses of study,

Definition of syllabuses and subjects.
curriculum The process involves helping the learner acquire knowledge or
implementation experience.
Pupils as the learner, teacher as the implementing agent.

1) The teacher
Factors that
The teacher views their role as an autonomous one.
Influence
Curriculum The teacher needs to understand the curriculum document well in
Implementation order to implement the curriculum effectively.
Teacher must be involved in curriculum planning and development
so that they can implement and modify the curriculum for the benefit
of their learners.

2) The Learners
The learners hold the key to what is actually transmitted and
adopted from the official curriculum.
The learner factor influences teachers in their selection of learning
experiences, hence the need to consider the diverse characteristics
of learners in curriculum implementation.

3) Resource Materials and Facilities

 MOE should supply schools with adequate resource materials such
as textbooks, teaching aids and stationery.
provide physical facilities such as classrooms, laboratories,
workshops, libraries and sports fields
The availability and quality of resource material and appropriate
facilities have a great influence on curriculum implementation

4) Interest groups (stakeholders)

Provide schools with financial resources to purchase required
materials
Demand the inclusion of certain subjects in the curriculum
Influence learners to reject courses they consider detrimental to the
Interests of the group

5) The school environment

Concerns the particular circumstances of each school eg : economic
background

6) Culture and Ideology

Some communities may resist a domineering culture or
government ideology and hence affect the implementation of the
centrally planned curriculum.

7) Instructional Supervision
Supervisory function of the school head :
deploying staff,
allocating time to subjects taught at the school,
providing teaching and learning materials, and
Creating an atmosphere conducive to effective teaching and
learning.

8) Assessment
Due to the great value given to public examination certificates by
communities and schools, teachers have tended to concentrate on
subjects that promote academic excellence and little else.
This action by the teacher obviously can affect the achievement of
the broad goals and objectives of the curriculum.

Current Issues in Curriculum

 1) Literacy
Current Issues in Literacy is the ability to read and write. The inability to do so is
Curriculum called illiteracy or analphabetism.
Implementation Literacy encompasses a complex set of abilities to understand and
use the dominant symbol systems of a culture for personal and
community development.

2) Access to Education
The ability of people to have equal opportunity in education,
regardless of their social class, gender, ethnicity background or
physical and mental disabilities
Encourages a variety of pedagogical approaches to accomplish the
dissemination of knowledge across the diversity of social, political,
cultural, economic, national and biological backgrounds
Equitable access: UNICEF is committed to nothing less than full and
complete access to free, quality education for every child. Universal
access to quality education is not a privilege it is a basic human
right
Unicef supports the education for all (EFA) and the millennium
development goals 2 and 3 to ensure that all children have access
to and complete a full course of primary schooling, and to eliminate
gender disparity in education by 2015

3) Equity in Education
Equity refers to the principle of fairness.
equity is the process; equality is the outcome,

Income and class

Those who come from a family of a higher socioeconomic status (SES)
are privileged with more opportunities than those of lower SES.
Parents of a higher SES are more willing to donate large sums of
money to a certain institution to better improve their child's chances of
acceptance, along with other extravagant measures. This creates an
unfair advantage and distinct class barrier.

Costs of education
- High-achieving low-income students do not have the means to attend
selective schools that better prepare a student for later success.

Tracking (class streaming)

Tracking sorts students into different classes or groups based on ability
or future plans.
This separation, however, creates an inequality within itself. Starting at
an extremely young age, the sorting of students mimics hierarchy
similar to one which will form later on in life.

Racial Equity in Education

The assignment of students to public schools and within schools
without regard to their race. This includes providing students with a full
opportunity for participation in all educational programs regardless of
their race.

Higher Education
- preparing students for the employment market and active citizenship
both nationally and internationally.

Gender Equity in Education

Gender bias against women in the developing world
Global Campaign for Education (GCE) followed a survey called
"Gender Discrimination in Violation of Rights of Women and Girls"
states that one tenth of girls in primary school are 'unhappy' and this
number increases to one fifth by the time they reach secondary schools
Reasons: harassment, restorations to freedom, and an inherent lack of
opportunities, compared to boys
UN Special Rapporteur Katarina Tomasevki developed the '4A'
framework on the Right to Education. The ''4A' framework
encompasses availability, accessibility, acceptability and adaptability
as fundamental to the institution of education

Causes of gender discrimination in education

Community Level Obstacles
School environment that has restraints due to poverty and child
labour, soil-economic constraints, lack of parental involvement and
community participation.
Harmful practices like child marriage and predetermined gender
roles are cultural hindrances.
School and Education System Level Obstacles
Lack of investment in quality education
Inappropriate attitudes and behaviours
Lack of female teachers as role models and lack of gender-friendly
school environment are all factors that promote gender inequity in
education.

4) Multilingualism
A multilingual person is someone who can communicate in more
than one language, either actively (through speaking, writing, or
signing) or passively (through listening, reading, or perceiving).
Diglossia:
The languages are closely related, and could be considered dialects of
each other. This can also be observed in Scotland where, in formal
situations, English is used.
Ambilingualism:
A region is called ambilingual if this functional distribution is not
observed. In a typical ambilingual area it is nearly impossible to predict
which language will be used in a given setting. Malaysia and
Singapore, which fuses the cultures of Malays, China, and India.
Bipart-lingualism:
If more than one language can be heard in a small area, but the large
majority of speakers are monolinguals, who have little contact with
speakers from neighbouring ethnic groups, an area is called 'bipart-
lingual'. An example of this is the Balkans

5) Technological innovations (Technologies in Classroom)

Use of computers in the classroom

Can be used by teachers to assign work to students and study
groups in a classroom
To illustrate visual related subjects that help students to learn easily
Installed applications can help students study well
Creating class websites and blogs
Teachers can create class blogs were they post assignments.
Use of digital microphones in the classroom
Big classrooms are characterized by endless noise, so teachers
can resort to these wireless digital microphones
Students can use it during presentation
Use of mobile device.
Use smart-phones for academic purposes in the classroom
It is similar to e-learning or long distance education
It is accessible from anywhere
Use of smart interactive whiteboards
Modern smart white boards have touch screen functionality, so the
teacher can illustrate points using a pen or their finger.
Students can use a white board to draw, write or manipulate
images.
Use of online media
Use online streaming Medias to learn in the classroom.
Use of online study tools
Online study tools like Dynamic Periodic Table (ptable.com)
which can be used by Chemistry students in keeping elements
apart , Foldit (fold.it) this tool can help biology students easily
understand basics about proteins.

6) Unity in Education
Diversity of schools in Malaysian education
Public primary schools : SK, SJKC & SJKT (Vernacular system)
Public secondary schools: The secondary school system is
 marked by the convergence of most students from the different
types of primary schools into a single school format
Private schools: international schools, religious schools, and
Independent Chinese schools

7) Special needs
Addresses their individual differences and needs
This process involves the individually planned and systematically
monitored arrangement of teaching procedures, adapted
equipment and materials, accessible settings
These interventions are designed to help learners with special
needs achieve a higher level of personal self-sufficiency and
success in school and their community

Signs of Learning Disabilities:

Trouble learning the alphabet, rhyming words, and connecting
letters to sounds
Making many mistakes when reading aloud
Not understanding what they are reading
Awkward pencil grip and poor handwriting skills
Trouble understanding jokes and sarcasm
Trouble following multiple directions
Trouble organizing thoughts and what they want to say
Not following social rules of conversation
Not knowing where to begin a task
Trouble sleeping or getting along with family

Caused and risk factors:

1. Heredity: Sometimes, learning problems run in families
2. Problems during Pregnancy or Birth: Disabilities can result from
fatal exposure to alcohol or drugs, low birth weight, oxygen deprivation
or by premature birth
3. Accidents After Birth: Head injury, malnutrition or toxic exposure can
increase a child's risk
4. Social-Environment Factors: Living in a high risk neighbourhood and
poor living conditions have been linked to children being more
vulnerable to disabilities

Individual needs
A special education program should be customized to address
each individual student's unique needs
Special educators provide a continuum of services, in which
students with special needs receives varying degrees of
support based on their individual needs.
Accommodations and Modifications to the regular program may
include changes in the curriculum, supplementary aides or
equipment, and the provision of specialized physical
adaptations that allow students to participate in the educational
environment as much as possible.
 Special schools
A school catering for students who have special educational
needs due to severe learning difficulties, physical disabilities or
behavioural problems.
Special schools may be specifically designed, staffed and
resourced to provide appropriate special education for children
with additional needs.
Student to teacher ratios are kept low, often 6:1 or lower
depending upon the needs of the children.
Special schools will also have other facilities for children with
special needs, such as soft play areas, sensory rooms, or
swimming pools, which are necessary for treating students with
certain conditions.
An alternative is a special unit or special classroom, also
called a self-contained classroom, which is a separate room
or rooms dedicated solely to the education of students with
special needs within a larger school that also provides general
education.
These classrooms are typically staffed by specially trained
teachers, who provide specific, individualized instruction to
individuals and small groups of students with special needs.
Instructional Strategies

Accommodation is a reasonable adjustment to teaching practices so

that the student learns the same material, but in a format that is more
accessible to the student.
Examples :
1. Response accommodations:
Typing homework assignments rather than hand-writing them.
2. Presentation accommodations:
Examples include listening to audio books rather than reading
1
printed books.
Accommodations
3. Setting accommodations:
Taking a test in a quieter room. Moving the class to a room that is
physically accessible, e.g., on the first floor of a building or near an
elevator. Arranging seating assignments to benefit the student,
e.g., by sitting at the front of the classroom.
4. Scheduling accommodations:
Students may be given rest breaks or extended time on tests (may
be considered a modification, if speed is a factor in the test).

Modification changes or adapts the material to make it simpler.

Modifications may change what is learned, how difficult the material is,
what level of mastery the student is expected to achieve, or any
2 another aspect of the curriculum.
Modifications Examples :
1. Skipping subjects:
Students may be taught less information than typical students,
skipping over material that the school deems inappropriate for the
 student's abilities or less important than other subjects. For
example, students with poor fine motor skills may be taught to print
block letters, but not cursive handwriting.
2. Simplified assignments:
Students may read the same literature as their peers but have a
simpler version, such as Shakespeare with both the original text
and a modern paraphrase available.
3. Shorter assignments:
Students may do shorter homework assignments and tests
4. Extra aids:
If students have deficiencies in working memory, a list of
vocabulary words, called a word bank, can be provided during
tests, to reduce lack of recall and increase chances of
comprehension. Students might use a calculator when other
students do not.
5. Extended time:
Students with a slower processing speed may benefit from
extended time for assignments and/or tests in order to have more
time to comprehend questions, recall information, and synthesize
knowledge.

TOPIC 7 : Curriculum Evaluation

Evaluation is the process of collecting data on a programme to

determine its value or worth and whether to adopt, reject or revise the
programme.
Definition Gay (1985) argued that the aim of curriculum evaluation is to 1) identify
its weaknesses and strengths as well as problems encountered in
implementation; 2) to improve the curriculum development process;
and 3) to determine the effectiveness of the curriculum.
1. Provide assessments of what works and why, highlight intended and
unintended results, and provide strategic lessons to guide decision-
makers and inform stakeholders;
2. Provide evidence-based information that is credible, reliable and
useful, enabling the timely incorporation of findings, recommendations
and lessons;
3. Feed into management and decision-making processes as a key
Evaluation component to managing for results;
should look into 4. Inform the planning, programming, budgeting, implementation and
these aspects reporting cycle;
5. Improve the institutional relevance and the achievement of results,
optimize the use of resources, provide client satisfaction and maximize
the impact of activities; and
6. Involve a rigorous, systematic and objective process in the design,
analysis and
7. Interpretation of information to answer specific questions, based on
agreed criteria and benchmarks among key partners and stakeholders
 School system
1
Particular district
Aspects of the
curriculum to be Particular grade level/subject
evaluated The objectives of the evaluation activity are clearly
stated
Identify the information to be collected and the
2 tools for collecting data.
Data collection Interview, questionnaire, test, documents
4 Phases of Identify the participants
curriculum The data collected is analsyed and presented in
evaluation 3 the form of tables and graphs
Analysis of Statistical tools are used to compare significant
Information differences and to establish correlation or
relationship between variables
Describe the findings and interpretation of data.
4 Conclusion is made on the effectiveness of
Reporting of curriculum implementation efforts
Information Recommendations are made to reconsider certain
aspects of the curriculum
1. Formative evaluation
Data is gathered during the formation or development of the
curriculum so that revisions to it can be made.
Formative evaluation may include determining who needs the
programme (e.g. Students), how great is the need (e.g. Students
need to be taught ICT skills to keep pace with expansion of
technology) and how to meet the need (e.g. Introduce a subject
on ICT compulsory for all students).
Evaluate the fit between the instructional strategies and materials
used, and the learning outcomes or what it aims to achieve.

2. Summative Evaluation
Forms of Data is collected at the end of the implementation of the
Evaluation by curriculum programme.
Scriven (1967) The effectiveness of a programme can be through summative
evaluation which can be done after new course materials have
been implemented in full or several months to years
It considers cost effectiveness in terms of money, time and
personnel
It also assesses the training that teachers might need in order to
implement a programme successfully
It determines whether a new curriculum programme, syllabus or
subject is better than the one it is intended to replace or other
alternatives
These evaluation outcomes can be determined through formal
assessment tasks such as marks obtained in tests and
examinations

Purposes of Implement changes to improve teaching learning outcomes of

evaluation future courses
 Remedy weaknesses of course in progress
Decide whether the existing managerial organisation of the school
and its program should be maintained or reformed
Assess teachers on in terms of instructions and learning

Evaluation occurs at different levels (Entire school district, state

educational system or even national system)
Narrower evaluation focuses on particular institutions, either
Focus of
individually
Evaluation
At most specific level, curriculum evaluation attends to a particular
program for a particular course at a particular grade level.
Example: a standardised test

Evaluation Methods and Tools

Method Overall Purpose Advantages Challenges

When need to quickly
A
Surveys
and/or easily get lots of
information from people
in a non-threatening way
When want to fully
understand someone's
B impressions or
Interviews experiences, or learn
more about their answers
to questionnaires
When we want an
C doesn't interrupt
impression of how
Documentation
program operates without
review
interrupting the program
To gather accurate
information about how a
D are actually occurring
program actually
Observation
operates, particularly
about processes
can complete might not get careful
anonymously feedback or wording
inexpensive to can bias client's
administer responses are
easy to compare and impersonal in surveys,
Analyse may need sampling
Administer to many expert
people doesn't get full story
can get lots of data
and many sample
questionnaires already
exist
get full range and - can take much time
depth of information - can be hard to analyse
develops relationship and compare
with client - can be costly
can be flexible with - interviewer can bias
client client's responses
get comprehensive often takes much time
and historical info may be incomplete
information need to be quite clear
about what looking for
programme or client's not a flexible means to
routine in program
get data
information already data restricted to what
exists few biases already exists
about information
view operations of a can be difficult to
programme as they interpret seen
behaviours
can adapt to events as can be complex to
they occur categorize
observations can
 influence behaviours of
program participants
can be expensive
Explore a topic in quickly and reliably get can be hard to analyse
depth through group common impressions responses need good
discussion can be efficient way to facilitator for
E E.g., about reactions get much range and safety and closure
Focus groups to an experience or depth of information in difficult to schedule 6-8
Interview suggestion, short time people together
Understanding can convey key
common complaints information about
programmes
TOPIC 8: Curriculum Changes and Innovation

Hoyle (1995) defines change as embracing the concepts of innovation,

development, renewal and improvement of a curriculum.
Change should lead to improvement

Curriculum Change:
Curriculum change are made necessary due to a countrys political,
social, economic, cultural and technological environments
At national level:
Curriculum change and innovation arise from deliberate policy
Contexts of decisions
Curriculum Changes in education system occur when the central authority decides
Change to adopt a new idea
Desire of authorities to change in order to tackle existing problems
Due to development in technology
Hardware types:
Additions of existing facilities such as new classrooms, equipment,
books and playgrounds
Software types:
Affect the content and range of curriculum (new textbooks, new
equipment or the replacement of teachers and administrators)
Ideas or practices that is new and different from those that exist in the
Definition of
formal prescribed curriculum
curriculum
innovation Curriculum innovation is any improvement that is deliberate,
measurable, durable and unlikely to occur frequently
Innovation is always planned while change may occur in response to
Differences of external events
curriculum Curriculum innovations become meaningful and effective, if they are
change and planned and organised
innovation It is possible that other types of changes may occur when they are not
planned
Form of change Substitution: one element replaces another previously in use. Eg : new
in curriculum textbooks
 Alteration: change in existing programme without seriously disturbing
the main structure and the content. E.g.: support input such as audio-
visual aids, workshops and equipment.
Restructuring: rearrangement of the curriculum in order to implement
desired changes.
Participative problem-solving
Strategy focuses on the users, their needs and how they satisfy
these needs. The system identifies and diagnoses its own needs,
finds its own solution, tries out and evaluates the solution and
implements the solution if it is satisfactory
Strategies of Planned linkage
evaluation The intermediate agencies, such as schools, bring together the
users of the innovation in this model
Coercive strategies
These strategies work on the basis of power and coercion by those
in authority, using laws, directories, circulars and others. Ministries
of Education generally used these strategies

This views the processes of change as a logical sequence of phases in

which an innovation is:
The Research,
invented or discovered,
Development and
developed,
Diffusion Model
produced, and
Disseminated to the user

This model is built with the user of the innovation in mind

The user of the innovation would follow the steps below
Problem solving 1. Determine the problem
model 2. Search for an innovation
3. Evaluate the trials
4. Implement the innovation

Change proceeds or diffuses through formal or informal contacts between

interacting social groups. The model stresses the importance of
interpersonal networks of information, opinion, leadership and personal
contact.
Social interaction
model This model is based on the following:
awareness of innovation
interest in the innovation
trial
adoption for permanent use

The change agent

Change agents include teachers, school heads, local authorities or the
Planning and Ministry of Education. The agent initiates the innovation or curriculum
implementation change in general.
The innovation
This involves executing the change itself; in other words putting it into
 use or operation.
The user system
This relates to the person or group of people at which the innovation is
directed.
Time
Innovation is a social process, which takes place over a period of time

Innovation and change generally follow several logical steps:

1. Identify a problem, dissatisfaction or need that requires attention.
2. Generate possible solutions to the identified problem or need.
3. Select a particular solution or innovation that has been identified as
the most appropriate.
The Innovation
4. Conduct a trial.
process
5. Evaluate the proposed solution.
6. Review the evaluation.
7. If the innovation has solved the identified problem, implement it on a
wide scale.
8. Adopt and institutionalise the innovation or search for another solution

Effective planning for innovation cannot take place unless the following
elements are considered in the process:
The personnel to be employed
The specification of the actual task
The strategy or procedure to be used to undertake the task
The equipment needed
Innovations
The buildings and conducive environment
planning
The costs involved
Social contexts
Time involved
Sequencing of activities
Rationale for undertaking the innovation
Evaluation of the consequences or effects of the innovation

Potential users of an innovation are more likely to accept it if the conditions

below are met.
The innovation must be relevant to them.
It must be feasible in their particular organizational context.
Conditions for
It must be compatible with the practices, values and characteristics of
Successful
their system.
Implementation
It must pose little or no threat to the user groups identity, integrity and
of Innovations
territory. The innovation must be seen to be tolerable and non-
threatening.
The innovation must yield material or non-material benefits. Gains in
social status or recognition may be some of the non-material benefits
It must be flexible and adaptable

Factors affecting Community

curriculum Local need
change Staff dissatisfaction
Parental demands (parents that wanted best for their children, lesser
 time, languages used)
Student demands(are all students achieving or participating)
Technology
Advancement of technology and how it affect the generations
Change in adaptation to the implementation of curriculum (ICT based)
E.g. e-RPH
Politics
Leaders with different aspirations
Change in state of policy
Needs and demands and also changing trends in the society

Tips for essay

1. Relate issue to our country
2. Evidence + example
3. Clear justifications