Vocal Pedagogy

A Quick Reference
Contents

1 Anatomy 1
1.1 Larynx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.3 Clinical signicance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.4 Other animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.5 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.6 Additional images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2 Vocal folds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.1 Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.2 Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2.3 Clinical signicance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.4 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.6 Additional images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.2.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.2.8 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.2.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.3 Glottis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.3.1 Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.3.2 Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.3.3 Additional images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.3.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.3.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

2 Teaching 17
2.1 Passaggio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.1.1 Vocal registers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

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2.1.2 Register ranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2.1.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.2 Vocal range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.2.1 Singing and the denition of vocal range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.2.2 Vocal range and voice classication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.2.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3 Vocal pedagogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.3.2 Topics of study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.3.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.3.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.3.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.3.6 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.4 Estill Voice Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.4.1 Operating principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.4.2 Figures for voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.4.3 Voice qualities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.4.4 Certication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.4.5 Inuence, adoption and application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.4.6 Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.4.7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.4.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.4.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

3 Registers 40
3.1 Vocal register . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.1.1 Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.1.2 Vocal fry register . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.1.3 Modal voice register . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.1.4 Falsetto register . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.1.5 Whistle register . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.1.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.1.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.1.8 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.2 Vocal fry register . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.2.1 History of register classication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.2.2 Social implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
CONTENTS iii

3.2.3 In speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.2.4 In singing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.2.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.2.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.2.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.3 Chest voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.3.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.3.2 Physiological process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.3.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.3.4 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.4 Head voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.4.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.4.2 Diering views on head voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.4.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.4.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.5 Belting (music) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.5.1 Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.5.2 Physiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.5.3 Possible dangers of belting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.5.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.6 Falsetto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.6.1 Physiological process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.6.2 Female falsetto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.6.3 Musical history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.6.4 Use in singing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.6.5 Use in speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.6.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.6.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.6.8 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.6.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.7 Whistle register . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.7.1 Physiology and denition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.7.2 In children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.7.3 Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.7.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.7.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.7.6 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

4 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses 57

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4.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Chapter 1

Anatomy

1.1 Larynx
For the remotely piloted vehicle, see RAE Larynx.

The larynx (/lrks/; plural larynges; from the Greek

lrynx),[1] commonly called the voice box, is an
organ in the neck of tetrapods involved in breathing, sound
production, and protecting the trachea against food aspira-
tion. The larynx houses the vocal cords, and manipulates
pitch and volume, which is essential for phonation. They
are situated just below where the tract of the pharynx splits Basic parts of the human larynx
into the trachea and the esophagus.
Cricoid cartilage: A ring of hyaline cartilage that
1.1.1 Structure forms the inferior wall of the larynx. It is attached
to the top of the trachea. The median cricothyroid lig-
ament connects the cricoid cartilage to the thyroid car-
tilage.

Epiglottis: A large, spoon-shaped piece of elastic car-

tilage. During swallowing, the pharynx and larynx
rise. Elevation of the pharynx widens it to receive food
and drink; elevation of the larynx causes the epiglottis
to move down and form a lid over the glottis, closing
it o.

Paired cartilages:
Vocal cords abducted and adducted

Arytenoid cartilages: Of the paired cartilages, the ary-

Cartilages
There are six cartilages, three unpaired and three paired,
that support the mammalian larynx and form its skeleton.
Unpaired cartilages:
Thyroid cartilage: This forms the Adams apple. It is
usually larger in males than in females. The thyrohyoid
membrane is a ligament associated with the thyroid
cartilage that connects the thyroid cartilage with the
hyoid bone.
tenoid cartilages are the most important because they
inuence the position and tension of the vocal folds.
These are triangular pieces of mostly hyaline cartilage
located at the posterosuperior border of the cricoid
cartilage.
Corniculate cartilages: Horn-shaped pieces of elastic
cartilage located at the apex of each arytenoid carti-
lage.
Cuneiform cartilages: Club-shaped pieces of elastic
cartilage located anterior to the corniculate cartilages.

1
2 CHAPTER 1. ANATOMY

Muscles ability to handle calcium changes in comparison to other

muscles.[3] This prole is in agreement with their function
The muscles of the larynx are divided into intrinsic and ex- as very fast muscles with a well-developed capacity for pro-
trinsic muscles. longed work. Studies suggests that mechanisms involved
The intrinsic muscles are divided into respiratory and the in the prompt sequestering of Ca2+ (sarcoplasmic retic-
phonatory muscles (the muscles of phonation). The respi- ulum Ca2+-reuptake proteins, plasma membrane pumps,
ratory muscles move the vocal cords apart and serve breath- and cytosolic Ca2+-buering proteins) are particularly ele-
ing. The phonatory muscles move the vocal cords together vated in laryngeal muscles, indicating their importance for
and serve the production of voice. The extrinsic, passing the myober function and protection against disease, such
between the larynx and parts around; and intrinsic, conned as Duchenne muscular dystrophy.[4] Furthermore, dier-
entirely. The main respiratory muscles are the posterior ential levels of Orai1 in rat intrinsic laryngeal muscles and
cricoarytenoid muscles. The phonatory muscles are divided extraocular muscles over the limb muscle suggests a role
into adductors (lateral cricoarytenoid muscles, arytenoid for store operated calcium entry channels in those muscles
muscles) and tensors (cricothyroid muscles, thyroarytenoid functional properties and signaling mechanisms.
muscles).
Extrinsic The extrinsic laryngeal muscles support and
Intrinsic The intrinsic laryngeal muscles are responsible position the larynx within the trachea.
for controlling sound production.

Cricothyroid muscle lengthen and tense the vocal

folds.
Posterior cricoarytenoid muscles abduct and externally
rotate the arytenoid cartilages, resulting in abducted
vocal folds.
Lateral cricoarytenoid muscles adduct and internally
rotate the arytenoid cartilages, increase medial com-
pression.
Transverse arytenoid muscle adduct the arytenoid car-
tilages, resulting in adducted vocal folds.[2]
Oblique arytenoid muscles narrow the laryngeal inlet
by constricting the distance between the arytenoid car-
tilages. Extrinsic laryngeal muscles

Thyroarytenoid muscles - sphincter of vestibule, nar-

rowing the laryngeal inlet, shortening the vocal folds,
and lowering voice pitch. The internal thyroarytenoid
is the portion of the thyroarytenoid that vibrates to
produce sound.
Sternothyroid muscles depress the larynx.
Omohyoid muscles depress the larynx.
Sternohyoid muscles depress the larynx.

Notably the only muscle capable of separating the vocal Inferior constrictor muscles
cords for normal breathing is the posterior cricoarytenoid.
Thyrohyoid muscles elevates the larynx.
If this muscle is incapacitated on both sides, the inability
to pull the vocal folds apart (abduct) will cause diculty Digastric elevates the larynx.
breathing. Bilateral injury to the recurrent laryngeal nerve
would cause this condition. It is also worth noting that all Stylohyoid elevates the larynx.
muscles are innervated by the recurrent laryngeal branch
Mylohyoid elevates the larynx.
of the vagus except the cricothyroid muscle, which is in-
nervated by the external laryngeal branch of the superior Geniohyoid elevates the larynx.
laryngeal nerve (a branch of the vagus).
Hyoglossus elevates the larynx.
Additionally, intrinsic laryngeal muscles present a con-
stitutive Ca2+-buering prole that predicts their better Genioglossus elevates the larynx
1.1. LARYNX 3

Innervation stress and other types of linguistic prosody. The larynx also
has a similar function to the lungs in creating pressure dif-
The larynx is innervated by branches of the vagus nerve on ferences required for sound production; a constricted larynx
each side. Sensory innervation to the glottis and laryngeal can be raised or lowered aecting the volume of the oral
vestibule is by the internal branch of the superior laryngeal cavity as necessary in glottalic consonants.
nerve. The external branch of the superior laryngeal nerve The vocal folds can be held close together (by adducting the
innervates the cricothyroid muscle. Motor innervation to arytenoid cartilages) so that they vibrate (see phonation).
all other muscles of the larynx and sensory innervation to The muscles attached to the arytenoid cartilages control
the subglottis is by the recurrent laryngeal nerve. While the the degree of opening. Vocal fold length and tension can
sensory input described above is (general) visceral sensation be controlled by rocking the thyroid cartilage forward and
(diuse, poorly localized), the vocal fold also receives gen- backward on the cricoid cartilage (either directly by con-
eral somatic sensory innervation (proprioceptive and touch) tracting the cricothyroids or indirectly by changing the ver-
by the superior laryngeal nerve. tical position of the larynx), by manipulating the tension
Injury to the external laryngeal nerve causes weakened of the muscles within the vocal folds, and by moving the
phonation because the vocal folds cannot be tightened. arytenoids forward or backward. This causes the pitch pro-
Injury to one of the recurrent laryngeal nerves produces duced during phonation to rise or fall. In most males the
hoarseness, if both are damaged the voice may or may not vocal folds are longer and with a greater mass than most
be preserved, but breathing becomes dicult. females vocal folds, producing a lower pitch.
The vocal apparatus consists of two pairs of mucosal folds.
These folds are false vocal folds (vestibular folds) and true
Development
vocal folds (folds). The false vocal folds are covered by res-
piratory epithelium, while the true vocal folds are covered
In adult humans, the larynx is found in the anterior neck
by stratied squamous epithelium. The false vocal folds are
at the level of the C3C6 vertebrae. It connects the infe-
not responsible for sound production, but rather for reso-
rior part of the pharynx (hypopharynx) with the trachea.
nance. The exceptions to this are found in Tibetan Chant
The laryngeal skeleton consists of six cartilages: three single
and Kargyraa, a style of Tuvan throat singing. Both make
(epiglottic, thyroid and cricoid) and three paired (arytenoid,
use of the false vocal folds to create an undertone. These
corniculate, and cuneiform). The hyoid bone is not part of
false vocal folds do not contain muscle, while the true vocal
the larynx, though the larynx is suspended from the hyoid.
folds do have skeletal muscle.
The larynx extends vertically from the tip of the epiglottis
to the inferior border of the cricoid cartilage. Its interior
can be divided in supraglottis, glottis and subglottis. Other
In newborn infants, the larynx is initially at the level of the
C2C3 vertebrae, and is further forward and higher relative
to its position in the adult body.[5] The larynx descends as
the child grows.[6][7]

1.1.2 Function

Sound generation

Sound is generated in the larynx, and that is where pitch and

volume are manipulated. The strength of expiration from
the lungs also contributes to loudness.
Manipulation of the larynx is used to generate a source
sound with a particular fundamental frequency, or pitch.
This source sound is altered as it travels through the vocal
tract, congured dierently based on the position of the
tongue, lips, mouth, and pharynx. The process of altering a
source sound as it passes through the lter of the vocal tract
creates the many dierent vowel and consonant sounds of
the worlds languages as well as tone, certain realizations of Image of endoscopy
4 CHAPTER 1. ANATOMY

The most important role of the larynx is its protecting func-

tion; the prevention of foreign objects from entering the
lungs by coughing and other reexive actions. A cough is
initiated by a deep inhalation through the vocal folds, fol-
lowed by the elevation of the larynx and the tight adduction
(closing) of the vocal folds. The forced expiration that fol-
lows, assisted by tissue recoil and the muscles of expiration,
blows the vocal folds apart, and the high pressure expels the
irritating object out of the throat. Throat clearing is less
violent than coughing, but is a similar increased respiratory
eort countered by the tightening of the laryngeal muscula-
ture. Both coughing and throat clearing are predictable and
necessary actions because they clear the respiratory pas-
sageway, but both place the vocal folds under signicant
strain.[8]
Another important role of the larynx is abdominal xation, Endoscopic image of an inamed human larynx
a kind of Valsalva maneuver in which the lungs are lled
with air in order to stien the thorax so that forces ap-
plied for lifting can be translated down to the legs. This Clinic,[11] and the second took place in October 2010
is achieved by a deep inhalation followed by the adduction at the University of California Davis Medical Center in
of the vocal folds. Grunting while lifting heavy objects is Sacramento.[12]
the result of some air escaping through the adducted vocal
folds ready for phonation.[8] Acute laryngitis is the sudden inammation and
Abduction of the vocal folds is important during physical swelling of the larynx. It is caused by the common cold
exertion. The vocal folds are separated by about 8 mm (0.31 or by excessive shouting. It is not serious. Chronic
in) during normal respiration, but this width is doubled dur- laryngitis is caused by smoking, dust, frequent yelling,
ing forced respiration.[8] or prolonged exposure to polluted air. It is much more
serious than acute laryngitis.
During swallowing, the backward motion of the tongue
forces the epiglottis over the glottis opening to prevent Presbylarynx is a condition in which age-related atro-
swallowed material from entering the larynx which leads to phy of the soft tissues of the larynx results in weak
the lungs; the larynx is also pulled upwards to assist this pro- voice and restricted vocal range and stamina. Bowing
cess. Stimulation of the larynx by ingested matter produces of the anterior portion of the vocal folds is found on
a strong cough reex to protect the lungs. laryngoscopy.
In addition, intrinsic laryngeal muscles are spared from Ulcers may be caused by the prolonged presence of an
muscle wasting disorders, such as Duchenne muscular dys- endotracheal tube.
trophy, may facilitate the development of novel strategies
for the prevention and treatment of muscle wasting in a va- Polyps and nodules are small bumps on the vocal folds
riety of clinical scenarios. ILM have a calcium regulation caused by prolonged exposure to cigarette smoke and
system prole suggestive of a better ability to handle cal- vocal misuse, respectively.
cium changes in comparison to other muscles, and this may
provide a mechanistic insight for their unique pathophysio- Two related types of cancer of the larynx, namely
logical properties [9] squamous cell carcinoma and verrucous carcinoma,
are strongly associated with repeated exposure to
cigarette smoke and alcohol.
1.1.3 Clinical signicance
Vocal cord paresis is weakness of one or both vocal
Disorders folds that can greatly impact daily life.

Idiopathic laryngeal spasm.

There are several things that can cause a larynx to not func-
tion properly.[10] Some symptoms are hoarseness, loss of
voice, pain in the throat or ears, and breathing diculties.
Larynx transplant is a rare procedure. The worlds rst
successful operation took place in 1998 at the Cleveland
Laryngopharyngeal reux is a condition in which acid
from the stomach irritates and burns the larynx. Simi-
lar damage can occur with gastroesophageal reux dis-
ease (GERD).[13][14]
1.1. LARYNX 5

Laryngomalacia is a very common condition of in-

fancy, in which the soft, immature cartilage of the up-
per larynx collapses inward during inhalation, causing
airway obstruction.

Laryngeal perichondritis, the inammation of the

perichondrium of laryngeal cartilages, causing airway
obstruction.

Laryngeal paralysis is a condition seen in some mam-

mals (including dogs) in which the larynx no longer
opens as wide as required for the passage of air, and
impedes respiration. In mild cases it can lead to exag-
gerated or raspy breathing or panting, and in serious
cases can pose a considerable need for treatment.

Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy, intrinsic laryngeal

muscles (ILM) are spared from the lack of dystrophin
and may serve as a useful model to study the mecha-
nisms of muscle sparing in neuromuscular diseases.[4]
Dystrophic ILM presented a signicant increase in
the expression of calcium-binding proteins. The in-
crease of calcium-binding proteins in dystrophic ILM
may permit better maintenance of calcium homeosta-
sis, with the consequent absence of myonecrosis. The
results further support the concept that abnormal cal-
cium buering is involved in these neuromuscular
diseases.[15]

1.1.4 Other animals

Pioneering work on the structure and evolution of the lar-
ynx was carried out in the 1920s by the British compar-
ative anatomist Victor Negus, culminating in his monu-
mental work The Mechanism of the Larynx (1929). Ne-
gus, however, pointed out that the descent of the larynx
reected the reshaping and descent of the human tongue
into the pharynx. This process is not complete until age
six to eight years. Some researchers, such as Philip Lieber-
man, Dennis Klatt, Brant de Boer and Kenneth Stevens us-
ing computer-modeling techniques have suggested that the
species-specic human tongue allows the vocal tract (the
airway above the larynx) to assume the shapes necessary to
produce speech sounds that enhance the robustness of hu-
man speech. Sounds such as the vowels of the words see
and do, [i] and [u], (in phonetic notation) have been shown
to be less subject to confusion in classic studies such as the
1950 Peterson and Barney investigation of the possibilities
for computerized speech recognition.[16]
In contrast, though other species have low larynges, their
tongues remain anchored in their mouths and their vocal
tracts cannot produce the range of speech sounds of hu-
mans. The ability to lower the larynx transiently in some
species extends the length of their vocal tract, which as Fitch
Cut through the larynx of a horse
(frontal section, posterior view)
1 hyoid bone; 2 epiglottis; 3 vestibular fold; 4 vocal fold; 5
ventricularis muscle; 6 ventricle of larynx; 7 vocalis muscle; 8
Thyroid Cartilage; 9 Cricoid Cartilage; 10 infraglottic cavity; 11
rst tracheal cartilage; 12 trachea
showed creates the acoustic illusion that they are larger. Re-
search at Haskins Laboratories in the 1960s showed that
speech allows humans to achieve a vocal communication
rate that exceeds the fusion frequency of the auditory sys-
tem by fusing sounds together into syllables and words. The
additional speech sounds that the human tongue enables us
to produce, particularly [i], allow humans to unconsciously
infer the length of the vocal tract of the person who is talk-
ing, a critical element in recovering the phonemes that make
up a word.[16]
6 CHAPTER 1. ANATOMY

Non-mammals Origin of speech

Most tetrapod species possess a larynx, but its structure is Articulatory phonetics
typically simpler than that found in mammals. The carti-
lages surrounding the larynx are apparently a remnant of the
1.1.8 References
original gill arches in sh, and are a common feature, but not
all are always present. For example, the thyroid cartilage is Notes
found only in mammals. Similarly, only mammals possess a
true epiglottis, although a ap of non-cartilagenous mucosa [1] "Larynx Etymology. Online Etymology Dictionary. Re-
is found in a similar position in many other groups. In mod- trieved 25 October 2015.
ern amphibians, the laryngeal skeleton is considerably re-
duced; frogs have only the cricoid and arytenoid cartilages, [2] Collectively, the transverse and oblique arytenoids are
known as the interarytenoids.
while salamanders possess only the arytenoids.[17]
Vocal folds are found only in mammals, and a few lizards. [3] Ferretti, R; Marques, MJ; Khurana, TS; Santo Neto, H
As a result, many reptiles and amphibians are essentially (2015). Expression of calcium-buering proteins in rat in-
trinsic laryngeal muscles. Physiol Rep. 3: e12409. PMC
voiceless; frogs use ridges in the trachea to modulate sound,
while birds have a separate sound-producing organ, the 4510619 . PMID 26109185. doi:10.14814/phy2.12409.
syrinx.[17] [4] Intrinsic laryngeal muscles are spared from myonecrosis
in themdx mouse model of Duchenne muscular dystrophy.
Muscle. 35: 349353. doi:10.1002/mus.20697.
1.1.5 History
[5] GERD and aspiration in the child: diagnosis and treat-
The ancient Greek physician Galen rst described the lar- ment. Grand Rounds Presentation. UTMB Dept. of Oto-
laryngology. February 23, 2005. Retrieved June 16, 2010.
ynx, describing it as the rst and supremely most important
instrument of the voice[18] [6] Laitman & Reidenberg 2009

[7] Laitman, Noden & Van De Water 2006

1.1.6 Additional images [8] Seikel, King & Drumright 2010, Nonspeech laryngeal func-
tion, pp. 223225

[9] Ferretti, R; Marques, MJ; Khurana, TS; Santo Neto, H

(2015). Expression of calcium-buering proteins in rat in-
trinsic laryngeal muscles. Physiol Rep. 3: e12409. PMC
4510619 . PMID 26109185. doi:10.14814/phy2.12409.
Larynx.Deep dissection. An-
[10] Laitman & Reidenberg 1993
terior view.
[11] Jensen, Brenda (January 21, 2011). Rare transplant gives
California woman a voice for the rst time in a decade.

[12] Johnson, Avery (January 21, 2011). Woman Finds Her

Voice After Rare Transplant. Wall Street Journal. Re-
trieved 4 September 2012.

[13] Laitman & Reidenberg 1997

Larynx.Deep dissection. Pos-
terior view. [14] Lipan, Reidenberg & Laitman 2006

[15] Sarcoplasmic-endoplasmic-reticulum Ca2+-ATPase and

calsequestrin are overexpressed in spared intrinsic laryngeal
muscles of dystrophin-decientmdxmice. Muscle & Nerve.
1.1.7 See also
39: 609615. doi:10.1002/mus.21154.
This article uses anatomical terminology; for an overview, [16] Lieberman 2006
see Anatomical terminology.
[17] Romer & Parsons 1977, pp. 214215, 336

[18] Hydman, Jonas (2008). Recurrent laryngeal nerve injury.

Histology of the vocal folds Stockholm. p. 8. ISBN 978-91-7409-123-6.
1.2. VOCAL FOLDS 7

Sources

Laitman, J.T.; Noden, D.M.; Van De Water, T.R.

(2006). Formation of the larynx: from homeobox
genes to critical periods. In Rubin, J.S.; Satalo,
R.T.; Korovin, G.S. Diagnosis & Treatment Voice
Disorders. San Diego: Plural. pp. 320. ISBN
9781597560078. OCLC 63279542.
Laitman, J.T.; Reidenberg, J.S. (1993). Specializa-
tions of the human upper respiratory and upper di-
gestive tract as seen through comparative and develop-
mental anatomy. Dysphagia. 8 (4): 318325. PMID
8269722. doi:10.1007/BF01321770.
Laitman, J.T.; Reidenberg, J.S. (1997). The human Vocal folds (open)
aerodigestive tract and gastroesophageal reux: An
evolutionary perspective. Am. J. Med. 103 (Suppl
5A): 311. PMID 9422615. doi:10.1016/s0002-
9343(97)00313-6.
Laitman, J.T.; Reidenberg, J.S. (2009). The evolu-
tion of the human larynx: Natures great experiment.
In Fried, M.P.; Ferlito, A. The Larynx (3rd ed.).
San Diego: Plural. pp. 1938. ISBN 1597560626.
OCLC 183609898.
Lieberman, P. (2006). Toward an Evolutionary Bi-
ology of Language. Harvard University Press. ISBN
0-674-02184-3. OCLC 62766735.
Lipan, M.; Reidenberg, J.S; Laitman, J.T. (2006).
The anatomy of reux: A growing health problem
aecting structures of the head and neck. Anat Rec Vocal folds (speaking)
B New Anat. 289 (6): 261270. OCLC 110307385.
PMID 17109421. doi:10.1002/ar.b.20120.
1.2.1 Structure
Romer, A.S.; Parsons, T.S. (1977). The Vertebrate
Body. Philadelphia, PA: Holt-Saunders International. The vocal folds are located within the larynx at the top of the
ISBN 0-03-910284-X. trachea. They are attached posteriorly to the arytenoid car-
tilages, and anteriorly to the thyroid cartilage. They are part
Seikel, J.A.; King, D.W.; Drumright, D.G. (2010).
of the glottis which includes the rima glottidis. Their outer
Anatomy & Physiology for Speech, Language, and
edges are attached to muscle in the larynx while their inner
Hearing (4th ed.). Delmar, NY: Cengage Learning.
edges, or margins, are free forming the opening called the
ISBN 1-4283-1223-4.
rima glottidis. They are constructed from epithelium, but
they have a few muscle bres in them, namely the vocalis
muscle which tightens the front part of the ligament near to
1.2 Vocal folds the thyroid cartilage. They are at triangular bands and are
pearly white in color. Above both sides of the glottis are the
The vocal folds, also known commonly as vocal cords or two vestibular folds or false vocal folds which have a small
voice reeds, are composed of twin infoldings of mucous sac between them.
membrane stretched horizontally, from back to front, across Situated above the larynx, the epiglottis acts as a ap which
the larynx. They vibrate, modulating the ow of air being closes o the trachea during the act of swallowing to direct
expelled from the lungs during phonation.[1][2][3] food into the esophagus. If food or liquid does enter the
Open when breathing and vibrating for speech or singing, trachea and contacts the vocal folds it causes a cough reex
the folds are controlled via the vagus nerve. to expel the matter in order to prevent pulmonary aspiration.
8 CHAPTER 1. ANATOMY
Variations
Males and females have dierent vocal fold sizes. Adult pathogenesis of the vocal folds.[6]
male voices are usually lower pitched due to longer and
thicker folds. The male vocal folds are between 1.75 cm
and 2.5 cm (approx 0.75 to 1.0) in length,[2] while female
vocal folds are between 1.25 cm and 1.75 cm (approx 0.5
to 0.75) in length. The vocal folds of children are much
shorter than those of adult males and females. The dier-
ence in vocal fold length and thickness between males and
females causes a dierence in vocal pitch. Additionally, ge-
netic factors cause variations between members of the same
sex, with males and females voices being categorized into
voice types.
False vocal folds
Main article: Vestibular fold
The vocal folds are sometimes called 'true vocal folds
to distinguish them from the 'false vocal folds known as
vestibular folds or ventricular folds. These are a pair of
thick folds of mucous membrane that protect and sit slightly
superior to the more delicate true folds. They have a min-
imal role in normal phonation, but are often used to pro-
duce deep sonorous tones in Tibetan chant and Tuvan throat
singing,[4] as well as in musical screaming and the death
growl vocal style.
Histology
Main article: Histology of the vocal folds
Mature human vocal folds are composed of layered struc-
tures which are quite dierent at the histological level.
The topmost layer comprises stratied squamous epithe-
lium which is bordered by ciliated pseudostratied epithe-
lium. The inner lining surface of this squamous epithelium
is covered by a layer of mucus (acting as a mucociliary
clearance), which is composed of two layers: a mucinous
layer and serous layer. Both mucus layers provide viscous
and watery environment for cilia beating posteriorally and
superiorly. The mucociliary clearance keeps the vocal folds
essentially moist and lubricated.[5] The epidermis layer is
secured to the deeper connective tissue by basement mem-
brane. Due to the primarily amorphous brous and non-
brous proteins in the lamina propria, the basement mem-
brane applies strong anchoring laments like collagen
and to secure the hemidesmosome of basal cell to the
lamina propria. These attachments are strong enough to
sustain beating and stretch, to which VFs are subjected.[5]
The population density of some of the anchoring bers in
the basement membrane, such as collagen , is genetically
determined, and these genetics may inuence the health and
Larynx showing vocal ligaments
The next three layers comprise lamina LPs, which is strat-
ied by their histological composition of elastin and colla-
gen bers, with broblast, myobroblast and macrophages
interspersed sparsely.[5] The supercial layer LPs (SLLPs),
also known as Reinkes space, is composed of amorphous
substance and microbrils[7] which allows this cover layer
to slide over the deep layer easily.[8] The vibratory and
viscoelastic characteristics of human VFs are mainly at-
tributed to the molecular composition of SLLPs. In nor-
mal vocal fold, the jelly-like Reinkes space is very loose
and abundant with interstitial proteins such as hyaluronic
acid, bronectin, proteoglycan like bromodulin, decorin
and versican. All these ECM components together regulate
the water content of vocal fold and render the viscous shear
property for it.[9][10] The squamous epithelium and super-
cial lamina propria form the vocal mucosa which serves
as vibratory component in phonation. The mucosa layer vi-
brates at a frequency range of 1001000 Hz and displace-
ment at 1mm approximately.[11] The intermediate layer of
LPs consists primarily of elastic ber while the deep layer
LP consists of fewer elastin and more collagen bers. These
two layers have poor dierentiated boundary but are in-
creasingly stier than SLLPs. The intermediate and deep
layers of LPs compose the vocal ligaments which are en-
closed within the vocal folds and are responsible for strain
in phonation. Within the ECM community of vocal liga-
ment, brous proteins such as elastin and collagen are piv-
otal in maintaining the proper elastic biomechanical prop-
erty of vocal fold.[8] Elastin bers impart the exibility and
elasticity of the vocal folds and, collagen is responsible for
the resistance and resiliece to tensile strength.[12] The nor-
mal strain level of vocal ligament ranges from 015% dur-
ing phonation[8] These brous proteins exhibit distribution
variations spatially and temporally due to broblast turnover
during tissue maturation and aging.[7][13] Each vocal liga-
ment is a band of yellow elastic tissue attached in front to
the angle of the thyroid cartilage, and behind to the vocal
process of the arytenoid cartilage.
1.2. VOCAL FOLDS
Development
In newborns Newborns have a uniform monolayered
lamina propria, which appears loose with no vocal
ligament.[14] The monolayered lamina propria is com-
posed of ground substances such as hyaluronic acid and
bronectin, broblasts, elastic bers, and collagenous
bers. While the brous components are sparse, making
the lamina propria structure loose, the hyaluronic acid (HA)
content is high.
HA is a bulky, negatively charged glycosaminoglycan,
whose strong anity with water procures HA its vis-
coelastic and shock absorbing properties essential to vo-
cal biomechanics.[15] Viscosity and elasticity are critical to
voice production. Chan, Gray and Titze, quantied the ef-
fect of HA on both the viscosity and the elasticity of vocal
folds (VF) by comparing the properties of tissues with and
without HA.[16] The results showed that removal of HA de-
creased the stiness of VF by an average of 35%, but in-
creased their dynamic viscosity by an average of 70% at fre-
quencies higher than 1 Hz. Newborns have been shown to
cry an average of 6.7 hours per day during the rst 3 months,
with a sustained pitch of 400600 Hz, and a mean duration
per day of 2 hours.[17] Similar treatment on adult VF would
quickly result in edema, and subsequently aphonia. Schwe-
infurth and al. presented the hypothesis that high hyaluronic
acid content and distribution in newborn VF is directly as-
sociated with newborn crying endurance.[17] These dier-
ences in newborn vocal fold composition would also be re-
sponsible for newborns inability to articulate sounds, be-
sides the fact that their lamina propria is a uniform structure
with no vocal ligament. The layered structure necessary for
phonation will start to develop during the infancy and until
the adolescence.[14]
The broblasts in the newborn Reinkes space are imma-
ture, showing an oval shape, and a large nucleus-cytoplasm
ratio.[14] The rough endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi ap-
paratus, as shown by electron micrographs, are not well de-
veloped, indicating that the cells are in a resting phase. The
collagenous and reticular bers in the newborn VF are fewer
than in the adult one, adding to the immaturity of the vocal
fold tissue.
In the infant, many brous components were seen to ex-
tend from the macula ava towards the Reinkes space. Fi-
bronectin is very abundant in the Reinkes space of new-
born and infant. Fibronectin is a glycoprotein that is be-
lieved to act as a template for the oriented deposition of the
collagen bers, stabilizing the collagen brils. Fibronectin
also acts as a skeleton for the elastic tissue formation.[14]
Reticular and collagenous bers were seen to run along the
edges of the VF throughout the entire lamina propria.[14]
Fibronectin in the Reinkes space appeared to guide those
bers and orient the bril deposition. The elastic bers re-
9
mained sparse and immature during infancy, mostly made
of microbrils. The broblasts in the infant Reinkes space
were still sparse but spindle-shaped. Their rough endoplas-
mic reticulum and Golgi apparatus were still not well de-
veloped, indicating that despite the change in shape, the
broblasts still remained mostly in a resting phase. Few
newly released materials were seen adjacent to the brob-
lasts. The ground substance content in the infant Reinkes
space seemed to decrease over time, as the brous compo-
nent content increased, thus slowly changing the vocal fold
structure.
In adults Human VF are paired structures located in
the larynx, just above the trachea, which vibrate and are
brought in contact during phonation. The human VF are
roughly 12 24 mm in length, and 35 mm thick.[18] His-
tologically, the human VF are a laminated structure com-
posed of ve dierent layers. The vocalis muscle, main
body of the VF, is covered by the mucosa, which consists of
the epithelium and the lamina propria.[19] The latter is a pli-
able layer of connective tissue subdivided into three layers:
the supercial layer (SLP), the intermediate layer (ILP),
and the deep layer (DLP).[5] Layer distinction is either made
looking at dierential in cell content or extracellular ma-
trix (ECM) content. The most common way being to look
at the ECM content. The SLP has fewer elastic and col-
lagenous bers than the two other layers, and thus is looser
and more pliable. The ILP is mostly composed of elastic
bers, while the DLP has fewer elastic bers, and more col-
lagenous bers.[19] In those two layers, which form what is
known as the vocalis ligament, the elastic and collagenous
bers are densely packed as bundles that run almost parallel
to the edge of the vocal fold.[19]
The extracellular matrix of the VF LP is composed of -
brous proteins such as collagen and elastin, and interstitial
molecules such as HA, a non-sulfated glycosaminoglycan.[5]
While the SLP is rather poor in elastic and collagenous
bers, the ILP and DLP are mostly composed of it, with the
concentration of elastic bers decreasing and the concentra-
tion of collagenous bers increasing as the vocalis muscle is
approached.[19] Fibrous proteins and interstitial molecules
play dierent roles within the ECM. While collagen (mostly
type I) provides strength and structural support to the tis-
sue, which are useful to withstanding stress and resisting
deformation when subjected to a force, elastin bers bring
elasticity to the tissue, allowing it to return to its original
shape after deformation.[5] Interstitial proteins, such as HA,
plays important biological and mechanical roles in the VF
tissue.[15] In the VF tissue, HA plays a role of shear-thinner,
aecting the tissue viscosity, space-ller, shock absorber,
as well as wound healing and cell migration promoter. The
distribution of those proteins and interstitial molecules has
been proven to be aected by both age and gender, and is
10
maintained by the broblasts.[5][9][15][20]
Maturation Vocal fold structure in adults is quite dier-
ent from that in newborns. Exactly how the VF mature from
an immature monolayer in newborns to a mature three layer
tissue in adults is still unknown, however a few studies have
investigated the subjects and brought some answers.
Hirano et al. previously found that the newborns did not
have a true lamina propria, but instead had cellular regions
called maculae avae, located at the anterior and posterior
ends of the loose vocal fold tissue.[14][21] Boseley and Hart-
nick examined at the development and maturation of pe-
diatric human vocal fold lamina propria.[22] Hartnick was
the rst one to dene each layer by a change in their cellu-
lar concentration.[23] He also found that the lamina propria
monolayer at birth and shortly thereafter was hypercellu-
lar, thus conrming Hiranos observations. By 2 months
of age, the vocal fold started dierentiating into a bilami-
nar structure of distinct cellular concentration, with the su-
percial layer being less densely populated than the deeper
layer. By 11 months, a three-layered structure starts to be
noted in some specimens, again with dierent cellular pop-
ulation densities. The supercial layer is still hypocellular,
followed by an intermediate more hypercellular layer, and
a deeper hypercellular layer, just above the vocalis muscle.
Even though the VF seem to start organizing, this is not rep-
resentative of the trilaminar structure seen in adult tissues,
where the layer are dened by their dierential elastin and
collagen ber compositions. By 7 years of age, all spec-
imens show a three-layered vocal fold structure, based on
cellular population densities. At this point, the supercial
layer was still hypocellular, the middle layer was the hyper-
cellualr one, with also a greater content of elastin and col-
lagen bers, and the deeper layer was less cellularly popu-
lated. Again, the distinction seen between the layers at this
stage is not comparable to that seen in the adult tissue. The
maturation of the VF did not appear before 13 years of age,
where the layers could be dened by their dierential ber
composition rather than by their dierential cellular pop-
ulation. The pattern now show a hypocellular supercial
layer, followed by a middle layer composed predominantly
of elastin ber, and a deeper layer composed predominantly
of collagen bers. This pattern can be seen in older spec-
imens up to 17 years of age, and above. While this study
oers a nice way to see the evolution from immature to
mature VF, it still does not explain what is the mechanism
behind it.
Macula avae Maculae avae are located at the anterior
and posterior ends of the membranous parts of the VF.[24]
The histological structure of the macula ava is unique,
and Sato and Hirano speculated that it could play an im-
CHAPTER 1. ANATOMY
portant role in growth, development and aging of VF. The
macula ava is composed of broblasts, ground substances,
elastic and collagenous bers. Fibroblasts were numer-
ous and spindle or stellate-shaped. The broblasts have
been observed to be in active phase, with some newly re-
leased amorphous materials present at their surface. From
a biomechanical point of view, the role of the macula ava
is very important. Hirano and Sato studies suggested that
the macula ava is responsible for the synthesis of the -
brous components of the VF. Fibroblasts have been found
mostly aligned in the direction of the vocal ligament, along
bundles of bers. It then was suggested that the mechanical
stresses during phonation were stimulating the broblasts to
synthesize those bers.
Impact of phonation The viscoelastic properties of hu-
man vocal fold lamina propria are essential for their vibra-
tion, and depend on the composition and structure of their
extracellular matrix (ECM). Adult VF have a layered struc-
ture which is based on the layers dierential in ECM dis-
tribution. Newborns on the other hand, do not have this
layered structure. Their VF are uniform, and immature,
making their viscoelastic properties most likely unsuitable
for phonation. HA plays a very important role in the vo-
cal fold biomechanics. In fact, HA has been described as
the ECM molecule that not only contributes to the mainte-
nance of an optimal tissue viscosity that allows phonation,
but also of an optimal tissue stiness that allows frequency
control.[16] CD44 is a cell surface receptor for HA. Cells
such as broblasts are responsible for synthesizing ECM
molecules. Cell surface matrix receptors in return, feed
back to the cells through cell-matrix interaction, allowing
the cell to regulate its metabolism.
Sato et al.[25] carried out a histopathologic investigation of
unphonated human VF. Vocal fold mucosae, which were
unphonated since birth, of three young adults (17, 24, and
28 years old) were looked at using light and electron mi-
croscopy. Interestingly, the results show that the vocal fold
mucosae were hypoplastic, and rudimentary, and like new-
borns, did not have any vocal ligament, Reinkes space, or
layered structure. Like newborns, the lamina propria ap-
peared as a uniform structure. Some stellate cells were
present in the macula ava, but started to show some signs
of degeneration. The stellate cells synthesized fewer ECM
molecules, and the cytoplasmic processes were shown to be
short and shrinking, suggesting a decreased activity. Those
results conrm the hypothesis that phonation stimulates
stellate cells into producing more ECM.
Furthermore, using a specially designed bioreactor, Titze
et al. showed that broblasts exposed to mechanical stim-
ulation have diering levels of ECM production from -
broblasts that are not exposed to mechanical stimulation.[26]
1.2. VOCAL FOLDS 11

The gene expression levels of ECM constituents such as - respect to age and gender.[28] They have identied the pres-
bronectin, MMP1, decorin, bromodulin, HA synthase 2, ence of androgen, estrogen, and progesterone receptors in
and CD44 were altered. All those genes are involved in epithelial cells, granular cells and broblasts of VF, suggest-
ECM remodeling, thus suggesting that mechanical forces ing that some of the structural changes seen in the VF could
applied to the tissue, alter the expression levels of ECM re- be due to hormonal inuences.[28] In this specic study, an-
lated genes, which in turn allow the cells present in the tis- drogen and progesterone receptors were found more com-
sue to regulate the ECM constituent synthesis, thus aect- monly in males than in females. In others studies, it has
ing the tissues composition, structure, and biomechanical been suggested that the estrogen/androgen ratio be partly re-
properties. In the end, cell-surface receptors close the loop sponsible for the voice changes observed at menopause.[30]
by giving feedback on the surrounding ECM to the cells, As previously said, Hammond et al. showed than the HA
aecting also their gene expression level. content was higher in male than in female VF. Bentley et al.
demonstrated that sex skin swelling seen in monkey was due
to an increase in HA content, which was in fact mediated
Impact of hormones Other studies suggest that by estrogen receptors in dermal broblasts.[31] An increase
hormones play also an important role in vocal fold matu- in collagen biosynthesis mediated by the estrogen receptors
ration. Hormones are molecules secreted into the blood of dermal broblasts was also observed. A connection be-
stream to be delivered at dierent targeted sites. They tween hormone levels, and ECM distribution in VF depend-
usually promote growth, dierentiation and functionality ing on age and gender could be made. More particularly a
in dierent organs or tissues. Their eect is due to their connection between higher hormone levels and higher HA
ability to bind to intracellular receptors, modulating the content in males could exist in the human vocal fold tissue.
gene expression, and subsequently regulating protein Although a relationship between hormone levels and ECM
synthesis.[27] The interaction between the endocrine system biosynthesis in vocal fold can be established, the details of
and tissues such as breast, brain, testicles, heart, bones, etc., this relationship, and the mechanisms of the inuence has
is being extensively studied. It has clearly been seen that not been elucidated yet.
the larynx is somewhat aected by hormonal changes, but
surprisingly, very few studies are working on elucidating
this relationship. The eect of hormonal changes in voice 1.2.2 Function
is clearly seen when hearing male and female voices, or
when listening to a teenage voice changing during puberty. Oscillation
Actually, it is believed that the number of hormonal recep-
tors in the pre-pubertal phase is higher than in any other
age.[27] Menstruation has also been seen to inuence the
voice. In fact, singers are encouraged by their instructors
not to perform during their pre-menstrual period, because
of a drop in their voice quality.[27]
Vocal fold phonatory functions are known to change from
birth to old age. The most signicant changes occur
in development between birth and puberty, and in old
age.[19][28] Hirano et al. previously described several struc-
tural changes associated with aging, in the vocal fold
tissue.[29] Some of those changes are: a shortening of the
membranous vocal fold in males, a thickening of the vocal
fold mucosa and cover in females, and a development of
edema in the supercial lamina propria layer in both sexes.
Hammond et al. observed that the HA content in the vocal The vocal folds in motion.
fold lamina propria was signicantly higher in males than
in females.[9] Although all those studies did show that there The larynx is a major (but not the only) source of sound
are clear structural and functional changes seen in the hu- in speech, generating sound through the rhythmic open-
man VF which are associated with gender and age, none re- ing and closing of the vocal folds. To oscillate, the vocal
ally fully elucidated the underlying cause of those changes. folds are brought near enough together such that air pres-
In fact, only a few recent studies started to look at the pres- sure builds up beneath the larynx. The folds are pushed
ence and role of hormone receptors in the VF. Newman apart by this increased subglottal pressure, with the inferior
et al. found that hormone receptors are indeed present in part of each fold leading the superior part. Such a wave-
the VF, and show a statistical distribution dierence with like motion causes a transfer of energy from the airow to
12 CHAPTER 1. ANATOMY

the fold tissues.[32] Under the correct conditions, the energy vestigation about the temporal and magnitude of inam-
transferred to the tissues is large enough to overcome losses matory response in VFs may benet for elucidating subse-
by dissipation and the oscillation pattern will sustain itself. quent pathological events in vocal fold wounding,[43] which
In essence, sound is generated in the larynx by chopping is good for clinician to develop therapeutic targets to min-
up a steady ow of air into little pus of sound waves.[33] imize scar formation. In the proliferative phase of VFs
(video) wound healing, if the production of HA and collagen is not
The perceived pitch of a persons voice is determined balanced, which means the HA level is lower than normal,
by a number of dierent factors, most importantly the the brosis of collagen cannot be regulated. Consequently,
regenerative-type wound healing turns to be the formation
fundamental frequency of the sound generated by the lar-
ynx. The fundamental frequency is inuenced by the length, of scar.[38][41] Scarring may lead to the deformity of vocal
fold edge, the disruption of LPs viscosity and stiness.[44]
size, and tension of the vocal folds. This frequency averages
about 125 Hz in an adult male, 210 Hz in adult females, and Patients suering from vocal fold scar complain about in-
creased phonatory eort, vocal fatigue, breathlessness, and
over 300 Hz in children. Depth-Kymography[34] is an imag-
ing method to visualize the complex horizontal and vertical dysphonia.[38] Vocal fold scar is one of the most challenging
movements of vocal folds. problems for otolaryngologists because its hard to be diag-
nosed at germinal stage and the function necessity of VF is
The vocal folds generate a sound rich in harmonics. The delicate.
harmonics are produced by collisions of the vocal folds with
themselves, by recirculation of some of the air back through
the trachea, or both.[35] Some singers can isolate some of 1.2.4 History
those harmonics in a way that is perceived as singing in
more than one pitch at the same timea technique called Etymology
overtone singing or throat singing such as in the tradition of
Tuvan throat singing. Vocal cords [American spelling] or vocal chords [UK] are
terms commonly used to refer to the vocal folds, or vo-
cal aps. The term was coined by the French anatomist
1.2.3 Clinical signicance Antoine Ferrein in 1741. In his violin analogy of the human
voice, he postulated that the moving air acted like a bow
Wound healing on cordes vocales.[45] The alternative spelling in English is
'vocal chords, possibly due to the musical connotations or
Wound healing is a natural regeneration process of dermal to confusion with the geometrical denition of the word
and epidermal tissue involving a sequence of biochemical "chord". While both spellings have historical precedents,
[46]
events. These events are complex and can be categorized standard American spelling is 'vocal cords. According to
into three stages: inammation, proliferation and tissue the Oxford English Corpus, a database of 21st-century texts
remodeling.[36] The study on vocal fold wound healing is that contains everything from academic journal articles to
not as extensive as that on animal models due to the limited unedited writing and blog entries, contemporary writers opt
availability of human vocal folds. Vocal fold injuries can for the nonstandard 'chords instead of 'cords 49% of the
[47][48]
have a number of causes including chronic overuse, chemi- time. The 'vocal cords spelling is also standard in the
cal, thermal and mechanical trauma such as smoking, laryn- United Kingdom and Australia.
geal cancer, and surgery. Other benign pathological phe-
nomena like polyps, vocal fold nodules and edema will also
introduce disordered phonation.[37] 1.2.5 See also
Any injury to human vocal folds elicits a wound heal- This article uses anatomical terminology; for an overview,
ing process characterized by disorganized collagen depo- see Anatomical terminology.
sition and, eventually, formation of scar tissue.[38][39][40][41]
Verdolini[42] and her group sought to detect and describe
acute tissue response of injured rabbit VF model. They Adams apple
quantied the expression of two biochemical markers:
interleukin 1 and prostaglandin E2, which are associated Electroglottograph
with acute wound healing. They found the secretions of
these inammatory mediators were signicantly elevated Falsetto
when collected from injured VF versus normal VF. This Vocal cord dysfunction
result was consistent with their previous study about the
function of IL-1 and PGE-2 in wound healing.[42][43] In- Vocology
1.2. VOCAL FOLDS 13

Articulatory phonetics [3] Maton, Anthea; Hopkins, Jean; McLaughlin, Charles

William; Johnson, Susan; Warner, Maryanna Quon; LaHart,
Laryngospasm David; Wright, Jill D. (1993). Human Biology and Health.
Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-981176-1.

1.2.6 Additional images [4] Fuks, Leonardo (1998). From Air to Music: Acousti-
cal, Physiological and Perceptual Aspects of Reed Wind
Instrument Playing and Vocal-Ventricular Fold Phonation.
Stockholm, Sweden. Archived from the original on 2009-
12-27. Retrieved 2010-01-05.

[5] Gray SD (August 2000). Cellular physiology of the vo-

cal folds. Otolaryngol. Clin. North Am. 33 (4): 67998.
Vocal folds. PMID 10918654.

[6] Briggaman RA, Wheeler CE (August 1975). Epidermol-

ysis bullosa dystrophica-recessive: a possible role of an-
choring brils in the pathogenesis. J. Invest. Derma-
tol. 65 (2): 20311. PMID 1151111. doi:10.1111/1523-
1747.ep12598208.

[7] Sato K, Hirano M (January 1997). Age-related changes of

elastic bers in the supercial layer of the lamina propria of
vocal folds. Ann. Otol. Rhinol. Laryngol. 106 (1): 448.
Coronal section of larynx and upper PMID 9006361. doi:10.1177/000348949710600109.
part of trachea.
[8] Linda Rammage; M D Morrison; Hamish Nichol, Manage-
ment of the voice and its disorders, published by:: Singu-
lar/Thomson Learning, San Diego, CA ,2001, 269-270.

[9] Hammond TH, Zhou R, Hammond EH, Pawlak A, Gray

SD (March 1997). The intermediate layer: a morphologic
study of the elastin and hyaluronic acid constituents of nor-
mal human vocal folds. J Voice. 11 (1): 5966. PMID
9075177. doi:10.1016/s0892-1997(97)80024-0.
The entrance to the larynx, [10] Pawlak AS, Hammond T, Hammond E, Gray SD (January
viewed from behind. 1996). Immunocytochemical study of proteoglycans in vo-
cal folds. Ann. Otol. Rhinol. Laryngol. 105 (1): 611.
PMID 8546427.

[11] Hirano, M; Kakita, Y (1985). Cover-body theory of vo-

cal fold vibration. In Danilo, Raymond. Speech science:
recent advances. Speech, language, and hearing science.
College-Hill Press. ISBN 978-0-933014-95-4. Archived
from the original on 2017-09-05.

Muscles of the larynx, seen from [12] Gray SD, Titze IR, Alipour F, Hammond TH (Jan-
uary 2000). Biomechanical and histologic observations
above.
of vocal fold brous proteins. Ann. Otol. Rhi-
nol. Laryngol. 109 (1): 7785. PMID 10651418.
doi:10.1177/000348940010900115.

1.2.7 References [13] Sato K, Hirano M, Nakashima T (January 2002). Age-

related changes of collagenous bers in the human vocal fold
[1] Titze IR (January 2008). The human instrument. mucosa. Ann. Otol. Rhinol. Laryngol. 111 (1): 1520.
Sci. Am. 298 (1): 94101. PMID 18225701. PMID 11800365. doi:10.1177/000348940211100103.
doi:10.1038/scienticamerican0108-94.
[14] Sato K, Hirano M, Nakashima T (May 2001). Fine struc-
[2] Titze, Ingo R. (1994). Principles of Voice Production. Pren- ture of the human newborn and infant vocal fold mucosae.
tice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-717893-3. Archived from the Ann. Otol. Rhinol. Laryngol. 110 (5 Pt 1): 41724. PMID
original on 2017-09-05. 11372924.
14
[15] Ward PD, Thibeault SL, Gray SD (September 2002).
Hyaluronic acid: its role in voice. J Voice. 16 (3): 3039.
PMID 12395982. doi:10.1016/s0892-1997(02)00101-7.
[16] Chan RW, Gray SD, Titze IR (June 2001). The importance
of hyaluronic acid in vocal fold biomechanics. Otolaryn-
gol Head Neck Surg. 124 (6): 60714. PMID 11391249.
doi:10.1067/mhn.2001.115906.
[17] Schweinfurth JM, Thibeault SL (September 2008).
Does hyaluronic acid distribution in the larynx re-
late to the newborns capacity for crying?". Laryn-
goscope. 118 (9): 16929. PMID 18596477.
doi:10.1097/MLG.0b013e3181782754.
[18] Hahn MS, Teply BA, Stevens MM, Zeitels SM, Langer R
(March 2006). Collagen composite hydrogels for vocal fold
lamina propria restoration. Biomaterials. 27 (7): 11049.
PMID 16154633. doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2005.07.022.
[19] Hirano, M., S. Kurita, and T. Nakashima. Vocal fold phys-
iology : contemporary research and clinical issues. in Vo-
cal Fold Physiology, Conference. 1981. San Diego, Calif.:
College-Hill Press.
[20] Hammond TH, Gray SD, Butler J, Zhou R, Hammond
E (October 1998). Age- and gender-related elastin dis-
tribution changes in human vocal folds. Otolaryngol
Head Neck Surg. 119 (4): 31422. PMID 9781983.
doi:10.1016/s0194-5998(98)70071-3.
[21] Sato K, Hirano M (July 1995). Histologic investigation of
the macula ava of the human newborn vocal fold. Ann.
Otol. Rhinol. Laryngol. 104 (7): 55662. PMID 7598369.
doi:10.1177/000348949510400710.
[22] Boseley ME, Hartnick CJ (October 2006). Development
of the human true vocal fold: depth of cell layers and quan-
tifying cell types within the lamina propria. Ann. Otol.
Rhinol. Laryngol. 115 (10): 7848. PMID 17076102.
doi:10.1177/000348940611501012.
[23] Hartnick CJ, Rehbar R, Prasad V (January 2005). Devel-
opment and maturation of the pediatric human vocal fold
lamina propria. Laryngoscope. 115 (1): 415. PMID
15630357. doi:10.1097/01.mlg.0000150685.54893.e9.
[24] Sato K, Hirano M (February 1995). Histologic investiga-
tion of the macula ava of the human vocal fold. Ann.
Otol. Rhinol. Laryngol. 104 (2): 13843. PMID 7857016.
doi:10.1177/000348949510400210.
[25] Sato K, Nakashima T, Nonaka S, Harabuchi Y (June 2008).
Histopathologic investigations of the unphonated human
vocal fold mucosa. Acta Otolaryngol. 128 (6): 694701.
PMID 18568507. doi:10.1080/00016480701675643.
[26] Titze IR, Hitchcock RW, Broadhead K, et al. (October
2004). Design and validation of a bioreactor for engineer-
ing vocal fold tissues under combined tensile and vibrational
stresses. J Biomech. 37 (10): 15219. PMID 15336927.
doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2004.01.007.
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[27] Rios OA, Duprat Ade C, Santos AR (2008).
Immunohistochemical searching for estrogen and
progesterone receptors in women vocal fold epithelia. Braz
J Otorhinolaryngol. 74 (4): 48793. PMID 18852972.
Archived from the original on 2014-08-12.
[28] Newman SR, Butler J, Hammond EH, Gray SD (March
2000). Preliminary report on hormone receptors in the hu-
man vocal fold. J Voice. 14 (1): 7281. PMID 10764118.
doi:10.1016/s0892-1997(00)80096-x.
[29] Hirano M, Kurita S, Sakaguchi S (1989). Ageing
of the vibratory tissue of human vocal folds. Acta
Otolaryngol. 107 (5-6): 42833. PMID 2756834.
doi:10.3109/00016488909127535.
[30] Nelson, J.F. (1995). The potential role of selected en-
docrine systems in aging processes. Comprehensive Phys-
iology. Wiley Online Library. doi:10.1002/cphy.cp110115.
Archived from the original on 2014-08-09.
[31] Bentley JP, Brenner RM, Linstedt AD, et al. (Novem-
ber 1986). Increased hyaluronate and collagen biosynthe-
sis and broblast estrogen receptors in macaque sex skin.
J. Invest. Dermatol. 87 (5): 66873. PMID 3772161.
doi:10.1111/1523-1747.ep12456427.
[32] Lucero, J.C. (1995). The minimum lung pressure to sustain
vocal fold oscillation. Journal of the Acoustical Society of
America. 98: 779784. doi:10.1121/1.414354.
[33] Titze IR (April 1988). The physics of small-amplitude os-
cillation of the vocal folds. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 83 (4):
153652. PMID 3372869. doi:10.1121/1.395910.
[34] George NA, de Mul FF, Qiu Q, Rakhorst G, Schutte
HK (May 2008). Depth-kymography: high-speed cali-
brated 3D imaging of human vocal fold vibration dynam-
ics. Phys Med Biol. 53 (10): 266775. PMID 18443389.
doi:10.1088/0031-9155/53/10/015.
[35] Ingo Titze, University of Iowa.
[36] Stadelmann WK, Digenis AG, Tobin GR (August 1998).
Physiology and healing dynamics of chronic cutaneous
wounds. Am. J. Surg. 176 (2A Suppl): 26S38S. PMID
9777970. doi:10.1016/S0002-9610(98)00183-4.
[37] Wallis L, Jackson-Menaldi C, Holland W, Giraldo A (March
2004). Vocal fold nodule vs. vocal fold polyp: an-
swer from surgical pathologist and voice pathologist point
of view. J Voice. 18 (1): 1259. PMID 15070232.
doi:10.1016/j.jvoice.2003.07.003.
[38] Rosen CA (October 2000). Vocal fold scar: evaluation and
treatment. Otolaryngol. Clin. North Am. 33 (5): 10816.
PMID 10984771.
[39] Hirano S, Bless DM, Rousseau B, et al. (March 2004). Pre-
vention of vocal fold scarring by topical injection of hepato-
cyte growth factor in a rabbit model. Laryngoscope. 114
(3): 54856. PMID 15091233. doi:10.1097/00005537-
200403000-00030.
1.3. GLOTTIS
[40] Peled ZM, Chin GS, Liu W, Galliano R, Longaker MT (Oc-
tober 2000). Response to tissue injury. Clin Plast Surg.
27 (4): 489500. PMID 11039884.
[41] Longaker MT, Chiu ES, Adzick NS, Stern M, Harrison MR,
Stern R (April 1991). Studies in fetal wound healing. V.
A prolonged presence of hyaluronic acid characterizes fetal
wound uid. Ann. Surg. 213 (4): 2926. PMC 1358347
. PMID 2009010. doi:10.1097/00000658-199104000-
00003.
[42] Branski RC, Rosen CA, Verdolini K, Hebda PA (January
2004). Markers of wound healing in vocal fold secre-
tions from patients with laryngeal pathology. Ann. Otol.
Rhinol. Laryngol. 113 (1): 239. PMID 14763567.
doi:10.1177/000348940411300105.
[43] Branski RC, Rosen CA, Verdolini K, Hebda PA (June
2005). Biochemical markers associated with acute vocal
fold wound healing: a rabbit model. J Voice. 19 (2): 283
9. PMID 15907442. doi:10.1016/j.jvoice.2004.04.003.
[44] Hansen JK, Thibeault SL (March 2006). Current un-
derstanding and review of the literature: vocal fold scar-
ring. J Voice. 20 (1): 11020. PMID 15964741.
doi:10.1016/j.jvoice.2004.12.005.
[45] Ferrein, Antoine (1741). De la formation de la voix de
l'homme. Mmoires de l' Acadmie Royale (in French).
Paris: Bondot: 409432.
[46] Wilson, Kenneth G. (1993). The Columbia Guide to Stan-
dard American English. Archived from the original on 2008-
01-13.
[47] Zimmer, Ben (2007-10-18). Are We Giving Free Rei(g)n
to New Spellings?". OUPblog. Oxford University Press.
Archived from the original on 2009-01-31. Retrieved 2008-
11-13.
[48] National Dictionary Day. ABC News. 2007-10-16.
Archived from the original on 2008-12-18. Retrieved 2008-
11-13.
1.2.8 Bibliography
Davids, Julia and Stephen A. LaTour. Vocal Tech-
nique: A Guide for Conductors, Teachers, and Singers.
Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press, 2012. 1.3.3
1.2.9 External links
National Center for Voice and Speechs ocial website
Lewcock, Ronald, et al. Acoustics: The
Voice. In Grove Music Online (by subscription)/
http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/
article/grove/music/00134pg6
15
1.3 Glottis
The glottis is dened as the opening between the vocal folds
[1]
(the rima glottidis).[2]
1.3.1 Structure
1.3.2 Function
Phonation
Main article: Phonation
As the vocal folds vibrate, the resulting vibration produces
a buzzing quality to the speech, called voice or voicing or
pronunciation.
Sound production that involves moving the vocal folds close
together is called glottal.[3] English has a voiceless glottal
transition spelled h. This sound is produced by keeping
the vocal folds spread somewhat, resulting in turbulent air-
ow through the glottis.[3] In many accents of English the
glottal stop (made by pressing the folds together) is used as a
variant allophone of the phoneme /t/ (and in some dialects,
occasionally of /k/ and /p/); in some languages, this sound
is a phoneme of its own.
Skilled players of the Australian didgeridoo restrict their
glottal opening in order to produce the full range of timbres
available on the instrument.[4]
The vibration produced is an essential component of voiced
consonants as well as vowels. If the vocal folds are drawn
apart, air ows between them causing no vibration, as in the
production of voiceless consonants.
The glottis is also important in the valsalva maneuver.
Voiced consonants include /v/, /z/, //, /d/, //, /b/,
/d/, //, /w/.
Voiceless consonants include /f/, /s/, //, /t/,
//, /p/,
/t/, /k/, //, and /h/.
Additional images
1.3.4 References
[1] Ladefoged, Peter. 2006. A course in Phonetics. UCLA.
[2] WebMD (2009). glottis. Websters New World Medical
Dictionary (3rd ed.). Houghton Miin Harcourt. p. 178.
ISBN 978-0-544-18897-6.
[3] Hayes, Bruce (2009). Introductory Phonology. Wiley-
Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-8411-3.
16 CHAPTER 1. ANATOMY

[4] Tarnopolsky, Alex; Fletcher, Neville; Hollenberg, Lloyd;

Lange, Benjamin; Smith, John; Wolfe, Joe (2005). Acous-
tics: The vocal tract and the sound of a didgeridoo. Na-
ture. 436 (7047): 39. Bibcode:2005Natur.436...39T. PMID
16001056. doi:10.1038/43639a.

1.3.5 External links

States of the Glottis (Esling & Harris, University of
Victoria)
Universitt Stuttgart Speech production

De Menezes Lyra, Roberto (1999). Glottis Sim-

ulator. Anesthesia & Analgesia. 88 (6): 1422
3. PMID 10357358. doi:10.1213/00000539-
199906000-00044.
Chapter 2

Teaching

2.1 Passaggio used by classical singers, the registers will be discussed as

they are in the eld of singing rather than speech pathology
For the Italian villages located in Umbria, see Passaggio and science.
(Bettona) and Passaggio di Assisi. Most voices can be divided roughly into three main
registers.[4]
Passaggio is a term used in classical singing to describe the
transition area between the vocal registers. The passaggi 1. Head
(plural) of the voice lie between the dierent vocal regis-
ters, such as the chest voice, where any singer can produce 2. Middle or mixed
a powerful sound, the middle voice, and the head voice,
3. Chest
where a powerful and resonant sound is accessible, but usu-
ally only through vocal training. The historic Italian school
of singing describes a primo passaggio and a secondo pas- All voice types, male and female, have these three main
saggio connected through a zona di passaggio in the male registers. The registers are named for the area in which the
voice and the a primo passaggio and secondo passaggio in singer feels the vibration of the tone in the body. The chest
the female voice. A major goal of classical voice training register, more commonly referred to as the chest voice, is
in classical styles is to maintain an even timbre throughout the lowest of the registers. When singing in the chest voice
the passaggio. Through proper training, it is possible to pro- the singer feels sympathetic vibration in the chest. This is
duce a resonant and powerful sound. the register that people most commonly use while speaking.
The middle voice falls in-between the chest voice and head
voice. The head register, or the head voice, is the highest of
2.1.1 Vocal registers the main vocal registers. When singing in the head voice,
the singer may feel sympathetic vibration occurring in the
One cannot adequately discuss the vocal passaggio with- face or another part of the head. Where these registers lie
out having a basic understanding of the dierent vocal in the voice [5]
is dependent on sex and the voice type within
registers. In his book The Principles of Voice Produc- each sex.
tion, Ingo Titze states, The term register has been used In addition to these three main registers, men and women
to describe perceptually distinct regions of vocal quality often have an additional register specic to their sex. Men
that can be maintained over some ranges of pitch and have a falsetto register, which lies above the head regis-
loudness.[1] When discussing vocal registration, it is im- ter. Women have a ageolet register, or the ute regis-
portant to note that discrepancies in terminology exist be- ter, which also lies above their head register.[6] This reg-
tween dierent elds of vocal study, such as teachers and ister is also known as the whistle register.[7] Both men and
singers, researchers, and clinicians. As Marilee David women, women even more so than men, often require train-
points out, Voice scientists see registration primarily as ing to easily access the pitches within these registers. Men
acoustic events.[2] For singers, it is more common to ex- and women with lower voices rarely sing in these registers.
plain registration events based on the physical sensations Lower voiced women in particular receive very little if any
they feel when singing. Titze also explains that there are dis- training in the ageolet register. Men have one more ad-
crepancies in the terminology used to talk about vocal regis- ditional register called the strohbass, which lies below the
tration between speech pathologists and singing teachers.[3] chest voice. Singing in this register is hard on the vocal
Since this article discusses the passaggio, which is a term cords, and therefore, is hardly ever used.[8]

17
18 CHAPTER 2. TEACHING

The transitions between these registers are known as the Female voices
passaggi.
The register ranges for a generic soprano voice, as given
by Richard Miller in Training Soprano Voices, are as
2.1.2 Register ranges follows:[14]

Male voices
Chest G3 to E-at4
Here are the register ranges oered by Richard Miller for a Middle (or mixed) E-at4 to F-sharp5
lyric tenor:[9]
Lower Middle E-at4 to C-sharp5
Strohbass G2 to C3 Upper Middle C-sharp5 to F-sharp5
Chest C3 to G3
Head F-sharp5 to C6 or C-sharp6
Middle (or mixed) G3 to G4
Flageolet D6 or D-sharp6 to the highest negotiable
Lower Middle G3 to D4 pitches
Upper Middle D4 to G4
Head G4 to C5 The register ranges for a mezzo-soprano voice are as
follows:[15]
Falsetto C5 to G5 (F5)
Chest E3 or F3 to E4 or F4
Miller describes the lower middle voice as being made up of
a mixture of predominantly chest voice with a small amount Middle (or mixed) C4 to E5 or F5
of head voice. The upper middle he describes as a mixture
of predominantly head voice with a small amount of chest Lower Middle C4 to B-at4 or B4
voice.[10] This concept holds true for all voice types both Upper Middle B4 to E5 or F5
male and female. Men have 3 registers separated by 2 pas-
saggi. Each registers image and shape can be expressed Head F5 or F-sharp5 to B-at5 or B5
with the shape of a V. (3 Vs, or a double hour glass are
acceptable images). Men have 2 passaggi for open vowels Flageolet C6 and up
and one passaggio for closed vowels.[11]
[16]
Tenor voices are the highest of the male voice types, with The register ranges for a contralto voice are as follows:
the exception of the countertenor voice, which makes much
greater use of the falsetto register. Baritones are the next Chest D3 to G4 or A-at4
lowest voice after tenors, and they are followed by bass-
baritones, and then basses. As a result of their lower voices, Middle (or mixed) F4 to D5
the ranges for these parts will be lower than that of the Lower Middle F4 to A4
ranges listed for tenor above.
Upper Middle B-at4 to D5
Richard Miller does not provide a break down of registers
for the three lower voice parts in his book Securing Baritone, Head E-at5 to A-at5
Bass-Baritone, and Bass Voices or in his book The Structure
of Singing: System and Art in Vocal Technique, nor does he Flageolet A5
give any indication of their overall ranges capabilities. Ox-
ford Music Online states the range a Baritone will typically The dierence between ranges for dierent female voice
sing in an opera is A to F-sharp.[12] They do not indicate types are relatively small, but it is these small dierences
which A or F-sharp; however, it can be assumed, since a that often determine a singers voice type. There are some
baritones range is lower than that of a tenor, that the A is areas where the registers appear to overlap. The notes in
A2 and the F-sharp is F-sharp4. It should be noted that bari- these areas can be sung in either the chest voice or the mid-
tones are capable of reaching notes higher than F-sharp4 dle voice, depending on the singer. This requires training
and lower than A2. The same is true of Oxford Music On- and control. It is better to sing these notes with a mixture of
lines proposed range for bass voices, which it lists are E to chest voice and head voice. Bringing the chest voice up too
E or F.[13] The rst E is probably referring to E2 and the far can be very damaging to the female voice.[17] Where the
second as E4 or F4. main register changes occur are the notes of the passaggi.
2.1. PASSAGGIO
Voice types and passaggi
The transitions between the registers are known as the pas-
saggi in classical singing. There are several other common
names for the passaggio. Lift is a word used in some
schools of voice training to describe the passaggio.[18] One
of the most common terms for the passaggio is the break.
Marilee David in her book The New Voice Pedagogy ex-
plains, The area where the voice must change registers are
often called breaks because the untrained voice appears to
break into a new type of production. This break is a sudden
gap in sound which occurs when the thyroarytenoid muscles
suddenly decrease their activity and the cricothyroid mus-
cles begin to function. A skillful transition of this muscular
activity is one of the marks of the trained singer.[19] David
does a wonderful job describing the science behind passag-
gio, however the term break, while used frequently during
commercial styles of singing, such as pop, rock, country,
etc., is usually avoided in classical training. As Miller states,
Register terminology should be carefully chosen. 'Breaks
and 'lifts may well refer to existing register phenomena in a
voice, but psychologically they tend to point up the division
between registers rather than their unication.[20]
Lucero et al. [21] have proposed another theory for the pro-
duction of voice breaks in terms of the acoustic interaction
between the vocal fold oscillation and the vocal tract reso-
nances (formant). The interaction may cause frequency and Here are the passaggi for tenor voices, as proposed by
amplitude jumps when the fundamental frequency of the Miller:[28]
oscillation or a harmonics crosses through a formant. The
occurrence of such jumps depends on the cross-sectional Tenorino:
area of the epilarynx, which couples the larynx to the down-
stream vocal tract, and is facilitated by a narrower area.
Voice Specialist Ingo Titze explains, Register changes
may occur voluntarily or involuntarily.[22] For all singers,
mainly classical, negotiating the passaggi can be dicult
and can take years to learn how to accomplish well. Classi-
cal voice training aims to provide the singer with the tools
necessary to move through the passaggi so that the transition
between registers sounds seamless and will be unrecogniz-
able to the audience. In his many books on developing the
dierent male and female voice types, Richard Miller gives
many exercises for developing the registers and the transi-
tions between them.
Male voices In Richard Millers The Structure of Singing:
System and Art in Vocal Technique, Miller identies the
male vocal passaggi as follows:[23]
1. The primo passaggio
2. The secondo passaggio
3. The zona di passaggio
19
The primo passaggio is the rst register transition. In the
male voice Miller indicates that this passaggio occurs be-
tween the lower middle register, which is a mixture of pre-
dominantly chest voice and some head voice, and the upper
middle register, which is a mixture of predominantly head
voice and some chest voice.[24] It is important to note that
the primo passaggio is not agreed upon by all voice special-
ists. As James Stark notes in Bel Canto: A History of Vocal
Pedagogy, Richard Miller, who visited numerous Italian
voice studios, describes male voices as having a primo pas-
saggio and a secondo passaggio, with a zona di passaggio
between them. However, he cites not published literature
regarding this theory, and most written sources discuss only
one passaggio in male voices... and two passaggi in females
(one between chest and middle, and one between middle
and head registers).[25] While the number of passaggi in
men appears up for debate, most everyone seems to agree
on the existence of at least one passaggio. The most often
discussed passaggio in published works is what Miller calls
the secondo passaggio, which lies between the upper mid-
dle voice and the head voice.[26] Because of the discrepancy
surrounding the primo passaggio, Millers zona di passaggio
is also up for debate. Miller describes the zona di passaggio
as the area between the primo passaggio and the secondo
passaggio, which he says is an area that needs to be negoti-
ated carefully.[27]
Primo passaggio E4
Secondo passaggio A4
Tenore leggiero (tenore di grazia):
Primo passaggio E-at4
Secondo passaggio A-at4
Spieltenor:
Primo passaggio E-at4 or D4
'Secondo passaggio A-at4 or G4
Tenore lirico:
Primo passaggio D4
Secondo passaggio G4
Tenore lirico spinto:
Primo passaggio C-sharp4
Secondo passaggio F-sharp4
Tenore robusto, tenore drammatico:
20 CHAPTER 2. TEACHING

Primo passaggio C4 Soprano:

Secondo passaggio F4 Primo passaggio E-at4
Heldentenor: Secondo passaggio F-sharp5
Primo passaggio C4 or B-at3 Mezzo-soprano:
'Secondo passaggio F4 or E-at4
Primo passaggio E4 or F4

Here are the passaggi for baritone, bass-baritone, and bass Secondo passaggio E5 or F5
voices, as proposed by Miller:[29] Contralto:

Lyric baritone: Primo passaggio G4 or A-at4

Secondo passaggio D5
Primo passaggio B3
Secondo passaggio E4
Here is an example of a female classical singer who
Dramatic (Verdi) baritone: seamlessly negotiates both of the passaggi: https://www.
youtube.com/watch?v=e1KVUzC1M4g
Primo passaggio B-at3
Secondo passaggio E-at4
2.1.3 References
Bass-baritone:
Notes
Primo passaggio A3
Secondo passaggio D4 [1] Ingo R. Titze, The Principles of Voice Production, Second
Printing (Iowa City: National Center for Voice and Speech,
Lyric bass: 2000) 282.

Primo passaggio A-at3 [2] Marilee David, The New Voice Pedagogy, 2nd ed. (Lan-
Secondo passaggio D-at4 ham, MD: The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2008) 59.

Basso profondo: [3] Ingo R. Titze, The Principles of Voice Production, Second
Printing (Iowa City: National Center for Voice and Speech,
Primo passaggio G3 2000) 281.

Secondo passaggio C4
Female voices In the same book, The Structure of
Singing: System and Art in Vocal Technique, Miller iden-
ties the female vocal passaggi as follows:[30]
[4] Richard Miller, The Structure of Singing: System and Art in
Vocal Technique (New York: Schirmer Books: A Division
of Macmillan, Inc., 1986) 115-149.
[5] Miller, Richard (1986). The Structure of Singing. New York,
NY: Schirmer Books. p. 115. ISBN 002872660X.

[6] Richard Miller, The Structure of Singing: System and Art in

1. The primo passaggio
2. The secondo passaggio
Unlike the male passaggi, the two female passaggi are
widely agreed upon. In his book The Structure of Singing:
System and Art in Vocal Technique, Miller also posits,
Many sopranos experience an additional pivotal point mid-
way in the long middle register around C-sharp5 with lower-
middle register lying below that pitch, and upper-middle
register lying above it.[31]
Vocal Technique (New York: Schirmer Books: A Division
of Macmillan, Inc., 1986) 115-149.
[7] Marilee David, The New Voice Pedagogy, 2nd ed. (Lan-
ham, MD: The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2008) 63.
[8] Richard Miller, The Structure of Singing: System and Art in
Vocal Technique (New York: Schirmer Books: A Division
of Macmillan, Inc., 1986) 125.
[9] Richard Miller, Training Tenor Voices (New York:
Schirmer Books, 1993) 7.

Here are the passaggi for female voices, as proposed by [10] Richard Miller, Training Tenor Voices (New York:
Miller:[32] Schirmer Books, 1993) 7.
2.1. PASSAGGIO
[11] Oswald, Mark. Teaching Philosophy. Mark Oswald As-
sociate Teachers. Jennifer Gliere. Retrieved September 14,
2016.
[12] Baritone, in Oxford Music Online (Oxford University
Press, 2014), accessed December 7, 2014, http://www.
oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/opr/t237/e846?
q=baritone&search=quick&pos=2&_start=1#firsthit.
[13] Basso, in Oxford Music Online (Oxford University
Press, 2014), accessed December 7, 2014, http://www.
oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/opr/t237/e923
[14] Richard Miller, Training Soprano Voices (New York: Ox-
ford University Press, 2000) 117.
[15] Richard Miller, The Structure of Singing: System and Art in
Vocal Technique (New York: Schirmer Books: A Division
of Macmillan, Inc., 1986) 135.
[16] Richard Miller, The Structure of Singing: System and Art in
Vocal Technique (New York: Schirmer Books: A Division
of Macmillan, Inc., 1986) 135.
[17] Marilee David, The New Voice Pedagogy, 2nd ed. (Lan-
ham, MD: The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2008) 65.
[18] Richard Miller, Training Soprano Voices (New York: Ox-
ford University Press, 2000) 119.
[19] Marilee David, The New Voice Pedagogy, 2nd ed. (Lan-
ham, MD: The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2008) 70.
[20] Richard Miller, The Structure of Singing: System and Art in
Vocal Technique (New York: Schirmer Books: A Division
of Macmillan, Inc., 1986) 115.
[21] Lucero, Jorge C.; Loureno, Klem G.; Hermant, Nicolas;
Hirtum, Annemie Van; Pelorson, Xavier (2012). Eect
of sourcetract acoustical coupling on the oscillation on-
set of the vocal folds. The Journal of the Acoustical So-
ciety of America. 132 (1): 403411. ISSN 0001-4966.
doi:10.1121/1.4728170.
[22] Ingo R. Titze, The Principles of Voice Production, Second
Printing (Iowa City: National Center for Voice and Speech,
2000) 282.
[23] Richard Miller, The Structure of Singing: System and Art in
Vocal Technique (New York: Schirmer Books: A Division
of Macmillan, Inc., 1986) 116.
[24] Richard Miller, Training Tenor Voices (New York:
Schirmer Books, 1993) 7.
[25] James Stark, Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Pedagogy (Buf-
falo: University of Toronto Press, 2003) 83.
[26] Richard Miller, Training Tenor Voices (New York:
Schirmer Books, 1993) 7.
[27] Richard Miller, Training Tenor Voices (New York:
Schirmer Books, 1993) 7.
21
[28] Richard Miller, Training Tenor Voices (New York:
Schirmer Books, 1993) 9-13.
[29] Richard Miller, Securing Baritone, Bass-Baritone, and Bass
Voices (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008) 9.
[30] Richard Miller, The Structure of Singing: System and Art in
Vocal Technique (New York: Schirmer Books: A Division
of Macmillan, Inc., 1986) 134-135.
[31] Richard Miller, The Structure of Singing: System and Art in
Vocal Technique (New York: Schirmer Books: A Division
of Macmillan, Inc., 1986) 142.
[32] Richard Miller, The Structure of Singing: System and Art in
Vocal Technique (New York: Schirmer Books: A Division
of Macmillan, Inc., 1986) 134-135.
Sources
Owen Jander, et al. Soprano. Grove Music
Online. Oxford Music Online. Oxford Uni-
versity Press, accessed September 15, 2016,
http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/
article/grove/music/26243.
Basso. In Oxford Music Online. Oxford Uni-
versity Press, 2014. Accessed December 7, 2014.
http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/
article/opr/t237/e923.
Baritone. In Oxford Music Online. Oxford Uni-
versity Press, 2014. Accessed December 7, 2014.
*http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/
article/opr/t237/e846?q=baritone&search=quick&
pos=2&_start=1#firsthit.
David, Marilee. The New Voice Pedagogy. 2nd ed.
Lanham, MD: The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2008.
Miller, Richard. Securing Baritone, Bass-Baritone,
and Bass Voices. New York: Oxford University Press,
2008.
Miller, Richard. The Structure of Singing: System and
Art in Vocal Technique. New York: Schirmer Books:
A Division of Macmillan, Inc., 1986.
Miller, Richard. Training Soprano Voices. New York:
Oxford University Press, 2000.
Miller, Richard. Training Tenor Voices. New York:
Schirmer Books, 1993.
Stark, James. Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Peda-
gogy. Bualo: University of Toronto Press, 2003.
Titze, Ingo R. The Principles of Voice Production.
Second Printing. Iowa City: National Center for Voice
and Speech, 2000.
22 CHAPTER 2. TEACHING

2.2 Vocal range 2.2.2 Vocal range and voice classication

Vocal range plays such an important role in classifying

This article is about voice categories in classical music.
singing voices into voice types that sometimes the two terms
For range of human vocal tones, see Voice classication in
are confused with one another. A voice type is a particu-
non-classical music.
lar kind of human singing voice perceived as having cer-
tain identifying qualities or characteristics; vocal range be-
Vocal range is the measure of the breadth of pitches that ing only one of those characteristics. Other factors are vocal
a human voice can phonate. Its most common application weight, vocal tessitura, vocal timbre, vocal transition points,
is within the context of singing, where it is used as a den- physical characteristics, speech level, scientic testing, and
ing characteristic for classifying singing voices into groups vocal registration. All of these factors combined are used to
known as voice types.[1] It is also a topic of study within categorize a singers voice into a particular kind of singing
linguistics, phonetics, and speech and language pathology, voice or voice type.[3]
particularly in relation to the study of tonal languages and
The discipline of voice classication developed within
certain types of vocal disorders, although it has little prac-
European classical music and is not generally applicable
tical application in terms of speech.
to other forms of singing. Voice classication is often
used within opera to associate possible roles with poten-
tial voices. There are several systems in use including
the German Fach system, the Italian opera tradition, and
2.2.1 Singing and the denition of vocal French opera tradition.[1] There are other systems of clas-
range sication as well, most commonly the choral music system.
No system is universally applied or accepted.[4] Most of the
While the broadest denition of vocal range is simply the voice types identied by such systems, however, are sub-
span from the lowest to the highest note a particular voice types that fall under seven dierent major voice categories
can produce, this broad denition is often not what is meant that are for the most part acknowledged across all of the ma-
when vocal range is discussed in the context of singing. jor voice classication systems.[4] Women are typically di-
Vocal pedagogists tend to dene the vocal range as the total vided into three main groups: soprano, mezzo-soprano, and
span of musically useful pitches that a singer can produce. contralto. Men are usually divided into four main groups:
This is because some of the notes a voice can produce may countertenor, tenor, baritone, and bass. When considering
not be considered usable by the singer within performance the pre-pubescent voices of children an eighth term, treble,
for various reasons.[2] For example, within opera all singers can be applied. Within each of these major categories there
must project over an orchestra without the aid of a micro- are several sub-categories that identify specic vocal quali-
phone. An opera singer would therefore only be able to in- ties like coloratura facility and vocal weight to dierentiate
clude the notes that they are able to adequately project over between voices.[1]
an orchestra within his or her vocal range. In contrast, a Vocal range itself does not determine a singers voice type.
pop artist could include notes that could be heard with the While each voice type does have a general vocal range as-
aid of a microphone. sociated with it, human singing voices may possess vocal
Another factor to consider is the use of dierent forms of ranges that encompass more than one voice type or are in
vocal production. The human voice is capable of produc- between the typical ranges of two voice types. Therefore,
ing sounds using dierent physiological processes within voice teachers use vocal range as only one factor among
the larynx. These dierent forms of voice production are many in classifying a singers voice.[2] More important than
known as vocal registers. While the exact number and def- range in voice classication is tessitura, or where the voice
inition of vocal registers is a controversial topic within the is most comfortable singing, and vocal timbre, or the char-
eld of singing, the sciences identify only four registers: acteristic sound of the singing voice.[1] For example, a fe-
the whistle register, the falsetto register, the modal regis- male singer may have a vocal range that encompasses the
ter, and the vocal fry register. Typically only the usable high notes of a mezzo-soprano and the low notes of a so-
pitches within the modal registerthe register used in nor- prano. A voice teacher would therefore look to see whether
mal speech and most singingare included when deter- the singer were more comfortable singing higher, or lower.
mining singers vocal ranges. There are exceptions,[1] as in If the singer were more comfortable singing higher, then
opera, where countertenors employ falsetto and coloratura the teacher would probably classify her as a soprano. The
sopranos use the whistle register; notes from these registers teacher would also consider the sound of the voice; sopra-
would therefore be included in the vocal ranges of these nos tend to have a lighter and less rich vocal sound than
voices.[2] a mezzo-soprano. A voice teacher, however, would never
2.3. VOCAL PEDAGOGY 23

classify a singer in more than one voice type, regardless of 2.2.4 References
the size of the vocal range of the singer.[2]
[1] McKinney, James (1994). The Diagnosis and Correction of
Within the operatic systems of classication, there are six Vocal Faults. Genovex Music Group. ISBN 978-1-56593-
basic voice types. The ranges given below are approxima- 940-0.
tions and are not meant to be too rigidly applied.[5]
[2] Appelman, D. Ralph (1986). The Science of Vocal Ped-
agogy: Theory and Application. Indiana University Press.
Soprano: the highest female voice, being able to sing ISBN 978-0-253-20378-6.
C4 (middle C) to C6 (high C), and possibly higher.
[3] Shewan, Robert (JanuaryFebruary 1979). Voice Classi-
cation: An Examination of Methodology. The NATS Bul-
Mezzo-soprano: a female voice between A3 (A below
letin. 35: 1727.
middle C) and A5 (2nd A above middle C).
[4] Stark, James (2003). Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Peda-
Contralto: the lowest female voice, F3 (F below mid- gogy. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-8614-
dle C) to E5 . Rare contraltos possess a range similar 3.
to the tenor.
[5] Peckham, Anne (2005). Vocal Workouts for the Contem-
porary Singer. Berklee Press Publications. ISBN 978-0-
Tenor: the highest male voice, B2 (2nd B below middle 87639-047-4.
C) to A4 (A above Middle C), and possibly higher.
[6] Smith, Brenda (2005). Choral Pedagogy. Plural Publishing,
Inc. ISBN 978-1-59756-043-6.
Baritone: a male voice, G2 (two Gs below middle C)
to F4 (F above middle C).
2.2.5 External links
Bass: the lowest male voice, E2 (two Es below middle
C) to E4 (the E above middle C). A history of vocal denition

Accurate average vocal ranges

Some men, in falsetto voice or as a result of certain rare
physiological conditions, can sing in the same range as Singing Voice
women. These do not fall into the female categories, in-
stead called countertenors within classical music. Within National Center for Voice and Speechs ocial website
contemporary music, however, the use of the term tenor
The Voice Foundations ocial website
for these male voices would be more appropriate.[2]
Within choral music there are only four categories for adult Extensive vocal range demonstration on YouTube,
singers. First, for women: soprano and alto, and for men: Georgia Brown
tenor and bass.[6]
In England, the term male alto refers to a man who uses
falsetto vocal production to sing in the alto section of a cho- 2.3 Vocal pedagogy
rus. This practice is much less common outside the UK
where the term countertenor is more often applied. Coun- For instrumental technique, see Musical technique.
tertenors are also widely employed within opera as solo vo-
calists, though the term male alto is never used to refer to
Vocal pedagogy is the study of the art and science of voice
a solo vocalist.
instruction. It is used in the teaching of singing and assists in
Childrens voices, both male and female, are described as dening what singing is, how singing works, and how proper
trebles, although boy soprano is widely used as well.[1] singing technique is accomplished.
Vocal pedagogy covers a broad range of aspects of singing,
ranging from the physiological process of vocal produc-
2.2.3 See also tion to the artistic aspects of interpretation of songs from
dierent genres or historical eras. Typical areas of study
Ambitus include:[1]

Voice classication in non-classical music

24 CHAPTER 2. TEACHING

Human anatomy and physiology as it relates to the

physical process of singing.
Breathing and air support for singing
Posture for singing
Phonation
Vocal resonation or voice projection
Diction, vowels and articulation
Vocal registration
Sostenuto and legato for singing
Other singing elements, such as range extension, tone
quality, vibrato, coloratura
Vocal health and voice disorders related to singing
Vocal styles, such as learning to sing opera, belt, or Art
song
Phonetics
Pythagoras, the man in the center with the book, teaching music, in
Voice classication The School of Athens by Raphael

All of these dierent concepts are a part of developing

proper vocal technique. Not all vocal teachers have the monastic system included vocal resonance, voice classica-
same opinions within every topic of study which causes tion, breath support, diction, and tone quality to name a few.
variations in pedagogical approaches and vocal technique. The ideas developed within the monastic system highly in-
uenced the development of vocal pedagogy over the next
several centuries including the Bel Canto style of singing.[2]
2.3.1 History
With the onset of the Renaissance in the 15th century, the
Within Western culture, the study of vocal pedagogy be- study of singing began to move outside of the church. The
gan in Ancient Greece. Scholars such as Alypius and courts of rich patrons, such as the Dukes of Burgundy who
Pythagoras studied and made observations on the art of supported the Burgundian School and the Franco-Flemish
singing. It is unclear, however, whether the Greeks ever de- School, became secular centers of study for singing and all
veloped a systematic approach to teaching singing as little other areas of musical study. The vocal pedagogical meth-
writing on the subject survives today.[2] ods taught in these schools, however, were based on the con-
The rst surviving record of a systematized approach to cepts developed within the monastic system. Many of the
teaching singing was developed in the medieval monasteries teachers within these schools had their initial musical train-
of the Roman Catholic Church sometime near the begin- ing from singing in church choirs as children. The church
ning of the 13th century. As with other elds of study, the also remained at the forefront of musical composition at
monasteries were the center of musical intellectual life dur- this time and remained highly inuential in shaping musi-
ing the medieval period and many men within the monas- cal tastes and practices both in and outside the church. It
teries devoted their time to the study of music and the art was the Catholic Church that rst popularized the use of
of singing. Highly inuential in the development of a vo- castrato singers in the 16th century, which ultimately led to
cal pedagogical system were monks Johannes de Garlan- the popularity of castrato voices in Baroque and Classical
dia and Jerome of Moravia who were the rst to develop a operas.[3]
concept of vocal registers. These men identied three regis- It was not until the development of opera in the 17th cen-
ters: chest voice, throat voice, and head voice (pectoris, gut- tury that vocal pedagogy began to break away from some of
toris, and capitis). Their concept of head voice, however, is the established thinking of the monastic writers and develop
much more similar to the modern pedagogists understand- deeper understandings of the physical process of singing
ing of the falsetto register. Other concepts discussed in the and its relation to key concepts like vocal registration and
2.3. VOCAL PEDAGOGY 25

vocal resonation. It was also during this time, that noted

voice teachers began to emerge. Giulio Caccini is an ex-
ample of an important early Italian voice teacher.[2] In the
late 17th century, the bel canto method of singing began to
develop in Italy. This style of singing had a huge impact
on the development of opera and the development of vocal
pedagogy during the Classical and Romantic periods. It was
during this time, that teachers and composers rst began to
identify singers by and write roles for more specic voice
types. However, it wasn't until the 19th century that more
clearly dened voice classication systems like the German
Fach system emerged. Within these systems, more descrip-
tive terms were used in classifying voices such as coloratura
soprano and lyric soprano.[3]

Examining the vocal mechanism with a laryngoscope, late 19th cen-

tury

Voice teachers in the 19th century continued to train singers

for careers in opera. Manuel Patricio Rodrguez Garca is
often considered one of the most important voice teachers
of the 19th century, and is credited with the development of
the laryngoscope and the beginning of modern voice peda-
gogy.
The eld of voice pedagogy became more fully developed
in the middle of the 20th century. A few American voice
teachers began to study the science, anatomy, and physiol-
ogy of singing, especially Ralph Appelman at Indiana Uni-
versity, Oren Brown at the Washington University School
of Medicine and later the Juilliard School, and William
Vennard at the University of Southern California. This
shift in approach to the study of singing led to the rejec-
tion of many of the assertions of the bel canto singing
method, most particularly in the areas of vocal registra-
tion and vocal resonation.[4] As a result, there are currently
two predominating schools of thought among voice teach-
ers today, those who maintain the historical positions of the
bel canto method and those who choose to embrace more
contemporary understandings based in current knowledge
of human anatomy and physiology. There are also those
Mathilde Marchesi was both an important singer and teacher of
singing at the turn of the 20th century.
teachers who borrow ideas from both perspectives, creating
a hybrid of the two.[5][6]
Appelman and Vennard were also part of a group of voice
instructors who developed courses of study for beginning
voice teachers, adding these scientic ideas to the standard
exercises and empirical ways to improve vocal technique,
and by 1980 the subject of voice pedagogy was beginning
to be included in many college music degree programs for
singers and vocal music educators.[4]
More recent works by authors such as Richard Miller and
Johan Sundberg have increased the general knowledge of
voice teachers, and scientic and practical aspects of voice
pedagogy continue to be studied and discussed by profes-
26 CHAPTER 2. TEACHING

sionals. In addition, the creation of organisations such as 3. The vocal resonators receive the sound and inuence
the National Association of Teachers of Singing (now an it
international organization of Vocal Instructors) has enabled
voice teachers to establish more of a consensus about their 4. The articulators shape the sound into recognizable
work, and has expanded the understanding of what singing units
teachers do.[1][7]
Although these four processes are to be considered sepa-
rately, in actual practice they merge into one coordinated
2.3.2 Topics of study function. With an eective singer or speaker, one should
rarely be reminded of the process involved as their mind
Pedagogical philosophy and body are so coordinated that one only perceives the re-
sulting unied function. Many vocal problems result from
There are basically three major approaches to vocal peda- a lack of coordination within this process.[6]
gogy, all related to how the mechanistic and psychological
controls are employed within the act of singing. Some voice
instructors advocate an extreme mechanistic approach that
believes that singing is largely a matter of getting the right
physical parts in the right places at the right time, and that
correcting vocal faults is accomplished by calling direct at-
tention to the parts which are not working well. On the
other extreme, is the school of thought that believes that
attention should never be directed to any part of the vocal
mechanismthat singing is a matter of producing the right
mental images of the desired tone, and that correcting vo-
cal faults is achieved by learning to think the right thoughts
and by releasing the emotions through interpretation of the
music. Most voice teachers, however, believe that the truth
lies somewhere in between the two extremes and adopt a
composite of those two approaches.[8]

The nature of vocal sounds A labeled anatomical diagram of the vocal folds or cords.

Respiration In its most basic sense, respiration is the pro-

cess of moving air in and out of the bodyinhalation and
exhalation. Breathing for singing and speaking is a more
controlled process than is the ordinary breathing used for
sustaining life. The controls applied to exhalation are par-
ticularly important in good vocal technique.[6]

Phonation Phonation is the process of producing vocal

sound by the vibration of the vocal folds that is in turn mod-
ied by the resonance of the vocal tract.[9][10] It takes place
in the larynx when the vocal folds are brought together and
breath pressure is applied to them in such a way that vibra-
tion ensues causing an audible source of acoustic energy,
i.e., sound, which can then be modied by the articula-
Physiology of vocal sound production There are four tory actions of the rest of the vocal apparatus. The vocal
physical processes involved in producing vocal sound: folds are brought together primarily by the action of the
respiration, phonation, resonation, and articulation. These interarytenoid muscles, which pull the arytenoid cartilages
processes occur in the following sequence: together.[1]

1. Breath is taken
Resonation Main article: Vocal resonation
2. Sound is initiated in the larynx Vocal resonation is the process by which the basic product
2.3. VOCAL PEDAGOGY 27

of phonation is enhanced in timbre and/or intensity by the

air-lled cavities through which it passes on its way to the
outside air. Various terms related to the resonation process
include amplication, enrichment, enlargement, improve- Places of articulation (passive & active):
ment, intensication, and prolongation, although in strictly 1. Exo-labial, 2. Endo-labial, 3. Dental, 4. Alveolar, 5. Post-
alveolar, 6. Pre-palatal, 7. Palatal, 8. Velar, 9. Uvular, 10.
scientic usage acoustic authorities would question most of
Pharyngeal, 11. Glottal, 12. Epiglottal, 13. Radical, 14. Postero-
them. The main point to be drawn from these terms by a
dorsal, 15. Antero-dorsal, 16. Laminal, 17. Apical, 18. Sub-
singer or speaker is that the end result of resonation is, or apical
should be, to make a better sound.[1]
There are seven areas that may be listed as possible vocal
resonators. In sequence from the lowest within the body to the human voice and other musical instruments. Singing
the highest, these areas are the chest, the tracheal tree, the without understandable words limits the voice to nonver-
larynx itself, the pharynx, the oral cavity, the nasal cavity, bal communication.[8] In relation to the physical process
and the sinuses.[8] of singing, vocal instructors tend to focus more on active
Research has shown that the larynx, the pharynx and the articulation as opposed to passive articulation. There are
oral cavity are the main resonators of vocal sound, with the ve basic active articulators: the lip ("labial consonants"),
nasal cavity only coming into play in nasal consonants, or the exible front of the tongue ("coronal consonants"), the
nasal vowels, such as those found in French. This main middle/back of the tongue ("dorsal consonants"), the root
resonating space, from above the vocal folds to the lips is of the tongue together with the epiglottis ("pharyngeal con-
known as the vocal tract. Many voice users experience sonants"), and the glottis ("glottal consonants"). These ar-
sensations in the sinuses that may be misconstrued as res- ticulators can act independently of each other, and two or
onance. However, these sensations are caused by sympa- more may work together in what is called coarticulation.
thetic vibrations, and are a result, rather than a cause, of Unlike active articulation, passive articulation is a contin-
ecient vocal resonance.[7] uum without many clear-cut boundaries. The places lin-
guolabial and interdental, interdental and dental, dental and
Articulation Main article: Place of articulation alveolar, alveolar and palatal, palatal and velar, velar and
Articulation is the process by which the joint product uvular merge into one another, and a consonant may be pro-
of the vibrator and the resonators is shaped into recog- nounced somewhere between the named places.
nizable speech sounds through the muscular adjustments In addition, when the front of the tongue is used, it may be
and movements of the speech organs. These adjustments the upper surface or blade of the tongue that makes contact
and movements of the articulators result in verbal com- ("laminal consonants"), the tip of the tongue ("apical con-
munication and thus form the essential dierence between sonants"), or the under surface ("sub-apical consonants").
28 CHAPTER 2. TEACHING

These articulations also merge into one another without Body Alignment
clear boundaries.
The singing process functions best when certain physical
conditions of the body exist. The ability to move air in and
Interpretation Interpretation is sometimes listed by out of the body freely and to obtain the needed quantity
voice teachers as a fth physical process even though strictly of air can be seriously aected by the body alignment of
speaking it is not a physical process. The reason for this is the various parts of the breathing mechanism. A sunken
that interpretation does inuence the kind of sound a singer chest position will limit the capacity of the lungs, and a
makes which is ultimately achieved through a physical ac- tense abdominal wall will inhibit the downward travel of
tion the singer is doing. Although teachers may acquaint the diaphragm. Good body alignment allows the breath-
their students with musical styles and performance practices ing mechanism to fulll its basic function eciently with-
and suggest certain interpretive eects, most voice teachers out any undue expenditure of energy. Good body alignment
agree that interpretation can not be taught. Students who also makes it easier to initiate phonation and to tune the res-
lack a natural creative imagination and aesthetic sensibility onators as proper alignment prevents unnecessary tension
can not learn it from someone else. Failure to interpret well in the body. Voice Instructors have also noted that when
is not a vocal fault, even though it may aect vocal sound singers assume good body alignment it often provides them
signicantly.[1] with a greater sense of self-assurance and poise while per-
forming. Audiences also tend to respond better to singers
with good body alignment. Habitual good body alignment
Classication of vocal sounds Vocal sounds are divided also ultimately improves the overall health of the body by
into two basic categories-vowels and consonants-with a enabling better blood circulation and preventing fatigue and
wide variety of sub-classications. Voice Teachers and seri- stress on the body.[5]
ous voice students spend a great deal of time studying how
the voice forms vowels and consonants, and studying the
problems that certain consonants or vowels may cause while Breathing and breath support
singing. The International Phonetic Alphabet is used fre-
quently by voice teachers and their students.[8] In the words of Robert C. White, who paraphrased a
Credo for singing:

Problems in describing vocal sounds Describing vocal In the Beginning there was Breath, and
sound is an inexact science largely because the human voice Singing was with Breath, and Singing was Breath,
is a self-contained instrument. Since the vocal instrument is and Singing was Breath. And all singing was
internal, the singers ability to monitor the sound produced made by the Breath, and without Breath was not
is complicated by the vibrations carried to the ear through any Singing made that was made. (White 1988,
the Eustachean (auditory) tube and the bony structures of p. 26)
the head and neck. In other words, most singers hear some-
thing dierent in their ears/head than what a person listen-
All singing begins with breath. All vocal sounds are created
ing to them hears. As a result, voice teachers often focus
by vibrations in the larynx caused by air from the lungs.
less on how it sounds and more on how it feels. Vibra-
Breathing in everyday life is a subconscious bodily func-
tory sensations resulting from the closely related processes
tion which occurs naturally, however the singer must have
of phonation and resonation, and kinesthetic ones arising
control of the intake and exhalation of breath to achieve
from muscle tension, movement, body position, and weight
maximum results from their voice.
serve as a guide to the singer on correct vocal production.
Natural breathing has three stages: a breathing-in period,
Another problem in describing vocal sound lies in the vocal
a breathing-out period, and a resting or recovery period;
vocabulary itself. There are many schools of thought within
these stages are not usually consciously controlled. Within
vocal pedagogy and dierent schools have adopted dier-
singing there are four stages of breathing:
ent terms, sometimes from other artistic disciplines. This
has led to the use of a plethora of descriptive terms applied
to the voice which are not always understood to mean the 1. breathing-in period (inhalation)
same thing. Some terms sometimes used to describe a qual-
2. setting up controls period (suspension)
ity of a voices sound are: warm, white, dark, light, round,
reedy, spread, focused, covered, swallowed, forward, ring- 3. controlled exhalation period (phonation)
ing, hooty, bleaty, plummy, mellow, pear-shaped, and so
forth.[6] 4. recovery period
2.3. VOCAL PEDAGOGY 29

These stages must be under conscious control by the singer blues, soul, country, folk, and rock styles. There is cur-
until they become conditioned reexes. Many singers aban- rently no authoritative voice classication system within
don conscious controls before their reexes are fully condi- non-classical music.[14] Attempts have been made to adopt
tioned which ultimately leads to chronic vocal problems.[11] classical voice type terms to other forms of singing but such
attempts have been met with controversy. The develop-
ment of voice categorizations were made with the under-
Voice classication standing that the singer would be using classical vocal tech-
nique within a specied range using unamplied (no micro-
Main articles: Voice type and Voice classication in phones) vocal production. Since contemporary musicians
non-classical music use dierent vocal techniques, microphones, and are not
forced to t into a specic vocal role, applying such terms
In European classical music and opera, voices are treated as soprano, tenor, baritone, etc. can be misleading or even
[6]
like musical instruments. Composers who write vocal mu- inaccurate.
sic must have an understanding of the skills, talents, and
vocal properties of singers. Voice classication is the pro-
Dangers of quick identication Many voice teachers
cess by which human singing voices are evaluated and are
warn of the dangers of quick identication. Premature con-
thereby designated into voice types. These qualities include
cern with classication can result in misclassication, with
but are not limited to: vocal range, vocal weight, vocal tessi-
all its attendant dangers. Vennard says:
tura, vocal timbre, and vocal transition points such as breaks
and lifts within the voice. Other considerations are physi- I never feel any urgency about classifying a beginning
cal characteristics, speech level, scientic testing, and vocal student. So many premature diagnoses have been proved
registration.[12] The science behind voice classication de- wrong, and it can be harmful to the student and embarrass-
veloped within European classical music and has been slow ing to the teacher to keep striving for an ill-chosen goal. It
in adapting to more modern forms of singing. Voice classi- is best to begin in the middle part of the voice and work
[5]
cation is often used within opera to associate possible roles upward and downward until the voice classies itself.
with potential voices. There are currently several dierent Most voice teachers believe that it is essential to establish
systems in use within classical music including: the German good vocal habits within a limited and comfortable range
Fach system and the choral music system among many oth- before attempting to classify the voice. When techniques of
ers. No system is universally applied or accepted.[3] posture, breathing, phonation, resonation, and articulation
However, most classical music systems acknowledge seven have become established in this comfortable area, the true
dierent major voice categories. Women are typically quality of the voice will emerge and the upper and lower
divided into three groups: soprano, mezzo-soprano, and limits of the range can be explored safely. Only then can a
contralto. Men are usually divided into four groups: tentative classication be arrived at, and it may be adjusted
countertenor, tenor, baritone, and bass. When consider- as the voice continues to develop.[8] Many acclaimed voice
ing childrens voices, an eighth term, treble, can be ap- instructors suggest that teachers begin by assuming that a
plied. Within each of these major categories there are sev- voice is of a medium classication until it proves otherwise.
eral sub-categories that identify specic vocal qualities like The reason for this is that the majority of individuals possess
coloratura facility and vocal weight to dierentiate between medium voices and therefore this approach is less likely to
voices.[1] misclassify or damage the voice.[1]
It should be noted that within choral music, singers voices
are divided solely on the basis of vocal range. Choral music Vocal registration
most commonly divides vocal parts into high and low voices
within each sex (SATB). As a result, the typical choral sit- Main article: Vocal registration
uation aords many opportunities for misclassication to
occur.[1] Since most people have medium voices, they must Vocal registration refers to the system of vocal registers
be assigned to a part that is either too high or too low for
within the human voice. A register in the human voice is
them; the mezzo-soprano must sing soprano or alto and the a particular series of tones, produced in the same vibratory
baritone must sing tenor or bass. Either option can present
pattern of the vocal folds, and possessing the same quality.
problems for the singer, but for most singers there are fewer
Registers originate in laryngeal function. They occur be-
dangers in singing too low than in singing too high.[13] cause the vocal folds are capable of producing several dif-
Within contemporary forms of music (sometimes referred ferent vibratory patterns. Each of these vibratory patterns
to as Contemporary Commercial Music), singers are clas- appears within a particular range of pitches and produces
sied by the style of music they sing, such as jazz, pop, certain characteristic sounds.[15] The term register can be
30 CHAPTER 2. TEACHING

somewhat confusing as it encompasses several aspects of However, many voice instructors disagree with this distinc-
the human voice. The term register can be used to refer to tion of boundaries blaming such breaks on vocal problems
any of the following:[1] which have been created by a static laryngeal adjustment
that does not permit the necessary changes to take place.
A particular part of the vocal range such as the upper, This dierence of opinion has eected the dierent views
middle, or lower registers. on vocal registration.[1]
A resonance area such as chest voice or head voice.
Coordination
A phonatory process
A certain vocal timbre Singing is an integrated and coordinated act and it is dif-
cult to discuss any of the individual technical areas and
A region of the voice which is dened or delimited by processes without relating them to the others. For example,
vocal breaks. phonation only comes into perspective when it is connected
A subset of a language used for a particular purpose with respiration; the articulators aect resonance; the res-
or in a particular social setting. onators aect the vocal folds; the vocal folds aect breath
control; and so forth. Vocal problems are often a result of
In linguistics, a register language is a language which com- a breakdown in one part of this coordinated process which
bines tone and vowel phonation into a single phonological causes voice teachers to frequently focus in, intensively, on
system. one area of the process with their student until that issue
is resolved. However, some areas of the art of singing are
Within speech pathology the term vocal register has three so much the result of coordinated functions that it is hard
constituent elements: a certain vibratory pattern of the vo- to discuss them under a traditional heading like phonation,
cal folds, a certain series of pitches, and a certain type of resonation, articulation, or respiration.
sound. Speech pathologists identify four vocal registers
based on the physiology of laryngeal function: the vocal Once the voice student has become aware of the physical
fry register, the modal register, the falsetto register, and the processes that make up the act of singing and of how those
whistle register. This view is also adopted by many teachers processes function, the student begins the task of trying to
of singing.[1] coordinate them. Inevitably, students and teachers will be-
come more concerned with one area of the technique than
Some voice teachers, however, organize registers dier- another. The various processes may progress at dierent
ently. There are over a dozen dierent constructs of vocal rates, with a resulting imbalance or lack of coordination.
registers in use within the eld. The confusion which ex- The areas of vocal technique which seem to depend most
ists concerning what a register is, and how many registers strongly on the students ability to coordinate various func-
there are, is due in part to what takes place in the modal tions are:[1]
register when a person sings from the lowest pitches of that
register to the highest pitches. The frequency of vibration
1. Extending the vocal range to its maximum potential
of the vocal folds is determined by their length, tension, and
mass. As pitch rises, the vocal folds are lengthened, tension 2. Developing consistent vocal production with a consis-
increases, and their thickness decreases. In other words, all tent tone quality
three of these factors are in a state of ux in the transition
from the lowest to the highest tones.[15] 3. Developing exibility and agility
If a singer holds any of these factors constant and inter- 4. Achieving a balanced vibrato
feres with their progressive state of change, his laryngeal
function tends to become static and eventually breaks oc-
cur with obvious changes of tone quality. These breaks are Developing the singing voice Some consider that singing
often identied as register boundaries or as transition areas is not a natural process but is a skill that requires highly de-
between registers. The distinct change or break between veloped muscle reexes, but others consider that some ways
registers is called a passaggio or a ponticello.[16] Vocal in- of singing can be considered as natural.[17] Singing does not
structors teach that with study a singer can move eortlessly require much muscle strength but it does require a high de-
from one register to the other with ease and consistent tone. gree of muscle coordination. Individuals can develop their
Registers can even overlap while singing. Teachers who like voices further through the careful and systematic practice
to use this theory of blending registers usually help stu- of both songs and vocal exercises. Voice teachers instruct
dents through the passage from one register to another by their students to exercise their voices in an intelligent man-
hiding their lift (where the voice changes). ner. Singers should be thinking constantly about the kind
2.3. VOCAL PEDAGOGY 31

of sound they are making and the kind of sensations they it refers to mental concepts of depth as related to tone
are feeling while they are singing.[6] quality.

Exercising the singing voice There are several purposes McKinney says, These three factors can be expressed in
for vocal exercises, including:[1] three basic rules: (1) As you sing higher, you must use more
energy; as you sing lower, you must use less. (2) As you
sing higher, you must use more space; as you sing lower,
1. Warming up the voice
you must use less. (3) As you sing higher, you must use
2. Extending the vocal range more depth; as you sing lower, you must use less.[1]

3. Lining up the voice horizontally and vertically

General music studies
4. Acquiring vocal techniques such as legato, staccato,
control of dynamics, rapid gurations, learning to Some voice teachers will spend time working with their stu-
comfortably sing wide intervals, and correcting vocal dents on general music knowledge and skills, particularly
faults. music theory, music history, and musical styles and prac-
tices as it relates to the vocal literature being studied. If
required they may also spend time helping their students
Extending the vocal range An important goal of vocal
become better sight readers, often adopting solfge, which
development is to learn to sing to the natural limits of ones
assigns certain syllables to the notes of the scale.
vocal range without any obvious or distracting changes of
quality or technique. Voice instructors teach that a singer
can only achieve this goal when all of the physical processes Performance skills and practices
involved in singing (such as laryngeal action, breath support,
resonance adjustment, and articulatory movement) are ef- Since singing is a performing art, voice teachers spend some
fectively working together. Most voice teachers believe that of their time preparing their students for performance. This
the rst step in coordinating these processes is by establish- includes teaching their students etiquette of behavior on
ing good vocal habits in the most comfortable tessitura of stage such as bowing, addressing problems like stage fright
the voice rst before slowly expanding the range beyond or nervous tics, and the use of equipment such as micro-
that.[5] phones. Some students may also be preparing for careers
There are three factors which signicantly aect the ability in the elds of opera or musical theater where acting skills
to sing higher or lower: are required. Many voice instructors will spend time on act-
ing techniques and audience communication with students
in these elds of interest. Students of opera also spend a
1. The Energy Factor In this usage the word energy has
great deal of time with their voice teachers learning foreign
several connotations. It refers to the total response of
language pronunciations.
the body to the making of sound. It refers to a dy-
namic relationship between the breathing-in muscles
and the breathing-out muscles known as the breath 2.3.3 See also
support mechanism. It also refers to the amount of
breath pressure delivered to the vocal folds and their Human voice
resistance that pressure, and it refers to the dynamic
level of the sound. Voice teacher

2. The Space Factor Space refers to the amount of

space created by the moving of the mouth and the po- 2.3.4 References
sition of the palate and larynx. Generally speaking,
a singers mouth should be opened wider the higher [1] McKinney, James (1994). The Diagnosis and Correction of
they sing. The internal space or position of the soft Vocal Faults. Genovex Music Group. ISBN 978-1-56593-
palate and larynx can be widened by the relaxing of 940-0.
the throat. Voice teachers often describe this as feel- [2] The New Grove Dictionary of Music & Musicians. Edited
ing like the beginning of a yawn. by Stanley Sadie, Volume 6. Edmund to Fryklund. ISBN
1-56159-174-2, Copyright Macmillan 1980.
3. The Depth Factor In this usage the word depth has
two connotations. It refers to the actual physical sen- [3] Stark, James (2003). Bel Canto: A history of vocal pedagogy.
sations of depth in the body and vocal mechanism and University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-8614-3.
32
[4] Gurnee, Robert T. (1986). In Memoriam: William D. Ven-
nard. The NATS Bulletin.
[5] Vennard, William (1967). Singing: the mechanism and the
technic. Carl Fischer Music. ISBN 978-0-8258-0055-9.
[6] Appelman, Dudley Ralph (1986). The science of vocal ped-
agogy: theory and application. Indiana University Press. p.
434. ISBN 0-253-35110-3.
[7] Miller, Richard (1986). The Structure of Singing. Schirmer
Books. ISBN 0-02-872660-X.
[8] Greene Margaret, Mathieson Lesley (2001). The voice and
its disorders (6th ed.). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 1-86156-
196-2.
[9] Titze, I. R. (2008). The human instrument. Sci.Am. 298
(1):94101. PM 18225701
[10] Titze, I.R. (1994). Principles of Voice Production, Prentice
Hall (currently published by NCVS.org), ISBN 978-0-13-
717893-3.
[11] Sundberg, Johan (JanuaryFebruary 1993). Breathing Be-
havior During Singing. The NATS Journal. 49: 29, 4951.
[12] Shewan, Robert (JanuaryFebruary 1979). Voice classi-
cation: An examination of methodology. The NATS Bul-
letin. 35: 1727.
[13] Smith, Brenda (2005). Choral pedagogy. Plural Publishing.
ISBN 1-59756-043-X.
[14] Peckham Anne (2005). Vocal workouts for the contempo-
rary singer. Berklee Press. p. 117. ISBN 0-87639-047-5.
[15] Large, John (FebruaryMarch 1972). Towards an inte-
grated physiologic-acoustic theory of vocal registers. The
NATS Bulletin. 28: 3035.
[16] John Warrack, Ewan West. The Oxford Dictionary of
Opera, ISBN 0-19-869164-5
[17] About. Natural Voice Practitioners Network. Retrieved
16 April 2016. For thousands of years all over the world
people have sungto express joy, celebration and grief, to
aid healing, to accompany work, devotion and the rituals of
lifewithout worrying about having a good voice or getting
it right.
2.3.5 External links
Books on vocal pedagogy
Historical vocal pedagogy
National Association of Teachers of Singing
Articles & Guidance for Singing Better
Vocapedia, NATS-sponsored comprehensive database Power, Source and Filter: Estill Voice Training partitions
on singing and vocal pedagogy the vocal system into the three components power, source
CHAPTER 2. TEACHING
2.3.6 Sources
Thurman, Leon; Welch, ed., Graham (2000). Body-
mind & voice: Foundations of voice education (revised
ed.). Collegeville, Minnesota: The VoiceCare Net-
work et al. ISBN 0-87414-123-0.
2.4 Estill Voice Training
Estill Voice Training (often abbreviated EVT) is a
programme for developing vocal skills based on decon-
structing the process of vocal production into control of spe-
cic structures in the vocal mechanism.[1] By acquiring the
ability to consciously move each structure the potential for
controlled change of voice quality is increased.[2]
British speech and language therapist Sara Harris writes:
The work allows singing/voice teachers,
voice coaches, and speech and language ther-
apists to identify and resolve specic vocal
problems that have resulted in fatigue or damage
to the vocal folds. Many of the manoeuvers are
already familiar to speech therapists as they have
been adapted from traditional techniques but
synthesized into an extremely creative system.
The application of the system to dysphonic pa-
tients produces excellent results and the therapist
will gain great condence in their own voice use
having mastered the manoeuvres and qualities
themselves.
Sara Harris, The Voice Clinic Handbook,
Speech Therapy for Dysphonia pp 171172
The system was established in 1988[3] by American singing
voice specialist Jo Estill,[4] who had been researching in
this eld since 1979.[5][6] Estills research led to a series of
vocal manoeuvres to develop specic control over individ-
ual muscle groups within the vocal mechanism.[7][8][9][10]
Soto-Morettini quotes Estill as saying the great strength of
her method is that it can be used for any style of music,[11]
and speech and language therapists describe the exercises as
valuable to voice therapy as well as singing,[12] in both pro-
fessional and non-professional voice use,[7] oering an ap-
proach for therapeutic intervention.[13] Estill Voice Train-
ing is a trademark of Estill Voice International, LLC.
2.4.1 Operating principles
2.4. ESTILL VOICE TRAINING 33

and lter[14] extending the existing source-lter model of lowered and lowered positions.[23] The thirteen Figures for
speech production. 'Power' is the source of energy produc- Voice are:
ing the sound (typically the respiratory system causing air to
be expelled from the lungs). 'Source' is the component that True Vocal Folds: Onset/Oset Control
vibrates to create the sound waves (the vocal folds). 'Filter'
is the shaping of the sound waves to create the nal result False Vocal Folds Control
(the vocal tract).[15] The focus of Estill Voice Training is on
the source and lter components of the vocal system and the True Vocal Folds: Body-Cover Control
interactions between them.[16]
Thyroid Cartilage Control
Craft, Artistry and Performance Magic: Estill Voice
Training separates the use of voice into the 'craft' of having Cricoid Cartilage Control
control over the vocal mechanism, the 'artistry' of expres-
sion relative to the material and context, and the 'perfor- Larynx Control
mance magic' of a speaker or singer connecting with their
audience.[17][18] Estill Voice Training has a focus on the Velum Control
'craft' aspect and hence has also been known as Estill Voice
Craft by some practitioners.[3] Tongue Control

Eort Levels: Estill Voice Training uses the identica-
tion and quantication of the level of work or 'eort' re-
quired for speaking and singing to help develop kinesthetic
feedback.[7] This approach enables a speaker or singer to
recognize, locate and control the degree of eort involved
in voice production.[19]
Dynamical Systems Theory and Attractor States: The
human vocal system is extremely complex, involving inter-
actions between breath ow, moving structures, resonators
and so on. Estill Voice Training draws on a branch of ap-
plied mathematics known as dynamical systems theory that
helps to describe complex systems. One key concept Es-
till Voice Training takes from dynamical systems theory is
the notion that complex systems can have attractor states.
Attractor states are states to which a complex system tends
towards, or is attracted to, over time. When applied to the
human vocal system, Estill Voice Training proposes there
are congurations of the vocal system that are attractor
states, which the speaker or singer uses habitually or tend
towards.[20] For example, a subject whose attractor state is
for their velum (also known as the soft palate) to be in a
raised position may nd it requires more conscious eort
to create a nasal sound than someone else whose attractor
state is for their velum to be in the lowered position.
2.4.2 Figures for voice
In Estill Voice Training there are thirteen[10][21] vo-
cal exercises or 'Figures for Voice' (named after the
'compulsory gures' that gure skaters use to demonstrate
prociency).[7][22][8] Each exercise or 'gure' establishes
control over a specic structure of the vocal mechanism,
in isolation, by moving the structure through a number of
positions.[2] For example, the gure for velum (soft palate)
control involves moving the velum through raised, partially
Aryepiglottic Spincter Control
Jaw Control
Lips Control
Head and Neck Control
Torso Control
These Figures for Voice exercises have a focus basic
anatomy and vocal physiology, a knowledge of which helps
encourage deductions on reducing constriction and healthy
voice decisions.[24] Janice Chapman, the operatic singer,
voice teacher and researcher, writes Estill gures lead to
a much greater freedom and exibility in the demanding
work of the singer and actor.[8]
Figures for Voice are taught on the course 'Level One: Fig-
ures for Voice' that typically lasts three days. In addition
to the thirteen Figures for Voice, Estill Voice Training also
includes the 'Siren' exercise[25] where a sound is produced
across the entire vocal range.[26] Other gures are histori-
cally part of the model including vocal fold mass[7] which
is now part of true vocal fold body-cover control, vocal fold
plane[7] which is now part of true vocal folds body-cover
control and exercises for falsetto quality, and pharyngeal
width[2][27] which is now part of false vocal folds control
and head and neck control.
True Vocal Folds: Onset/Oset Control: In this gure
there are three options for coordinating expiration and vocal
fold closure:[28][29] glottal where the vocal folds are closed
before expiration, smooth where vocal fold closure is syn-
chronised with expiration, and aspirate where expiration
precedes vocal fold closure. Learning to produce and ap-
ply dierent onsets marks the beginning of control over the
vocal mechanism.[30]
34
False Vocal Folds Control: Estill Voice Training identi-
es three possible positions of the false vocal folds: con-
stricted, mid and retracted.[31] This gure is helpful in iden-
tication of glottal and ventricular constriction. Its con-
cepts and options are valuable to voice therapy as well as
singing.[12] The silent laugh technique, developed into an
exercise by Jo Estill, is widely cited as reducing false vocal
fold constriction.[32][33][23][34][35][36][37]
True Vocal Folds: Body-Cover Control: The 'body-
cover theory' of vocal fold structure was introduced by Hi-
rano in 1977.[38] This gure demonstrates the controlled
use of the vocal folds in four body-cover congurations:
on the thick edge, on the thin edge, in a sti mode, or
in a slack mode.[29][8][39] These body-cover congurations
change or modify the vibratory modes of the true vocal
folds and, within the dynamical system of the human voice,
eect the intensity of the sound produced and contribute
to what are commonly labeled as the dierent human vocal
registers.[40] This gure was formerly known as vocal fold
mass.[7][2]
Thyroid Cartilage Control: This gure demonstrates con-
trol of the position or tilt of the thyroid cartilage[2][27]
through engagement or disengagement of the cricothyroid
muscle.[41] The speaker or singer can tilt the thyroid car-
tilage by adopting the posture of crying or sobbing,[42]
or making a soft whimpering noise, like a small dog
whining.[43] In Estill Voice training, it is proposed that the
position of the thyroid cartilage inuences not only pitch
but also the quality and intensity of the sound produced.[41]
Cricoid Cartilage Control: This gure demonstrates con-
trol of the position of the cricoid cartilage. In Estill Voice
training it is proposed that specic positioning of the cricoid
cartilage is a typical part of the vocal set-up for shout-
ing and other high-intensity voice productions employing
higher subglottic pressure.[44]
Larynx Control: This gure trains raising and lowering
of the larynx[8] inuencing resonance. This gure was for-
merly known as the larynx height gure.
Velum Control: This gure trains the velum (also known
as the soft palate) and consists of exercises opening, par-
tially closing and completely closing the velopharyngeal
port to control the degree of nasality in the voice.[23][39] Di-
nah Harris writes, Estill has excellent exercises for learning
palatal control.[23]
Tongue Control: This gure demonstrates the inuences
of dierent tongue postures, such as compressed.[45][39] As
a practical example, Diane Sheets (Estill Voice Training
Certied Course Instructor) worked on the interaction of
tongue and larynx when dealing with the vocal problems of
Marty Roe, lead vocalist of Diamond Rio.[46] Control of the
tongue can have subtle resonance changes and give greater
CHAPTER 2. TEACHING
exibility to the range.[45]
Aryepiglottic Spincter Control: This gure demonstrates
the ability to control twang in the voice through conscious
anteroposterior narrowing of the aryepiglottic sphincter in
the upper epilarynx while avoiding constriction of the false
vocal folds.[47][48] Estill suggests that this laryngeal tube cre-
ates a separate resonator that is responsible for the extra
brightness in phonation.[49]
Jaw Control: The jaw gure demonstrates the subtle reso-
nance changes in voice production that are associated with
dierent positions or postures of the jaw.[50]
Lips Control: This gure demonstrates various lip pos-
tures employed by speakers and singers and their subtle im-
pact on vocal resonance through changing the length of the
vocal tract.[51]
Head and Neck Control: Head and neck anchoring in-
volves bracing the skeletal structures of the head and neck
gives a stable external framework for the smaller muscles
that control the vocal tract.[52]
Torso Control: Torso anchoring stabilises the body and
breath.[53][54] Gillyanne Kayes writes, 'Techniques for an-
choring the tone have been described over the centuries
by singers and teachers under a variety of names: support,
singing from the back, singing from the neck, appoggiare,
rooting, grounding and connecting the voice. In the Estill
training model, I believe these techniques have been cor-
rectly identied as postural anchoring.'[55]
2.4.3 Voice qualities
Estill Voice Training incorporates six 'voice qualities[56]
as mechanisms for demonstration of voice production con-
trol. The increased control developed through prociency
in the dierent Figures for Voice allows the singer or
speaker to manipulate the vocal mechanism specically to
produce these arbitrary voice qualities,[57] and variations
on them.[27] Essentially these voice qualities, such as 'Sob
Quality' and 'Belt Quality', are constructed from moving the
structures of the vocal mechanism into specic positions
or combinations. For example, Sob Quality includes a low
larynx position (the larynx gure) and thin vocal folds (the
true vocal fold body & cover gure).[43] The six voice qual-
ities are:[58]
Speech
Falsetto
Sob
Twang (Oral and Nasal variations)
Belting
2.4. ESTILL VOICE TRAINING 35

Opera Certicate of Figure Prociency (CFP) is awarded

Voice qualities are taught on the course 'Level Two: Figure
Combinations for Six Voice Qualities that typically lasts
two days.
Speech: Speech quality is often termed modal speech by
voice scientists or chest voice by singers.[59][60] Speech
quality includes thick vocal folds and a neutral larynx
position.[61]
Falsetto: In Estill Voice Training terminology, the term
falsetto has a meaning distinct from falsetto as a male vocal
register in Western classical terminology.[62]
to an individual who has attended the Estill Voice
Training Level One and Level Two courses, and
passed the Basic Options for Voice Control Exam
demonstrating performance of the Figures for Voice
exercises and six Estill voice qualities to the required
level of prociency.
Certied Master Teacher (CMT) qualies an indi-
vidual to teach Estill Voice Training within their pri-
vate studio or classroom. The certication is a two-
stage examination including written and voice control
components, and observed teaching.

Sob: Sob quality is a soft and dark sound, associated Certied Course Instructor (CCI) follows Certied
with the sobbing cry of an adult who mourns.[63][64] Sob Master Teacher, qualifying an individual to teach Es-
quality is produced on a lowered larynx and thinned vo- till Voice Training in public courses, seminars and
cal folds.[43] Sob quality releases glottal hyperadduction and conferences. The certication is a two-stage exami-
medial compression, lowers the larynx and releases pharyn- nation including written and oral components and ob-
geal constriction.[23] Mary Hammond says that young per- served presentations.
formers nd low larynx and sob quality less familiar.[65] Cry
quality is a permutation of sob quality adopting a higher la-
ryngeal position.[56] 2.4.5 Inuence, adoption and application
Twang: The key to twang quality is a narrowing of the epi- Estill Voice Training has been adopted by voice profession-
larynx via a narrowing or constriction of the aryepiglottic als worldwide and a list of certied instructors is published
sphincter.[66][27][67] Twang quality has been used by speak- by Estill Voice International.[72] Joan Melton describes the
ers and singer to boost vocal resonance or 'squillo' and is Estill Voice Training terminology as a part of the language
referred to as the speakers ring or singers formant.[66] The of singing teachers in Australia, with terms such as twang
quality is excellent when teaching safe shouting and at cut- and anchoring in common use, although the Estill language
ting through background noise, increasing clarity of the is heard somewhat less frequently in the UK and only oc-
voice, and is taught to both singers and actors to enable them casionally in the United States.[73] Freelance voice teacher
to be heard clearly in large auditoria without vocal strain.[49]
and speech and language therapist Christina Shewell writes,
Twang quality may be nasalized or oral, as dierentiated Estill Voice Training claries many of the complex vocal
by an open or closed velopharyngeal port.[47] Estill suggests tract options that shape the style of a singers voice, explain-
setting the vocal tract initially by imitating a cat yowling, ing and demonstrating dierent combinations of structural
ducks quacking, and other exercises.[49][66] conditions, and many singing teachers use the system as part
Opera: Opera quality is a complex set-up including a mix of their teaching.[74] The following list gives some exam-
of speech quality and twang quality with a tilted thyroid car- ples of the application of Estill Voice Training in a range of
tilage, lowered larynx.[67] disciplines:
Belting: Belting or belt quality is a complex setup com-
bining speech quality, twang quality, a tilted cricoid carti- Pop Singing: Maureen Scott is a Certied Mas-
lage and raised larynx.[67] Twang is an important compo- ter Teacher whose clients include Mika and The En-
nent in belt quality.[49] Gillyanne Kayes writes, 'Belting is emy.[10]
not harmful if you are doing it right. Jo Estill has described
Country Singing: Diane Sheets is a Certied Course
it as happy yelling.'[68] Belt quality also uses clavicular
Instructor whose clients have included Marty Roe of
breathing and has the longest closed phase[69] with the high-
Nashville Country Band Diamond Rio.[75]
est subglottic pressure and the greatest glottic resistance.[70]
Acting: Estill Voice Training has been integrated into
the training of actors at Mountview Academy of The-
2.4.4 Certication atre Arts in London.[76]

Estill Voice International governs the Estill Voice Training Musical Theatre: Faculty teaching on Musical The-
Certication Programme. There are three forms of Estill atre training courses reference their Estill Voice Train-
Voice Training certication available for individuals:[71] ing certication. Examples include Steven Chicurel,
36 CHAPTER 2. TEACHING

Certied Course Instructor with testing privileges and 2.4.7 Notes

service distinction, who is an associate professor of
theatre at the University of Central Florida,[77] and [1] Shewell 2009, p. 335.
Anne-Marie Speed, Certied Course Instructor with [2] Mathieson 2001, p. 495.
testing privileges and service distinction, who teaches
spoken voice on the Musical Theatre course at the [3] Estill Voice International, LLC 2010a.
Royal Academy of Music in London.[78]
[4] Shewell 2009, p. 143.
Educational Curriculum: Educational institutions [5] Estill & Colton 1979.
have adopted Estill Voice Training terminology and
exercises into their curriculum. Examples include [6] Colton & Estill 1979.
the Drama Centre at Flinders University in Adelaide,
[7] Harris et al. 1998, p. 171.
South Australia, where the Estill-based vocal tech-
nique is taught;[79][80] London College of Music in its [8] Chapman 2006, p. 257.
guidelines on the suggested development of vocal tech-
[9] Houseman 2002, p. 11.
nique, as part of the music theatre syllabus, uses Es-
till Voice Training terminology;[81] Motherwell Col- [10] Calvi 2007.
lege, Scotland, includes Estill Voice Training in its
BA Honours Musical Theatre and BA Honours Act- [11] Soto-Morettini 2006, p. xvi.
ing programmes;[82] and at the prestigious Bird Col- [12] Harris et al. 1998, p. 177.
lege in London.[76] and the Voice Performance and
Musical Theatre programmes at Mars Hill College, [13] Martin & Lockhart 2000, p. 100.
North Carolina, include Estill Voice Training in their [14] McDonald Klimek 2007.
curriculum.[17]
[15] Obert & Chicurel 2005, p. 8.
Clinical Voice Therapy: Dinah Harris, contributor
to The Voice Clinic Handbook, recommends learn- [16] Sundberg 1987, p. 92.
ing Estill Voice Training as it provides many useful [17] Tobolski 2002, p. 19.
tools for those working in a voice clinic.[83] Ratten-
bury, Carding and Finn present a study that used a [18] Estill 2010.
range of Figures for Voice exercises as prognostic in-
[19] Chapman 2006, pp. 6263.
dicators and voice therapy treatment techniques.[84]
[20] McDonald Klimek 2005a, p. 7.
Community Choirs: Thomas Lloyd, Artistic Di-
rector of the Bucks County Choral Society, writes [21] Golda 2010a, p. 29.
that he has seen and heard results related to sound,
[22] Chapman 2006, p. 73.
dynamic range, consistency of support, and vocal
color with [his] choirs, especially with [his] untrained [23] Harris et al. 1998, p. 232.
singers.[85]
[24] Olson 2001, p. 31.

Soto-Morettini writes that, 'although the Estill method can [25] Harris et al. 1998, p. 235.
be very complex, there are a number of simple things that [26] McDonald Klimek 2005a, p. 57.
students can learn quickly and that these simple things
can go a long way towards clearing up the confusion that [27] Harris et al. 1998, p. 172.
attends some vocal training.'[86]
[28] Harris et al. 1998, p. 233.

[29] Golda 2010b, p. 32.

2.4.6 Criticism
[30] Harris et al. 1998, p. 165.
Estill Voice Training has been criticised for not including [31] Shewell 2009, p. 165.
'breathing' and the related abdominal support within the
system, and some of the uses of anchoring for classical [32] Citardi, Yanagisawa & Estill 1996.
singing,[8][2] although Shewell cites Jo Estill as suggesting
[33] Kayes 2000, p. 14.
breath work as unnecessary if the Figures for Voice are well
practiced.[4] [34] Houseman 2002, p. 140.
2.4. ESTILL VOICE TRAINING
[35] Springer 2007.
[36] Mitchell et al. 2003, p. 177.
[37] Shewell 2009, pp. 333 and 337.
[38] Obert & Chicurel 2005, p. 22.
[39] Newham 1998, p. 68.
[40] McDonald Klimek 2005a, pp. 43.
[41] McDonald Klimek 2005a, pp. 5156.
[42] Speed 2001.
[43] Harris et al. 1998, p. 175.
[44] McDonald Klimek 2005a, pp. 5964.
[45] McDonald Klimek 2005a, pp. 7985.
[46] Diamond Rio 2009, pp. 240241.
[47] McDonald Klimek 2008, p. 95.
[48] Nair 1999, p. 64.
[49] Harris et al. 1998, p. 181.
[50] McDonald Klimek 2005a, pp. 9398.
[51] McDonald Klimek 2005a, pp. 99103.
[52] McDonald Klimek 2005a, p. 105.
[53] Kayes 2004, p. 75.
[54] Olson 2001, p. 32.
[55] Kayes 2000, p. 69.
[56] Kayes 2000, p. 153.
[57] Brown 1996, p. 180.
[58] Pinksterboer 2008, pp. 1089.
[59] McDonald Klimek 2005b, p. 11.
[60] Verdolini & Krebs 1999, p. 228.
[61] Kayes 2004, p. 157.
[62] Jungr 2002, p. 105.
[63] McDonald Klimek 2005b, p. 31.
[64] Houseman 2002, p. 138.
[65] Melton 2007, p. 79.
[66] Lombard & Steinhauer 2005, p. 295.
[67] Kayes 2004, p. 158.
[68] Kayes 2004, p. 163.
[69] Sundberg, Gramming & Lovetri 1991, p. 60.
37
[70] McNaughton 2002, p. 5.
[71] Estill Voice International, LLC 2010b.
[72] Estill Voice International, LLC 2010c.
[73] Melton 2007, p. 194.
[74] Shewell 2009, p. 483.
[75] Diamond Rio 2009, pp. 237244.
[76] Lipton & Reeve 2003.
[77] Bell & Chicurel 2008, p. 117.
[78] Royal Academy of Music 2010, p. 17.
[79] Flinders University 2008, pp. 3741.
[80] Flinders University 2010, p. 48.
[81] London College of Music 2009, pp. 2021.
[82] Motherwell College, p. 158.
[83] Harris et al. 1998, p. 236.
[84] Rattenbury, Carding & Finn 2004.
[85] Lloyd 2009, p. 17.
[86] Soto-Morettini 2006, p. xv.
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in Voice Training. Voice-Tradition and Technology:
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lishing Group. ISBN 0-7693-0028-6.
Estill Voice International, LLC (2010a). History.
Estill Voice International website. Retrieved 2010-09-
11.
Estill Voice International, LLC (2010b). Estill Voice
Training Certication Program. Estill Voice Interna-
tional website. Retrieved 2010-09-11.
2010-10-21.
Ocial Estill Voice International website
Chapter 3

Registers

3.1 Vocal register A particular part of the vocal range such as the upper,
middle, or lower registers.
A vocal register is a range of tones in the human voice pro-
A resonance area such as chest voice or head voice.
duced by a particular vibratory pattern of the vocal folds.
These registers include modal voice (or normal voice), A phonatory process
vocal fry, falsetto, and the whistle register.[1][2][3] Regis-
ters originate in laryngeal function. They occur because the A certain vocal timbre
vocal folds are capable of producing several dierent vi-
bratory patterns. Each of these vibratory patterns appears A region of the voice which is dened or delimited by
within a particular range of pitches and produces certain vocal breaks.
characteristic sounds.[1][3][4]
Manuel Garcia II was one of the rst to develop a scien-
In speech pathology, the vocal register has three compo-
tic denition of registers, a denition that is still used
nents: a certain vibratory pattern of the vocal folds, a cer-
by pedagogues and teachers today. A register is a series
tain series of pitches, and a certain type of sound. Although
of homogeneous sounds produced by one mechanism, dif-
this view is also adopted by many vocal pedagogists, others
fering essentially from another series of equally homoge-
dene vocal registration more loosely than in the sciences,
neous sounds produced by another mechanism.[5] Another
using the term to denote various theories of how the hu-
denition worth considering is from Clifton Ware. A se-
man voice changes, both subjectively and objectively, as it
ries of distinct, consecutive, homogeneous vocal tones that
moves through its pitch range.[2] There are many divergent
can be maintained in pitch and loudness throughout a cer-
theories on vocal registers within vocal pedagogy, making
tain range.[6] A register consists of the homogeneous tone
the term somewhat confusing and at times controversial
qualities produced by the same mechanical system whereas
within the eld of singing. Vocal pedagogists may use the
Registration is the process of using and combining the regis-
term vocal register to refer to any of the following:[2]
ters to achieve artistic singing. For example: a skilled singer
moves through their range and dynamics smoothly, so that
you are unaware of register changes. This process could be
described as good or clean registration.[7] The term regis-
ter came about in the sixteenth century. Before then it was
recognized that there were dierent voices. As teachers
started to notice how dierent the areas on either side of
the passaggios or breaks in the voice were, it was compared
to the dierent sets of pipes in an organ. These clusters of
pipes were called registers, we now use the same term when
speaking of voices.[8]

3.1.1 Number
Vocal registers arise from dierent vibratory patterns pro-
duced by the vocal cords. Research by speech patholo-
A labeled anatomical diagram of the vocal folds or cords. gists and some vocal pedagogists has revealed that the vocal

40
3.1. VOCAL REGISTER
cords are capable of producing at least four distinct vibra-
tory forms, although not all persons can produce all of them.
The rst of these vibratory forms is known as natural or
normal voice;[9] another name for it is modal voice, a term
currently widely used in both speech pathology and vocal
pedagogy publications. In this usage, modal refers to the
natural disposition or manner of action of the vocal cords.
The other three vibratory forms are known as vocal fry,
falsetto, and whistle. Each of these four registers has its
own vibratory pattern, its own pitch area (although there is
some overlapping), and its own characteristic sound. Ar-
ranged by the pitch areas covered, vocal fry is the lowest
register, modal voice is next, then falsetto, and nally the
whistle register.[4][9]
While speech pathologists and scholars of phonetics consis-
tently divide the voice into these four registers, vocal peda-
gogists are divided on this issue. Indiscriminate use of the
word register has led to much confusion and controversy
about the number of registers in the human voice within
vocal pedagogical circles. This controversy does not exist
within speech pathology and the other sciences, because vo-
cal registers are viewed from a purely physiological stand-
point that is concerned with laryngeal function. Various
writers concerned with the art of singing state that there
are anywhere from one to seven registers present. The di-
versity of opinion in this area is quite wide and there is no
one consensus or point of view.[9]
One prevailing practice within vocal pedagogy is to divide
both men and womens voices into three registers. Mens
voices are designated chest, head, and falsetto and Main article: Vocal fry register
womens voices are chest, middle, and head. This
way of classifying registers, however, is not universally ac-
cepted. Many vocal pedagogists partially blame this confu-
sion on the incorrect use of the terms "chest register" and
"head register". These professionals argue that, since all
registers originate in laryngeal function, it is meaningless
to speak of registers being produced in the chest or head.
The vibratory sensations which are felt in these areas are
resonance phenomena and should be described in terms re-
lated to resonance, not to registers. These vocal pedagogists
prefer the terms "chest voice" and "head voice" over the
term register. Many of the problems which people iden-
tify as register problems are really problems of resonance
adjustment. This helps to explain the multiplicity of regis-
ters which some vocal pedagogists advocate. For the pur-
poses of this article, resonance problems are relegated to
their own area since their usage here is controversial and
without an overall supporting consensus.[2] For more infor-
mation on resonance, see Vocal resonation.
The confusion which exists concerning what a register is,
and how many registers there are, is due in part to what
takes place in the modal register when a person sings from
the lowest pitches of that register to the highest pitches. The
41
frequency of vibration of the vocal folds is determined by
their length, tension, and mass. As pitch rises, the vocal
folds are lengthened, tension increases, and their thickness
decreases. In other words, all three of these factors are in a
state of ux in the transition from the lowest to the highest
tones.[1]
If a singer holds any of these factors constant and interferes
with their progressive state of change, his laryngeal function
tends to become static and eventually breaks occur, with ob-
vious changes of tone quality. These breaks are often iden-
tied as register boundaries or as transition areas between
registers. The distinct change or break between registers
is called a passaggio or a ponticello.[10] Vocal pedagogists
teach that, with study, a singer can move eortlessly from
one register to the other with ease and consistent tone. Reg-
isters can even overlap while singing. Teachers who like to
use this theory of blending registers usually help students
through the passage from one register to another by hid-
ing their lift (where the voice changes).
However, many pedagogists disagree with this distinction
of boundaries blaming such breaks on vocal problems which
have been created by a static laryngeal adjustment that does
not permit the necessary changes to take place. This dier-
ence of opinion has aected the dierent views on vocal
registration.[2]
3.1.2 Vocal fry register
The vocal fry register is the lowest vocal register and is pro-
duced through a loose glottal closure which will permit air
to bubble through with a popping or rattling sound of a very
low frequency. The chief use of vocal fry in singing is to ob-
tain pitches of very low frequency which are not available
in modal voice. This register may be used therapeutically
to improve the lower part of the modal register. This regis-
ter is not used often in singing, but male quartet pieces, and
certain styles of folk music for both men and women have
been known to do so.[2]
3.1.3 Modal voice register
Main article: Modal voice register
The modal voice is the usual register for speaking and
singing, and the vast majority of both are done in this regis-
ter. As pitch rises in this register, the vocal folds are length-
ened, tension increases, and their edges become thinner.
A well-trained singer or speaker can phonate two octaves
or more in the modal register with consistent production,
42
beauty of tone, dynamic variety, and vocal freedom. This is 3.1.7 References
possible only if the singer or speaker avoids static laryngeal
adjustments and allows the progression from the bottom to [1] Large, John (FebruaryMarch 1972 ). Towards an In-
the top of the register to be a carefully graduated continuum
of readjustments. [9]
3.1.4 Falsetto register
Main article: Falsetto register
The falsetto register lies above the modal voice register and
overlaps the modal register by approximately one octave.
The characteristic sound of falsetto is ute-like with few
overtones present. Both men and women can phonate in
the falsetto register.[1] The essential dierence between the
modal and falsetto registers lies in the amount and type of
vocal cord involvement. The falsetto voice is produced by
the vibration of the ligamentous edges of the vocal cords, in
whole or in part, and the main body of the fold is more or
less relaxed. In contrast, the modal voice involves the whole
vocal cord with the glottis opening at the bottom rst and
then at the top. The falsetto voice is also more limited in
dynamic variation and tone quality than the modal voice.[9]
3.1.5 Whistle register
Main article: Whistle register
The whistle register is the highest register of the human
voice. The whistle register is so called because the timbre
of the notes that are produced from this register are similar
to that of a whistle or the upper notes of a ute, whereas [10] The OXFORD DICTIONARY OF OPERA. JOHN WAR-
the modal register tends to have a warmer, less shrill tim-
bre. Women of all voice types can use the whistle register.
With proper vocal training, it is possible for most women 3.1.8 Further reading
and some men to develop this part of the voice. Children
can also phonate in the whistle register, without conscious
eort.
3.1.6 See also
Chest voice
Head voice
Human voice
Register (music)
Register language
Vocal resonation
CHAPTER 3. REGISTERS
tegrated Physiologic-Acoustic Theory of Vocal Registers.
The NATS Bulletin. 28: 3035.
[2] McKinney, James (1994). The Diagnosis and Correction of
Vocal Faults. Genovex Music Group. ISBN 978-1-56593-
940-0.
[3] Appelman, D. Ralph (1986). The Science of Vocal Ped-
agogy: Theory and Application. Indiana University Press.
ISBN 978-0-253-20378-6.
[4] Johnson, Alex; Barbara Jacobson; Carol Frattali; Robert
Miller; Michael Benninger; J Brown; Carl Coelho; Kath-
leen Youse; Glendon Gardner; Lee Ann Golper; Jacque-
line Hinckley; Michael Karnell; Susan Langmore; Jeri
Logemann (2006). Medical Speech-Language Pathology.
Thieme. ISBN 978-1-58890-320-4.
[5] Garcia, Manuel. Hints on Singing. London: E. Ascherberg,
1894. Print.
[6] Ware, Clifton. Basics of Vocal Pedagogy: The Foundations
and Process of Singing. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1998.
Print.
[7] Ware, Clifton. Basics of Vocal Pedagogy: The Foundations
and Process of Singing. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1998.
Print.
[8] Alderson, Richard. Complete Handbook of Voice Training.
West Nyack, NY: Parker Pub., 1979. Print.
[9] Greene, Margaret; Lesley Mathieson (2001). The Voice and
its Disorders. John Wiley & Sons; 6th Edition. ISBN 978-
1-86156-196-1.
RACK AND EWAN WEST, ISBN 0-19-869164-5
Van den Berg, J.W. (December 1963). Vocal Liga-
ments versus Registers. The NATS Bulletin. 19: 18.
3.2 Vocal fry register
The vocal fry register (also known as pulse register, la-
ryngealization, pulse phonation, creak, croak, popcorn-
ing, glottal fry, glottal rattle, glottal scrape, or stro-
hbass) is the lowest vocal register and is produced through
a loose glottal closure which will permit air to bubble
through slowly with a popping or rattling sound of a very
low frequency.[1] During this phonation, the arytenoid car-
tilages in the larynx are drawn together which causes the
vocal folds to compress rather tightly and become relatively
3.2. VOCAL FRY REGISTER
slack and compact. This process forms a large and irregu-
larly vibrating mass within the vocal folds that produces the
characteristic low popping or rattling sound when air passes
through the glottal closure. The register (if well controlled)
can extend far below the modal voice register, in some cases
up to 8 octaves lower, such as in the case of Tim Storms
who holds the world record for lowest frequency note ever
produced by a human, a G7, which is only 0.189 Hz. Hu-
mans however can only hear sounds down to 12 Hz under
ideal conditions.
3.2.1 History of register classication
The vocal fry register has been a recognized and identi-
able register in American English only within the past few
decades, but its characteristic sound was recognized much
earlier. Discussion of the vocal fry or pulse register began
rst within the eld of phonetics and speech therapy and did
not enter the vocabulary of vocal music pedagogists until
the early 1970s, when it was initially controversial. How-
ever, the controversy surrounding the term within vocal mu-
sic has subsided as more research into the use of the vo-
cal fry register within the context of singing ensued.[1] In
particular, vocal pedagogist Margaret Greenes videotaping
of the physiological processes occurring in the body while
singers were phonating in the vocal fry register oered solid
evidence that this type of vocal phonation should be con-
sidered a vocal register within both a speech pathology and
vocal music perspective. As with any other vocal register,
the vocal fry register has a unique vibratory pattern of the
vocal folds, a certain series of pitches, and a certain type of
sound that distinguishes it from other vocal registers.[2]
3.2.2 Social implications
Some researchers have argued that vocal fry is a register
in American English used by females to give their voice
more credibility. Others argue that the result is that they
sound less condent, undermining the eectiveness of their
communication.[3][4][5] Time reports that it hampers job
interviews.[6] Others argue that these perceptions are part
of a broader attack on womens speech.[7]
Vocal fry is used by men less commonly than by women.
When asked to read a passage, female speakers used vocal
fry at a rate four times higher than male speakers.[8] Vocal
fry is generally seen as a negative characteristic in the work-
place, but a study by Duke University researchers has de- The national study of 800 listeners across age groups found
termined the phenomenon is becoming more common and that people making hiring decisions preferred a voice with-
socially acceptable.[9]
43
3.2.3 In speech
Further information: Creaky voice
Discussion of vocal fry is much more frequent in books re-
lated to phonetics and speech therapy than it is in those deal-
ing with singing. Some authorities consider the use of vocal
fry in speech a dysphonia, but others consider it so only if
it is used excessively[1] such as Hollien, Moore, Wendahl,
and Michel:
It is simply our intent to suggest that ordinar-
ily vocal fry constitutes one of several physiolog-
ically available types of voice production on the
frequency-pitch continuum and hence, of itself,
is not logically classied among the laryngeal
pathologies. While the excessive use of fry could
result in a diagnosis of voice disorder, this qual-
ity is too often heard in normal voices (especially
in descending inections where the voice funda-
mentally falls below frequencies in the modal reg-
ister) to be exclusively a disorder.[10]
That seems to be the prevailing opinion among speech
pathologists today. Many are quick to point out that al-
though vocal fry is minimally a part of routine speaking
patterns, the continued use of such a pattern makes it non-
utilitarian or pathological.[1]
Some evidence exists of vocal fry becoming more com-
mon in the speech of young female speakers of Ameri-
can English in the early 21st century,[11][12][13][14][15] but
its frequencys extent and signicance are disputed.[16][17]
Researcher Ikuko Patricia Yuasa suggests that the tendency
is a product of young women trying to infuse their speech
with gravitas by means of reaching for the male register
and found that college-age Americans [...] perceive female
creaky voice as hesitant, nonaggressive, and informal but
also educated, urban-oriented, and upwardly mobile.[11]
Some languages, such as Jalapa Mazatec, use vocal fry
(creaky voice) as a linguistically signicant marker; the
presence or absence of vocal fry can then change the mean-
ing of a word.[18]
A 2014 national study of American adults found that
speech with vocal fry was perceived more negatively than
a voice without vocal fry, particularly in a labor market
context.[19] In young adult women, it was perceived as
sounding less trustworthy, less competent, less attractive,
and less hirable.[19] The negative evaluation was stronger
when the evaluator was also a woman.[20]
out vocal fry to one with vocal fry.[19] A limitation of the
44 CHAPTER 3. REGISTERS

study was that the vocal fry samples were produced by im- Slack voice
itators rather than natural vocal fry speakers. That suggests
that more research is needed, as the negative reaction could Up talk
be attributable to other factors.[19][21] Valley-girl voice

Vocal registration
3.2.4 In singing

The croaking sound produced by male singers at the start 3.2.6 Notes
of phrases in American country music is produced by mov-
ing from this to the modal register. Within choral mu- [1] McKinney, James (1994). The Diagnosis and Correction of
Vocal Faults.
sic, when true basses are not available, choirs often rely on
singers who can fry the low bass notes. Singers such as [2] Greene, Margaret; Mathieson, Lesley (2001). The Voice and
Tim Storms, Mike Holcomb and various other gospel basses its Disorders.
use this technique to sing very low tones. Women are not
usually required to sing in the vocal fry register, but some [3] Lake Bell talks about In a World . . . and the politics of
dialect Washington Post August 10, 2013
are capable of doing so. Some styles of folk singing, how-
ever, use the vocal fry register in the female voice. Vo- [4] A Female Senator Explains Why Uptalk Is Part of Womens
cal fry is also used in metal music, usually in combination 'Nature' The Atlantic, January 16, 2014
with air from the diaphragm, in order to create a "growl" or
"scream, which sounds aggressive and harsh.[22] [5] From Upspeak To Vocal Fry: Are We 'Policing' Young
Womens Voices? NPR, July 23, 2015
The chief use of the vocal fry register in singing is to ob-
tain pitches of very low frequency, which are not available [6] 3 speech habits that are worse than vocal fry in job interviews
to the singer in the modal register. Although the physiolog- Time, June 4, 2013
ical production of the vocal fry register may be extended up [7] From Upspeak To Vocal Fry: Are We 'Policing' Young
into the modal register, most vocal pedagogues discourage Womens Voices? Fresh Air, NPR, July 23, 2015
such practices, as it may cause damage to the vocal cords.
Also, many voice teachers discourage singers from using [8] Abdelli-Beruh, Nassima (Mar 2014). Prevalence
the vocal fry register frequently, as it may cause the singer of Vocal Fry Young Adult Male American English
to lose some of the upper notes in the modal register. In Speakers. Journal of Voice. 28 (2): 185190.
doi:10.1016/j.jvoice.2013.08.011.
some cases, vocal pedagogues have found the use of vo-
cal fry therapeutically helpful to students who have trouble [9] Anderson, Rindy C.; Klofstad, Casey A.; Mayew, William
producing lower notes. Singers often lose their low notes or J.; Venkatachalam, Mohan (2014-05-28). Vocal Fry May
never learn to produce them because of the excessive ten- Undermine the Success of Young Women in the Labor Mar-
sion of the laryngeal muscles and of the support mechanism ket. PLoS ONE. 9 (5): e97506. PMC 4037169 . PMID
that leads to too much breath pressure.[1][2] 24870387. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0097506.
Some overtone singing styles such as kargyraa use vocal [10] Cooper, Morton (1973). Modern Techniques of Vocal Re-
techniques similar to vocal fry.[23] habilitation

[11] Yuasa, I. P. (2010). Creaky Voice: A New Feminine

3.2.5 See also Voice Quality for Young Urban-Oriented Upwardly Mobile
American Women?". American Speech. 85 (3): 31537.
doi:10.1215/00031283-2010-018.
Breathy voice
[12] Wolk, Lesley; Abdelli-Beruh, Nassima B.; Slavin, Dianne
Creaky voice (2012). Habitual Use of Vocal Fry in Young Adult Fe-
male Speakers. Journal of Voice. 26 (3): e1116. PMID
Death growl 21917418. doi:10.1016/j.jvoice.2011.04.007.
Glottal stop [13] Marissa Fessende (December 9, 2011). "'Vocal Fry' Creep-
ing Into U.S. Speech. Science Now. American Association
Harsh voice for the Advancement of Science. Retrieved December 14,
2011.
Overtone singing
[14] Get Your Creak On: Is Vocal Fry a Female Fad?". Time.
Sexy baby voice December 15, 2011.
3.3. CHEST VOICE 45

[15] Vuolo, Mike (2013-01-02). Vocal fry or creaky voice in 3.3 Chest voice
young American women, on Lexicon Valley. Slate.com.
Retrieved 2015-07-28.
Chest voice is a term used within vocal music. The use of
[16] Rebecca Greeneld (December 12, 2011). Vocal Fry Isn't this term varies widely within vocal pedagogical circles and
Just for College Girls. The Atlantic Wire. The Atlantic. there is currently no one consistent opinion among vocal
Retrieved December 14, 2011. music professionals in regard to this term. Chest voice can
be used in relation to the following:
[17] Veronique Greenwood (December 13, 2011). The Linguis-
tic Phenomenon Du Jour: Vocal Fry. Discover. Retrieved A particular part of the vocal range or type of vocal
December 14, 2011.
register
[18] Ashby, Michael; Maidment, John A. (2005). Introducing A vocal resonance area
Phonetic Science. Cambridge University Press. p. 98. ISBN
978-0-521-00496-1. Retrieved 30 June 2012. A specic vocal timbre[1]

[19] Anderson, Rindy C.; Klofstad, Casey A.; Mayew, William

J.; Venkatachalam, Mohan (May 28, 2014). Vocal Fry May 3.3.1 History
Undermine the Success of Young Women in the Labor Mar-
ket. PLOS ONE. 9 (5): e97506. PMC 4037169 . PMID The rst recorded mention of the term chest voice was
24870387. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0097506. Retrieved around the 13th century, when it was distinguished from
5 December 2014. the throat and the head voice (pectoris, guttoris, capitis -
- at this time it is likely head voice referred to the falsetto
[20] Employers look down on women with vocal fry The At-
lantic, May 29, 2014
register) by the writers Johannes de Garlandia and Jerome
of Moravia.[2] The term was later redened during the bel
[21] Sterbenz, Christina (August 12, 2014). The Truth About canto period when it was identied as the lowest of three vo-
'Vocal Fry' The Speech Trend Thats Supposedly Hurt- cal registers: the chest, passaggio and head registers. This
ing Your Chances Of Getting Hired. Business Insider. Re- approach is still taught by some vocal pedagogists today.[3]
trieved 5 December 2014.
However as knowledge of human physiology has increased
[22] Large, John (FebruaryMarch 1972). Towards an Inte- over the past two hundred years, so has the understanding of
grated Physiologic-Acoustic Theory of Vocal Registers. the physical process of singing and vocal production. As a
The NATS Bulletin. 28: 1836. result, many vocal pedagogists have redened or even aban-
doned the use of the term chest voice.[3] In particular, the
[23] Archived July 6, 2010, at the Wayback Machine. use of the term chest register has become controversial
since vocal registration is more commonly seen today as a
product of laryngeal function that is unrelated to the phys-
3.2.7 References iology of the chest and lungs. For this reason, many vocal
pedagogists argue that it is meaningless to speak of regis-
Cooper, Morton (1973). Modern Techniques of ters being produced in the chest. The vibratory sensations
Vocal Rehabilitation. Charles C. Thomas. ASIN which are felt in these areas are resonance phenomena and
B000JC1U76. should be described in terms related to vocal resonance, not
to registers. These vocal pedagogists prefer the term chest
Greene, Margaret; Lesley Mathieson (2001). The voice over the term chest register. These vocal peda-
Voice and its Disorders. John Wiley & Sons; 6th Edi- gogists also hold that many of the problems which people
tion. ISBN 978-1-86156-196-1. identify as register problems are really problems of reso-
nance adjustment. This helps to explain the controversy
Large, John (FebruaryMarch 1972). Towards an In- over this terminology. Also, the term chest register is not
tegrated Physiologic-Acoustic Theory of Vocal Regis- used within speech pathology and is not one of the four main
ters. The NATS Bulletin. 28: 3035. vocal registers identied by speech pathologists. For the
purposes of this article, the term chest voice is adopted
McKinney, James (1994). The Diagnosis and Correc-
as it is less controversial.[1]
tion of Vocal Faults. Genovex Music Group. ISBN
978-1-56593-940-0. The contemporary use of the term chest voice often refers
to a specic kind of vocal coloration or vocal timbre. In
Van den Berg, J.W. (December 1963). Vocal Liga- classical singing, its use is limited entirely to the lower part
ments versus Registers. The NATS Bulletin. 19: 18. of the modal register or normal voice. Chest timbre can
46
add a wonderful array of sounds to a singers vocal inter-
pretive palette. The introduction of chest timbre is com-
mon to singers trained in the historic Italian school, but
largely shunned among singers who have emerged from the
Nordic/Germanic tradition. Such approval or disapproval is
largely an aesthetic decision.[4] However, the use of overly
strong chest voice in the higher registers in an attempt to hit
higher notes in the chest can lead to forcing. Forcing can
lead consequently to vocal deterioration.[5]
3.3.2 Physiological process
As the opinions on what exactly chest voice is vary greatly,
there is no one consensus on the physiological production of Vocal resonance understanding
chest voice. However there is a developing body of scientic
knowledge regarding the production of various denitions This view believes that the chest voice is a product not of
of chest voice:
Bel canto understanding
Mucosa
Ligament
Musculus
vocalis
Vocal fold, scheme
Glottal cycle, chest voice
This view understands chest voice as the vocal register used
within normal speech. It was discovered via stroboscope
CHAPTER 3. REGISTERS
that during ordinary phonation, or speaking in a man the
vocal folds contact with each other completely during each
vibration closing the gap between them fully, if just for a
small length of time. This closure cuts o the escaping air.
When the air pressure in the trachea rises as a result of this
closure, the folds are blown apart, while the vocal processes
of the arytenoid cartilages remain in apposition. This cre-
ates an oval shaped gap between the folds and some air es-
capes, lowering the pressure inside the trachea. Rhythmic
repetition of this movement a certain number of times a
second creates a pitched note. This is how the chest voice
is created.[2]
vocal registration but vocal resonation. Opinions within this
understanding vary. Although some pedagogists believe the
chest is an eective resonator, most agree that chest voice
actually resonates in the head while creating vibratory sen-
sations in the chest. Tarneaud says,
during singing, the vibration of the vocal
folds impresses periodic shakes on the laryngeal
cartilage which transmits them to the bones in
the thorax via the laryngeal depressors, and to the
bony structures in the head via the laryngeal el-
evators. Singers feel these shakes in the form of
thoracic and facial vibrations.
These internal phonatory sensations produced by laryngeal
vibrations are called resonance by singers and teachers of
singing.[6]
During singing in the lower register, the larynx is low-
ered since the muscles which connect it to the rib cage are
tensed whereas the muscles above the larynx are not tensed.
Consequently, a large proportion of the vibratory energy is
transmitted to the thoracic area, giving singers the impres-
sion that their voice is resonating in the chest. This impres-
sion however is false. The chest by virtue of its design and
location can make no signicant contribution to the reso-
nance system of the voice. The chest is on the wrong side
of the vocal folds and there is nothing in the design of the
lungs that could serve to reect sound waves back toward
the larynx.[1]
3.3.3 See also
Head voice
Tessitura
Vocal register
3.4. HEAD VOICE
Vocal resonation
3.3.4 Notes and references
[1] McKinney, James (1994). The Diagnosis and Correction of
Vocal Faults. Genovex Music Group. ISBN 978-1-56593-
940-0.
[2] The New Grove Dictionary of Music & Musicians. Edited
by Stanley Sadie, Volume 6. Edmund to Fryklund. ISBN
1-56159-174-2, Copyright Macmillan 1980.
[3] Stark, James (2003). Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Peda-
gogy. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-8614-
3.
[4] Miller, Richard (2004). Solutions for Singers. Oxford Uni-
versity Press. ISBN 978-0-19-516005-5.
[5] The Oxford Dictionary of Opera. John Warrack and Ewan
West, ISBN 0-19-869164-5
[6] Tarneaud, J. (November 1933). Study of larynx and of
voice by stroboscopy. Clinque (Paris). 28: 337341.
3.4 Head voice
In vocal music, the head voice, depending on vocal peda- "middle register", and "head register". According to this
gogy, is a particular part of the vocal range, or type of vocal practice, singing in the head register feels to the singer as
register, or a vocal resonance area.[1]
3.4.1 History
The term goes back at least as far as the Roman tradition of
rhetorical instruction. Quintilian (ca. AD 95) recommends
teaching students ut quotiens exclamandum erit lateris cona-
tus sit ille, non capitis (that when the voice has to be raised
the eort comes from the lungs and not from the head,
Inst. 1.11.8, transl. Russell). The rst recorded mention
of the term in a musical context was around the 13th cen-
tury, when it was distinguished from the throat and the chest
voice (pectoris, guttoris, capitis at this time it is likely
head voice referred to the falsetto register) by the writers
Johannes de Garlandia and Jerome of Moravia.[2] The term
was later adopted within bel canto, the Italian opera singing
method, where it was identied as the highest of three vo-
cal registers: the chest, passagio and head registers. This
approach is still taught by some vocal pedagogists today.[3]
However, as knowledge of human physiology has increased
over the past two hundred years, so has the understand-
ing of the physical process of singing and vocal production.
As a result, many vocal pedagogists have redened or even
abandoned the use of the term head voice.[3] In particular,
the use of the term head register has become controversial
47
since vocal registration is more commonly seen today as a
product of laryngeal function. For this reason, many vocal
pedagogists argue that it is meaningless to speak of registers
being produced in the head. The vibratory sensations that
are felt in the head are resonance phenomena and should be
described in terms related to vocal resonance, not to regis-
ters. These vocal pedagogists prefer the term head voice
over the term head register. These vocal pedagogists also
hold that many of the problems which people identify as
register problems are really problems of resonance adjust-
ment. This helps to explain the controversy over this ter-
minology. Also, the term head register is not used within
speech pathology and is not one of the four main vocal reg-
isters identied by speech pathologists.[1] The following is
an overview of the two predominant views on head voice
within vocal pedagogy.
3.4.2 Diering views on head voice
Head voice and vocal registration
One prevailing practice within vocal pedagogy is to divide
both men and womens voices into three registers. Mens
voices are divided into "chest register", head register, and
"falsetto register" and womens voices into "chest register",
if the tone is resonating in his or her head (rather than pri-
marily in the chest or throat). According to an early 20th-
century book written by David Clippinger, all voices have a
head register, whether bass or soprano.[4]
Clippinger claims that males and females switch registers
at the same absolute pitches. He also states that at about
E at or E above middle C the tenor passes from what is
usually called open to covered tone, but which might better
be called from chest to head voice. At the same absolute
pitches the alto or soprano passes from the chest to the mid-
dle register. According to Clippinger there is every reason
to believe that the change in the mechanism for male voices
into head register is the same as that which occurs in the
female voice as it goes into the middle register at the same
pitches.[5]
The contemporary vocal pedagogy instructor Bill Mar-
tin seconds the view that the change from chest voice to
head voice occurs at around E4 in all voices, including
the bass, but Martin states in the coloratura soprano it is
more likely to occur at F4.[6] A recent book by a former
teacher at Oberlin College Conservatory of Music and a
vocal pedagogy teacher, Richard Miller, states that in the
tenore lirico the higher part of the singing voice above
the secondo passaggio at G4 extending upwards is referred
to as full voice in head, or voce piena in testa, eectively
48
stating the head register begins at G4 in the tenore lirico,
not at E4.[7] According to Singing For Dummies, the bass
changes from chest voice into middle voice around A3 or
A3 below Middle C and changes into his head voice around
D4 or C4 above Middle C.[8]
In the head register (which is above the chest register), some
of the bottom end leaves the voice, but its still, according Not falsetto
to Martin, a voice capable of much power.[9]
Explanations for the physiological mechanisms behind the
head voice can alter from voice teacher to voice teacher.
This is because, according to Clippinger, In discussing the
head voice it is the purpose to avoid as much as possible the
mechanical construction of the instrument.[10]
However, not all vocal teachers agree with this view.
Thomas Appells 1993 book Can You Sing a HIGH C With-
out Straining?[11] aimed to refute the theory that all singers
switch registers at the same absolute pitch. Appell dened
chest voice as resonance below the vocal folds and head
voice as resonance above the vocal folds. He recorded ex-
amples of male and female singers changing from chest
voice to head voice at dierent pitches in an attempt to
prove that the transition pitch is a function of the inten-
sity of the vocal tone and is not absolute. At higher vo-
cal cord tension (intensity of singing), Appell shows that
the pitch at which a singer transitions from chest to head
voice will be higher. At lower vocal cord tension (intensity
of singing), Appell shows that the pitch at which a singer
transitions from chest to head voice will be lower.
Head voice and vocal resonation
Main articles: Vocal resonation and Vocal registration
This view is that since all registers originate in laryngeal
function, it is meaningless to speak of registers being pro-
duced in the head. The vibratory sensations which are felt in
the head are resonance phenomena and should be described
in terms related to resonance, not to registers. These vocal
pedagogists prefer the term head voice over the term reg-
ister and divide the human voice into four registers: the
vocal fry register, the modal register, the falsetto register, 3.4.4 References
and the whistle register. This view is more consistent with
modern understandings of human physiology and in keep- [1] McKinney, James (1994). The Diagnosis and Correction of
ing with stroboscope videos of laryngeal function during
vocal phonation.[1] Tarneaud says, during singing, the vi-
bration of the vocal folds impresses periodic shakes on the
laryngeal cartilage which transmits them to the bones in the [2] The New Grove Dictionary of Music & Musicians. Edited
thorax via the laryngeal depressors, and to the bony struc-
tures in the head via the laryngeal elevators. Singers feel
these shakes in the form of thoracic and facial vibrations. [3] Stark, James (2003). Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Peda-
These internal phonatory sensations produced by laryngeal
vibrations are called resonance by singers and teachers of
CHAPTER 3. REGISTERS
singing.[12] There are seven parts of the human body that
act as resonators and of those seven the three most eec-
tive resonators that help amplify and create the most pleas-
ing sounds are all located in the head: the pharynx, the oral
cavity, and the nasal cavity.[1]
Resonances and registration aside, the term head voice is
commonly used to mean high notes that are not falsetto
or strained. For example, when Pavarotti, Stevie Wonder
or Bill Withers slide from chest voice to a high C5 in full,
balanced voice, this is referred to as head voice.
Beginning singers who have diculty controlling their vo-
cal break need to be taught to eliminate or control the phys-
iological conditions associated with falsetto or strain in a
process called head voice.[13] A strong falsetto is called a
reinforced falsetto and a very light head voice is called voce
di testa bianca or 'white head voice.'
High notes that are sung with balanced physiology do tend
to have better resonance than falsetto or strained notes, so
this denition does not usually contradict the other two.
3.4.3 See also
Chest voice
Falsetto register
Human voice
Tessitura
Voice organ
Voice projection
Vocal registration
Vocal resonation
Vocal Faults. Genovex Music Group. ISBN 978-1-56593-
940-0.
by Stanley Sadie, Volume 6. Edmund to Fryklund. ISBN
1-56159-174-2, Copyright Macmillan 1980.
gogy. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-8614-
3.
3.5. BELTING (MUSIC) 49

[4] Clippinger, David A. (1917). The Head Voice and Other a misunderstanding when it describes muscular work in the
Problems: Practical Talks on Singing. Oliver Ditson Com- chest-area of the body, or a resonance therein. Proper pro-
pany. p. 12.at Project Gutenberg duction of the belt voice, according to some vocal methods,
[5] Clippinger, David A. (1917). The Head Voice and Other
involves minimizing tension in the throat and a change of
Problems: Practical Talks on Singing. Oliver Ditson Com- typical placement of the voice sound in the mouth, bringing
pany. p. 24. it forward into the hard palate, although techniques vary by
pedagogical style.
[6] Martin, Bill (2002). Pro Secrets Of Heavy Rock Singing.
Sanctuary Publishing. p. 10. ISBN 1-86074-437-0. It is possible to learn classical vocal methods like bel canto
and also to be able to belt; in fact, many roles now require
[7] Miller, Richard (March 1993). Training Tenor Voices. it. Vocalists trained in a wide berth of styles describe vastly
Schirmer. pp. 3, 4 & 6. ISBN 978-0-02-871397-7. varying experiences in learning belt technique. Some claim
[8] Pamelia S. Phillips. Identifying the Fab Four of Singing
that it comes naturally, while others struggle to access chest
Voices. Wiley Publishing. Retrieved 18 February 2007. register other than while speaking. Style of music does not
Bass is the lowest of the voice types... seem to be a related factor, other than in a singers exposure
to material.
[9] Martin, Bill (2002). Pro Secrets Of Heavy Rock Singing.
Sanctuary Publishing. p. 11. ISBN 1-86074-437-0. Belt technique requires muscle coordination not readily
used in classically trained singers as the thyroarytenoid
[10] Clippinger, David A. (1917). The Head Voice and Other muscle is dominant (as opposed to head register singing
Problems: Practical Talks on Singing. Oliver Ditson Com- where the cricothyroid muscle is dominant), which may be
pany. p. 14. why some opera singers nd learning to belt challenging.
[11] Appell, Can You Sing a HIGH C Without Straining?: Un- In order to increase range and stamina, one must practice,
derstanding the Break, page 14 however physiology and physical limitations should always
[12] Tarneaud, J. (November 1933). Study of larynx and of be taken into consideration in a realistic approach. Since
voice by stroboscopy". Clinque (Paris). 28: 337341. belting can be harsh on the vocal mechanism if care is not
taken, supervision by a teacher experienced in working with
[13] Rock the Stage: Voice Training for Modern Singers belters is recommended in order to avoid developing life-
long pathologies that could be otherwise avoided. Others
recommend repeatedly attempting to hit a note in a melody
3.5 Belting (music) line, or by using vocalise. Many commercial learn-to-sing
packages have a set of scales to sing along to as their main
Belting (or vocal belting) is a specic technique of singing oering, with which the purchaser must practice often to
by which a singer mixes in the proper proportions, their see improvement. However, these packages do not oer a
lower and upper resonances; resulting a sound that resem- user feedback in terms of posture, breath support, muscular
bles yelling but is actually a controlled, sustained phona- constriction, or any assistance with diculties that a singer
tion. 'Belting' is sometimes described as 'high chest voice' may encounter. Since this is not a separate instrument but a
but this is technically incorrect and potentially damaging for part of the human body, care must be taken not to damage
the voice. It is often described as a vocal register, although it in a way that may later require surgery, so learning to belt
this is also technically incorrect; it is rather a descriptive without proper supervision is not advised.
for the use of a register.[1] Singers can use belting to con- 'Belters, as well as other singers, should balance their reg-
vey heightened emotional states.[2] isters and develop a strong head voice, in order to facili-
tate muscular coordination and avoid constriction. Some
singers, particularly if their chest registers are underdevel-
3.5.1 Technique oped, nd that after a period of time focusing on the belt,
the head voice will have improved. Likewise, for a singer
Chest register is the lowest register of the singing voice, with an underdeveloped head register, after a period of time
produced by dominant use of the thyroarytenoid muscle. focusing on the head voice, the belt may be found to have
The term belt is sometimes mistakenly described as the improved.
use of chest voice in the higher part of the voice. The chest
voice is a general term for the sound and muscular func-
tions of the speaking voice, singing in the lower range, and
the voice used to shout. Each of those functions requires a
thicker closure of the vocal folds and the support of the mus-
cles surrounding them. The term chest voice is therefore
50
3.5.2 Physiology
There are many explanations as to how the belting voice ing conclusions:
quality is produced. Under a scope, the vocal folds visibly
shorten and thicken, and they undulate along more of their
vertical surface area than in head register when a smaller
segment of their edge must undulate to produce sound.
One researcher, Jo Estill, has conducted research on the
[3][4]
belting voice, and describes the belting voice as an ex-
tremely muscular and physical way of singing. When ob-
serving the vocal tract and torso of singers, while belting,
Estill observed:
Minimal airow (longer closed phase (70% or greater)
than in any other type of phonation)
Maximum muscular engagement of the torso (in Estill
Voice Training terminology this is known as Torso
Control or Anchoring)
Engagement of muscles in the head and neck in order
to stabilize the larynx) (in Estill Voice Training ter-
minology this is known as Head and Neck Control or
Anchoring)
A downwards tilt of the cricoid cartilage (an alterna-
tive option would be the thyroid tilting backwards. Ob-
servations show a larger CT space)
High positioning of the larynx
Maximum muscular eort of the extrinsic laryngeal
muscles, minimum eort at the level of the true vocal
folds.
Narrowing of the aryepiglottic sphincter (the
twanger)
3.5.3 Possible dangers of belting
Belting without proper coordination can lead to constriction [6] Metallic voice: physiological and acoustic features
of the muscles surrounding the vocal mechanism. Constric-
tion can consequently lead to vocal deterioration.[5] Correct
use of the technique and, most importantly, retraction of 3.6 Falsetto
the ventricular folds while singing is vital to safe belting.
Without proper training in retraction, belting can indeed
cause trauma to the vocal folds that requires the immediate This article is about voices higher than the normal vocal
attention of a doctor. range. For other uses, see Falsetto (disambiguation).
Some proponents of belting say that it is a soft yell, and
if produced properly it can be healthy. It does not require
straining and they say it is not damaging to the voice. On the
other hand, it is thought by some that belting will produce
nodules. This may be true if belting is done incorrectly.
Many in the musical theater industry like to quip, belting
is not bad; bad belting is bad.
CHAPTER 3. REGISTERS
As for the physiological and acoustical features of the
metallic voices, a masters thesis[6] has drawn the follow-
No signicant changes in frequency and amplitude of
F1 were observed
Signicant increases in amplitudes of F2, F3 and F4
were found
In frequencies for F2, metallic voice perceived as
louder was correlated to increase in amplitude of F3
and F4
Vocal tract adjustments like velar lowering, pharyn-
geal wall narrowing, laryngeal raising, aryepiglot-
tic and lateral laryngeal constriction were frequently
found.
3.5.4 References
[1] Henrich, D. N. (2006), Mirroring the voice from Garcia
to the present day: Some insights into singing voice reg-
isters, Logopedics Phonatrics Vocology, 31 (1), pp. 314,
doi:10.1080/14015430500344844
[2] Singers such as Christina Aguilera are known for their sig-
nature styles of belting Soto-Morettini, D. (2006), Popular
Singing: A Practical Guide To: Pop, Jazz, Blues, Rock, Coun-
try and Gospel, A & C Black, ISBN 978-0-7136-7266-4
[3] Estill J (1988). Belting and Classic Voice Quality: Some
Physiological Dierences. Medical Problems of Performing
Artists, 3:37-43.
[4] Yanagisawa E and Estill J (1989). The Contribution of
Aryepiglottic Constriction to Ringing Voice Quality. Jour-
nal of Voice, 3:342-350
[5] The Oxford Dictionary of Opera by John Warrack and Ewan
West (1992), ISBN 0-19-869164-5
Falsetto [falsetto] (Italian diminutive of falso, false) is
the vocal register occupying the frequency range just above
the modal voice register and overlapping with it by approx-
imately one octave.
It is produced by the vibration of the ligamentous edges of
the vocal cords, in whole or in part. Commonly cited in the
3.6. FALSETTO 51

context of singing, falsetto, a characteristic of phonation by

all genders, is also one of four main spoken vocal registers Mucosa
recognized by speech pathology.
The term falsetto is most often used in the context of singing
to refer to a type of vocal phonation that enables the singer Ligament
to sing notes beyond the vocal range of the normal or modal
voice.[1] The typical tone of falsetto register or M2, has usu-
ally a characteristic breathy[2][3] and ute-like sound rela-
Musculus
tively free of overtones[4][5] which is more limited than vocalis
its modal counterpart in both dynamic variation and tone
quality.[6] However, William Vennard points out that while
most untrained people can sound comparatively breathy
or hooty when using falsetto production, there are in Vocal fold, scheme
rarer cases individuals who have developed a much stronger
falsetto sound production which has more ring to it.[7]

3.6.1 Physiological process

The modal voice, or modal register, and falsetto register
dier primarily in the action of the vocal cords. Production
of the normal voice involves vibration of the entire vocal
cord, with the glottis opening rst at the bottom and then at
the top. Production of falsetto, on the other hand, vibrates
only the ligamentous edges of the vocal folds while leav-
ing each folds body relatively relaxed.[8] Transition from
modal voice to falsetto occurs when each vocal cords main
body, or vocalis muscle, relaxes, enabling the cricothyroid
muscles to stretch the vocal ligaments.[6] William Vennard
describes this process as follows: Glottal cycle, falsetto

With the vocalis muscles relaxed it is possi-

ble for the cricothyroids to place great longitudi-
ce is left in the middle between the edges of the two folds
nal tension upon the vocal ligaments. The ten-
through which a certain volume of air escapes continuously
sion can be increased in order to raise the pitch
as long as the register is engaged (the singer is singing using
even after the maximum length of the cords has
the voice). In skilled countertenors, however, the mucous
been reached. This makes the vocal folds thin so
membrane of the vocal folds contact with each other com-
that there is negligible vertical phase dierence.
pletely during each vibration cycle. The arytenoid cartilages
The vocalis muscles fall to the sides of the larynx
are held in rm apposition in this voice register also. The
and the vibration take place almost entirely in the
length or size of the oval orice or separation between the
ligaments.[9]
folds can vary, but it is known to get bigger in size as the
[1]
In the modal register, the vocal folds (when viewed with a pressure of air pushed out is increased.
stroboscope) are seen to contact with each other completely The folds are made up of elastic and fatty tissue. The folds
during each vibration, closing the gap between them fully, if are covered on the surface by laryngeal mucous membrane
just for a very short time. This closure cuts o the escaping which is supported deeper down underneath by the inner-
air. When the air pressure in the trachea rises as a result of most bres of the thyroarytenoid muscle. In falsetto the ex-
this closure, the folds are blown apart, while the vocal pro- treme membranous edges, i.e. the edges furthest away from
cesses of the arytenoid cartilages remain in apposition. This the middle of the gap between the folds, appear to be the
creates an oval-shaped gap between the folds and some air only parts vibrating. The mass corresponding to the inner-
escapes, lowering the pressure inside the trachea. Rhythmic most part of the thyro-arytenoid muscle remains still and
repetition of this movement creates the note.[1] motionless.[1]
In falsetto, however, the vocal folds are seen to be blown Some singers feel a sense of muscular relief when they
apart and in untrained falsetto singers a permanent oval ori- change from the modal register to the falsetto register.[1]
52 CHAPTER 3. REGISTERS

Research has revealed that not all speakers and singers pro- the French and English schools, and a complete rejection of
duce falsetto in exactly the same way. Some speakers and the idea of female falsetto in the Italian school of singing.[11]
singers leave the cartilaginous portion of the glottis open In his 2004 book, Solutions for Singers: Tools For Perform-
(sometimes called 'mutational chink'), and only the front ers and Teachers, Miller said, It is illogical to speak of a
two-thirds of the vocal ligaments enter the vibration. The female falsetto, because the female is incapable of produc-
resulting sound, which is typical of many adolescents, may ing a timbre in the upper range that is radically dierent
be pure and utelike, but is usually soft and anemic in from its 'mezza voce' or 'voce piena in testa' qualities.[12]
quality. In others, the full length of the glottis opens and However, other writers of singing have warned about the
closes in each cycle. In still others, a phenomenon known
dangers of failing to recognize that women have a falsetto
as damping appears, with the amount of glottal opening be- register. McKinney, who expressed alarm that many books
coming less and less as the pitch rises, until only a tiny slit
on the art of singing completely ignore or gloss over the
appears on the highest pitches. The mutational chink type issue of female falsetto or insist that women do not have
of falsetto is considered inecient and weak, but there is
falsetto, argues that many young female singers substitute
little information available about the relative strengths and falsetto for the upper portion of the modal voice.[6] He
weaknesses of the other two types.[6]
believes that this failure to recognize the female falsetto
voice has led to the misidentication of young contraltos
and mezzo-sopranos as sopranos, as it is easier for these
3.6.2 Female falsetto lower voice types to sing in the soprano tessitura using their
falsetto register.[6]
Both sexes are physically capable of phonating in the
falsetto register. Prior to research done by scientists in
the 1950s and 1960s, it was widely believed that only men
were able to produce falsetto. One possible explanation for 3.6.3 Musical history
this failure to recognize the female falsetto sooner is that
when men phonate in the falsetto register there is a much Use of falsetto voice in western music is very old. Its origins
more pronounced change in timbre and dynamic level be- are dicult to trace because of ambiguities in terminology.
tween the modal and falsetto registers than there is in fe- Possibly when 13th century writers distinguished between
male voices. This is due in part to the dierence in the chest, throat and head registers (pectoris, guttoris, capitis)
length and mass of the vocal folds and to the dierence they meant capitis to refer to what would be later called
in frequency ranges.[10] However, motion picture and video falsetto.[1] By the 16th century the term falsetto was com-
studies of laryngeal action prove that women can and do mon in Italy. The physician, Giovanni Camillo Maei, in
produce falsetto, and electromyographic studies by several his book Discorso della voce e del modo d'apparare di cantar
leading speech pathologists and vocal pedagogists provide di garganta in 1562, explained that when a bass singer sang
further conrmation.[9] in the soprano range, the voice was called falsetto.[1] In a
While scientic evidence has proven that women have a book by GB Mancini, called Pensieri e riessioni written in
falsetto register, the issue of 'female falsetto' has been met 1774, falsetto is equated with "voce di testa" (translated as
[1]
with controversy among teachers of singing.[6] This con- 'head voice').
troversy does not exist within the sciences and arguments The falsetto register is used by male countertenors to sing
against the existence of female falsetto do not align with cur- in the alto and occasionally the soprano range, and was the
rent physiological evidence. Some pioneers in vocal ped- standard before women sang in choirs. Falsetto is occasion-
agogy, like Margaret Green and William Vennard, were ally used by early music specialists today, and regularly in
quick to adopt current scientic research in the 1950s, and British cathedral choirs by men who sing the alto line.[13]
pursued capturing the biological process of female falsetto
on lm. They went further to incorporate their research into There is a dierence between the modern usage of the
their pedagogical method of teaching female singers.[10] "head voice" term and its previous meaning in the renais-
Others refused to accept the idea, and opposition to the con- sance as a type of falsetto, according to many singing pro-
cept of female falsetto has continued among some teach- fessionals. These days, head voice is typically dened as a
ers of singing long after scientic evidence had proven mix of chest and head [14]
voice, therefore created a stronger
the existence of female falsetto.[6] Celebrated opera singer sound than falsetto. The falsetto can be coloured or
and voice teacher Richard Miller pointed out in his 1997 changed to sound dierent. It can be given classical styling
publication, National Schools of Singing: English, French, to sound as male classical countertenors make it sound, or
[15]
German, and Italian, that while the German school of be sung in more contemporary musical styles.
voice teachers had largely embraced the idea of a female In opera, it is believed that the chest voice, middle voice and
falsetto into pedagogical practice, there is division within head voice occur in women.[16] The head voice of a man is,
3.6. FALSETTO 53

according to David A. Clippinger most likely equivalent to within a musical context. The following list includes the
the middle voice of a woman.[17] This may mean the head most common ones:[6]
voice of a woman is a mans falsetto equivalent. Although,
in contemporary teaching, some teachers no longer talk of in rock music
the middle voice, choosing to call it the head voice as with
men. Falsetto is not generally counted by classical purists in female and male R&B
as a part of the vocal range of anyone except countertenors. by some lyric (Irish) tenors, folk singers, and so
There are exceptions, however, such as the baryton-Martin forth
which uses falsetto (see baritone article). [18]
in barbershop music for the tenor voice (not al-
Falsetto has been used in Mexican songs for many gener- ways necessary) and occasionally with the lead
ations. In Mexico, one of the greatest singers of falsete and baritone voices in certain arrangements.
was Miguel Aceves Meja, a singer and actor in the Golden in yodeling
Age of Mexican cinema, known as the Rey de Falsete, or for comic eect in both operas and musicals
Falsetto King. He sang over a thousand songs, such as by falsettists, sopranists, male altos or
"La Malaguea, El Jinete, La Noche y T, and La Del Re- countertenors
bozo Blanco", many of which utilized falsetto.[19]
in a male choir, to enable the rst tenor to main-
Many Hawaiian songs feature falsetto. In Hawaiian-style tain the very demanding tessitura.
falsetto - called ka leo ki'eki'e - the singer, usually male,
for pitches which are above the range of the
emphasizes the break between registers. Sometimes the
modal register
singer exaggerates the break through repetition, as a yodel.
As with other aspects of Hawaiian music, falsetto de- for pianissimo tones that would be dicult to ex-
veloped from a combination of sources, including pre- ecute in the modal register
European Hawaiian chanting, early Christian hymn singing for vocal development
and the songs and yodeling of immigrant cowboys, called as an alternative to excess weight or strain to the
"paniolos" in the Hawaiian language, during the Kame- voice
hameha Reign in the 1800s when cowboys were brought
from Mexico to teach Hawaiians how to care for cattle.[20]
Falsetto is also common in African folk music, especially
3.6.5 Use in speech
the South African style called Mbube, traditionally per-
The ability to speak within the falsetto register is possible
formed by an all-male a cappella chorus.[21]
for almost all men and women. The use of falsetto is con-
sidered uncommon in normal Western speech, and is most
often employed within the context of humor.[23] However,
3.6.4 Use in singing the use of falsetto speech varies by culture and its use has
been studied in African Americans[24] and gay men[25] in
Falsetto is more limited in dynamic variation and tone qual- certain contexts. Its use has also been noted in the U.S.
[26]
ity than the modal voice. Falsetto does not connect to modal South. Pitch changes ranging to falsetto are also charac-
[27]
voice except at very low volumes, leading to vocal breaks teristic of British English.
when transitioning from modal voice. Most trained singers Some people who speak frequently or entirely in the falsetto
have at least an octave of range that they can sing in either register are identied by speech pathologists as suering
modal voice or falsetto. In the absence of modern vocal from a functional dysphonia.[23] Falsetto also describes the
training to hold back the volume of modal voice, in this momentary, but often repeated, uctuations in pitch emit-
overlapping area a given pitch in modal voice will be louder ted by both sexes while undergoing voice change during
than the same pitch sung in falsetto.[22] The type of vocal adolescence. These changes, however, are more apparent
cord vibration that produces the falsetto voice precludes and occur with greater frequency in boys than they do in
loud singing except in the highest tones of that register; girls.[28] Failure to undergo proper voice-change is called
it also limits the available tone colors because of the sim- puberphonia.
plicity of its waveform. Modal voice is capable of produc-
ing much more complex waveforms and innite varieties of
tone color. Falsetto, however, does involve less physical ef- 3.6.6 See also
fort by the singer than the modal voice and, when properly
used, can make possible some desirable tonal eects.[6] Creaky voice
The falsetto voice has a number of highly specialized uses Human voice
54
3.6.7 References
[1] THE NEW GROVE Dictionary of MUSIC & MUSI-
CIANS. Edited by Stanley Sadie, Volume 6. Edmund
to Fryklund. ISBN 1-56159-174-2, Copyright Macmillan
1980.
[2] Joseph C. Stemple; Leslie E. Glaze; Bernice K. Gerdeman
(2000). Clinical Voice Pathology: Theory and Management.
Singular. p. 359.
[3] Gillyanne Kayes (2000). Singing and the Actor. Psychology
Press. p. 156.
[4] Shirlee Emmons, Constance Chase (2006). Prescriptions for
Choral Excellence. Oxford University Press.
[5] Van Ambrose Christy (1975). Expressive Singing. W. C.
Brown. p. 95.
[6] McKinney, James (1994). The Diagnosis and Correction
of Vocal Faults. Genovex Music Group. ISBN 978-
1565939400.
[7] William Vennard (1967). Singing: The Mechanism and the
Technic. Carl Fischer Music. p. 89.
[8] Large, John (FebruaryMarch 1972). Towards an Inte-
grated Physiologic-Acoustic Theory of Vocal Registers.
The NATS Bulletin. 28: 3035.
[9] Vennard, William (1967). Singing: The Mechanism and the
Technic. Carl Fischer. ISBN 978-0825800559.
[10] Greene, Margaret; Lesley Mathieson (2001). The Voice and
its Disorders. John Wiley & Sons; 6th Edition. ISBN 978-
1861561961.
[11] Richard Miller (1997). National Schools of Singing: English,
French, German, and Italian. Scarecrow Press. p. 115.
[12] Miller, Richard. Solutions for Singers: Tools for Performers
and Teachers (Oxford University Press, 2004), page 148
[13] Sadie, Stanley. 2001. Alto. New Grove Dictionary of Mu-
sic and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie
and John Tyrrell. London: MacMillan Publishers.
[14] Williams, Mark. Whats the Dierence Between Head
Voice and Falsetto. The Vocal Coach. Retrieved 11
September 2017.
[15] Review of Justin Timberlake: FutureSex/LoveSounds] -
Timberlakes falsetto layering on top of one other as the
songs build to their crescendos.
[16] The OXFORD DICTIONARY OF OPERA. JOHN WAR-
RACK AND EWAN WEST, ISBN 0-19-869164-5
[17] Clippinger, David Alva (1917). The Head Voice and Other
Problems: Practical Talks on Singing. Oliver Ditson Com-
pany. p. 24.Project Gutenberg etext.
CHAPTER 3. REGISTERS
[18] THE NEW GROVE Dictionary of MUSIC & MUSI-
CIANS. Edited by Stanley Sadie, Volume 2. Back to Bo-
livia. ISBN 1-56159-174-2, Copyright Macmillan Publish-
ers Limited 1980.
[19] diariosigloxxi.com
[20] Solie, Ruth A. (1993). Musicology and dierence: gender
and sexuality in music scholarship. p. 117.
[21] Ingrid Monson (2003). The African Diaspora: A Musical
Perspective. Psychology Press. p. 91.
[22] Van den Berg, J.W. (December 1963). Vocal Ligaments
versus Registers. The NATS Bulletin. 19: 18.
[23] Cooper, Morton (1973). Modern Techniques of Vocal Reha-
bilitation. Charles C. Thomas.
[24] Nielsen, Rasmus (2010). ""I aint Never Been Charged with
Nothing!": The Use of Falsetto Speech as a Linguistic Strat-
egy of Indignation. University of Pennsylvania Working Pa-
pers in Linguistics. 15 (2, Article 13). University of Penn-
sylvania. Retrieved 6 December 2011.
[25] Podesva, Robert J. Podesva (2007). Phonation type as a
stylistic variable: The use of falsetto in constructing a per-
sona (PDF). Journal of Sociolinguistics. Blackwell Publish-
ing Ltd. 11 (4): 478504.
[26] Fennell, Barbara A. (2001). A History of English: A Soci-
olinguistic Approach. Blackwell Publishing. p. 236.
[27] Herman, Lewis; Herman, Margaurite Shalett (1997). For-
eign Dialects: A Manual for Actors, Directors and Writers.
Routledge. p. 45.
[28] Aronson, Arnold Elvin; Bless, Diane M. (2009). Clinical
Voice Disorders.
3.6.8 Further reading
Appell, Thomas (1993). Can You Sing a HIGH C With-
out Straining?. VDP. ISBN 978-0963233974.
3.6.9 External links
Glossary denition of falsetto at Virginia Techs Web
site
Story about the falsetto in rock music in The Boston
Globe
Video: vocal coach Kevin Richards explains the dif-
ference between falsetto and head voice
3.7. WHISTLE REGISTER 55

3.7 Whistle register abducts (moves away from) the vocal processes.[3]

The whistle register (also called the ute register or whis-

tle tone) is the highest register of the human voice, lying 3.7.2 In children
above the modal register and falsetto register. This regis-
ter has a specic physiological production that is dierent Many babies and small children regardless of gender can
from the other registers, and is so called because the timbre produce sounds in the frequency range of the whistle reg-
of the notes that are produced from this register is similar ister without any conscious eort. Typically, the whistle
to that of a whistle. register in children extends from the soprano high C (C6
In some sopranos, the modal register vocal production or 1046.5 Hz) to two Gs above (G7 or 3136.0 Hz). Some
may extend into what is usually thought of as the whis- children, however, can produce pitches that surpass the up-
tle register.[1] With proper vocal training, it is possible for per limit of the keyboard.
women within all voice types to develop this part of the
voice. However, some women are unable to phonate or
comfortably produce sound in this register. Children can 3.7.3 Uses
also phonate in the whistle register and, rarely, some men.[1]
In European classical music, the whistle register is used pri-
marily by coloratura sopranos. Many parts in the coloratura
3.7.1 Physiology and denition soprano repertoire extend beyond high C and often ex-
tend up to high F (F6). Although many coloratura sopranos
The whistle register is the highest phonational register, that use whistle tone vocal production to sing these notes, some
in most singers begins above the soprano high C (C#6 or operatic sopranos are capable of singing up to high F (F6)
1,046.5 Hz) and usually extends to about two Ds above (D7 without utilizing the vocal production associated with the
or 2349.3 Hz). It is created by using only the back of the vo- whistle register but remaining in the modal register. How-
cal folds. The lower part of the whistle register may overlap ever, most coloratura sopranos do utilize the whistle regis-
the upper parts of the modal and falsetto registers, making ter, particularly when singing staccato notes in rapid suc-
it possible for singers to phonate these notes in dierent cession, during high trills, or other elaborate coloratura or-
ways. However, fundamentally the whistle register is most namentation in the upper tessitura. Rarely will coloraturas
commonly used to produce pitches above C#6. As with the use whistle tone when doing high extended notes. However,
other vocal registers, the whistle register does not begin at singers like Mado Robin were noted for doing so.
the same point within every voice, and there are rare voices
which can extend the whistle register much higher or lower In Western popular music, the whistle register is used
than the range listed above. For example, most operatic with more variety and to produce much higher pitches
coloratura sopranos can sing up to the high F above high than are called for in classical music. It is mostly
C without entering into the whistle register.[1] Cleo Laine of used by female singers, such as Mariah Carey, Christina
[4][5][6]
UK and Yma Sumac of Peru are two sopranos with extreme Aguilera , Ariana Grande, Jessie J, Kelly Clarkson,
vocal ranges. Nicole Scherzinger, Cyndi Lauper, Leona Lewis, Hayley
Williams of Paramore, Kristie Maldonado of Pentatonix,
The physiology of the whistle register is the least understood Ally Brooke, Normani Kordei and Dinah Jane of Fifth
of the vocal registers. Unlike other types of vocal produc- Harmony, Grimes, Minnie Riperton, Betty Wright, Kristin
tion, it is dicult to lm the vocal cords while they are op- Chenoweth, Shanice, Chante Moore, Tamar Braxton, Willa
erating in this manner as the epiglottis closes down over the Ford, Lisa Fischer, Rachelle Ferrell, Leah McFall, Ella
larynx and the resonating chamber assumes its smallest di- Henderson, Natalie Brown, Debelah Morgan, Tori Kelly,
mensions. It is known that when producing pitches in this Blu Cantrell, Morissette Amon, Jane Zhang, and Almira
register, vibration occurs only in some anterior portion of Cercado[7] of 4th Impact.[8][9][10][11][12] There are a few
the vocal folds. This shorter vibrating length naturally al- men who use it such as Mitch Grassi of Pentatonix, Marco
lows for easier production of high pitches.[2] Mengoni, Dimash Kudaibergen, Nicola Sedda, Von Smith,
Although the whole physiological production of whistle Paolo Ramirez, and Piet Arion.[13] Adam Lopez holds the
tone is not understood, it is known that when the laterals Guinness Book of Records title for the highest vocal note
are active but the transversus inactive, a triangular opening produced by a man (D8) by making extensive use of the
is seen between the arytenoids, the vocal processes contact whistle register.[14] Female singer Georgia Brown was listed
each other, but the posterior parts at the apex do not con- in the 2005 Guinness World Records for highest note (G10)
tact each other. The exception to this would be if the vocal ever reached,[15] but this claim was removed when the 2007
folds are not stretched, as stretching of the vocal ligaments edition was issued.[16]
56 CHAPTER 3. REGISTERS

3.7.4 See also 3.7.6 Further reading

Vocal register Brenda Jo Smith; Robert Thayer Satalo (1 April

2013). Choral Pedagogy. Plural Publishing, Incorpo-
rated. ISBN 978-1-59756-535-6. Retrieved 26 July
2013.
3.7.5 References
James A. Stark (2003). Bel Canto: A History of Vocal
[1] James C. McKinney (1994). The Diagnosis and Correc- Pedagogy. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-
tion of Vocal Faults: A Manual for Teachers of Singing and 8020-8614-3. Retrieved 26 July 2013.
for Choir Directors. Genevox Music Group. ISBN 978-1-
56593-940-0. Retrieved 26 July 2013.

[2] Lesley Mathieson; Margaret C. L. Greene (1 June 2001).

Greene and Mathiesons the voice and its disorders. Whurr.
ISBN 978-1-86156-196-1. Retrieved 26 July 2013.

[3] Van den Berg, J.W. (December 1963). Vocal Ligaments

versus Registers. The NATS Bulletin. 19: 18.

[4] Christina Aguileras live whistle register.

[5] Christina Aguileras Soar Whistle Note.

[6] Top 10 Female Singers With the Most Powerful Voices.

[7] 4th Impact wows Simon Cowell with whistle note on 'X
Factor UK'". philstar.com. Retrieved 2017-08-22.

[8] Jacqueline Edmondson (2013). Music in American Life: An

Encyclopedia of the Songs, Styles, Stars, and Stories That
Shaped Our Culture. ABC-CLIO. p. 179.

[9] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VhYIK-U_AOI

[10] Archiduc De Belgrade (2015-12-23), Female Singers With

Whistle Register, retrieved 2017-08-22

[11] 11 Pop Singers Who Can Hit Whistle Tones Like Mariah
Carey. MTV News. Retrieved 2017-08-22.

[12] K LC (2016-12-16), Female Singers With Whistle Register,

retrieved 2017-08-22

[13] FeDsax98 (2017-03-24), Male Singers - Whistle Notes Reg-

ister, retrieved 2017-08-22

[14] Guinness World Records 2014: Special 59th Anniversary

Edition (2014). pg. 196. PH: Guinness Publishing Ltd.
ISBN 1-892051-22-2.

[15] Guinness World Records 2005: Special 50th Anniversary

Edition (2005). pg. 196. UK: Guinness Publishing Ltd.
ISBN 1-892051-22-2.

[16] Guinness World Records 2007: (2007). pg. 366. UK: Guin-
ness Publishing Ltd. ISBN 978-0-553-58992-4.
Chapter 4

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Voiceperson, Vanished User 1004, XLinkBot, NellieBly, Ronhjones, Vega2, Dyaa, Favonian, Larynxdude, Eauhomme, Khalili22, Lightbot,
Yobot, Themfromspace, TaBOT-zerem, SwisterTwister, Whatever404, Magog the Ogre, AnomieBOT, Zekscrab, Piano non troppo, Materi-
alscientist, Termininja, Disney09, Joaquin008, A.amitkumar, Philbach, Plumadesabidura, Wikispan, Steadicat, Nepenthes9997, Calvin999,
Musterss, Sashak90, Double sharp, Onel5969, Mean as custard, Righteous65, LegatoXxXxXxXx, VocalAnalyzer, F6Coloratura80, Going-
Batty, 4meter4, RenamedUser01302013, LaTraviata1453, Wikipelli, Cuscus539, OttomanJackson, Wayne Slam, JunMaster, Abelmebratu,
Lully 2010, PucciniVivaldi, Danmuz, Amats, ClueBot NG, Hazhk, Muon, MerlIwBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, W.andrea, Beckaleinen, Pytha-
sis, Cormag100, YFdyh-bot, Dexbot, Robertlerner, Jianhui67, Greeshma is awesomeee, Monkbot, Haroldok, Lindyhop123, TheCockroach,
115ash, Wmschlich, Rachelshensy, E.J.Wikiuse, Kenito1996, DonkeyHonks, BRPever, TheCensorFencer, Nelatti, Agbani Darego, Weeb Din-
gle, Icarus1826, Rveerepalli, Prem Boxton Meganathan Leslie, ZolFox and Anonymous: 368
Vocal pedagogy Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vocal_pedagogy?oldid=801464389 Contributors: Hyacinth, FrankSier, Florian
Blaschke, Kbh3rd, Pmetzger, Kwamikagami, Espoo, Peter McGinley, Woohookitty, Josh Parris, Rjwilmsi, Xos, Avocado, RussBot, Hydrar-
gyrum, Haakonsson, Grafen, AndrewWTaylor, Chris the speller, Kleinzach, OrphanBot, Nakon, Just plain Bill, OnBeyondZebrax, Iridescent,
Ibadibam, Jrrs, Slp1, Ssilvers, Thijs!bot, Nick Number, Cgingold, Lilac Soul, Darth Mike, Cpiral, LittleHow, DadaNeem, Atama, Nrswanson,
Mugregg, GeneralBelly, Mannafredo, Pjoef, Producerguy101, Shuey123, Mild Bill Hiccup, DragonBot, Sciamanna, Addbot, SpellingBot, Le3C,
Tassedethe, Tamino86, Yobot, Whatever404, Shine Music School, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Sr1sws, Emilyhyl, LilHelpa, Srich32977, J04n,
Beth250, Louperibot, Plumadesabidura, I dream of horses, MastiBot, Wikielwikingo, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, Pete Hobbs, Dr.giselle, 4meter4,
Dcirovic, ZroBot, ClueBot NG, Franciesse, Helpful Pixie Bot, NotWith, Khazar2, Icu1898, Monkbot, Blahblahmeblah, Larawilson, Yerknain,
PrimeBOT and Anonymous: 32
Estill Voice Training Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estill_Voice_Training?oldid=775873487 Contributors: Bearcat, Chowbok, Rich-
wales, Rjwilmsi, Gaius Cornelius, Mikeblas, ShelfSkewed, JazzyGroove, TJRC, Knavesdied, Lambtron, Citation bot, Jonesey95, John of Read-
ing, ClueBot NG, Voicek, Helpful Pixie Bot, Monkbot, Rockfordsansom, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 4
Vocal register Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vocal_register?oldid=797443505 Contributors: Bjh21, Hyacinth, Karl Dickman, Mind-
spillage, Rich Farmbrough, Kwamikagami, Bobo192, Antifamilymang, Antares33712, Uncle G, Squibix, Jbarta, Rjwilmsi, The wub, DrG,
Hairy Dude, RussBot, Bhny, Jengelh, Kleinzach, Elagatis, Colonies Chris, Lazar Taxon, Rigadoun, Mad Scientist, Bobblehead, Fernoe, I'll bring
the food, Ling.Nut, Nrswanson, Timothy Cooper, Ddxc, KathrynLybarger, Binksternet, PixelBot, Yun-Yuuzhan (lost password), Ringnpassagio,
4.1. TEXT 59

Addbot, DOI bot, Yobot, Whatever404, IW.HG, AnomieBOT, LilHelpa, FrescoBot, Double sharp, 564dude, Uanfala, EmausBot, John of Read-
ing, 4meter4, RenamedUser01302013, MerlIwBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Pratyya Ghosh, Me, Myself, and I are Here, Monkbot, Omni Flames,
PrimeBOT and Anonymous: 35
Vocal fry register Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vocal_fry_register?oldid=801133850 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Furrykef, Hyacinth,
Catskul, Rich Farmbrough, Kwamikagami, Wtmitchell, Kazvorpal, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, XP1, Bubba73, Benlisquare, RussBot, Chris Capoccia, An-
drewWTaylor, SmackBot, Py, Herostratus, Richfe, Stevage, Metallurgist, Derek R Bullamore, Attys, Jergosh, Wolfdog, Raoul NK, Davidhor-
man, Darklilac, Albany NY, Magioladitis, LorenzoB, ElectricValkyrie, Nrswanson, Billinghurst, Flyer22 Reborn, KathrynLybarger, Gunmetal
Angel, SomePatches, Binksternet, JTSchreiber, Steewi, Trivialist, Flaming, SpikeToronto, Ringnpassagio, Beach drifter, Grandchild~enwiki,
Addbot, DOI bot, Cuaxdon, Splodgeness, OlEnglish, Hartz, AnomieBOT, Angry bee, Citation bot, FrescoBot, Lothar von Richthofen, Un-
geniusman, Citation bot 1, I dream of horses, Der Elbenkoenig, Double sharp, Grapesoda22, Gigogag, John of Reading, 4meter4, Thrilway,
Confession0791, Staszek Lem, Ipyuasa, Gricehead, Lexicop, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, KLBot2, Cormag100, Cyberbot II, Me, Myself,
and I are Here, HelloM.F.World, Lfdder, Depthdiver, Monkbot, Insertbadusernamehere, Sizeont, Jointed.owl, Sagal H, Chandra.sarthak, Qzd,
Emily.karkoska, GreenC bot, KATMAKROFAN, Bender the Bot, KolbertBot and Anonymous: 75
Chest voice Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chest_voice?oldid=783287610 Contributors: Hyacinth, The Saitou, Rjwilmsi, Chobot, Wan-
deringHermit, Rigadoun, Joseph Solis in Australia, Sobreira, DadaNeem, Funandtrvl, Nrswanson, Metrowestjp, KathrynLybarger, Jusdafax,
Addbot, Jonbryce, DOI bot, Whatever404, Adeliine, I dream of horses, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, Monkbot, Magic links bot and Anony-
mous: 8
Head voice Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_voice?oldid=798182113 Contributors: Adam Bishop, Timwi, Hyacinth, Altenmann,
Seth Ilys, Jleedev, Jason Quinn, W6embaLw3VOekPuVco7, The Saitou, Rich Farmbrough, Velella, Rjwilmsi, Aeusoes1, Evanhatesspam,
Rigadoun, AxG, Iridescent, Frank, Nick Number, Paste, Zenomax, SquidSK, Fool4jesus, OttoMkel, Plasticup, Dave Andrew, Pwnage8, Nr-
swanson, Andrarias, KathrynLybarger, ClueBot, Blanchardb, Contains Mild Peril, Addbot, DOI bot, Aboctok, Docsavage356, Divinediscourse,
Debresser, Tassedethe, Whatever404, AnomieBOT, Adeliine, Citation bot, Omnipaedista, Klbrain, ClueBot NG, Franciesse, Ylienne, Helpful
Pixie Bot, Umair Aj, QuaeriSolet, NotWith, Khazar2, Peter Somerville, Monkbot, PleasetranslatemyarticleproperlyitsveryimportantPLEASE,
Magic links bot, Volunteer1234 and Anonymous: 21
Belting (music) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belting_(music)?oldid=798468276 Contributors: Ghakko, Julesd, Furrykef, Bearcat,
Psychonaut, Jason Quinn, Rich Farmbrough, Mecanismo, Adam850, Jpgordon, RazorChicken, Hooperbloob, Velella, Angr, UFu, Antares33712,
Graham87, Bruce1ee, FlaBot, Jlittlet, Retired username, Khalif, Scs, Zephalis, Schnob Reider, Everyguy, Mistercow, AndrewWTaylor,
SmackBot, Eurasian, Mauls, Mcld, Malendras, Philipvanlidth, Djharrity, Levineps, Simon12, Impy4ever, Skapur, Sakurambo, Reywas92,
OjeB, Thijs!bot, Luminifer, TheFearow, EricGentile, I'll bring the food, Benstown, Cgingold, Jayetheartist, JaGa, LemonLion, 5 octaves,
Stormn, Signalhead, Everythingstaken, Jleandro~enwiki, EVTS, Wordsmith, Broadbot, Vj rom, Andrarias, Groovuendo, Knavesdied, Saxs-
tudio, Miketlow, Lorifredrics, GregIngram, Oddstray, Ericahlovell, Mlas, XLinkBot, Echo345, TravisAF, NonNobisSolum, Addbot, Yolgnu,
Yobot, AnomieBOT, Georgiamode01, Jim1138, Goymon, LilHelpa, Xetxo, Y2k8, Tubesagain, Omnipaedista, Angel310, FrescoBot, Franj08,
Starmeup, Rivkid007, WhitneyHoustonFan, LegatoXxXxXxXx, Gfoley4, Pxt157, F6Coloratura80, LaTraviata1453, Shigarr, Black.Papermoon,
Everard Proudfoot, Bamyers99, Lully 2010, GodowskyIsDead, Filmu, ClueBot NG, Elliot johns, Tombathgate, Elemental5392, Helpful
Pixie Bot, Mstreysongz1, TheOverow, Mogism, Correctrix, Alxyzc, Lesliediorio, Margalob, Mirzabilalfarooq, Pleasetranslatemyarticleproper-
lyitsveryimportantPLEASE, Magic links bot and Anonymous: 264
Falsetto Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsetto?oldid=800147901 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, The Anome, Chuckhomann, Ghakko,
Camembert, Olivier, Nevilley, Infrogmation, Ixfd64, CatherineMunro, Tristanb, Hyacinth, Narcissus, Sanders muc, Caknuck, Wereon, Jr-
dioko, Antandrus, Lesgles, Kaldari, LudwigVan, Tothebarricades.tk, W6embaLw3VOekPuVco7, Jbinder, Mindspillage, Discospinster, Vague
Rant, TrbleClef, EliasAlucard, Plumpy, Edgarde, Bender235, Flapdragon, Kjoonlee, Aranel, CanisRufus, Kwamikagami, Spearhead, Bobo192,
Jolomo, Physicistjedi, Mr. Brownstone, Alison9, Grutness, TheParanoidOne, Ynhockey, Sharifm, Ish ishwar, ProhibitOnions, Alfvaen, Japanese
Searobin, Woohookitty, Schroeder74, Faincut, Uncle G, Borb, Ruud Koot, Chochopk, Miss Madeline, Akira625, Macaddct1984, Kesla, Gra-
ham87, BD2412, BorgHunter, Rjwilmsi, Wahoove, Quiddity, Wahkeenah, Trlovejoy, Darguz Parsilvan, Afterwriting, FuriousFreddy, Child-
OfTheMoon83, FlaBot, Sydbarrett74, EvanSeeds, Margosbot~enwiki, Bitosh, Darkhorse82, Mark83, Srleer, Chobot, DaGizza, Pouh, An-
tiuser, YurikBot, Retodon8, Ellectrika, Foxxygirltamara, Cryptic, Theorb, Mccready, Anetode, Voidxor, Mckyj57, PM Poon, Alex43223,
JHVipond, Bota47, Nick123, Wknight94, Keekee5, Deville, Momus, Whaa?, Shedside, Mardus, Street walker, SmackBot, Bigbluesh, Uny-
oyega, Jrockley, Mauls, Chris the speller, Justforasecond, Kleinzach, Gil mo, Al Pereira, MalafayaBot, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg,
ASBands, Patriarch, Colonies Chris, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Boniface~enwiki, Kristbg, Zone46, Leftism, Umma-ohz, TonySt, Krsont,
Surlybird, Dharmabum420, Cybercobra, TedE, alyosha, Illnab1024, Pkeets, Wikipedical, CIS, Blob4000, Tallis40, Dch111, General Ization,
Doxent, Evan Robidoux, Cielomobile, Voceditenore, Alexdude1991, Muyak, E-Kartoel, Starrybluediamond, Beefyt, KJS77, Sorein~enwiki,
Bevan69, FinalEncounter, Charlottevera, JoeBot, DanaC1987, LadyofShalott, Heliomance, Spicer~enwiki, Cryptic C62, ChrisCork, ViruValge,
Jamesrist, JForget, Dycedarg, TamYum, Counterculture, AMstir, Duck6, Mtmtmt, Slp1, Vanished user vjhsduheuiui4t5hjri, JustinForce, Kiske,
Demomoke, Thijs!bot, Luminifer, Fernoe, DavidJJJ, TeslaMaster, Quintote, D Anthony Patriarche, Therocklobster, KatieG, Darklilac, I'll bring
the food, Darrenhusted, Sluzzelin, .jhc.~enwiki, Albany NY, Andonic, MegX, Jcamorgan, Frankly speaking, Magioladitis, Bongwarrior, VoABot
II, Dekimasu, Vudicarus, Lazlow325i, Froid, Cgingold, Huseyx2, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Japo, Mike Payne, Brian Fenton, Nikolaj Christensen,
Pere prlpz, FisherQueen, Technolust, Numbo3, Yonidebot, Katalaveno, LittleHow, DadaNeem, SJP, Whjayg, Enix150, KylieTastic, STBotD,
Morewines, Izno, Funandtrvl, Spellcast, Amaraiel, BeyondTenor, A4bot, Rei-bot, Nrswanson, Tockeg, Gekritzl, C.Kent87, Rock Soldier,
Sesshomaru, Tumadoireacht, Munci, Celain, Moonriddengirl, LeadSongDog, Radon210, Drhoehl, Ddxc, Lisatwo, Lightmouse, TURN3R93,
Carminasteve, ClueBot, Binksternet, Etos~enwiki, Mild Bill Hiccup, Yoshi Canopus, Niceguyedc, Erinaceus, Constantijn09, LonerXL, Mikaey,
Contains Mild Peril, Sakura Cartelet, Spider1442, Kbdankbot, Addbot, DOI bot, OmegaXmutantX, Daftism, Dark Draconion, Istvnka, Doc-
savage356, Download, Ccacsmss, Mp127607, Ozob, Lightbot, Lordofmodesty, Zorrobot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, TaBOT-zerem, AnomieBOT,
BassmanIII, AdjustShift, Un chien andalou, Citation bot, Pwahahaha, Quebec99, Carturo222, Austynx, Jmundo, Jangirke, Richard BB, Short-
stack2012, Inscription, Plumadesabidura, HelpnWP, Delendoestkarthago, Tomcat7, Adam gardener, Jakor, , EmausBot, John of Read-
ing, Never give in, 4meter4, Tommy2010, Dcirovic, Ponydepression, Schroeder1174, Unreal7, ProfessorNapalm, Jxraynor, ClueBot NG, Sun-
CountryGuy01, Crohall, Ylienne, ManlyVoice, Helpful Pixie Bot, Askingtoremember, BG19bot, Registreernu, Der Naturfreund, Boscoe1337,
McLennonSon, Ltseeley, Carlmarche, Kuahewa, MySQUIRREL, Markdlennon, IMPREPREX, BeccaLubero, , Vancemo, ColeLoki, Not-
tNott, Adamsnumber1, Monkbot, TheProfessorOfKnowledge, Qwertyxp2000, Amortias, G9293, Lift yourhandsandvoices, Nmerrick, Dyrrel
60 CHAPTER 4. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

22, Islandichorse, Nkkenbuer, IvanScrooge98, Valera Vorobjov, Omni Flames, Bender the Bot, Magic links bot, Ramseymb, Mlurensky and
Anonymous: 429
Whistle register Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whistle_register?oldid=796632495 Contributors: The Anome, Ed Poor, Danny, Dcljr,
GTBacchus, DropDeadGorgias, Charles Matthews, Timwi, Wik, Hyacinth, Fredrik, Ashdurbat, Rabauz, Inter, Everyking, Michael Devore,
Nathan Hamblen, Telso, Toytoy, Geni, Rickvaughn, Quill, RedWordSmith, SoM, RossPatterson, Bender235, Billlion, Edward Z. Yang, Art
LaPella, Bobo192, Jojit fb, Yamla, Drat, Dryman, Antifamilymang, KelisFan2K5, Weyes, Antares33712, Uncle G, GregorB, Graham87,
Rjwilmsi, Gryndor, Josiah Rowe, Funnyhat, FlaBot, Harmil, Design, Xcali, Acero2310, Bhny, Jeus, Journalist, Mooveeguy, Cueball, Brat32,
Dfezzee, Shawnc, QmunkE, Wallie, Algae, NetRolller 3D, Pantsu, Sarah, SmackBot, WilliamDenton, Asimovian, Electrolite, Bj agsaway,
Mahdiislam, Romanski, LtPowers, Voceditenore, Larrymcp, Ryulong, Vanished user, Sam Li, Gusworld, Dlohcierekim, Bkihwe, OS2Warp,
El.Manuelito, LiL mIsS pRiNc3sS, Elyu, Yc~enwiki, MrFizyx, Gerald(Multi-octave man), Moreschi, Cydebot, Tawkerbot4, JLD, Underpants,
Mtpaley, Thijs!bot, ChKa, Sry85, Candyo32, Dangel.326435, Davidhorman, TeslaMaster, Vocalescalator, Prof. MagneStormix, Quintote,
Leevclarke, I'll bring the food, Doctorhawkes, Rothorpe, Magioladitis, Ashadeofgrey, JaGa, War wizard90, Brothejr, .::JJB::., WikiBone, Erpy83,
Russ Frank, Beth eliza, Ultatri, Ronchristie, Mydogtrouble, Robmicklethwaite, Johnte price, Lil charm, Nrswanson, Bushre2001, Yomas-
ter~enwiki, Plutonium27, Joeldipops, Tusharjoneja, Dawn Bard, Flyer22 Reborn, The Candyboy, 1zackman, SallyForth123, Binksternet, Blind-
sightaus, Snigbrook, Airox, Yellowstan, Mild Bill Hiccup, Naughtyhippo, Alexbot, Thatsafactjack, Sweeneytodd123, Orlando098, Schreiber-
Bike, Suede67, Franz.Liebkind, Ringnpassagio, XLinkBot, Addbot, Atethnekos, Martindo, Mac Dreamstate, Download, Divinediscourse, Tide
rolls, Yobot, AnomieBOT, P31singer, Angry bee, Rubinbot, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Nbagigafreak, Angel310, Petergrin9901, Reb-
bing, FrescoBot, Lothar von Richthofen, Robert Berkshire, Citation bot 1, Plumadesabidura, Fortnum, Trappist the monk, Blueappled, Gabe19,
Chuckyboy92, John of Reading, RA0808, 4meter4, Schwa dk, ZroBot, Midas02, Unreal7, Nancyeromero, Joecenabre, Manytexts, Clue-
Bot NG, Newyorkadam, Chatanun, FreeWalks, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Rubyemmy, Vanlmr, , Der Naturfreund, Jaymar12,
ChrisGualtieri, Jugg3rnaut B1tch, Coolio1996, Me, Myself, and I are Here, ImGorgeous4lyfe, Seanjd34, Britneyspearsocial, YooChriiss, Sam
Sailor, Eliluu, Liz, IPadPerson, Puppiesnoosad, EyedPrize, Osnapitzmeh, Monkbot, Aytk, Maj1991, Me.iamjames, Rocky Jeter Webb, Monyah
warren, Jadenpb, X.Perfectionist, Musicisdeadon, JustineMiley, Hollywood !nsider, CerberaOdollam, RapingBagels, PrimeBOT, B133D3R,
Grandefan, KiwiNull, Gnob cs and Anonymous: 334

4.2 Images
File:CClef.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/CClef.svg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: 's le Original
artist:
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Endolarynx_vocal_folds.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Endolarynx_vocal_folds.jpg License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Anatomist90
File:Garcia-Laryngoskop.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/Garcia-Laryngoskop.gif License: Public do-
main Contributors: Garcia M. Trait complet de lArt du Chant, 8 ed. Paris: Heugel et Cie; 1884. Original artist: Manuel Patricio Rodrguez
Garca (* 17. Mrz 1805 in Zafra, Katalonien, 1. Juli 1906 in London)
File:Gray1204.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Gray1204.png License: Public domain Contributors:
Henry Gray (1918) Anatomy of the Human Body (See Book section below)
Original artist: Henry Vandyke Carter
File:Gray386.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Gray386.png License: Public domain Contributors: Henry
Gray (1918) Anatomy of the Human Body (See Book section below)
Original artist: Henry Vandyke Carter
File:Gray950.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Gray950.png License: Public domain Contributors: Henry
Gray (1918) Anatomy of the Human Body (See Book section below)
Original artist: Henry Vandyke Carter
File:Gray954.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/Gray954.png License: Public domain Contributors: Henry
Gray (1918) Anatomy of the Human Body (See Book section below)
Original artist: Henry Vandyke Carter
File:Gray955.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/Gray955.png License: Public domain Contributors: Henry
Gray (1918) Anatomy of the Human Body (See Book section below)
Original artist: Henry Vandyke Carter
File:Gray958.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/Gray958.png License: Public domain Contributors: Henry
Gray (1918) Anatomy of the Human Body (See Book section below)
Original artist: Henry Vandyke Carter
File:Gray960.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/Gray960.png License: Public domain Contributors: Henry
Gray (1918) Anatomy of the Human Body (See Book section below)
Original artist: Henry Vandyke Carter
File:Illu01_head_neck.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Illu01_head_neck.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://training.seer.cancer.gov/head-neck/anatomy/overview.html Original artist: Arcadian
4.2. IMAGES 61

File:Illu07_larynx01.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Illu07_larynx01.jpg License: Public domain Con-

tributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Illu07_larynx02.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Illu07_larynx02.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: http://training.seer.cancer.gov/ss_module06_head_neck/unit02_sec08_anatomy.html Original artist: Un-
known<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https:
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le-height='590' /></a>
File:Illu_bronchi_lungs.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/db/Illu_bronchi_lungs.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Illu_larynx.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/Illu_larynx.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Kehlkopf_Pferd.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Kehlkopf_Pferd.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Con-
tributors: Taken and uploaded on de:WP by de:Benutzer:Uwe Gille at 14:44, 3. Nov 2004 (CET), last edit at 10:55, 11. Mr 2005 Original artist:
de:Benutzer:Uwe Gille
File:Larynx_endo_3.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Larynx_endo_3.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Con-
tributors: Own work Original artist: MylesSG
File:Lock-green.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg License: CC0 Contributors: en:File:
Free-to-read_lock_75.svg Original artist: User:Trappist the monk
File:Matilde_Marchesi.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Matilde_Marchesi.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://www.cantabile-subito.de/Sopranos/Marchesi__Blanche/marchesimath.jpg Original artist: Wilhelm Benque
File:Normal_Epiglottis.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Normal_Epiglottis.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Med Chaos
File:Opera_singer.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/Opera_singer.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
? Original artist: ?
File:Places_of_articulation.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/Places_of_articulation.svg License: CC-BY-
SA-3.0 Contributors: sagittal section image based on Minie et al. (1973:); articulation places are from Catford (1977) Original artist: created
by User:ish shwar (original .png deleted), .svg by Rohieb
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tributors:
Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist:
Tkgd2007
File:Sanzio_01_Pythagoras.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Sanzio_01_Pythagoras.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: Web Gallery of Art: <a href='http://www.wga.hu/art/r/raphael/4stanze/1segnatu/1/athens4.jpg' data-x-
rel='nofollow'><img alt='Inkscape.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/20px-Inkscape.
svg.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/30px-Inkscape.svg.png
1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/40px-Inkscape.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='60' data-
le-height='60' /></a> Image <a href='http://www.wga.hu/html/r/raphael/4stanze/1segnatu/1/athens4.html' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img
alt='Information icon.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_
icon.svg.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.
svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/
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main Contributors: Own Work, following M. Hirano, The vocal cord during phonation, Igaku no Ayumi 80 (1968), no. 10. Original artist:
Reinhard
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62 CHAPTER 4. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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