Accepted Manuscript

Empirical Study of the High Velocity Impact Energy Absorption Characteristics of

Shear Thickening Fluid (STF) Impregnated Kevlar Fabric

Yurim Park , YunHo Kim , Abrar H. Baluch , Chun-Gon Kim

PII: S0734-743X(14)00114-6
DOI: 10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2014.05.007
Reference: IE 2349

To appear in: International Journal of Impact Engineering

Received Date: 8 February 2014

Revised Date: 21 April 2014
Accepted Date: 23 May 2014

Please cite this article as: Park Y, Kim Y, Baluch AH, Kim C-G, Empirical Study of the High Velocity
Impact Energy Absorption Characteristics of Shear Thickening Fluid (STF) Impregnated Kevlar Fabric,
International Journal of Impact Engineering (2014), doi: 10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2014.05.007.

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Empirical Study of the High Velocity Impact Energy Absorption Characteristics of

Shear Thickening Fluid (STF) Impregnated Kevlar Fabric

Yurim Parka, YunHo Kimb, Abrar H. Baluchc, Chun-Gon Kimd

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a
Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, 291 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon
305-701, Republic of Korea
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email: yurimpark@kaist.ac.kr
b
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Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, 291 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon
305-701, Republic of Korea
email: dbsgh4548@kaist.ac.kr
c
Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, 291 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon
305-701, Republic of Korea
email: a.baluch@kaist.ac.kr
d
Corresponding author
Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, 291 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon
305-701, Republic of Korea
email: cgkim@kaist.ac.kr , phone: +82423503719
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Abstract

The application of shear thickening fluids (STF) allows further enhancement of

ballistic resistance without hindering flexibility by the fabric impregnation process.

Studies on the effect of STF impregnation on fabric ballistic performance have been

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limited to the impact velocity range of below 700 m/s. Considering the muzzle velocity

of modern rifles with high performance cartridges, investigation of the high velocity

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impact energy absorption characteristics of neat and STF impregnated Kevlar fabric

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specimens was conducted in this study. 100 nm diameter silica nanoparticles were

dispersed in a solution of polyethylene glycol (PEG) and diluted with methanol for

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effective impregnation to the Kevlar fabric. High velocity impact experiments with
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projectile velocities between 1 and 2 km/s were conducted using a 2-stage light gas gun.

The experiments revealed that the STF impregnation provides substantial energy
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absorption enhancement in terms of volume, areal density, and fabrication material cost.
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Thinner shielding configurations with equivalent energy absorption performance was

found to be possible through STF impregnation as the 5 layer STF impregnated Kevlar
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configuration showed the same energy absorption as the 8 layer neat Kevlar while the
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energy absorption normalized for areal density and thickness revealed that the STF

impregnated Kevlar provides an approximately 70% enhanced specific energy

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absorption performance over neat Kevlar.

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Keywords: High Velocity Impact, Fabrics/Textiles, Flexible Composites, Impact

Behavior, Surface Treatment, Shear Thickening Fluid

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1. Introduction

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Constant development of firearm performance naturally led to the development

of protection against such ballistic weapons. Initially, such protection was comprised of

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cumbersome, thick, and large metallic plates to physically block firearm projectiles

causing life-threatening harm from skin penetration. However, such uncomfortable

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plates interfere with the mobility of the bearer and, thus, lightweight, flexible, yet

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protective soft body armor was critically realized with the development of the high
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performance fabric Kevlar in 1971. Development of other high performance fabrics also

offered a wider range of options in the development of effective flexible body armor.
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Also, various modifier materials have been proposed to enhance the performance of the

fabrics including clay nanoparticles and multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) [1].
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The use of shear thickening fluid (STF) as an added material to high tenacity fabrics to
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enhance ballistic performance has received substantial attention as its impregnation into
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the fabric had negligible contribution to the thickness and stiffness of the fabric while

the phenomenon of shear thickening which is inherent to STF significantly contributed

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to the ballistic resistance [3]. STF is a colloidal suspension of solid particles suspended
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in fluid and exhibits the shear thickening phenomenon which translates from a liquid-

like state to a more solid-like state due to hydro-clustering where the particles aggregate

as shear rate is applied, hence, resulting in a rapid increase in viscosity [2]. Studies have

reported and shown that STF impregnated Kevlar fabric is both flexible and thinner

with ballistic performance comparable to that of the corresponding neat Kevlar fabric

[3]. Moreover, ultrasonic dispersion of STF into fabric resulted in superior stab
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resistance performance [4], implying that dispersion of the particles into the fabric was

adequate when using this method [5, 6].

While the ballistic resistance of Kevlar fabric impregnated with STF has been

studied actively, however, the impact velocity ranges are in the low velocity range as

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the major application of STF impregnated Kevlar is soft body armor development which

aims to resist the impact of handheld firearm projectiles with a launch velocity mostly

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below 700 m/s. Kim et al. investigated the ballistic energy absorption of neat and STF

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impregnated Kevlar fabric up to a velocity of 300 m/s, concluding that a hybrid design

of flattened roll and STF impregnated Kevlar reduces the areal density by 15~20% [7].

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Lee et al. conducted ballistic tests of impact velocity of 224 m/s on STF impregnated
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fabric with varying particle sizes [8]. Also, various combinations of neat and STF

impregnated Kevlar fabrics were tested against ballistic impacts at 436 m/s [9].
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Similarly, Wetzel et al. studied the rheological parameter effects through ballistic
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experiments with impact velocities ranging from 209.1 to 266.7 m/s [10]. In addition to

ballistic resistance, stab resistance of STF impregnated Kevlar was investigated by

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Egres et al. with drop tower stab testing of a theoretical impact velocity range 1.40 to
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3.84 m/s [11]. While most studies have focused on such low velocity ranges,

hypervelocity impact testing has been conducted on STF impregnated Kevlar fabric in a
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limited manner such as the study by Bohannan et al., however, the STF impregnated
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Kevlar fabric was tested inside a stuffed Whipple configuration where the projectile

impact would penetrate a bumper material before reaching the fabric [12]. Thus,

ballistic resistance study of STF impregnation for high tenacity fabrics has not been

reported for high velocity ranges approximately above 700 m/s except for when such
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STF impregnated fabric is incorporated into shielding configurations of multiple layers

and materials.

The low velocity ballistic impact studies on Kevlar impregnated with STF

revealed post-impact fabric formations which suggested that the STF constrains the

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Kevlar yarns during impact where the yarns are pulled through the fabric. The neat or

non-impregnated fabric showed significantly more fiber pull-out and the impregnated

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fabric exhibited significant fiber fracture at the impact point in contrast to the neat fabric,

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leading to two possible explanations: an increase in force which is required to pull out

each yarn from within the fabric so that less total pull-out of the fibers is needed to

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absorb the projectile impact energy or this pull-out resistance increase leads to an
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increase of the loads on the yarns which absorb more energy through fiber deformation

and fracture [3, 8]. Also, the STF impregnation was found to increase the frictional
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force of a single yarn, leading to an increase in the apparent modulus of the yarn, thus,
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contributing to the enhanced energy absorption [9].

A variety of studies have been conducted with regard to the performance

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enhancement brought about by the use of STF impregnation in the ballistic range for the
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typical velocity range of firearms below approximately 700 m/s. However, further

investigation in higher velocity ranges has not been pursued or is not publicly available
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when modern rifles with performance cartridges can achieve muzzle velocities in the
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range of 1200 m/s. Furthermore, this study aims to investigate the potential applicability

of STF impregnation in higher velocity ranges including and above 1 km/s in order to

assess the potential applicability to higher energy impact environments. This study aims

to investigate the effect of STF impregnation on the high velocity impact characteristics
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of Kevlar fabric by effectively dispersing silica nanoparticles in a suspension, then

impregnating the Kevlar fabric.

2. Experimental Investigation

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2.1 Materials

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For the silica colloidal suspension, the STF suspension was made with Seahostar

KE-P10 silica nanoparticles manufactured by Nippon Shokubai Co., Ltd. (Osaka, Japan)

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and polyethylene glycol (PEG) mixed with methanol manufactured by OCI Co., Ltd.
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(Seoul, Korea) in order to facilitate the efficient dispersion of the nano silica particles

among the Kevlar fabric fibers. PEG was used as the solvent due to its thermal stability
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and low volatility. Methanol was used to dilute the STF for enhanced dispersion of the
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particles and also because methanol can be conveniently evaporated and removed at a

later time once dispersion is complete.

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The nano silica particles and PEG were mixed in a 65:35 weight fraction first,
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then methanol was added to the mixture in the weight ratio of 100:70 for mixture to

methanol. To facilitate enhanced dispersion and ultimately greater shear thickening

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performance, homogenizer Drive DI 25 Basic manufactured by IKA-Werke GmbH &

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Co. KG (Staufen, Germany) was used for 20 min at 8,000 rpm and sonicator Ultrasonic

Cleaner Branson 2510 EDTH manufactured by Branson Ultrasonics Corp. (Danbury,

USA) was used for 20 min at 40 kHz and 50C bath temperature. Previous studies have

shown that sonication is an effective method of dispersing the nanoparticles in STF for

impregnation into Kevlar fabric to improve the dispersibility and dramatically improve
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the puncture resistance under high speed loading conditions [13].

The Kevlar targets were immersed in the silica colloidal suspension prepared in

advance for 1 hour for complete impregnation. Afterwards, the excess fluid was

removed by applying pressure to the impregnated fabric targets using a roller. Then,

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each target layer was placed in a dry oven at 80C until the mass matched the total mass

of only the Kevlar fabric target, silica nanoparticles, and polyethylene glycol so that all

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of the methanol in the suspension was evaporated. Figure 1 shows the major steps in

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fabricating the colloidal suspension and immersion of the fabric.

The Kevlar fabric dimensions were 120 x 120 mm and the material properties of

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the Kevlar fabric are summarized in Table 1. Kevlar KM2 was used as the target fabric
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material as it is widely employed in ballistic applications.
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2.2 STF Characterization

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To analyze the shear thinning and shear thickening phenomenon characteristic of

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STF impregnation, silica colloidal suspension with methanol evaporated and without
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Kevlar impregnation was prepared to be tested using an ARES Melt Rheometer by

Rheometric Scientific, Inc., Germany. The plate diameter was 25 mm, gap height was 1
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mm, and the temperature was 27C. In order to verify that the prepared STF adequately
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exhibited the shear thickening phenomenon which is considered the major mechanism

behind the ballistic resistance enhancement gained from STF impregnation, the

rheometer was used to apply shear strain and observe the change in fluid viscosity with

a parallel plate setup.

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Figure 2 shows that as the shear strain increased, shear thinning continued to

occur until roughly 150% when shear thickening occurred. Therefore, the full

expression of shear thickening at high strain rate was observed, verifying that the STF

fabrication method is viable for Kevlar fabric impregnation.

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In order to investigate the degree of dispersion of the STF on the Kevlar fabric

surface, SEM imaging was utilized. After impregnating the Kevlar fabric with the

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fabricated STF, the surface morphology was examined through SEM imaging. Figure 3

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shows the SEM images of neat Kevlar and STF impregnated Kevlar which reveal that

the STF was fairly well dispersed between the Kevlar fibers. Although slight

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agglomeration of silica particles on the fiber can be observed in Figure 3 (d), this level
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of agglomeration is acceptable and previous studies have commonly shown such degree

of agglomeration to be negligible in terms of performance enhancement. As shown in

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the figure, in comparison to the neat Kevlar yarns, the STF was successfully and
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relatively equally dispersed throughout the surface as well as between the fibers of the

fabric. Also, closer investigation of a single fiber in Fig. 3 (d) revealed that on the
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surface of the yarns, the nanoparticles of the STF was sufficiently spread out on the
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fiber surface. The yarns were discernible and the particles were found to be relatively

equally dispersed over the surface. Through visual inspection of SEM images, it was
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concluded that the sonication and evaporation technique produced well dispersed STF
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impregnated Kevlar fabrics.

2.3 High Velocity Impact

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In order to compare the impact characteristics of neat Kevlar fabric targets and

STF impregnated Kevlar fabrics, the weights before and after impregnation were

measured to identify the STF add-on weight and the areal density of the target

specimens so that the areal densities of the targets can be made as close to each other for

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equal grounds of comparison. Considering the aim and application background of such

impact resistant material systems, the areal density is an important factor in evaluating

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the performance of the system as the highest performance per areal density can be used

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as a comparison reference unit for various systems. As the application of fabrics and

STF impregnation to ballistic and high velocity impact cases intends to take advantage

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of the flexibility and mobility that such a configuration provides, the performance
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comparisons were conducted with an interest in the areal density.

A 2-stage light gas gun was employed to conduct the high velocity impact tests.
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The light gas gun used in this study launched projectiles in the 1~2 km/s range which is
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greater than the ballistic range used in most Kevlar ballistic resistance performance

studies to observe the STF impregnation effect on the impact or stab characteristics. The
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2-stage light gas gun employs 2 stages to effectively pressurize helium and
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consequently launch the projectile, a 5.56 mm diameter 2017-T4 aluminum sphere

manufactured by SphereTec Inc. (USA), and a specimen holding chamber or

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experimental chamber where vacuum of around 2 Torr is established so that air

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resistance is negligible. The projectile velocity before impact is measured using a

commercial magnetic intervalometer which utilizes 2 magnetic coils where the passing

of the conductive projectile is detected and the velocity is calculated through the signal

time difference between the 2 magnetic coils. The velocity after penetration of the
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specimen is measured using a laser intervalometer of 2 laser curtains so that the energy

absorption is calculated by the projectile velocity difference using the equation below.

The target specimen is fixed within the main chamber in vacuum condition to

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remove aerodynamic resistance. Boundary conditions were limited to all 4 sides

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constrained completely as the basic restriction to the properties of this study. The

specimen holding jig employed 12 screws that fix 2 metal plates together where the

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fabric specimen is placed between them with silicon straps grabbing all 4 sides of the

specimen to establish a 4-side constrained boundary condition. The pins do not come in

contact with the specimen.

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3. Results and Discussion

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In order to investigate the effect of STF impregnation on the ballistic

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performance of Kevlar fabric in the high velocity impact range, single layer and

multiple layer cases were chosen for testing. As a reference and the most basic case, the
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1 layer neat Kevlar case and its counterpart 1 layer STF impregnated Kevlar was chosen

for comparison. Although the areal density will be greater for the 1 layer STF
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impregnated case, these two cases will be used as a reference point for the multiple

layer cases. Also, because the areal density difference between the two 1-layer cases

will be significantly different, a 2-layer neat Kevlar case was also tested simply as a

reference role. To represent the multiple layer case of the neat Kevlar and STF Kevlar,

the 8-layer neat Kevlar case was chosen for the neat Kevlar case as it was a

configuration used in previous literature and provides an adequate display of the

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characterization difference due to the difference in number of layers stacked [14]. As a

counterpart of the 8-layer neat Kevlar case, a 5-layer STF Kevlar case was chosen. Less

number of layers is used for the STF impregnated case as the areal density is higher so

the cases are chosen to have equal or similar areal densities for fair comparison as

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shown in Table 3.

Due to the operation principle of the 2-stage light gas gun used for the high

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velocity impact testing, the impact velocity of the projectile cannot be set to a specific

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velocity desired as the velocity is determined by the puncturing of the diaphragms and

the piston movement[15]. Therefore, although the possible range of the resulting impact

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velocity could be prescribed by parameters including the piston weight and diaphragm
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material and thickness but not the specific impact velocity each time, each impact

velocity value could not be repeated exactly. The successful high velocity impact test
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results are organized in Table 4 for all cases.

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The neat Kevlar and STF impregnated Kevlar energy absorption impact test

results for the impact velocity range of 1000~1800 m/s are plotted along with the
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trendline of each configuration. As can be seen in Fig. 5, the trendlines for each
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configuration were exponential rather than linear based on each r-squared value. For all

configurations, energy absorption increased with greater impact velocity. It is apparent

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that the 1-layer STF-Kevlar energy absorption is greater than the 1-layer neat Kevlar
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case and less than the 2-layer neat Kevlar case, which corresponds to the areal density

value of each case. STF treatment led to the increase in energy absorption performance

while the impregnation increases the thickness negligibly and does not hamper the

flexibility of the fabric[3]. Also, the 5-layer STF-Kevlar case trendline was found to be

almost the same form as that of the 8-layer neat Kevlar case trendline, simply translated
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upwards. Thus, with STF impregnation, less layers of fabric could be used to give the

same or enhanced energy absorption performance.

The fabric pattern and pull-out fiber formation about the front and rear sides of

the penetration holes shown in Fig. 6 offered insight into the effect of STF impregnation

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on the fabric behavior during impact. Previous studies have shown that one of the main

mechanisms behind energy absorption by fabric specimens is the friction between layers

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and between the yarns during pull-out[8]. The differences between the neat Kevlar and

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STF impregnated cases are clearly visible where the fiber pull-out is more distinct along

with the vertical and horizontal pattern created by the fiber pull-out during penetration

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of the neat Kevlar case. In contrast, the STF impregnated Kevlar cases show less
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development of the pull-out mechanism. However, it should be noted that while the 1-

layer STF Kevlar case does not show the cross pattern from the pull-out, the 5-layer
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STF Kevlar rear side does, signifying that the pull-out mechanism and the increased
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friction between the layers and between the yarns from the shear thickening contribute

to the increase in energy absorption from STF impregnation. However, Fig. 6 also
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reveals that the STF impregnated Kevlar cases show greater localization of the
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deformation in comparison to the neat Kevlar. The increased energy absorption due to

STF impregnation may be more significantly affected by the inherent shear thickening
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phenomenon of the STF which causes increased viscosity during impact due to the high
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shear rates, resulting in the consequential drastic rigidity increase of the fabric. This

increased rigidity would be mainly responsible for the deformation localization at high

velocities. Although the energy absorption mechanism is not sufficiently clear, it can be

observed and deduced that the increased rigidity of the STF impregnated fabric as well
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as increased yarn pull-out resistance from the smaller degree of fiber pull-out at the

penetration hole are contributors to the overall improved energy absorption performance.

Observing the areal density specific energy absorption trendlines shown in Fig. 7,

it was found that the 5-layer STF Kevlar and 8-layer neat Kevlar trendlines almost

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coincide as well as the 1-layer STF Kevlar and 2-layer neat Kevlar cases, implying that

in terms of areal density, these pairs of configurations exhibit very similar energy

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absorption characteristics and performances. Figure 8 shows the thickness and areal

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density specific energy absorption for all cases which additionally divides all data by

the corresponding thickness of the fabric specimen assuming that each layer of Kevlar

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whether neat or impregnated was 0.22 mm. Thus, Fig. 8 essentially shows the volume
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specific energy absorption characteristics of all configurations where the 5-layer STF

Kevlar energy absorption performance is greater than that of the 8-layer neat Kevlar
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configuration while the 1-layer STF Kevlar trendline intersects the 1-layer neat Kevlar
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energy absorption trendline at around 1500 m/s. It should be noted that for the volume

specific energy absorption, the multiple layer case data is less scattered than the single
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layer case data, showing the performance dependency of the single layer configurations
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on material defects and other factors not inherent to the material properties. However, it

is clear that STF impregnation offers a volume advantage as less number of fabric layers
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is necessary to give equal or greater energy absorption performances.

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In addition to the areal density and volume advantages that STF impregnation

provides in terms of high velocity impact energy absorption in the 1000~1800 m/s range,

a cost-wise perspective was applied. Table 5 lists the cost of each component purchased

on a laboratory scale in Korea so the currency is Korean Won, and the costs of
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preparing 1 layer of neat Kevlar and STF impregnated Kevlar specimens were

calculated.

Using the volume specific energy absorption data and trendlines, each data set

was divided by the corresponding component costs and the results for the 5-layer STF

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Kevlar and 8-layer neat Kevlar shown in Fig. 9 reveal that the 5-layer STF Kevlar

trendline exhibits enhanced energy absorption in terms of areal density, thickness, and

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cost. Although the 5-layer STF impregnated Kevlar used 37.5% less number of layers

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than the 8-layer neat Kevlar configuration, energy absorption was on average greater by

approximately 70% per areal density and thickness of the specimen. Considering that

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the total material cost for preparing 1 layer of STF impregnated Kevlar is more
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expensive than that of neat Kevlar, the results show that STF treated Kevlar fabric

specimens provide an energy absorption performance enhancement of approximately

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21% on average even when 5 layers of STF impregnated Kevlar were stacked in
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comparison to the 8 layers of neat Kevlar.

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4. Conclusions
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Shear thickening fluid (STF) was used extensively to enhance the ballistic
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performance of soft body armor utilizing high tenacity fabrics such as Kevlar, however,
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the effect of STF impregnation on the performance of fabrics has been investigated

mostly only in the ballistic range below 700 m/s. This study investigated the effect of

STF impregnation in Kevlar fabrics at high velocity impacts of above 1 km/s as

previous literature lacked research in such high velocity ranges when the muzzle

velocity of weaponry such as high performance rifles can now reach up to 1200 m/s. In
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this study, silica colloidal suspension composed of silica nanoparticles, polyethylene

glycol, and methanol was mixed at a specific weight fraction and underwent a

sonication and evaporation process to fully immerse Kevlar fabrics for STF

impregnation. The degree of dispersion of STF on the surface of the Kevlar fabric was

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assessed through SEM imaging and was found to be relatively well dispersed about the

yarns. Using a 2-stage light gas gun, the post impact characteristics of neat Kevlar

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targets and STF impregnated Kevlar fabric targets were observed at impact velocities in

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the range about 1 km/s, which revealed that the STF impregnated Kevlar showed less

distinct cross patterns signifying energy dissipation and greater impact resistance; had a

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smaller penetration hole area with the pulled-out yarns facing inward rather than
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outward; and the penetration hole deformation was more localized for the STF

impregnated Kevlar than the neat Kevlar fabric targets. The high velocity impact energy
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absorption for multiple layer configurations revealed that STF impregnation results in a
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significant energy absorption improvement in terms of thickness and volume: the 5-

layer STF impregnated Kevlar revealed an enhanced energy absorption of

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approximately 70% per areal density and thickness in comparison to the 8-layer neat
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Kevlar specimens. In other words, when using STF impregnation, a thinner

configuration exhibits the same energy absorption performance to a thicker neat fabric
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configuration. Extensive investigation on the effect of STF impregnation on the energy

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absorption mechanism of Kevlar fabric may offer STF impregnation as an effective

technique to designing a ballistic resistant configuration for high velocity impact

applications with minimized volume and mass while maintaining or enhancing the

impact resistance of the structure.

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Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea(NRF) grant

funded by the Korea government(MEST) (No. 2012-0000133 and 2013-000378).

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Table 1. Properties of Kevlar KM2 [11]

Property Values

Linear density (dtex) 667

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Tenacity (cN/tex) 247.1
Mechanical
Breaking strength (N) 165

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properties of
Elongation at break (%) 3.8
Kevlar KM2 yarn

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Modulus (cN/tex) 5560

Moisture regain (%) 7

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Yarn count (yarn/inch) 28x28
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Specifications of Areal density (g/m2) 145

Kevlar KM2 fabric Thickness (mm) 0.2

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Fabric system Plain Weave

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Table 2. Seahostar KE-P10 Specifications

Property Values

Average diameter (m) 0.11 (0.08~0.14)

Surface area (m2/g) 40~80

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Moisture (wt%) 0.4

Purity (wt%) ca. 0.9

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Refractive index ca. 1.42

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Specific gravity (g/cm3) ca. 1.9

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Table 3. Specifications for the neat Kevlar and STF Kevlar configurations

1-layer neat 1-layer STF 8-layer neat 5-layer STF

Kevlar Kevlar Kevlar Kevlar

Average mass (g) 2.26 3.84 18.08 19.20

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Area (cm2) 144 144 144 144

Average areal 0.0157 0.0267 0.125 0.133

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density (g/cm2)

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Table 4. Neat and STF Kevlar impact testing results

Specimen Impact Post-impact Energy Specific energy

No. velocity velocity absorption (J) absorption (J/(g/cm2))
(m/s) (m/s)
1 1039 1022 4.256 271.1

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2 1078 1065 3.478 221.6
3 1305 1291 4.347 277.0
1-layer neat

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4 1346 1328 5.885 375.0
Kevlar
5 1556 1527 10.85 685.4

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6 1717 1702 6.282 396.7
7 1763 1751 5.073 320.4
1 1021 1006 3.870 143.9
2 1050
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1039 2.933 107.2
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3 1331 1304 8.795 318.4
1-layer STF
4 1367 1338 9.570 344.6
Kevlar
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5 1477 1465 4.391 170.2

6 1575 1538 14.58 547.0
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7 1687 1647 16.68 601.6

1 1135 1063 19.78 156.2
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2 1188 1111 22.21 175.3

8-layer neat
3 1324 1245 25.29 199.6
Kevlar
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4 1661 1554 43.03 339.7

5 1741 1643 41.66 328.9
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1 1046 961.4 21.21 161.4

2 1053 962.3 22.89 151.4
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3 1192 1135 16.48 147.8

5-layer STF
4 1255 1173 24.93 184.2
Kevlar
5 1278 1199 24.51 184.1
6 1672 1561 44.96 338.7
7 1761 1647 48.66 346.5
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Table 5. Component costs

Material Cost(Korean Won) Cost(USD)

Kevlar KM2 44,000 Won / (1m x 1.6m) $42.28 / (1m x 1.6m)

200MW PEG 9,900 Won / 1kg $9.51 / 1kg

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Silica nanoparticles KE-P10 380,000 Won / 1kg $365.18 / 1kg

1-layer neat Kevlar 406 Won / layer $0.39 / layer

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1-layer STF Kevlar 799 Won / layer $0.77 / layer

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Fig. 1. Suspension preparation: (a) homogenization, (b) sonication, (c) immersion, (d)

application of pressure to remove excess fluid

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Fig. 2. Viscosity change using a parallel plate setup

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Fig. 3 SEM of the Kevlar KM2 fabric with and without STF impregnation; (a) x200

magnification of neat Kevlar, (b) x100 magnification of STF impregnated Kevlar, (c)
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x1500 magnification, and (d) x8000 magnification

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Fig. 4 Schematic diagram of the 2-stage light gas gun used in this study

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Energy Absorption: All Cases

50
1-Layer Neat Kevlar
8-Layer Neat Kevlar
45 1-Layer STF Kevlar
5 -Layer STF Kevlar
2-Layer Neat Kevlar
40 Expon. (1-Layer Neat Kevlar)
Expon. (8-Layer Neat Kevlar)
Expon. (1-Layer STF Kevlar)
35 Expon. (5 -Layer STF Kevlar)
Energy Absorption (J)

Expon. (2-Layer Neat Kevlar)

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30

25

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20

15

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10

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1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800
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Impact Velocity (m/s)

Fig. 5 Energy absorption data and trendline for all cases

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Fig. 6 Front and rear penetration hole formations
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Areal Density Specific Energy Absorption: All Cases

700

Specific Energy Absorption per Unit Areal Density (J/(g/cm2))

1-Layer Neat Kevlar
8-Layer Neat Kevlar
1-Layer STF Kevlar
600 5-Layer STF Kevlar
2-Layer Neat Kevlar
Expon. (1-Layer Neat Kevlar)
Expon. (8-Layer Neat Kevlar)
500 Expon. (1-Layer STF Kevlar)
Expon. (5-Layer STF Kevlar)
Expon. (2-Layer Neat Kevlar)

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400

300

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200

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100

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Impact Velocity (m/s)
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Fig. 7 Areal density specific energy absorption data and trendline for all cases
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Thickness and Areal Density Specific Energy Absorption: All

Cases

Specific Energy Absorption per Unit Thickness and Areal Density

1-Layer Neat Kevlar
30000 8-Layer Neat Kevlar
1-Layer STF Kevlar
5-Layer STF Kevlar
2-Layer Neat Kevlar
25000 Expon. (1-Layer Neat Kevlar)
Expon. (8-Layer Neat Kevlar)
Expon. (1-Layer STF Kevlar)

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Expon. (5-Layer STF Kevlar)
20000 Expon. (2-Layer Neat Kevlar)
(J/(g/cm2))/cm)

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15000

10000

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5000

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Impact Velocity (m/s)

Fig. 8 Thickness and areal density specific energy absorption data and trendline for all cases
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Thickness, Cost, and Areal Density Specific Energy Absorption:

8 neat Kevlar vs. 5 STF-Kevlar

0.9

Specific Energy Absorption per Unit Thickness, Areal Density,

8-Layer Neat Kevlar
5-Layer STF Kevlar
0.8
Expon. (8-Layer Neat Kevlar)
Expon. (5-Layer STF Kevlar)
0.7
and Cost (J/(g/cm2))/cm/Won)

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0.6

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0.5

0.4

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0.3

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0.2
1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800
Impact Velocity (m/s)
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Fig. 9 Thickness, cost, and areal density specific energy absorption data and trendline for the
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multiple layer cases

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Highlights

Sonication and homogenization are used to prepare, disperse, and impregnate STF.

The STF-Kevlar impact energy absorption performance for 1~2km/s was
investigated.

5 layer STF impregnated Kevlar absorbed more energy than 8 layers of neat Kevlar.

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STF-Kevlar has higher energy absorbed per unit areal density, thickness, and cost.

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