Critical Point (Set Theory)

Elementary arithmetic
en.wikipedia.org
Chapter 1
This article is about the number and digit 0. It is not to be confused with the letter O.
Zeroredirects here. For other uses, see 0 (disambiguation) and Zero (disambiguation).
Naughtredirects here. For the album by Stolen Babies, see Naught (album).
0 (zero; /zro/) is both a number* [1] and the numerical digit used to represent that number in numerals. The
number 0 fullls a central role in mathematics as the additive identity of the integers, real numbers, and many other
algebraic structures. As a digit, 0 is used as a placeholder in place value systems. Names for the number 0 in English
include zero, nought or (US) naught (/nt/), nil, orin contexts where at least one adjacent digit distinguishes it
from the letter O oh or o (/o/). Informal or slang terms for zero include zilch and zip.* [2] Ought and aught
(/t/), [3] as well as cipher,* [4] have also been used historically.* [5]
*
1.1 Etymology
Main articles: Names for the number 0 and Names for the number 0 in English
The word zero came into the English language via French zro from Italian zero, Italian contraction of Venetian zevero
form of 'Italian zero via ara or ifr.* [6] In pre-Islamic time the word ifr (Arabic )had the meaningempty
.* [7] Sifr evolved to mean zero when it was used to translate nya (Sanskrit: ) from India.* [7] The rst known
English use of zero was in 1598.* [8]
The Italian mathematician Fibonacci (c. 11701250), who grew up in North Africa and is credited with introducing
the decimal system to Europe, used the term zephyrum. This became zero in Italian, and was then contracted to zero
in Venetian. The Italian word zero was already in existence (meaningwest windfrom Latin and Greek zephyrus)
and may have inuenced the spelling when transcribing Arabic ifr.* [9]
1.1.1 Modern usage
There are dierent words used for the number or concept of zero depending on the context. For the simple notion of
lacking, the words nothing and none are often used. Sometimes the words nought, naught and aught * [10] are used.
Several sports have specic words for zero, such as nil in association football (soccer), love in tennis and a duck in
cricket. It is often called oh in the context of telephone numbers. Slang words for zero include zip, zilch, nada, and
scratch. Duck egg and goose egg are also slang for zero.* [11]
1.2 History
2
1.2. HISTORY 3
1.2.1 Ancient Near East
Ancient Egyptian numerals were base 10. They used hieroglyphs for the digits and were not positional. By 1770
BC, the Egyptians had a symbol for zero in accounting texts. The symbol nfr, meaning beautiful, was also used to
indicate the base level in drawings of tombs and pyramids and distances were measured relative to the base line as
being above or below this line.* [12]
By the middle of the 2nd millennium BC, the Babylonian mathematics had a sophisticated sexagesimal positional
numeral system. The lack of a positional value (or zero) was indicated by a space between sexagesimal numerals. By
300 BC, a punctuation symbol (two slanted wedges) was co-opted as a placeholder in the same Babylonian system.
In a tablet unearthed at Kish (dating from about 700 BC), the scribe Bl-bn-aplu wrote his zeros with three hooks,
rather than two slanted wedges.* [13]
The Babylonian placeholder was not a true zero because it was not used alone. Nor was it used at the end of a
number. Thus numbers like 2 and 120 (260), 3 and 180 (360), 4 and 240 (460), looked the same because the
larger numbers lacked a nal sexagesimal placeholder. Only context could dierentiate them.
1.2.2 Pre-Columbian Americas
The Mesoamerican Long Count calendar developed in south-central Mexico and Central America required the use
of zero as a place-holder within its vigesimal (base-20) positional numeral system. Many dierent glyphs, including
this partial quatrefoil were used as a zero symbol for these Long Count dates, the earliest of which (on Stela
2 at Chiapa de Corzo, Chiapas) has a date of 36 BC.* [lower-alpha 1]
Since the eight earliest Long Count dates appear outside the Maya homeland,* [14] it is generally believed that the use
of zero in the Americas predated the Maya and was possibly the invention of the Olmecs.* [15] Many of the earliest
Long Count dates were found within the Olmec heartland, although the Olmec civilization ended by the 4th century
BC, several centuries before the earliest known Long Count dates.
Although zero became an integral part of Maya numerals, with a dierent, empty tortoise-like shell shape used
for many depictions of the zeronumeral, it is assumed to have not inuenced Old World numeral systems.
Quipu, a knotted cord device, used in the Inca Empire and its predecessor societies in the Andean region to record
accounting and other digital data, is encoded in a base ten positional system. Zero is represented by the absence of a
knot in the appropriate position.
1.2.3 Classical antiquity
The ancient Greeks had no symbol for zero (), and did not use a digit placeholder for it.* [16] They seemed
unsure about the status of zero as a number. They asked themselves, How can nothing be something?", leading
to philosophical and, by the medieval period, religious arguments about the nature and existence of zero and the
vacuum. The paradoxes of Zeno of Elea depend in large part on the uncertain interpretation of zero.
By 130 AD, Ptolemy, inuenced by Hipparchus and the Babylonians, was using a symbol for zero (a small circle
with a long overbar) in his work on mathematical astronomy called the Syntaxis Mathematica, also known as the
Almagest. The way in which it is used can be seen in his table of chords in that book. Ptolemy's zero was used within
a sexagesimal numeral system otherwise using alphabetic Greek numerals. Because it was used alone, not just as
a placeholder, this Hellenistic zero was perhaps the rst documented use of a number zero in the Old World.* [17]
However, the positions were usually limited to the fractional part of a number (called minutes, seconds, thirds, fourths,
etc.)they were not used for the integral part of a number. In later Byzantine manuscripts of Ptolemy's Almagest,
the Hellenistic zero had morphed into the Greek letter omicron (otherwise meaning 70).
Another zero was used in tables alongside Roman numerals by 525 (rst known use by Dionysius Exiguus), but as
a word, nulla meaning nothing, not as a symbol.* [18] When division produced zero as a remainder, nihil, also
meaning nothing, was used. These medieval zeros were used by all future medieval calculators of Easter. The
initial Nwas used as a zero symbol in a table of Roman numerals by Bede or his colleagues around 725.
4 CHAPTER 1. 0
The back of Epi-Olmec stela C from Tres Zapotes, the second oldest Long Count date discovered. The numerals 7.16.6.16.18
translate to September, 32 BC (Julian). The glyphs surrounding the date are thought to be one of the few surviving examples of
Epi-Olmec script.
1.2.4 China
The Sunzi Suanjing, of unknown date but estimated to be dated from the 1st to 5th centuries AD, and Japanese
records dated from the 18th century, describe how the c. 4th century BC Chinese counting rods system enables one
to perform decimal calculations. According to A History of Mathematics, the rods gave the decimal representation
of a number, with an empty space denoting zero.* [19] The counting rod system is considered a positional notation
1.2. HISTORY 5
Example of the early Greek symbol for zero (lower right corner) from a 2nd-century papyrus
This is a depiction of zero expressed in Chinese counting rods, based on the example provided by A History of Mathematics. An
empty space is used to represent zero.* [19]
system.* [20]
In AD 690, Empress Wu promulgated Zetian characters, one of which was " ". The word is now used as a synonym
for the number zero.
Zero was not treated as a number at that time, but as avacant position.* [21] Ch'in Chiu-shao's 1247 Mathematical
Treatise in Nine Sections is the oldest surviving Chinese mathematical text using a round symbol for zero.* [22] Chinese
authors had been familiar with the idea of negative numbers by the Han Dynasty (2nd century AD), as seen in The
Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art,* [23] much earlier than the 15th century when they became well-established
in Europe.* [22]
1.2.5 India and Southeast Asia
Pingala (c. 3rd/2nd century BC* [24]), a Sanskrit prosody scholar,* [25] used binary numbers in the form of short and
long syllables (the latter equal in length to two short syllables), a notation similar to Morse code.* [26] Pingala used
the Sanskrit word nya explicitly to refer to zero.* [27]
It has been considered that the earliest text to use a decimal place-value system, including a zero, is the Lokavibhga,
a Jain text on cosmology surviving in a medieval Sanskrit translation of the Prakrit original, which is internally dated
6 CHAPTER 1. 0
to AD 458 (Saka era 380). In this text, nya (void, empty) is also used to refer to zero.* [28]
A symbol for zero, a large dot likely to be the precursor of the still-current hollow symbol, is used throughout the
Bakhshali manuscript, a practical manual on arithmetic for merchants, the date of which was uncertain. In 2017
three samples from the manuscript were shown by radiocarbon dating to come from three dierent centuries: from
224-383 AD, 680-779 AD, and 885-993 AD, making it the world's oldest recorded use of the zero symbol. It is not
known how fragments from dierent centuries came to be packaged together.* [29]
The origin of the modern decimal-based place value notation can be traced to the Aryabhatiya (c. 500), which states
sthnt sthna daagua syt from place to place each is ten times the preceding.* [30]* [30]* [31]* [32] The
concept of zero as a digit in the decimal place value notation was developed in India, presumably as early as during
the Gupta period (c. 5th century), with the oldest unambiguous evidence dating to the 7th century.* [33]
The rules governing the use of zero appeared for the rst time in the Brahmasputha Siddhanta (7th century). This
work considers not only zero, but negative numbers, and the algebraic rules for the elementary operations of arithmetic
with such numbers. In some instances, his rules dier from the modern standard, specically the denition of the
value of zero divided by zero as zero.* [34]
Epigraphy
The number 605 in Khmer numerals, from the Sambor inscription (Saka era 605 corresponds to AD 683). The earliest known
material use of zero as a decimal gure.
There are numerous copper plate inscriptions, with the same small o in them, some of them possibly dated to the 6th
century, but their date or authenticity may be open to doubt.* [13]
A stone tablet found in the ruins of a temple near Sambor on the Mekong, Krati Province, Cambodia, includes the
inscription of 605in Khmer numerals (a set of numeral glyphs of the Hindu numerals family). The number is
the year of the inscription in the Saka era, corresponding to a date of AD 683.* [35]
The rst known use of special glyphs for the decimal digits that includes the indubitable appearance of a symbol for
the digit zero, a small circle, appears on a stone inscription found at the Chaturbhuja Temple at Gwalior in India,
dated 876.* [36]* [37] Zero is also used as a placeholder in the Bakhshali manuscript, portions of which date from AD
224383.* [38]
1.2. HISTORY 7
1.2.6 Middle Ages
Transmission to Islamic culture
See also: History of the HinduArabic numeral system
The Arabic-language inheritance of science was largely Greek,* [39] followed by Hindu inuences.* [40] In 773, at
Al-Mansur's behest, translations were made of many ancient treatises including Greek, Roman, Indian, and others.
In AD 813, astronomical tables were prepared by a Persian mathematician, Muammad ibn Ms al-Khwrizm,
using Hindu numerals;* [40] and about 825, he published a book synthesizing Greek and Hindu knowledge and also
contained his own contribution to mathematics including an explanation of the use of zero.* [41] This book was later
translated into Latin in the 12th century under the title Algoritmi de numero Indorum. This title meansal-Khwarizmi
on the Numerals of the Indians. The wordAlgoritmiwas the translator's Latinization of Al-Khwarizmi's name,
and the word Algorithmor Algorismstarted meaning any arithmetic based on decimals.* [40]
Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Khwarizmi, in 976, stated that if no number appears in the place of tens in a calculation,
a little circle should be used to keep the rows. This circle was called ifr.* [42]
Transmission to Europe
The HinduArabic numeral system (base 10) reached Europe in the 11th century, via the Iberian Peninsula through
Spanish Muslims, the Moors, together with knowledge of astronomy and instruments like the astrolabe, rst imported
by Gerbert of Aurillac. For this reason, the numerals came to be known in Europe asArabic numerals. The Italian
mathematician Fibonacci or Leonardo of Pisa was instrumental in bringing the system into European mathematics
in 1202, stating:
After my father's appointment by his homeland as state ocial in the customs house of Bugia for the
Pisan merchants who thronged to it, he took charge; and in view of its future usefulness and convenience,
had me in my boyhood come to him and there wanted me to devote myself to and be instructed in the
study of calculation for some days. There, following my introduction, as a consequence of marvelous
instruction in the art, to the nine digits of the Hindus, the knowledge of the art very much appealed to me
before all others, and for it I realized that all its aspects were studied in Egypt, Syria, Greece, Sicily, and
Provence, with their varying methods; and at these places thereafter, while on business. I pursued my
study in depth and learned the give-and-take of disputation. But all this even, and the algorism, as well
as the art of Pythagoras, I considered as almost a mistake in respect to the method of the Hindus (Modus
Indorum). Therefore, embracing more stringently that method of the Hindus, and taking stricter pains in
its study, while adding certain things from my own understanding and inserting also certain things from
the niceties of Euclid's geometric art. I have striven to compose this book in its entirety as understandably
as I could, dividing it into fteen chapters. Almost everything which I have introduced I have displayed
with exact proof, in order that those further seeking this knowledge, with its pre-eminent method, might
be instructed, and further, in order that the Latin people might not be discovered to be without it, as
they have been up to now. If I have perchance omitted anything more or less proper or necessary, I beg
indulgence, since there is no one who is blameless and utterly provident in all things. The nine Indian
gures are: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1. With these nine gures, and with the sign 0 ... any number may be
written.* [43]* [44]
Here Leonardo of Pisa uses the phrasesign 0, indicating it is like a sign to do operations like addition or multipli-
cation. From the 13th century, manuals on calculation (adding, multiplying, extracting roots, etc.) became common
in Europe where they were called algorismus after the Persian mathematician al-Khwrizm. The most popular was
written by Johannes de Sacrobosco, about 1235 and was one of the earliest scientic books to be printed in 1488. Until
the late 15th century, HinduArabic numerals seem to have predominated among mathematicians, while merchants
preferred to use the Roman numerals. In the 16th century, they became commonly used in Europe.
8 CHAPTER 1. 0
1.3 Mathematics
See also: parity of zero
0 is the integer immediately preceding 1. Zero is an even number,* [45] because it is divisible by 2 with no remainder.
0 is neither positive nor negative. By most denitions* [46] 0 is a natural number, and then the only natural number
not to be positive. Zero is a number which quanties a count or an amount of null size. In most cultures, 0 was
identied before the idea of negative things, or quantities less than zero, was accepted.
The value, or number, zero is not the same as the digit zero, used in numeral systems using positional notation.
Successive positions of digits have higher weights, so inside a numeral the digit zero is used to skip a position and give
appropriate weights to the preceding and following digits. A zero digit is not always necessary in a positional number
system, for example, in the number 02. In some instances, a leading zero may be used to distinguish a number.
1.3.1 Elementary algebra
The number 0 is the smallest non-negative integer. The natural number following 0 is 1 and no natural number
precedes 0. The number 0 may or may not be considered a natural number, but it is a whole number and hence a
rational number and a real number (as well as an algebraic number and a complex number).
The number 0 is neither positive nor negative and is usually displayed as the central number in a number line. It is
neither a prime number nor a composite number. It cannot be prime because it has an innite number of factors,
and cannot be composite because it cannot be expressed as a product of prime numbers (0 must always be one of the
factors).* [47] Zero is, however, even (as well as being a multiple of any other integer, rational, or real number).
The following are some basic (elementary) rules for dealing with the number 0. These rules apply for any real or
complex number x, unless otherwise stated.
Addition: x + 0 = 0 + x = x. That is, 0 is an identity element (or neutral element) with respect to addition.
Subtraction: x 0 = x and 0 x = x.
Multiplication: x 0 = 0 x = 0.
Division: 0/x = 0, for nonzero x. But x/0 is undened, because 0 has no multiplicative inverse (no real number
multiplied by 0 produces 1), a consequence of the previous rule.
Exponentiation: x0 = x/x = 1, except that the case x = 0 may be left undened in some contexts. For all positive
real x, 0* x = 0.
The expression 0/0, which may be obtained in an attempt to determine the limit of an expression of the form f(x)/g(x)
as a result of applying the lim operator independently to both operands of the fraction, is a so-called "indeterminate
form". That does not simply mean that the limit sought is necessarily undened; rather, it means that the limit of
f(x)/g(x), if it exists, must be found by another method, such as l'Hpital's rule.
The sum of 0 numbers (the empty sum) is 0, and the product of 0 numbers (the empty product) is 1. The factorial 0!
evaluates to 1.
1.3.2 Other branches of mathematics

In set theory, 0 is the cardinality of the empty set: if one does not have any apples, then one has 0 apples.
In fact, in certain axiomatic developments of mathematics from set theory, 0 is dened to be the empty set.
When this is done, the empty set is the Von Neumann cardinal assignment for a set with no elements, which
is the empty set. The cardinality function, applied to the empty set, returns the empty set as a value, thereby
assigning it 0 elements.
Also in set theory, 0 is the lowest ordinal number, corresponding to the empty set viewed as a well-ordered set.
In propositional logic, 0 may be used to denote the truth value false.

1.4. PHYSICS 9
In abstract algebra, 0 is commonly used to denote a zero element, which is a neutral element for addition (if
dened on the structure under consideration) and an absorbing element for multiplication (if dened).
In lattice theory, 0 may denote the bottom element of a bounded lattice.
In category theory, 0 is sometimes used to denote an initial object of a category.
In recursion theory, 0 can be used to denote the Turing degree of the partial computable functions.
1.3.3 Related mathematical terms
A zero of a function f is a point x in the domain of the function such that f(x) = 0. When there are nitely
many zeros these are called the roots of the function. This is related to zeros of a holomorphic function.
The zero function (or zero map) on a domain D is the constant function with 0 as its only possible output value,
i.e., the function f dened by f(x) = 0 for all x in D. The zero function is the only function that is both even
and odd. A particular zero function is a zero morphism in category theory; e.g., a zero map is the identity in
the additive group of functions. The determinant on non-invertible square matrices is a zero map.
Several branches of mathematics have zero elements, which generalize either the property 0 + x = x, or the
property 0 x = 0, or both.
1.4 Physics
The value zero plays a special role for many physical quantities. For some quantities, the zero level is naturally
distinguished from all other levels, whereas for others it is more or less arbitrarily chosen. For example, for an
absolute temperature (as measured in kelvins) zero is the lowest possible value (negative temperatures are dened,
but negative-temperature systems are not actually colder). This is in contrast to for example temperatures on the
Celsius scale, where zero is arbitrarily dened to be at the freezing point of water. Measuring sound intensity in
decibels or phons, the zero level is arbitrarily set at a reference valuefor example, at a value for the threshold of
hearing. In physics, the zero-point energy is the lowest possible energy that a quantum mechanical physical system
may possess and is the energy of the ground state of the system.
1.5 Chemistry
Zero has been proposed as the atomic number of the theoretical element tetraneutron. It has been shown that a cluster
of four neutrons may be stable enough to be considered an atom in its own right. This would create an element with
no protons and no charge on its nucleus.
As early as 1926, Andreas von Antropo coined the term neutronium for a conjectured form of matter made up of
neutrons with no protons, which he placed as the chemical element of atomic number zero at the head of his new
version of the periodic table. It was subsequently placed as a noble gas in the middle of several spiral representations
of the periodic system for classifying the chemical elements.
1.6 Computer science

The most common practice throughout human history has been to start counting at one, and this is the practice in
early classic computer science programming languages such as Fortran and COBOL. However, in the late 1950s LISP
introduced zero-based numbering for arrays while Algol 58 introduced completely exible basing for array subscripts
(allowing any positive, negative, or zero integer as base for array subscripts), and most subsequent programming
languages adopted one or other of these positions. For example, the elements of an array are numbered starting from
0 in C, so that for an array of n items the sequence of array indices runs from 0 to n1. This permits an array element's
location to be calculated by adding the index directly to address of the array, whereas 1-based languages precalculate
the array's base address to be the position one element before the rst.
10 CHAPTER 1. 0
There can be confusion between 0- and 1-based indexing, for example Java's JDBC indexes parameters from 1
although Java itself uses 0-based indexing.
In databases, it is possible for a eld not to have a value. It is then said to have a null value.* [48] For numeric elds it
is not the value zero. For text elds this is not blank nor the empty string. The presence of null values leads to three-
valued logic. No longer is a condition either true or false, but it can be undetermined. Any computation including a
null value delivers a null result.
A null pointer is a pointer in a computer program that does not point to any object or function. In C, the integer
constant 0 is converted into the null pointer at compile time when it appears in a pointer context, and so 0 is a
standard way to refer to the null pointer in code. However, the internal representation of the null pointer may be any
bit pattern (possibly dierent values for dierent data types).
In mathematics 0 = +0 = 0; both 0 and +0 represent exactly the same number, i.e., there is no positive zeroor
negative zerodistinct from zero. However, in some computer hardware signed number representations, zero has
two distinct representations, a positive one grouped with the positive numbers and a negative one grouped with the
negatives; this kind of dual representation is known as signed zero, with the latter form sometimes called negative zero.
These representations include the signed magnitude and one's complement binary integer representations (but not the
two's complement binary form used in most modern computers), and most oating point number representations
(such as IEEE 754 and IBM S/390 oating point formats).
In binary, 0 represents the value for o, which means no electricity ow.* [49]
Zero is the value of false in many programming languages.
The Unix epoch (the date and time associated with a zero timestamp) begins the midnight before the rst of January
1970.* [50]* [51]* [52]
The MacOS epoch and Palm OS epoch (the date and time associated with a zero timestamp) begins the midnight
before the rst of January 1904.* [53]
Many APIs and operating systems that require applications to return an integer value as an exit status typically use
zero to indicate success and non-zero values to indicate specic error or warning conditions.
1.7 Other elds

In telephony, pressing 0 is often used for dialling out of a company network or to a dierent city or region, and
00 is used for dialling abroad. In some countries, dialling 0 places a call for operator assistance.
DVDs that can be played in any region are sometimes referred to as being "region 0"
Roulette wheels usually feature a 0space (and sometimes also a 00space), whose presence is ignored
when calculating payos (thereby allowing the house to win in the long run).
In Formula One, if the reigning World Champion no longer competes in Formula One in the year following
their victory in the title race, 0 is given to one of the drivers of the team that the reigning champion won the title
with. This happened in 1993 and 1994, with Damon Hill driving car 0, due to the reigning World Champion
(Nigel Mansell and Alain Prost respectively) not competing in the championship.
1.8 Symbols and representations

Main article: Symbols for zero
The modern numerical digit 0 is usually written as a circle or ellipse. Traditionally, many print typefaces made the
capital letter O more rounded than the narrower, elliptical digit 0.* [54] Typewriters originally made no distinction
in shape between O and 0; some models did not even have a separate key for the digit 0. The distinction came into
prominence on modern character displays.* [54]
A slashed zero can be used to distinguish the number from the letter. The digit 0 with a dot in the center seems to
have originated as an option on IBM 3270 displays and has continued with some modern computer typefaces such
as Andal Mono, and in some airline reservation systems. One variation uses a short vertical bar instead of the dot.
Some fonts designed for use with computers made one of the capital-Odigit-0 pair more rounded and the other more
angular (closer to a rectangle). A further distinction is made in falsication-hindering typeface as used on German
1.9. YEAR LABEL 11
car number plates by slitting open the digit 0 on the upper right side. Sometimes the digit 0 is used either exclusively,
or not at all, to avoid confusion altogether.
1.9 Year label

Main article: 0 (year)
In the BC calendar era, the year 1 BC is the rst year before AD 1; there is not a year zero. By contrast, in astronomical
year numbering, the year 1 BC is numbered 0, the year 2 BC is numbered 1, and so on.* [55]
1.10 See also
Zeroth (zero as an ordinal number)
Brahmagupta
Division by zero
Grammatical number
Number theory
Peano axioms
Signed zero
Gwalior Fort
1.11 Notes
[1] No long count date actually using the number 0 has been found before the 3rd century AD, but since the long count system
would make no sense without some placeholder, and since Mesoamerican glyphs do not typically leave empty spaces, these
earlier dates are taken as indirect evidence that the concept of 0 already existed at the time.
12 CHAPTER 1. 0
1.12 References
[1] Matson, John (21 August 2009). The Origin of Zero. Scientic American. Springer Nature. Retrieved 24 April 2016.
[2] Soanes, Catherine; Waite, Maurice; Hawker, Sara, eds. (2001). The Oxford Dictionary, Thesaurus and Wordpower Guide
(Hardback) (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-860373-3.
[3]aught, Also oughtin Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (1927), Third Edition, Springeld, MA: G. & C. Merriam.
[4]cipher, in Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (1927), Third Edition, Springeld, MA: G. & C. Merriam.
[5] aught at etymonline.com
[6] See:
Douglas Harper (2011), Zero, Etymology Dictionary, Quote="gure which stands for naught in the Arabic notation,
also the absence of all quantity considered as quantity,c.1600, from French zro or directly from Italian zero,
from Medieval Latin zephirum, from Arabic sifr cipher,translation of Sanskrit sunya-m empty place, desert,
naught";
Menninger, Karl (1992). Number words and number symbols: a cultural history of numbers. Courier Dover Publi-
cations. pp. 399404. ISBN 0-486-27096-3.;
zero, n.. OED Online. Oxford University Press. December 2011. Archived from the original on 7 March 2012.
Retrieved 2012-03-04. French zro (1515 in Hatzfeld & Darmesteter) or its source Italian zero, for *zero, < Arabic
ifr
[7] See:
Smithsonian Institution, Oriental Elements of Culture in the Occident, p. 518, at Google Books, Annual Report of the
Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution; Harvard University Archives, Quote="Sifr occurs in the meaning
ofemptyeven in the pre-Islamic time. (...) Arabic sifr in the meaning of zero is a translation of the corresponding
India sunya.;
Jan Gullberg (1997), Mathematics: From the Birth of Numbers, W.W. Norton & Co., ISBN 978-0393040029, page
26, Quote = Zero derives from Hindu sunya meaning void, emptiness via Arabic sifr, Latin cephirum, Italian
zevero.;
Robert Logan (2010), The Poetry of Physics and the Physics of Poetry, World Scientic, ISBN 978-9814295925,
page 38, Quote =The idea of sunya and place numbers was transmitted to the Arabs who translated sunya orleave
a spaceinto their language as sifr.
[8] Zero, Merriam Webster online Dictionary
[9] Ifrah, Georges (2000). The Universal History of Numbers: From Prehistory to the Invention of the Computer. Wiley. ISBN
0-471-39340-1.
[10] 'Aught' denition, Dictionary.com Retrieved April 2013.
[11] 'Aught' synonyms, Thesaurus.com Retrieved April 2013.
[12] Joseph, George Gheverghese (2011). The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics (Third Edition).
Princeton. p. 86. ISBN 978-0-691-13526-7.
[13] Kaplan, Robert. (2000). The Nothing That Is: A Natural History of Zero. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
[14] Diehl, p. 186
[15] Mortaigne, Vronique (November 28, 2014).The golden age of Mayan civilisation exhibition review. The Guardian.
Archived from the original on 28 November 2014. Retrieved October 10, 2015.
[16] Wallin, Nils-Bertil (19 November 2002). The History of Zero. YaleGlobal online. The Whitney and Betty Macmillan
Center for International and Area Studies at Yale. Retrieved September 1, 2016.
[17] O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., A history of Zero, MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University
of St Andrews.
[18] Zero and Fractions. Know the Romans. Retrieved 21 September 2016.
[19] Hodgkin, Luke (2 June 2005). A History of Mathematics : From Mesopotamia to Modernity: From Mesopotamia to Moder-
nity. Oxford University Press. p. 85. ISBN 978-0-19-152383-0.
1.12. REFERENCES 13
[20] Crossley, Lun. 1999, p.12 the ancient Chinese system is a place notation system
[21] Kang-Shen Shen; John N. Crossley; Anthony W. C. Lun; Hui Liu (1999). The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art:
Companion and Commentary. Oxford University Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-19-853936-0. zero was regarded as a number
in India... whereas the Chinese employed a vacant position
[22] Mathematics in the Near and Far East (pdf). grmath4.phpnet.us. p. 262.
[23] Struik, Dirk J. (1987). A Concise History of Mathematics. New York: Dover Publications. pp. 3233. "In these matrices
we nd negative numbers, which appear here for the rst time in history."
[24] Kim Plofker (2009). Mathematics in India. Princeton University Press. pp. 5556. ISBN 0-691-12067-6.
[25] Vaman Shivaram Apte (1970). Sanskrit Prosody and Important Literary and Geographical Names in the Ancient History of
India. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 648649. ISBN 978-81-208-0045-8.
[26] Math for Poets and Drummers (pdf). people.sju.edu.
[27] Kim Plofker (2009), Mathematics in India, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691120676, page 5456. Quote In
the Chandah-sutra of Pingala, dating perhaps the third or second century BC, [...] Pingala's use of a zero symbol [nya]
as a marker seems to be the rst known explicit reference to zero.Kim Plofker (2009), Mathematics in India, Princeton
University Press, ISBN 978-0691120676, 5556. In the Chandah-sutra of Pingala, dating perhaps the third or second
century BC, there are ve questions concerning the possible meters for any value n. [...] The answer is (2)7 = 128,
as expected, but instead of seven doublings, the process (explained by the sutra) required only three doublings and two
squarings a handy time saver wherenis large. Pingalas use of a zero symbol as a marker seems to be the rst known
explicit reference to zero.
[28] Ifrah, Georges (2000), p. 416.
[29] Devlin, Hannah (2017-09-13). Much ado about nothing: ancient Indian text contains earliest zero symbol. The
Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2017-09-14.
[30] Aryabhatiya of Aryabhata, translated by Walter Eugene Clark.
[31] O'Connor, Robertson, J.J., E.F. Aryabhata the Elder. School of Mathematics and Statistics University of St Andrews,
Scotland. Retrieved 26 May 2013.
[32] William L. Hosch, ed. (15 August 2010). The Britannica Guide to Numbers and Measurement (Math Explained). books.google.com.my.
The Rosen Publishing Group. pp. 9798. ISBN 9781615301089.
[33] Bourbaki, Nicolas Elements of the History of Mathematics (1998), p. 46. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia (2007), entry
Algebra
[34] Algebra with Arithmetic of Brahmagupta and Bhaskara, translated to English by Henry Thomas Colebrooke (1817) London
[35] Cds, Georges, A propos de l'origine des chires arabes,Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, University of
London, Vol. 6, No. 2, 1931, pp. 323328. Diller, Anthony, New Zeros and Old Khmer,The Mon-Khmer Studies
Journal, Vol. 25, 1996, pp. 125132.
[36] Casselman, Bill. All for Nought. ams.org. University of British Columbia), American Mathematical Society.
[37] Ifrah, Georges (2000), p. 400.
[38] Much ado about nothing: ancient Indian text contains earliest zero symbol. The Guardian. Retrieved 2017-09-14.
[39] Pannekoek, A. (1961). A History of Astronomy. George Allen & Unwin. p. 165.
[40] Will Durant (1950), The Story of Civilization, Volume 4, The Age of Faith: Constantine to Dante A.D. 3251300, Simon
& Schuster, ISBN 978-0965000758, p. 241, Quote =The Arabic inheritance of science was overwhelmingly Greek, but
Hindu inuences ranked next. In 773, at Mansur's behest, translations were made of the Siddhantas Indian astronomical
treatises dating as far back as 425 BC; these versions may have the vehicle through which the Arabicnumerals and the
zero were brought from India into Islam. In 813, al-Khwarizmi used the Hindu numerals in his astronomical tables.
[41] Brezina, Corona (2006). Al-Khwarizmi: The Inventor Of Algebra. The Rosen Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-4042-0513-
0.
[42] Will Durant (1950), The Story of Civilization, Volume 4, The Age of Faith, Simon & Schuster, ISBN 978-0965000758,
p. 241, Quote = In 976, Muhammad ibn Ahmad, in his Keys of the Sciences, remarked that if, in a calculation, no
number appears in the place of tens, a little circle should be used to keep the rows. This circle the Mosloems called
ifr, emptywhence our cipher.
14 CHAPTER 1. 0
[43] Sigler, L., Fibonacci's Liber Abaci. English translation, Springer, 2003.
[44] Grimm, R.E., The Autobiography of Leonardo Pisano, Fibonacci Quarterly 11/1 (February 1973), pp. 99104.
[45] Lemma B.2.2, The integer 0 is even and is not odd, in Penner, Robert C. (1999). Discrete Mathematics: Proof Techniques
and Mathematical Structures. World Scientic. p. 34. ISBN 981-02-4088-0.
[46] Bunt, Lucas Nicolaas Hendrik; Jones, Phillip S.; Bedient, Jack D. (1976). The historical roots of elementary mathematics.
Courier Dover Publications. pp. 254255. ISBN 0-486-13968-9., Extract of pages 254255
[47] Reid, Constance (1992). From zero to innity: what makes numbers interesting (4th ed.). Mathematical Association of
America. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-88385-505-8.
[48] Wu, X.; Ichikawa, T.; Cercone, N. (1996-10-25). Knowledge-Base Assisted Database Retrieval Systems. World Scientic.
ISBN 9789814501750.
[49] Chris Woodford 2006, p. 9.
[50] Paul DuBois. MySQL Cookbook: Solutions for Database Developers and Administrators 2014. p. 204.
[51] Arnold Robbins; Nelson Beebe. Classic Shell Scripting. 2005. p. 274
[52] Iztok Fajfar. Start Programming Using HTML, CSS, and JavaScript. 2015. p. 160.
[53] Darren R. Hayes. A Practical Guide to Computer Forensics Investigations. 2014. p. 399
[54] Bemer, R. W. (1967). Towards standards for handwritten zero and oh: much ado about nothing (and a letter), or a
partial dossier on distinguishing between handwritten zero and oh. Communications of the ACM. 10 (8): 513518.
doi:10.1145/363534.363563.
[55] Steel, Duncan (2000). Marking time: the epic quest to invent the perfect calendar. John Wiley & Sons. p. 113. ISBN
0-471-29827-1. In the B.C./A.D. scheme there is no year zero. After 31 December 1 BC came AD 1 January 1. ... If you
object to that no-year-zero scheme, then don't use it: use the astronomer's counting scheme, with negative year numbers.
1.13 Bibliography
Amir D. Aczel (2015) Finding Zero, New York City: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-137-27984-2
Barrow, John D. (2001) The Book of Nothing, Vintage. ISBN 0-09-928845-1.
Diehl, Richard A. (2004) The Olmecs: America's First Civilization, Thames & Hudson, London.
Ifrah, Georges (2000) The Universal History of Numbers: From Prehistory to the Invention of the Computer,
Wiley. ISBN 0-471-39340-1.
Kaplan, Robert (2000) The Nothing That Is: A Natural History of Zero, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Seife, Charles (2000) Zero: The Biography of a Dangerous Idea, Penguin USA (Paper). ISBN 0-14-029647-6.
Bourbaki, Nicolas (1998). Elements of the History of Mathematics. Berlin, Heidelberg, and New York:
Springer-Verlag. ISBN 3-540-64767-8.
Isaac Asimov (1978). Article Nothing Countsin Asimov on Numbers. Pocket Books.
This article is based on material taken from the Free On-line Dictionary of Computing prior to 1 November 2008 and
incorporated under the relicensingterms of the GFDL, version 1.3 or later.
Chris Woodford (2006), Digital Technology, Evans Brothers, ISBN 978-02-3752-725-9

1.14. EXTERNAL LINKS 15
1.14 External links

Searching for the Worlds First Zero
A History of Zero
Zero Saga
The History of Algebra
Edsger W. Dijkstra: Why numbering should start at zero, EWD831 (PDF of a handwritten manuscript)
Zero on In Our Time at the BBC.
Weisstein, Eric W. 0. MathWorld.
Texts on Wikisource:
"Zero". Encyclopdia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
"Zero". Encyclopedia Americana. 1920.
Chapter 2
Alligation
Not to be confused with allegation.
Alligation is an old and practical method of solving arithmetic problems related to mixtures of ingredients. There are
two types of alligation: alligation medial, used to nd the quantity of a mixture given the quantities of its ingredients,
and alligation alternate, used to nd the amount of each ingredient needed to make a mixture of a given quantity.
Alligation medial is merely a matter of nding a weighted mean. Alligation alternate is more complicated and involves
organizing the ingredients into high and low pairs which are then traded o.
Two further variations on Alligation occur : Alligation Partial and Alligation Total (see John King's Arithmetic Book
1795 which includes worked examples.) The technique is not used in schools although it is used still in pharmacies
for quick calculation of quantities.
Alligation can also refer to the actions of alligators.
2.1 Examples
2.1.1 Alligation medial

Suppose you make a cocktail drink combination out of 1/2 Coke, 1/4 Sprite, and 1/4 orange soda. The Coke has
120 grams of sugar per liter, the Sprite has 100 grams of sugar per liter, and the orange soda has 150 grams of sugar
per liter. How much sugar does the drink have? This is an example of alligation medial because you want to nd the
amount of sugar in the mixture given the amounts of sugar in its ingredients. The solution is just to nd the weighted
average by composition:
1 1 1
120 + 100 + 150 = 122.5
2 4 4
2.1.2 Alligation alternate

Suppose you like 1% milk, but you have only 3% whole milk and % low fat milk. How much of each should you
mix to make an 8-ounce cup of 1% milk? This is an example of alligation alternate because you want to nd the
amount of two ingredients to mix to form a mixture with a given amount of fat. Since there are only two ingredients,
there is only one possible way to form a pair. The dierence of 3% from the desired 1%, 2%, is assigned to the low
fat milk, and the dierence of % from the desired 1%, %, is assigned alternately to the whole milk. The total
amount, 8 ounces, is then divided by the sum 2 + 12 = 52 to yield 16
5 , and the amounts of the two ingredients are
16
5 1
2 = 8
5 ounces whole milk and 16
5 2= 32
5 ounces low fat milk.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chambers, Ephraim, ed. (1728). "* article
name needed". Cyclopdia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences (rst ed.). James and John Knapton, et
al.
16
2.2. REFERENCES 17
A general formula that works for both alligation alternateand alligation medialis the following: Aa + Bb =
Cc.
In this formula, A is the volume of ingredient A and a is its mixture coecient (i.e. a= 3%); B is volume of ingredient
B and b is its mixture coecient; and C is the desired volume C, and c is its mixture coecient. So in the above
example we get: A(0.03) + B(0.005) = 8oz(0.01). We know B = (8oz-A), and so can easily solve for A and B to get
1.6 and 6.4oz, respectively. Using this formula you can solve for any of the 6 variables A,a,B,b,C,c, regardless of
whether you're dealing with medial, alternate, etc.
2.2 References
Alligation, Forerunner of Linear Programming, Frederick V. Waugh, Journal of Farm Economics Vol. 40, No.
1 (Feb., 1958), pp. 89103 https://www.jstor.org/stable/1235348
2.3 External links

Alligation alterne et medial: www.formatp.ca/alligation.php
Alligation Alternate and the Composition of Medicines: Arithmetic and Medicine in Early Modern England
Robinson's Progressive Practical Arithmetic
Chapter 3
Arithmetic for Parents
Arithmetic for Parents (Sumizdat, 2007, ISBN 9780977985258) is a book about mathematics education aimed at
parents and teachers.* [1]* [2]
The author, Ron Aharoni, is a professor of mathematics at the Technion; he wrote the book based on his experiences
teaching elementary mathematics to Israeli schoolchildren.* [2] The book was originally written in Hebrew and was
translated to English, Portuguese and Dutch.
3.1 References
[1] Bovill, Megan R. (April 19, 2007), "Arithmetic for Parents: A Book for Grownups about Children's Mathematics", MAA
Reviews, Mathematical Association of America.
[2] Bogomolny, Alexander, Review of Arithmetic for Parents", Cut-the-Knot.
18
Chapter 4
Binary number
In mathematics and digital electronics, a binary number is a number expressed in the binary numeral system
or base-2 numeral system which represents numeric values using two dierent symbols: typically 0 (zero) and 1
(one). The base-2 system is a positional notation with a radix of 2. Because of its straightforward implementation in
digital electronic circuitry using logic gates, the binary system is used internally by almost all modern computers and
computer-based devices. Each digit is referred to as a bit.
4.1 History
The modern binary number system was devised by Gottfried Leibniz in 1679 and appears in his article Explication
de l'Arithmtique Binaire (published in 1703). Systems related to binary numbers have appeared earlier in multiple
cultures including ancient Egypt, China, and India. Leibniz was specically inspired by the Chinese I Ching.
4.1.1 Egypt
See also: Ancient Egyptian mathematics

The scribes of ancient Egypt used two dierent systems for their fractions, Egyptian fractions (not related to the
Arithmetic values represented by parts of the Eye of Horus
19
20 CHAPTER 4. BINARY NUMBER
binary number system) and Horus-Eye fractions (so called because many historians of mathematics believe that the
symbols used for this system could be arranged to form the eye of Horus, although this has been disputed). Horus-
Eye fractions are a binary numbering system for fractional quantities of grain, liquids, or other measures, in which
a fraction of a hekat is expressed as a sum of the binary fractions 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, 1/16, 1/32, and 1/64. Early forms
of this system can be found in documents from the Fifth Dynasty of Egypt, approximately 2400 BC, and its fully
developed hieroglyphic form dates to the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt, approximately 1200 BC.* [1]
The method used for ancient Egyptian multiplication is also closely related to binary numbers. In this method,
multiplying one number by a second is performed by a sequence of steps in which a value (initially the rst of the
two numbers) is either doubled or has the rst number added back into it; the order in which these steps are to be
performed is given by the binary representation of the second number. This method can be seen in use, for instance,
in the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, which dates to around 1650 BC.* [2]
4.1.2 China
Daoist Bagua
The I Ching dates from the 9th century BC in China.* [3] The binary notation in the I Ching is used to interpret its
quaternary divination technique.* [4]
It is based on taoistic duality of yin and yang.* [5] eight trigrams (Bagua) and a set of 64 hexagrams (sixty-four
4.1. HISTORY 21
gua), analogous to the three-bit and six-bit binary numerals, were in use at least as early as the Zhou Dynasty of
ancient China.* [3]
The Song Dynasty scholar Shao Yong (10111077) rearranged the hexagrams in a format that resembles modern
binary numbers, although he did not intend his arrangement to be used mathematically.* [4] Viewing the least signif-
icant bit on top of single hexagrams in Shao Yong's square and reading along rows either from bottom right to top
left with solid lines as 0 and broken lines as 1 or from top left to bottom right with solid lines as 1 and broken lines
as 0 hexagrams can be interpreted as sequence from 0 to 63. * [6]
4.1.3 India
The Indian scholar Pingala (c. 2nd century BC) developed a binary system for describing prosody.* [7]* [8] He used
binary numbers in the form of short and long syllables (the latter equal in length to two short syllables), making
it similar to Morse code.* [9]* [10] Pingala's Hindu classic titled Chandastra (8.23) describes the formation of a
matrix in order to give a unique value to each meter. The binary representations in Pingala's system increases towards
the right, and not to the left like in the binary numbers of the modern, Western positional notation.* [11]* [12]
4.1.4 Other cultures

The residents of the island of Mangareva in French Polynesia were using a hybrid binary-decimal system before
1450.* [13] Slit drums with binary tones are used to encode messages across Africa and Asia.* [5] Sets of binary
combinations similar to the I Ching have also been used in traditional African divination systems such as If as well as
in medieval Western geomancy. The base-2 system utilized in geomancy had long been widely applied in sub-Saharan
Africa.
4.1.5 Western predecessors to Leibniz

In 1605 Francis Bacon discussed a system whereby letters of the alphabet could be reduced to sequences of binary
digits, which could then be encoded as scarcely visible variations in the font in any random text.* [14] Importantly for
the general theory of binary encoding, he added that this method could be used with any objects at all: provided
those objects be capable of a twofold dierence only; as by Bells, by Trumpets, by Lights and Torches, by the report
of Muskets, and any instruments of like nature.* [14] (See Bacon's cipher.)
John Napier in 1617 described a system he called location arithmetic for doing binary calculations using a non-
positional representation by letters.
4.1.6 Leibniz and the I Ching

The full title of Leibniz's article is translated into English as the Explanation of Binary Arithmetic, which uses only
the characters 1 and 0, with some remarks on its usefulness, and on the light it throws on the ancient Chinese gures of
Fu Xi".* [15] (1703). Leibniz's system uses 0 and 1, like the modern binary numeral system. An example of Leibniz's
binary numeral system is as follows:* [15]
0 0 0 1 numerical value 20
Leibniz interpreted the hexagrams of the I Ching as evidence of binary calculus.* [16] As a Sinophile, Leibniz
was aware of the I Ching, noted with fascination how its hexagrams correspond to the binary numbers from 0 to
111111, and concluded that this mapping was evidence of major Chinese accomplishments in the sort of philosoph-
ical mathematics he admired.* [17] Leibniz was rst introduced to the I Ching through his contact with the French
Jesuit Joachim Bouvet, who visited China in 1685 as a missionary. Leibniz saw the I Ching hexagrams as an ar-
mation of the universality of his own religious beliefs as a Christian.* [16] Binary numerals were central to Leibniz's
theology. He believed that binary numbers were symbolic of the Christian idea of creatio ex nihilo or creation out of
nothing.* [18]
Gottfried Leibniz
[A concept that] is not easy to impart to the pagans, is the creation ex nihilo through God's almighty
power. Now one can say that nothing in the world can better present and demonstrate this power than
the origin of numbers, as it is presented here through the simple and unadorned presentation of One and
Zero or Nothing.
Leibniz's letter to the Duke of Brunswick attached with the I Ching hexagrams* [16]
4.1. HISTORY 23
George Boole
4.1.7 Later developments
In 1854, British mathematician George Boole published a landmark paper detailing an algebraic system of logic that
would become known as Boolean algebra. His logical calculus was to become instrumental in the design of digital
electronic circuitry.* [19]
In 1937, Claude Shannon produced his master's thesis at MIT that implemented Boolean algebra and binary arithmetic
using electronic relays and switches for the rst time in history. Entitled A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching
Circuits, Shannon's thesis essentially founded practical digital circuit design.* [20]
In November 1937, George Stibitz, then working at Bell Labs, completed a relay-based computer he dubbed the
Model K(for "Kitchen, where he had assembled it), which calculated using binary addition.* [21] Bell Labs
authorized a full research program in late 1938 with Stibitz at the helm. Their Complex Number Computer, completed
8 January 1940, was able to calculate complex numbers. In a demonstration to the American Mathematical Society
conference at Dartmouth College on 11 September 1940, Stibitz was able to send the Complex Number Calculator
remote commands over telephone lines by a teletype. It was the rst computing machine ever used remotely over a
phone line. Some participants of the conference who witnessed the demonstration were John von Neumann, John
Mauchly and Norbert Wiener, who wrote about it in his memoirs.* [22]* [23]* [24]
The Z1 computer, which was designed and built by Konrad Zuse between 1935 and 1938, used Boolean logic and
binary oating point numbers.* [25]
4.2 Representation
Any number can be represented by any sequence of bits (binary digits), which in turn may be represented by any
mechanism capable of being in two mutually exclusive states. Any of the following rows of symbols can be interpreted
as the binary numeric value of 667:
The numeric value represented in each case is dependent upon the value assigned to each symbol. In a computer, the
numeric values may be represented by two dierent voltages; on a magnetic disk, magnetic polarities may be used.
A positive, "yes", or onstate is not necessarily equivalent to the numerical value of one; it depends on the
architecture in use.
In keeping with customary representation of numerals using Arabic numerals, binary numbers are commonly written
using the symbols 0 and 1. When written, binary numerals are often subscripted, prexed or suxed in order to
indicate their base, or radix. The following notations are equivalent:
100101 binary (explicit statement of format)
100101b (a sux indicating binary format; also known as Intel convention* [26]* [27])
100101B (a sux indicating binary format)
bin 100101 (a prex indicating binary format)
1001012 (a subscript indicating base-2 (binary) notation)
%100101 (a prex indicating binary format; also known as Motorola convention* [26]* [27])
0b100101 (a prex indicating binary format, common in programming languages)
6b100101 (a prex indicating number of bits in binary format, common in programming languages)
When spoken, binary numerals are usually read digit-by-digit, in order to distinguish them from decimal numerals.
For example, the binary numeral 100 is pronounced one zero zero, rather than one hundred, to make its binary nature
explicit, and for purposes of correctness. Since the binary numeral 100 represents the value four, it would be confusing
to refer to the numeral as one hundred (a word that represents a completely dierent value, or amount). Alternatively,
the binary numeral 100 can be read out asfour(the correct value), but this does not make its binary nature explicit.
4.3 Counting in binary

Counting in binary is similar to counting in any other number system. Beginning with a single digit, counting proceeds
through each symbol, in increasing order. Before examining binary counting, it is useful to briey discuss the more
familiar decimal counting system as a frame of reference.
4.3. COUNTING IN BINARY 25
HH : MM : SS
8
4
2
1
1+0 0+0+0+0 1+2+0 1+2+4+0 0+0+4 1+0+0+8
= = = = = =
1 0 3 7 4 9
10 : 37 : 49
A binary clock might use LEDs to express binary values. In this clock, each column of LEDs shows a binary-coded decimal numeral
of the traditional sexagesimal time.
4.3.1 Decimal counting
Decimal counting uses the ten symbols 0 through 9. Counting begins with the incremental substitution of the least
signicant digit (rightmost digit) which is often called the rst digit. When the available symbols for this position are
exhausted, the least signicant digit is reset to 0, and the next digit of higher signicance (one position to the left)
is incremented (overow), and incremental substitution of the low-order digit resumes. This method of reset and
overow is repeated for each digit of signicance. Counting progresses as follows:
000, 001, 002, ... 007, 008, 009, (rightmost digit is reset to zero, and the digit to its left is incremented)
010, 011, 012, ...
...
090, 091, 092, ... 097, 098, 099, (rightmost two digits are reset to zeroes, and next digit is incremented)
100, 101, 102, ...

This counter shows how to count in binary from numbers zero through thirty-one.
4.3.2 Binary counting

Binary counting follows the same procedure, except that only the two symbols 0 and 1 are available. Thus, after a
digit reaches 1 in binary, an increment resets it to 0 but also causes an increment of the next digit to the left:
0000,
0001, (rightmost digit starts over, and next digit is incremented)
0010, 0011, (rightmost two digits start over, and next digit is incremented)
0100, 0101, 0110, 0111, (rightmost three digits start over, and the next digit is incremented)
1000, 1001, 1010, 1011, 1100, 1101, 1110, 1111 ...
In the binary system, each digit represents an increasing power of 2, with the rightmost digit representing 20 , the next
representing 21 , then 22 , and so on. The equivalent decimal representation of a binary number is sum of the powers
of 2 which each digit represents. For example, the binary number 100101 is converted to decimal form as follows:
1001012 = [ ( 1 ) 25 ] + [ ( 0 ) 24 ] + [ ( 0 ) 23 ] + [ ( 1 ) 22 ] + [ ( 0 ) 21 ] + [ ( 1 ) 20 ]
1001012 = [ 1 32 ] + [ 0 16 ] + [ 0 8 ] + [ 1 4 ] + [ 0 2 ] + [ 1 1 ]
1001012 = 3710
4.4 Fractions
Fractions in binary only terminate if the denominator has 2 as the only prime factor. As a result, 1/10 does not have a
nite binary representation, and this causes 10 0.1 not to be precisely equal to 1 in oating point arithmetic. As an
example, to interpret the binary expression for 1/3 = .010101..., this means: 1/3 = 0 2* 1 + 1 2* 2 + 0 2* 3
+ 1 2* 4 + ... = 0.3125 + ... An exact value cannot be found with a sum of a nite number of inverse powers of
two, the zeros and ones in the binary representation of 1/3 alternate forever.
4.5 Binary arithmetic

Arithmetic in binary is much like arithmetic in other numeral systems. Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division can be performed on binary numerals.
4.5. BINARY ARITHMETIC 27
4.5.1 Addition
Main article: binary adder

The simplest arithmetic operation in binary is addition. Adding two single-digit binary numbers is relatively simple,
A
S
B
C
The circuit diagram for a binary half adder, which adds two bits together, producing sum and carry bits.
using a form of carrying:
0+00
0+11
1+01
1 + 1 0, carry 1 (since 1 + 1 = 2 = 0 + (1 21 ) )
Adding two 1digits produces a digit 0, while 1 will have to be added to the next column. This is similar
to what happens in decimal when certain single-digit numbers are added together; if the result equals or exceeds the
value of the radix (10), the digit to the left is incremented:
5 + 5 0, carry 1 (since 5 + 5 = 10 = 0 + (1 101 ) )

7 + 9 6, carry 1 (since 7 + 9 = 16 = 6 + (1 101 ) )
This is known as carrying. When the result of an addition exceeds the value of a digit, the procedure is to carry
the excess amount divided by the radix (that is, 10/10) to the left, adding it to the next positional value. This is correct
since the next position has a weight that is higher by a factor equal to the radix. Carrying works the same way in
binary:
1 1 1 1 1 (carried digits) 0 1 1 0 1 + 1 0 1 1 1 ------------- = 1 0 0 1 0 0 = 36
In this example, two numerals are being added together: 011012 (1310 ) and 101112 (2310 ). The top row shows the
carry bits used. Starting in the rightmost column, 1 + 1 = 102 . The 1 is carried to the left, and the 0 is written at the
bottom of the rightmost column. The second column from the right is added: 1 + 0 + 1 = 102 again; the 1 is carried,
and 0 is written at the bottom. The third column: 1 + 1 + 1 = 112 . This time, a 1 is carried, and a 1 is written in the
bottom row. Proceeding like this gives the nal answer 1001002 (36 decimal).
When computers must add two numbers, the rule that: x xor y = (x + y) mod 2 for any two bits x and y allows for
very fast calculation, as well.
Long carry method
A simplication for many binary addition problems is the Long Carry Method or Brookhouse Method of Binary
Addition. This method is generally useful in any binary addition where one of the numbers contains a long string
of ones. It is based on the simple premise that under the binary system, when given a stringof digits composed
entirely of n ones (where: n is any integer length), adding 1 will result in the number 1 followed by a string of n zeros.
That concept follows, logically, just as in the decimal system, where adding 1 to a string of n 9s will result in the
number 1 followed by a string of n 0s:
Binary Decimal 1 1 1 1 1 likewise 9 9 9 9 9 + 1 + 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0000
Such long strings are quite common in the binary system. From that one nds that large binary numbers can be added
using two simple steps, without excessive carry operations. In the following example, two numerals are being added
together: 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 02 (95810 ) and 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 12 (69110 ), using the traditional carry method on the left,
and the long carry method on the right:
Traditional Carry Method Long Carry Method vs. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 (carried digits) 1 1 carry the 1 until it is one
digit past the stringbelow 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 cross out the string, + 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
+ 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 and cross out the digit that was added to it
= 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1
The top row shows the carry bits used. Instead of the standard carry from one column to the next, the lowest-ordered
1with a1in the corresponding place value beneath it may be added and a1may be carried to one digit past
the end of the series. Theusednumbers must be crossed o, since they are already added. Other long strings may
likewise be cancelled using the same technique. Then, simply add together any remaining digits normally. Proceeding
in this manner gives the nal answer of 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 12 (164910 ). In our simple example using small numbers,
the traditional carry method required eight carry operations, yet the long carry method required only two, representing
a substantial reduction of eort.
Addition table
The binary addition table is similar, but not the same, as the truth table of the logical disjunction operation . The
dierence is that 1 1 = 1 , while 1 + 1 = 10 .
4.5.2 Subtraction
Further information: signed number representations and two's complement
Subtraction works in much the same way:
000
0 1 1, borrow 1
101
110
Subtracting a 1digit from a 0digit produces the digit 1, while 1 will have to be subtracted from the next
column. This is known as borrowing. The principle is the same as for carrying. When the result of a subtraction is
less than 0, the least possible value of a digit, the procedure is to borrowthe decit divided by the radix (that is,
10/10) from the left, subtracting it from the next positional value.
* * * * (starred columns are borrowed from) 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 ---------------- = 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 * (starred columns
are borrowed from) 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 - 1 0 1 0 1 1 ---------------- = 0 1 1 0 1 0 0
Subtracting a positive number is equivalent to adding a negative number of equal absolute value. Computers use
signed number representations to handle negative numbersmost commonly the two's complement notation. Such
representations eliminate the need for a separatesubtractoperation. Using two's complement notation subtraction
can be summarized by the following formula:
A B = A + not B + 1
4.6. BITWISE OPERATIONS 29
4.5.3 Multiplication
Multiplication in binary is similar to its decimal counterpart. Two numbers A and B can be multiplied by partial
products: for each digit in B, the product of that digit in A is calculated and written on a new line, shifted leftward so
that its rightmost digit lines up with the digit in B that was used. The sum of all these partial products gives the nal
result.
Since there are only two digits in binary, there are only two possible outcomes of each partial multiplication:
If the digit in B is 0, the partial product is also 0

If the digit in B is 1, the partial product is equal to A
For example, the binary numbers 1011 and 1010 are multiplied as follows:
1 0 1 1 (A) 1 0 1 0 (B) --------- 0 0 0 0 Corresponds to the rightmost 'zero' in B + 1 0 1 1 Corresponds to the
next 'one' in B + 0 0 0 0 + 1 0 1 1 --------------- = 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
Binary numbers can also be multiplied with bits after a binary point:
1 0 1 . 1 0 1 A (5.625 in decimal) 1 1 0 . 0 1 B (6.25 in decimal) ------------------- 1 . 0 1 1 0 1 Corresponds
to a 'one' in B + 0 0 . 0 0 0 0 Corresponds to a 'zero' in B + 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 + 1 0 1 1 . 0 1 + 1 0 1 1 0 . 1
--------------------------- = 1 0 0 0 1 1 . 0 0 1 0 1 (35.15625 in decimal)
See also Booth's multiplication algorithm.
Multiplication table
The binary multiplication table is the same as the truth table of the logical conjunction operation .
4.5.4 Division
See also: Division algorithm
Long division in binary is again similar to its decimal counterpart.

In the example below, the divisor is 1012 , or 5 decimal, while the dividend is 110112 , or 27 decimal. The procedure
is the same as that of decimal long division; here, the divisor 1012 goes into the rst three digits 1102 of the dividend
one time, so a 1is written on the top line. This result is multiplied by the divisor, and subtracted from the rst
three digits of the dividend; the next digit (a 1) is included to obtain a new three-digit sequence:
1 ___________ 1 0 1 ) 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 ----- 0 0 1
The procedure is then repeated with the new sequence, continuing until the digits in the dividend have been exhausted:
1 0 1 ___________ 1 0 1 ) 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 ----- 1 1 1 1 0 1 ----- 1 0
Thus, the quotient of 110112 divided by 1012 is 1012 , as shown on the top line, while the remainder, shown on the
bottom line, is 102 . In decimal, 27 divided by 5 is 5, with a remainder of 2.
4.5.5 Square root

The process of taking a binary square root digit by digit is the same as for a decimal square root, and is explained
here. An example is:
1 0 0 1 --------- 1010001 1 --------- 101 01 0 -------- 1001 100 0 -------- 10001 10001 10001 ------- 0
4.6 Bitwise operations

Main article: bitwise operation
Though not directly related to the numerical interpretation of binary symbols, sequences of bits may be manipulated
using Boolean logical operators. When a string of binary symbols is manipulated in this way, it is called a bitwise
operation; the logical operators AND, OR, and XOR may be performed on corresponding bits in two binary numerals
provided as input. The logical NOT operation may be performed on individual bits in a single binary numeral provided
as input. Sometimes, such operations may be used as arithmetic short-cuts, and may have other computational benets
as well. For example, an arithmetic shift left of a binary number is the equivalent of multiplication by a (positive,
integral) power of 2.
4.7 Conversion to and from other numeral systems
4.7.1 Decimal
To convert from a base-10 integer to its base-2 (binary) equivalent, the number is divided by two. The remainder is
the least-signicant bit. The quotient is again divided by two; its remainder becomes the next least signicant bit. This
process repeats until a quotient of one is reached. The sequence of remainders (including the nal quotient of one)
forms the binary value, as each remainder must be either zero or one when dividing by two. For example, (357)10 is
expressed as (101100101)2. * [28]
Conversion from base-2 to base-10 simply inverts the preceding algorithm. The bits of the binary number are used
one by one, starting with the most signicant (leftmost) bit. Beginning with the value 0, the prior value is doubled,
and the next bit is then added to produce the next value. This can be organized in a multi-column table. For example,
to convert 100101011012 to decimal:
The result is 119710 . Note that the rst Prior Value of 0 is simply an initial decimal value. This method is an
application of the Horner scheme.
The fractional parts of a number are converted with similar methods. They are again based on the equivalence of
shifting with doubling or halving.
In a fractional binary number such as 0.110101101012 , the rst digit is 12 , the second ( 21 )2 = 41 , etc. So if there is
a 1 in the rst place after the decimal, then the number is at least 12 , and vice versa. Double that number is at least
1. This suggests the algorithm: Repeatedly double the number to be converted, record if the result is at least 1, and
then throw away the integer part.
For example, ( 13 ) 10 , in binary, is:
Thus the repeating decimal fraction 0.3... is equivalent to the repeating binary fraction 0.01... .
Or for example, 0.110 , in binary, is:
This is also a repeating binary fraction 0.00011... . It may come as a surprise that terminating decimal fractions can
have repeating expansions in binary. It is for this reason that many are surprised to discover that 0.1 + ... + 0.1, (10
additions) diers from 1 in oating point arithmetic. In fact, the only binary fractions with terminating expansions
are of the form of an integer divided by a power of 2, which 1/10 is not.
The nal conversion is from binary to decimal fractions. The only diculty arises with repeating fractions, but
otherwise the method is to shift the fraction to an integer, convert it as above, and then divide by the appropriate
power of two in the decimal base. For example:
4.7. CONVERSION TO AND FROM OTHER NUMERAL SYSTEMS 31
x= 1100.101110 . . .
x2 = 6
1100101110.01110 . . .
x2= 11001.01110 . . .
x (2 2) =
6
1100010101
x = 1100010101/111110
x= (789/62)10
Another way of converting from binary to decimal, often quicker for a person familiar with hexadecimal, is to do so
indirectlyrst converting ( x in binary) into ( x in hexadecimal) and then converting ( x in hexadecimal) into ( x
in decimal).
For very large numbers, these simple methods are inecient because they perform a large number of multiplications
or divisions where one operand is very large. A simple divide-and-conquer algorithm is more eective asymptotically:
given a binary number, it is divided by 10* k, where k is chosen so that the quotient roughly equals the remainder; then
each of these pieces is converted to decimal and the two are concatenated. Given a decimal number, it can be split
into two pieces of about the same size, each of which is converted to binary, whereupon the rst converted piece is
multiplied by 10* k and added to the second converted piece, where k is the number of decimal digits in the second,
least-signicant piece before conversion.
4.7.2 Hexadecimal
Main article: Hexadecimal
Binary may be converted to and from hexadecimal somewhat more easily. This is because the radix of the hexadecimal
system (16) is a power of the radix of the binary system (2). More specically, 16 = 24 , so it takes four digits of
binary to represent one digit of hexadecimal, as shown in the adjacent table.
To convert a hexadecimal number into its binary equivalent, simply substitute the corresponding binary digits:
3A16 = 0011 10102

E716 = 1110 01112
To convert a binary number into its hexadecimal equivalent, divide it into groups of four bits. If the number of bits
isn't a multiple of four, simply insert extra 0 bits at the left (called padding). For example:
10100102 = 0101 0010 grouped with padding = 5216

110111012 = 1101 1101 grouped = DD16
To convert a hexadecimal number into its decimal equivalent, multiply the decimal equivalent of each hexadecimal
digit by the corresponding power of 16 and add the resulting values:
C0E716 = (12 163 ) + (0 162 ) + (14 161 ) + (7 160 ) = (12 4096) + (0 256) + (14 16) + (7
1) = 49,38310
4.7.3 Octal
Main article: Octal
Binary is also easily converted to the octal numeral system, since octal uses a radix of 8, which is a power of two
(namely, 23 , so it takes exactly three binary digits to represent an octal digit). The correspondence between octal and
binary numerals is the same as for the rst eight digits of hexadecimal in the table above. Binary 000 is equivalent to
the octal digit 0, binary 111 is equivalent to octal 7, and so forth.
Converting from octal to binary proceeds in the same fashion as it does for hexadecimal:
658 = 110 1012

178 = 001 1112
And from binary to octal:
1011002 = 101 1002 grouped = 548

100112 = 010 0112 grouped with padding = 238
And from octal to decimal:
658 = (6 81 ) + (5 80 ) = (6 8) + (5 1) = 5310
1278 = (1 82 ) + (2 81 ) + (7 80 ) = (1 64) + (2 8) + (7 1) = 8710
4.8 Representing real numbers

Non-integers can be represented by using negative powers, which are set o from the other digits by means of a radix
point (called a decimal point in the decimal system). For example, the binary number 11.012 thus means:
For a total of 3.25 decimal.

All dyadic rational numbers 2pa have a terminating binary numeralthe binary representation has a nite number of
terms after the radix point. Other rational numbers have binary representation, but instead of terminating, they recur,
with a nite sequence of digits repeating indenitely. For instance
110 12
310 = 112 = 0.01010101012
1210 11002
1710 = 100012 = 0.10110100 10110100 10110100...2
The phenomenon that the binary representation of any rational is either terminating or recurring also occurs in other
radix-based numeral systems. See, for instance, the explanation in decimal. Another similarity is the existence of
alternative representations for any terminating representation, relying on the fact that 0.111111is the sum of the
geometric series 2* 1 + 2* 2 + 2* 3 + ... which is 1.
Binary numerals which neither terminate nor recur represent irrational numbers. For instance,
0.10100100010000100000100does have a pattern, but it is not a xed-length recurring pattern, so the num-
ber is irrational

1.0110101000001001111001100110011111110is the binary representation of 2 , the square root of 2,
another irrational. It has no discernible pattern. See irrational number.
4.9 See also

Binary code
Binary-coded decimal
Finger binary
4.10. REFERENCES 33
Gray code
Linear feedback shift register
Oset binary
Quibinary
Reduction of summands
Redundant binary representation
Repeating decimal
SZTAKI Desktop Grid searches for generalized binary number systems up to dimension 11.
Two's complement
4.10 References
[1] Chrisomalis, Stephen (2010), Numerical Notation: A Comparative History, Cambridge University Press, pp. 4243, ISBN
9780521878180.
[2] Rudman, Peter Strom (2007), How Mathematics Happened: The First 50,000 Years, Prometheus Books, pp. 135136,
ISBN 9781615921768.
[3] Edward Hacker; Steve Moore; Lorraine Patsco (2002). I Ching: An Annotated Bibliography. Routledge. p. 13. ISBN
978-0-415-93969-0.
[4] Redmond & Hon (2014), p. 227.
[5] Jonathan Shectman (2003). Groundbreaking Scientic Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the 18th Century. Green-
wood Publishing. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-313-32015-6.
[6] Zhonglian, Shi; Wenzhao, Li; Poser, Hans (2000). LeibnizBinary System and Shao Yongs Xiantian Tu in :Das
Neueste ber China: G.W. Leibnizens Novissima Sinica von 1697 : Internationales Symposium, Berlin 4. bis 7. Oktober
1997. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag. pp. 165170. ISBN 3515074481.
[7] Sanchez, Julio; Canton, Maria P. (2007). Microcontroller programming: the microchip PIC. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC
Press. p. 37. ISBN 0-8493-7189-9.
[8] W. S. Anglin and J. Lambek, The Heritage of Thales, Springer, 1995, ISBN 0-387-94544-X
[9] Binary Numbers in Ancient India
[10] Math for Poets and Drummers (pdf, 145KB)
[11] Binary Numbers in Ancient India.
[12] Stakhov, Alexey; Olsen, Scott Anthony (2009). The mathematics of harmony: from Euclid to contemporary mathematics
and computer science. ISBN 978-981-277-582-5.
[13] Bender, Andrea; Beller, Sieghard (16 December 2013). Mangarevan invention of binary steps for easier calcula-
tion. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 111: 13221327. PMC 3910603 . PMID 24344278.
doi:10.1073/pnas.1309160110.
[14] Bacon, Francis (1605). The Advancement of Learning. London. pp. Chapter 1.
[15] Leibniz G., Explication de l'Arithmtique Binaire, Die Mathematische Schriften, ed. C. Gerhardt, Berlin 1879, vol.7,
p.223; Engl. transl.
[16] J.E.H. Smith (2008). Leibniz: What Kind of Rationalist?: What Kind of Rationalist?. Springer. p. 415. ISBN 978-1-4020-
8668-7.
[17] Aiton, Eric J. (1985). Leibniz: A Biography. Taylor & Francis. pp. 2458. ISBN 0-85274-470-6.
[18] Yuen-Ting Lai (1998). Leibniz, Mysticism and Religion. Springer. pp. 149150. ISBN 978-0-7923-5223-5.
[19] Boole, George (2009) [1854]. An Investigation of the Laws of Thought on Which are Founded the Mathematical Theories
of Logic and Probabilities (Macmillan, Dover Publications, reprinted with corrections [1958] ed.). New York: Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-00153-3.
[20] Shannon, Claude Elwood (1940). A symbolic analysis of relay and switching circuits. Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute
of Technology.
[21] National Inventors Hall of Fame George R. Stibitz. 20 August 2008. Archived from the original on 9 July 2010.
Retrieved 5 July 2010.
[22] George Stibitz : Bio. Math & Computer Science Department, Denison University. 30 April 2004. Retrieved 5 July
2010.
[23] Pioneers The people and ideas that made a dierence George Stibitz (19041995)". Kerry Redshaw. 20 February
2006. Retrieved 5 July 2010.
[24] George Robert Stibitz Obituary. Computer History Association of California. 6 February 1995. Retrieved 5 July
2010.
[25] Konrad Zuses Legacy: The Architecture of the Z1 and Z3 (PDF). IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 19 (2):
515. 1997. doi:10.1109/85.586067.
[26] Kveler, Gerd; Schwoch, Dietrich (2013) [1996]. Arbeitsbuch Informatik - eine praxisorientierte Einfhrung in die Daten-
verarbeitung mit Projektaufgabe (in German). Vieweg-Verlag, reprint: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-528-04952-2. doi:10.1007/978-
3-322-92907-5. 9783322929075. Retrieved 2015-08-05.
[27] Kveler, Gerd; Schwoch, Dietrich (2007-10-04). Informatik fr Ingenieure und Naturwissenschaftler: PC- und Mikrocom-
putertechnik, Rechnernetze (in German). 2 (5 ed.). Vieweg, reprint: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 3834891916. 9783834891914.
Retrieved 2015-08-05.
[28] Base System. Retrieved 31 August 2016.
4.11 Further reading

Sanchez, Julio; Canton, Maria P. (2007). Microcontroller programming: the microchip PIC. Boca Raton, FL:
CRC Press. p. 37. ISBN 0-8493-7189-9.
Redmond, Georey; Hon, Tze-Ki (2014). Teaching the I Ching. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-976681-
9.
4.12 External links

Binary System at cut-the-knot
Conversion of Fractions at cut-the-knot
Binary Digits at Math Is Fun
How to Convert from Decimal to Binary at wikiHow
Learning exercise for children at CircuitDesign.info
Binary Counter with Kids
MagicCard Trick
Quick reference on Howto read binary
Binary converter to HEX/DEC/OCT with direct access to bits
Sir Francis Bacon's BiLiteral Cypher system, predates binary number system.
Leibniz' binary numeral system, 'De progressione dyadica', 1679, online and analyzed on BibNum [click '
tlcharger' for English analysis]
Chapter 5
Calculation
For the card game, see Calculation (game).
A calculation is a deliberate process that transforms one or more inputs into one or more results, with variable
change. The term is used in a variety of senses, from the very denite arithmetical calculation of using an algorithm,
to the vague heuristics of calculating a strategy in a competition, or calculating the chance of a successful relationship
between two people.
For example, multiplying 7 by 6 is a simple algorithmic calculation. Estimating the fair price for nancial instruments
using the BlackScholes model is a complex algorithmic calculation.
Statistical estimations of the likely election results from opinion polls also involve algorithmic calculations, but pro-
duces ranges of possibilities rather than exact answers.
To calculate means to ascertain by computing. The English word derives from the Latin calculus, which originally
meant a small stone in the gall-bladder (from Latin calx). It also meant a pebble used for calculating, or a small
stone used as a counter in an abacus (Latin abacus, Greek abax). The abacus was an instrument used by Greeks and
Romans for arithmetic calculations, preceding the slide-rule and the electronic calculator, and consisted of perforated
pebbles sliding on iron bars.
5.1 Comparison to computation

Calculate comes from the Greek word or gravel in English because Greeks used gravel for counting. Cal-
culation is a prerequisite for computation.* [1] The dierence in the meaning of calculation and computation appears
to originate from the late medieval period.* [2]
5.2 See also

Abacus
Calculator
Calculus (disambiguation)
Calculability
Computation
Cost accounting
List of algorithms
Mathematics
Mental calculation
36
5.3. REFERENCES 37
5.3 References
[1] http://science.jrank.org/pages/7536/Calculation-Computation.html
[2] http://science.jrank.org/pages/8509/Calculation-Computation-Premodern-Early-Modern-Non-Western.html
5.4 External links

The Lifting of the Veil in the Operations of Calculationis a manuscript, from the 18th-century, in Arabic,
by Ibn al-Banna' al-Marrakushi, about calculation processes
Chapter 6
Carry (arithmetic)
In elementary arithmetic, a carry is a digit that is transferred from one column of digits to another column of more
signicant digits. It is part of the standard algorithm to add numbers together by starting with the rightmost digits
and working to the left. For example, when 6 and 7 are added to make 13, the 3is written to the same column
and the 1is carried to the left. When used in subtraction the operation is called a borrow.
Carrying is emphasized in traditional mathematics, while curricula based on reform mathematics do not emphasize
any specic method to nd a correct answer.
Carrying makes a few appearances in higher mathematics as well. In computing, carrying is an important function
of adder circuits.
6.1 Manual arithmetic
A typical example of carry is in the following pencil-and-paper addition:

27 + 59 ---- 86
7 + 9 = 16, and the digit 1 is the carry.
The opposite is a borrow, as in
*
1 47 19 ---- 28
Here, 7 9 = 2, so try (10 9) + 7 = 8, and the 10 is got by taking (borrowing) 1 from the next digit to the
left. There are two ways in which this is commonly taught:
1. The ten is moved from the next digit left, leaving in this example 3 1 in the tens column. According to this
method, the term borrowis a misnomer, since the ten is never paid back.
2. The ten is copied from the next digit left, and then 'paid back' by adding it to the subtrahend in the column
from which it was 'borrowed', giving in this example 4 (1 + 1) in the tens column.
6.2 Mathematics education
Traditionally, carry is taught in the addition of multi-digit numbers in the 2nd or late rst year of elementary school.
However, since the late 20th century, many widely adopted curricula developed in the United States such as TERC
omitted instruction of the traditional carry method in favor of invented arithmetic methods, and methods using color-
ing, manipulatives, and charts. Such omissions were criticized by such groups as Mathematically Correct, and some
states and districts have since abandoned this experiment, though it remains widely used.
38
6.3. HIGHER MATHEMATICS 39
6.3 Higher mathematics

Kummer's theorem states that the number of carries involved in adding two numbers in base p is equal to the exponent
of the highest power of p dividing a certain binomial coecient.
When several random numbers of many digits are added, the statistics of the carry digits bears an unexpected con-
nection with Eulerian numbers and the statistics of rie shue permutations.* [1]* [2]* [3]* [4]
In abstract algebra, the carry operation for two-digit numbers can be formalized using the language of group coho-
mology.* [5]* [6]* [7] This viewpoint can be applied to alternative characterizations of the real numbers.* [8]* [9]
6.4 Computing
Further information: Adder (electronics) and Carry ag
When speaking of a digital circuit like an adder, the word carry is used in a similar sense.
In most computers, the carry from the most signicant bit of an arithmetic operation (or bit shifted out from a shift
operation) is placed in a special carry bit which can be used as a carry-in for multiple precision arithmetic or tested
and used to control execution of a computer program. The same carry bit is also generally used to indicate borrows
in subtraction, though the bit's meaning is inverted due to the eects of two's complement arithmetic. Normally, a
carry bit value of 1signies that an addition overowed the ALU, and must be accounted for when adding data
words of lengths greater than that of the CPU. For subtractive operations, two (opposite) conventions are employed
as most machines set the carry ag on borrow while some machines (such as the 6502 and the PIC) instead reset the
carry ag on borrow (and vice versa).
6.5 References
[1] Holte, John M. (February 1997),Carries, Combinatorics, and an Amazing Matrix, The American Mathematical Monthly,
104 (2): 138149, doi:10.2307/2974981
[2] Diaconis, Persi; Fulman, Jason (August 2009), Carries, shuing, and symmetric functions, Advances in Applied
Mathematics, 43 (2): 176196, doi:10.1016/j.aam.2009.02.002
[3] Borodin, Alexei; Diaconis, Persi; Fulman, Jason (October 2010), On adding a list of numbers (and other one-dependent
determinantal processes)", Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, 47 (4): 639670, doi:10.1090/S0273-0979-
2010-01306-9
[4] Nakano, Fumihiko; Sadahiro, Taizo (February 2014), A generalization of carries processes and Eulerian numbers,
Advances in Applied Mathematics, 53: 2843, doi:10.1016/j.aam.2013.09.005
[5] Hegland, M.; Wheeler, W. W. (January 1997), Linear Bijections and the Fast Fourier Transform, Applicable Algebra
in Engineering, Communication and Computing, 8 (2): 143163, doi:10.1007/s002000050059
[6] Isaksen, Daniel C. (November 2002), A Cohomological Viewpoint on Elementary School Arithmetic (PDF), The
American Mathematical Monthly, 109 (9): 796805, doi:10.2307/3072368, retrieved January 22, 2014
[7] Borovik, Alexandre V. (2010), Mathematics under the Microscope: Notes on Cognitive Aspects of Mathematical Practice,
AMS, pp. 8788, ISBN 978-0-8218-4761-9
[8] Metropolis, N.; Gian-Carlo, Rota; Tanny, S. (May 1973), Signicance Arithmetic: The Carrying Algorithm, Journal
of Combinatorial Theory, Series A, 14 (3): 386421, doi:10.1016/0097-3165(73)90013-7
[9] Faltin, F.; Metropolis, N.; Ross, B.; Rota, G.-C. (June 1975), The Real Numbers as a Wreath Product, Advances in
Mathematics, 16 (3): 278304, doi:10.1016/0001-8708(75)90115-2
6.6 External links

Weisstein, Eric W. Carry. MathWorld.
40 CHAPTER 6. CARRY (ARITHMETIC)
Weisstein, Eric W. Borrow. MathWorld.
Carrying - nLab
Chapter 7
Chunking (division)
In mathematics education at primary school level, chunking (sometimes also called the partial quotients method)
is an elementary approach for solving simple division questions, by repeated subtraction. It is also known as the
hangman method with the addition of a line separating the divisor, dividend, and partial quotients.* [1] It has a
counterpart in the grid method for multiplication.
To calculate the result of dividing a large number by a small number, the student repeatedly takes away chunks
of the large number, where each chunkis an easy multiple (for example 100, 10, 5 2, etc.) of the small
number, until the large number has been reduced to zero or the remainder is less than the divisor. At the same time
the student keeps a running total of what multiple of the small number has so far been taken away, which eventually
becomes the nal result of the sum.
So, for example, to calculate 132 8 , one might successively subtract 80, 40 and 8 to leave 4,
132 80 (10 8) -- 52 40 ( 5 8) -- 12 8 ( 1 8) -- 4 -------- 132 = 16 8 + 4
to establish that 132 8 is 16 (10+5+1) with 4 remaining.
In the UK, this approach for elementary division sums has come into widespread classroom use in primary schools
since the late 1990s, when the National Numeracy Strategy in its numeracy hourbrought in a new emphasis on
more free-form oral and mental strategies for calculations, rather than the rote learning of standard methods.* [2]
Compared to the short division and long division methods that are traditionally taught, chunking may seem strange,
unsystematic, and arbitrary. However, it is argued that chunking, rather than moving straight to short division, gives a
better introduction to division, in part because the focus is always holistic, focusing throughout on the whole calculation
and its meaning, rather than just rules for generating successive digits; and because its more free-form nature requires
genuine understanding to be successful, rather than just the ability to follow a ritualised procedure.* [3]
7.1 References
[1] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5DaS1gYEYXs
[2] Gary Eason, Back to school for parents, BBC News, 13 February 2000.
[3] Anne Campbell, Gavin Fairbairn, Working with support in the classroom, SAGE, 2005; pp. 5960 via Google books
7.2 Further reading

Rob Eastaway and Mike Askew (2010), Maths for Mums and Dads, Square Peg. ISBN 0-224-08635-9
Khan Academy Arithmetic Course, Partial Quotient Method of Division: https://www.khanacademy.org/
math/arithmetic/multiplication-division/partial-quotient-division/v/partial-quotient-division
41
Chapter 8
Cube (algebra)
Third powerredirects here. For the band, see Third Power.

Cubedredirects here. For other uses, see Cube (disambiguation).
"" redirects here. Its literal meaning is the numeral "3" in superscript.
In arithmetic and algebra, the cube of a number n is its third power: the result of the number multiplied by itself
y = x3 for values of 0 x 25.
twice:
n3 = n n n.
42
8.1. IN INTEGERS 43
It is also the number multiplied by its square:
n3 = n n2 .
This is also the volume formula for a geometric cube with sides of length n, giving rise to the name. The inverse
operation of nding a number whose cube is n is called extracting the cube root of n. It determines the side of the
cube of a given volume. It is also n raised to the one-third power.
Both cube and cube root are odd functions:
(n)3 = (n3 ).
The cube of a number or any other mathematical expression is denoted by a superscript 3, for example 23 = 8 or (x
+ 1)3 .
The graph of the cube function f: x x3 (or the equation y = x3 ) is known as the cubic parabola. Because cube is
an odd function, this curve has a point of symmetry in the origin, but no axis of symmetry.
8.1 In integers
A cube number, or a perfect cube, or sometimes just a cube, is a number which is the cube of an integer. The
perfect cubes up to 603 are (sequence A000578 in the OEIS):
Geometrically speaking, a positive integer m is a perfect cube if and only if one can arrange m solid unit cubes into a
larger, solid cube. For example, 27 small cubes can be arranged into one larger one with the appearance of a Rubik's
Cube, since 3 3 3 = 27.
The dierence between the cubes of consecutive integers can be expressed as follows:
n3 (n 1)3 = 3(n 1)n + 1.
or
(n + 1)3 n3 = 3(n + 1)n + 1.
There is no minimum perfect cube, since the cube of a negative integer is negative. For example, 4 4 4 =
64.
8.1.1 Base ten

Unlike perfect squares, perfect cubes do not have a small number of possibilities for the last two digits. Except for
cubes divisible by 5, where only 25, 75 and 00 can be the last two digits, any pair of digits with the last digit odd can
be a perfect cube. With even cubes, there is considerable restriction, for only 00, o2, e4, o6 and e8 can be the last
two digits of a perfect cube (where o stands for any odd digit and e for any even digit). Some cube numbers are also
square numbers; for example, 64 is a square number (8 8) and a cube number (4 4 4). This happens if and only
if the number is a perfect sixth power (in this case 26 ).
The last digits of each 3rd power are:
It is, however, easy to show that most numbers are not perfect cubes because all perfect cubes must have digital root
1, 8 or 9. That is their values modulo 9 may be only 1, 1 and 0. Moreover, the digital root of any number's cube
can be determined by the remainder the number gives when divided by 3:
If the number x is divisible by 3, its cube has digital root 9; that is,
if x 0 (mod 3) then x3 0 (mod 9);

44 CHAPTER 8. CUBE (ALGEBRA)
If it has a remainder of 1 when divided by 3, its cube has digital root 1; that is,
if x 1 (mod 3) then x3 1 (mod 9);
If it has a remainder of 2 when divided by 3, its cube has digital root 8; that is,
if x 1 (mod 3) then x3 1 (mod 9).
8.1.2 Waring's problem for cubes
Main article: Waring's problem
Every positive integer can be written as the sum of nine (or fewer) positive cubes. This upper limit of nine cubes
cannot be reduced because, for example, 23 cannot be written as the sum of fewer than nine positive cubes:
23 = 23 + 23 + 13 + 13 + 13 + 13 + 13 + 13 + 13 .
8.1.3 Fermat's last theorem for cubes
Main article: Fermat's last theorem
The equation x3 + y3 = z3 has no non-trivial (i.e. xyz 0) solutions in integers. In fact, it has none in Eisenstein
integers.* [1]
Both of these statements are also true for the equation* [2] x3 + y3 = 3z3 .
8.1.4 Sum of rst n cubes
The sum of the rst n cubes is the nth triangle number squared:
( )2
n(n + 1)
1 + 2 + + n = (1 + 2 + + n) =
3 3 3 2
.
2
Proofs Charles Wheatstone (1854) gives a particularly simple derivation, by expanding each cube in the sum into a
set of consecutive odd numbers. Indeed, he begins by giving the identity
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
n3 = n2 n + 1 + n2 n + 1 + 2 + n2 n + 1 + 4 + + n2 + n 1 .
| {z }
nnumbers odd consecutive
That identity is related to triangular numbers Tn in the following way:

Tn
n3 = (2k 1),
k=Tn1 +1
and thus the summands forming n3 start o just after those forming all previous values 13 up to (n 1)3 . Applying
this property, along with another well-known identity:
8.1. IN INTEGERS 45
13 23
33
43
53
1
2
3
4
5
Visual proof that 13 + 23 + 33 + 43 + 53 = (1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5)2 .

n
n2 = (2k 1),
k=1
we obtain the following derivation:

n
k 3 = 1 + 8 + 27 + 64 + + n3
k=1
( ) ( )
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 11 + 13 + 15 + 17 + 19 + + n2 n + 1 + + n2 + n 1
= |{z}
| {z } | {z } | {z } | {z }
13 23 33 43 n3
( )
1 +3 +5 + + n2 + n 1
= |{z}
12
| {z }
22
| {z }
32
| {z }
( )2
n2 +n
2
= (1 + 2 + + n)2
( n )2
= k .
k=1
In the more recent mathematical literature, Stein (1971) uses the rectangle-counting interpretation of these numbers
Visual demonstration that the square of a triangular number equals a sum of cubes.
to form a geometric proof of the identity (see also Benjamin, Quinn & Wurtz 2006); he observes that it may also be
proved easily (but uninformatively) by induction, and states that Toeplitz (1963) providesan interesting old Arabic
proof. Kanim (2004) provides a purely visual proof, Benjamin & Orrison (2002) provide two additional proofs,
and Nelsen (1993) gives seven geometric proofs.
For example, the sum of the rst 5 cubes is the square of the 5th triangular number,
13 + 23 + 33 + 43 + 53 = 152
A similar result can be given for the sum of the rst y odd cubes,
13 + 33 + + (2y 1)3 = (xy)2
but x, y must satisfy the negative Pell equation x2 2y2 = 1. For example, for y = 5 and 29, then,
8.2. IN RATIONAL NUMBERS 47
13 + 33 + + 93 = (7 5)2
13 + 33 + + 573 = (41 29)2

and so on. Also, every even perfect number, except the lowest, is the sum of the rst 2p1/2
odd cubes,
28 = 22 (23 1) = 13 + 33
496 = 24 (25 1) = 13 + 33 + 53 + 73
8128 = 26 (27 1) = 13 + 33 + 53 + 73 + 93 + 113 + 133 + 153
8.1.5 Sum of cubes of numbers in arithmetic progression
There are examples of cubes of numbers in arithmetic progression whose sum is a cube:
33 + 43 + 53 = 63
113 + 123 + 133 + 143 = 203
313 + 333 + 353 + 373 + 393 + 413 = 663

with the rst one also known as Plato's number. The formula F for nding the sum of n cubes of numbers in arithmetic
progression with common dierence d and initial cube a3 ,
F (d, a, n) = a3 + (a + d)3 + (a + 2d)3 + + (a + dn d)3
is given by
F (d, a, n) = (n/4)(2a d + dn)(2a2 2ad + 2adn d2 n + d2 n2 )
A parametric solution to
F (d, a, n) = y 3
is known for the special case of d = 1, or consecutive cubes, but only sporadic solutions are known for integer d > 1,
such as d = 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 37, 39, etc.* [3]
8.1.6 Cubes as sums of successive odd integers
In the sequence of odd integers 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19, , the rst one is a cube (1 = 13 ); the sum of the
next two is the next cube (3 + 5 = 23 ); the sum of the next three is the next cube (7 + 9 + 11 = 33 ); and so forth.
8.2 In rational numbers

Every positive rational number is the sum of three positive rational cubes,* [4] and there are rationals that are not the
sum of two rational cubes.* [5]
10
x3
10
4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
y = x3 plotted on a Cartesian plane
8.3 In real numbers, other elds, and rings
Further information: cubic function

In real numbers, the cube function preserves the order: larger numbers have larger cubes. In other words, cubes
(strictly) monotonically increase. Also, its codomain is the entire real line: the function x x3 : R R is a
surjection (takes all possible values). Only three numbers are equal to their own cubes: 1, 0, and 1. If 1 < x < 0 or
1 < x, then x3 > x. If x < 1 or 0 < x < 1, then x3 < x. All aforementioned properties pertain also to any higher odd
power (x5 , x7 , ) of real numbers. Equalities and inequalities are also true in any ordered ring.
Volumes of similar Euclidean solids are related as cubes of their linear sizes.
In complex numbers, the cube of a purely imaginary number is also purely imaginary. For example, i3 = i.
The derivative of x3 equals 3x2 .
Cubes occasionally have the surjective property in other elds, such as in Fp for such prime p that p 1 (mod 3),* [6]
but not necessarily: see the counterexample with rationals above. Also in F7 only three elements 0, 1 are perfect
cubes, of seven total. 1, 0, and 1 are perfect cubes anywhere and the only elements of a eld equal to the own cubes:
x3 x = x(x 1)(x + 1).
8.4. HISTORY 49
8.4 History
Determination of the cubes of large numbers was very common in many ancient civilizations. Mesopotamian math-
ematicians created cuneiform tablets with tables for calculating cubes and cube roots by the Old Babylonian period
(20th to 16th centuries BC).* [7]* [8] Cubic equations were known to the ancient Greek mathematician Diophantus.* [9]
Hero of Alexandria devised a method for calculating cube roots in the 1st century CE.* [10] Methods for solving cubic
equations and extracting cube roots appear in The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art, a Chinese mathematical
text compiled around the 2nd century BCE and commented on by Liu Hui in the 3rd century CE.* [11] The Indian
mathematician Aryabhata wrote an explanation of cubes in his work Aryabhatiya. In 2010 Alberto Zanoni found a
new algorithm* [12] to compute the cube of a long integer in a certain range, faster than squaring-and-multiplying.
8.5 See also

Cabtaxi number
Cubic equation
Doubling the cube
Euler's sum of powers conjecture
Fifth power (algebra)
Fourth power
Kepler's laws of planetary motion#Third law
Monkey saddle
Perfect power
Taxicab number
8.6 Notes
[1] Hardy & Wright, Thm. 227
[3] A Collection of Algebraic Identities.
[6] The multiplicative group of Fp is cyclic of order p 1, and if it is not divisible by 3, then cubes dene a group automorphism.
[7] Cooke, Roger (8 November 2012). The History of Mathematics. John Wiley & Sons. p. 63. ISBN 978-1-118-46029-0.
[8] Nemet-Nejat, Karen Rhea (1998). Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 306. ISBN
978-0-313-29497-6.
[9] Van der Waerden, Geometry and Algebra of Ancient Civilizations, chapter 4, Zurich 1983 ISBN 0-387-12159-5
[10] Smyly, J. Gilbart (1920). Heron's Formula for Cube Root. Hermathena. Trinity College Dublin. 19 (42): 6467.
JSTOR 23037103.
[11] Crossley, John; W.-C. Lun, Anthony (1999). The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art: Companion and Commentary.
Oxford University Press. pp. 176, 213. ISBN 978-0-19-853936-0.
[12] http://www.springerlink.com/content/q1k57pr4853g1513/
8.7 References
Hardy, G. H.; Wright, E. M. (1980). An Introduction to the Theory of Numbers(Fifth ed.). Oxford:
Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-853171-5.
Chapter 9
Decimal
For other uses, see Decimal (disambiguation).
The decimal numeral system (also called base-ten positional numeral system, and occasionally called denary) is
the standard system for denoting integer and non-integer numbers. It is the extension to non-integer numbers of
the HinduArabic numeral system.* [1] The way of denoting numbers in the decimal system is often referred to as
Decimal notation.* [2]
A decimal numeral, or just decimal, or, improperly decimal number, refers generally to the notation of a number in
the decimal system, which contains a decimal separator (for example 10.00 or 3.14159). Sometimes these terms are
used for the any numeral in the decimal system. A decimal may also refer to any digit after the decimal separator,
such as in 3.14 is the approximation of to two decimals.
The numbers that may be represented in the decimal system are the decimal fractions, that is the fractions of the form
a/10* n, where a is an integer, and n is a nonnegative integer.
The decimal system has been extended to innite decimals, for representing any real number, by using an innite
sequence of digits after the decimal separator (see Decimal representation). In this context, the usual decimals are
sometimes called terminating decimals. A repeating decimal, is an innite decimal, that, after some place repeats
indenitely the same sequence of digits (for example 5.123144144144144... = 5.123144).* [3] An innite decimal
represents a rational number if and only if it is a repeating decimal or is a nite decimal.
9.1 Origin
Many numeral systems of ancient civilisations, use ten and its powers for representing numbers, probably because
there are ten ngers on two hands and people started counting by using their ngers. Examples are Brahmi numerals,
Greek numerals, Hebrew numerals, Roman numerals, and Chinese numerals. Very large numbers were dicult
to represent in these old numeral systems, and, only the best mathematicians were able to multiply or divide large
numbers. These diculty were completely solved with the introduction of the HinduArabic numeral system for
representing integers. This system has been extended to represent some non-integer numbers, called decimal fractions
or decimal numbers for forming the decimal numeral system.
9.2 Decimal notation

For writing numbers, the decimal system uses ten decimal digits, a decimal mark, and, for negative numbers, a minus
sign "". The decimal digits are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9;* [4] the decimal separator is the dot ".in many countries,
including English speaking ones, but may be a comma ",in other countries, mainly in Europe.
For representing a nonnegative number, a decimal consists of
either a (nite) sequence of digits such that 2017, or, in full generality,
51
52 CHAPTER 9. DECIMAL
Ten ngers on two hands, the possible starting point of the decimal counting.
am am1 . . . a0
(in this case, the decimal represents an integer)
or two sequence of digits separated by a decimal mark such as 3.14159, 15.00, or in full generality
am an1 . . . a0 .b1 b2 . . . bn
It is generally assumed that, if m > 0, the rst digit am is not zero, but, in some circumstances, it may be useful to have
one or more 0 on the left. This does not change the value represented by the decimal. For example, 3.14 = 03.14 =
003.14. Similarly, if bn =0, it may be removed, and, conversely, trailing zeros may be added without changing the
represented number. For example, 15 = 15.0 = 15.00 and 5.2 = 5.20 = 5.200. sometimes, the unnecessary zeros are
used for indicating the accuracy of a measure. For example, 15.00m may indicate that the measurement error is less
than one centimetre, while 15m may mean that the length is roughly fteen meters, and that the error may exceed 10
cm.
For representing a negative number, a minus sign is added before am .
The numeral am an1 . . . a0 .b1 b2 . . . bn represents the number
b1 bn
am 10m + am1 10m1 + a1 0 + a0 + + + n.
10 10
Therefore, the contribution of each digit to the value of a number depends on its position in the numeral. That is, the
decimal system is a positional numeral system
9.3 Decimal fractions

The numbers that are represented by decimal numeral are the decimal fractions (sometimes called decimal num-
bers), that is, the rational numbers that may be expressed as a fraction, the denominator of which is a power of
9.4. REAL NUMBER APPROXIMATION 53
ten.* [5] For example, the numerals 0.8, 14.89, 0.00024 represent the fractions 8/10, 1489/100, 24/100000. More
generally, a decimal with n digits after the separator represents the fraction with denominator 10* n, whose numerator
is the integer obtained by removing the separator.
Expressed as a fully reduced fraction, the decimal numbers are those, whose denominator is a product of a power of
2 by a power of 5. Thus the smallest denominators of decimal numbers are
1 = 20 50 , 2 = 21 50 , 4 = 22 50 , 5 = 20 51 , 8 = 23 50 , 10 = 21 51 , 16 = 24 50 , 25 = 20 52 , . . .
The integer part, or integral part of a decimal is the integer written to the left of the decimal separator (see also
truncation). For a nonnegative decimal, it is the largest integer that is not greater than the decimal. The part from the
decimal separator to the right is the fractional part, which equals the dierence between the numeral and its integer
part.
When the integral part of a numeral is zero, it may occur, typically in computing, that the integer part is not written
(for example .1234, instead of 0.1234). In normal writing, this is generally avoided because of the risk of confusion
between the decimal mark and other punctuation.
9.4 Real number approximation

Decimal numerals do not allow an exact representation for all real numbers, so e.g. for the real number . Neverthe-
less, they allow approximating every real number with any desired accuracy, e.g., the decimal 3.14159 approximates
the real , being less than 10* 5 o; and so decimals are widely used in science, engineering and everyday life.
More precisely, for every real number x, and every positive integer n, there are two decimals l and u, with at most n
digits after the decimal mark, such that l x u and (u l) = 10* -n.
Numbers are very often obtained as the result of a measurement. As measurements are generally aicted with some
measurement error with a known upper bound, the result of a measurement is well represented by a decimal with n
digits after the decimal mark, as soon as the absolut measurement error is bounded from above by 10* -n. In practice,
measurement results are often given with a certain number of digits after the decimal point, which indicate the error
bounds. For example, although 0.080 and 0.08 denote the same real number, the numeral 0.080 is to suggest a
measurement with an error less than 0.001, while the numeral 0.08 indicates an absolute error bounded by 0.01. In
both cases, the true value of the measured quantity could be, for example, 0.0803 or 0.0796 (see also signicant
gures).
9.5 Innite decimal expansion

Main article: Decimal representation
For a real number x, let us denote [x]n greatest decimal that is not greater than x, and has n digits after the decimal
mark. If dn is the last digit of [x]n , it may be shown that [x]n may be obtained simply by writing dn on the right of
[x]n1 . In other words, [x]n1 and [x]n dier only by the last digit of [x]n , and one has
[x]n = [x]0 .d1 d2 ...dn .
One may increase n indenitely, and this is a direct consequence of the denition of a limit that x is the limit of [x]n
when n tends to the innity. This is written as
x = [x]0 .d1 d2 ...dn ...,
and is called the innite decimal expansion of x

Conversely, for any integer [x]0 and any innite sequence of digits (dn ), the innite expression [x]0 .d1 d2 ...dn ... is the
innite decimal expansion of a unique real number x, except if all dn equal 9 for n large enough.
If all dn equal 9 for n large enough, the limit of the sequence of the [x]0 .d1 d2 ...dn is the decimal fraction obtained by
replacing the last dn that is not a 9, by dn 1, and replacing all subsequent 9 by 0 (see 0.999...).
In summary, every real number that is not a decimal fraction has a unique innite decimal expansion. Decimal
fractions have exactly two innite decimal expansions, one containing only 0 after some place, which is obtained by
the above denition of [x]n , and the other containing only 9 after some place, which is obtained by replacing not
greaterby lessin the denition of [x]n .
9.5.1 Rational numbers
Main article: Repeating decimal
The long division allows computing the innite decimal expansion of a rational number. If the rational number is
a decimal fraction, the division stops eventually, producing a decimal numeral, which may be prolongated into an
innite expansion by adding innitely many 0. If the rational number is not a decimal fraction, the division may
continue indenitely. However, as all successive remainder are less than the divisor, there are only a nite number of
possible remainders, and after some place, the same sequence of digits must be repeated indenitely in the quotient.
That is, one has a repeating decimal. For example,
1/81 = 0.012345679012... (with 012345679 repeating).
Conversely, every eventually repeating sequence of digit is the innite decimal expansion of a rational number. This
is a consequence of the fact that the recurring part of a decimal representation is, in fact, an innite geometric series
which will sum to a rational number. For example,

123 123 1 123 41
0.0123123123 . . . = 0.001k = = =
10000 10000 1 0.001 9990 3330
k=0
9.6 Decimal computation
Diagram of the world's earliest multiplication table (c. 305 BC) from the Warring States period
Modern computer hardware and software systems commonly use a binary representation internally (although many
early computers, such as the ENIAC or the IBM 650, used decimal representation internally).* [6] For external use by
computer specialists, this binary representation is sometimes presented in the related octal or hexadecimal systems.
9.7. HISTORY 55
For most purposes, however, binary values are converted to or from the equivalent decimal values for presentation to
or input from humans; computer programs express literals in decimal by default. (123.1, for example, is written as
such in a computer program, even though many computer languages are unable to encode that number precisely.)
Both computer hardware and software also use internal representations which are eectively decimal for storing
decimal values and doing arithmetic. Often this arithmetic is done on data which are encoded using some variant of
binary-coded decimal,* [7]* [8] especially in database implementations, but there are other decimal representations in
use (such as in the new IEEE 754 Standard for Floating-Point Arithmetic).* [9]
Decimal arithmetic is used in computers so that decimal fractional results of adding (or subtracting) values with a xed
length of their fractional part always are computed to this same length of precision. This is especially important for
nancial calculations, e.g., requiring in their results integer multiples of the smallest currency unit for book keeping
purposes. This is not possible in binary, because the negative powers of 10 have no nite binary fractional represen-
tation; and is generally impossible for multiplication (or division).* [10]* [11] See Arbitrary-precision arithmetic for
exact calculations.
9.7 History
Many ancient cultures calculated with numerals based on ten, sometimes argued due to human hands typically having
ten digits.* [12] Egyptian hieroglyphs, in evidence since around 3000 BC, used a purely decimal system,* [13] just
as the Cretan hieroglyphs (ca. 16251500 BC) of the Minoans whose numerals are closely based on the Egyptian
model.* [14]* [15] The decimal system was handed down to the consecutive Bronze Age cultures of Greece, including
Linear A (ca. 18th century BC1450 BC) and Linear B (ca. 13751200 BC) the number system of classical
Greece also used powers of ten, including, like the Roman numerals did, an intermediate base of 5.* [16] Notably,
the polymath Archimedes (ca. 287212 BC) invented a decimal positional system in his Sand Reckoner which was
based on 108* [16] and later led the German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss to lament what heights science
would have already reached in his days if Archimedes had fully realized the potential of his ingenious discovery.* [17]
The Hittites hieroglyphs (since 15th century BC), just like the Egyptian and early numerals in Greece, was strictly
decimal.* [18]
Some ancient texts like the Vedas dating back to 19001700 BCE mention decimals and mathematical decimal
fractions.
The Egyptian hieratic numerals, the Greek alphabet numerals, the Hebrew alphabet numerals, the Roman numerals,
the Chinese numerals and early Indian Brahmi numerals are all non-positional decimal systems, and required large
numbers of symbols. For instance, Egyptian numerals used dierent symbols for 10, 20, to 90, 100, 200, to 900, 1000,
2000, 3000, 4000, to 10,000.* [19] The world's earliest positional decimal system was the Chinese rod calculus* [20]
9.7.1 History of decimal fractions
Decimal fractions were rst developed and used by the Chinese in the end of 4th century BC,* [21] and then spread to
the Middle East and from there to Europe.* [20]* [22] The written Chinese decimal fractions were non-positional.* [22]
However, counting rod fractions were positional.* [20]
Qin Jiushao in his book Mathematical Treatise in Nine Sections (1247) denoted 0.96644 by
, meaning

096644
*
[23]
J. Lennart Berggren notes that positional decimal fractions appear for the rst time in a book by the Arab mathe-
matician Abu'l-Hasan al-Uqlidisi written in the 10th century.* [24] The Jewish mathematician Immanuel Bonls used
decimal fractions around 1350, anticipating Simon Stevin, but did not develop any notation to represent them.* [25]
The world's earliest decimal multiplication table was made from bamboo slips, dating from 305 BC, during the Warring States period
in China.
The Persian mathematician Jamshd al-Ksh claimed to have discovered decimal fractions himself in the 15th cen-
tury.* [24] Al Khwarizmi introduced fraction to Islamic countries in the early 9th century, his fraction presentation
was an exact copy of traditional Chinese mathematical fraction from Sunzi Suanjing.* [20] This form of fraction with
numerator on top and denominator at bottom without a horizontal bar was also used by 10th century Abu'l-Hasan
al-Uqlidisi and 15th century Jamshd al-Ksh's work Arithmetic Key.* [20]* [26]
9.7. HISTORY 57
The world's earliest positional decimal system

Upper row vertical form
Lower row horizontal form
counting rod decimal fraction 1/7
Number: 184.54290
Simon Stevin's notation: 18454290
A forerunner of modern European decimal notation was introduced by Simon Stevin in the 16th century.* [27]
9.7.2 Natural languages

The ingenious method of expressing every possible number using a set of ten symbols emerged in India. Several
Indian languages show a straightforward decimal system. Many Indo-Aryan and Dravidian languages have numbers
between 10 and 20 expressed in a regular pattern of addition to 10.* [28]
The Hungarian language also uses a straightforward decimal system. All numbers between 10 and 20 are formed
regularly (e.g. 11 is expressed as tizenegyliterally one on ten), as with those between 20 and 100 (23 as
huszonhrom= three on twenty).

A straightforward decimal rank system with a word for each order (10 , 100 , 1000 , 10,000 ), and in which
11 is expressed as ten-one and 23 as two-ten-three, and 89,345 is expressed as 8 (ten thousands) 9 (thousand)
3 (hundred) 4 (tens) 5 is found in Chinese, and in Vietnamese with a few irregularities. Japanese, Korean, and
Thai have imported the Chinese decimal system. Many other languages with a decimal system have special words for
the numbers between 10 and 20, and decades. For example, in English 11 iselevennotten-oneorone-teen
.
Incan languages such as Quechua and Aymara have an almost straightforward decimal system, in which 11 is ex-
pressed as ten with one and 23 as two-ten with three.
Some psychologists suggest irregularities of the English names of numerals may hinder children's counting abil-
ity.* [29]
9.7.3 Other bases

Main article: positional notation
Some cultures do, or did, use other bases of numbers.
Pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures such as the Maya used a base-20 system (perhaps based on using all
twenty ngers and toes).
The Yuki language in California and the Pamean languages* [30] in Mexico have octal (base-8) systems because
the speakers count using the spaces between their ngers rather than the ngers themselves.* [31]
The existence of a non-decimal base in the earliest traces of the Germanic languages, is attested by the presence
of words and glosses meaning that the count is in decimal (cognates to ten-count or tenty-wise), such would
be expected if normal counting is not decimal, and unusual if it were.* [32]* [33] Where this counting system
is known, it is based on the long hundred of 120 in number, and a long thousand of 1200 in number. The
descriptions like 'long' only appear after the small hundred of 100 in number appeared with the Christians.
Gordon's Introduction to Old Norse p 293, gives number names that belong to this system. An expression
cognate to 'one hundred and eighty' is translated to 200, and the cognate to 'two hundred' is translated at 240.
Goodare details the use of the long hundred in Scotland in the Middle Ages, giving examples, calculations
where the carry implies i C (i.e. one hundred) as 120, etc. That the general population were not alarmed
to encounter such numbers suggests common enough use. It is also possible to avoid hundred-like numbers
by using intermediate units, such as stones and pounds, rather than a long count of pounds. Goodare gives
examples of numbers like vii score, where one avoids the hundred by using extended scores. There is also a
paper by W.H. Stevenson, on 'Long Hundred and its uses in England'.
Many or all of the Chumashan languages originally used a base-4 counting system, in which the names for
numbers were structured according to multiples of 4 and 16.* [34]
Many languages* [35] use quinary (base-5) number systems, including Gumatj, Nunggubuyu,* [36] Kuurn
Kopan Noot* [37] and Saraveca. Of these, Gumatj is the only true 525 language known, in which 25 is
the higher group of 5.
Some Nigerians use duodecimal systems.* [38] So did some small communities in India and Nepal, as indicated
by their languages.* [39]
The Huli language of Papua New Guinea is reported to have base-15 numbers.* [40] Ngui means 15, ngui ki
means 15 2 = 30, and ngui ngui means 15 15 = 225.
Umbu-Ungu, also known as Kakoli, is reported to have base-24 numbers.* [41] Tokapu means 24, tokapu talu
means 24 2 = 48, and tokapu tokapu means 24 24 = 576.
Ngiti is reported to have a base-32 number system with base-4 cycles.* [35]
The Ndom language of Papua New Guinea is reported to have base-6 numerals.* [42] Mer means 6, mer an
thef means 6 2 = 12, nif means 36, and nif thef means 362 = 72.
9.8. SEE ALSO 59
9.8 See also

Algorism
Binary-coded decimal
Decimal computer
Decimal representation
Decimal separator
Dewey Decimal Classication
Duodecimal
Octal
Scientic notation
SI prex
9.9 References
[1] The History of Arithmetic, Louis Charles Karpinski, 200pp, Rand McNally & Company, 1925.
[2] Lam Lay Yong & Ang Tian Se (2004) Fleeting Footsteps. Tracing the Conception of Arithmetic and Algebra in Ancient
China, Revised Edition, World Scientic, Singapore.
[3] The viniculum (overline) in 5.123144 indicates that the '144' sequence repeats itself indenitely, i.e. 5.123144144144144....
[4] In some countries, such as Arab speaking ones, other glyphs are used for the digits
[5] Decimal Fraction. Encyclopedia of Mathematics. Retrieved 2013-06-18.
[6] Fingers or Fists? (The Choice of Decimal or Binary Representation), Werner Buchholz, Communications of the ACM, Vol.
2 #12, pp311, ACM Press, December 1959.
[7] Schmid, Hermann (1983) [1974]. Decimal Computation (1 (reprint) ed.). Malabar, Florida, USA: Robert E. Krieger
Publishing Company. ISBN 0-89874-318-4.
[8] Schmid, Hermann (1974). Decimal Computation (1 ed.). Binghamton, New York, USA: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN
0-471-76180-X.
[9] Decimal Floating-Point: Algorism for Computers, Cowlishaw, M. F., Proceedings 16th IEEE Symposium on Computer
Arithmetic, ISBN 0-7695-1894-X, pp104-111, IEEE Comp. Soc., June 2003
[10] Decimal Arithmetic FAQ
[11] Decimal Floating-Point: Algorism for Computers, Cowlishaw, M. F., Proceedings 16th IEEE Symposium on Computer
Arithmetic (ARITH 16), ISBN 0-7695-1894-X, pp. 104111, IEEE Comp. Soc., June 2003
[12] Dantzig, Tobias (1954), Number / The Language of Science (4th ed.), The Free Press (Macmillan Publishing Co.), p. 12,
ISBN 0-02-906990-4
[13] Georges Ifrah: From One to Zero. A Universal History of Numbers, Penguin Books, 1988, ISBN 0-14-009919-0, pp.
200213 (Egyptian Numerals)
[14] Graham Flegg: Numbers: their history and meaning, Courier Dover Publications, 2002, ISBN 978-0-486-42165-0, p. 50
[15] Georges Ifrah: From One to Zero. A Universal History of Numbers, Penguin Books, 1988, ISBN 0-14-009919-0, pp.
213218 (Cretan numerals)
[16] Greek numerals
[17] Menninger, Karl: Zahlwort und Zier. Eine Kulturgeschichte der Zahl, Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht, 3rd. ed., 1979, ISBN
3-525-40725-4, pp. 150153
[18] Georges Ifrah: From One to Zero. A Universal History of Numbers, Penguin Books, 1988, ISBN 0-14-009919-0, pp. 218f.
(The Hittite hieroglyphic system)
[19] Lam Lay Yong et al The Fleeting Footsteps pp 137139
[20] Lam Lay Yong, The Development of HinduArabic and Traditional Chinese Arithmetic, Chinese Science, 1996 p38,
Kurt Vogel notation
[21] Ancient bamboo slips for calculation enter world records boo. The Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social
Sciences. Retrieved 10 May 2017.
[22] Joseph Needham (1959). Decimal System. Science and Civilisation in China, Volume III, Mathematics and the Sciences
of the Heavens and the Earth. Cambridge University Press.
[23] Jean-Claude Martzlo, A History of Chinese Mathematics, Springer 1997 ISBN 3-540-33782-2
[24] Berggren, J. Lennart (2007).Mathematics in Medieval Islam. In Katz, Victor J. The Mathematics of Egypt, Mesopotamia,
China, India, and Islam: A Sourcebook. Princeton University Press. p. 530. ISBN 978-0-691-11485-9.
[25] Gandz, S.: The invention of the decimal fractions and the application of the exponential calculus by Immanuel Bonls of
Tarascon (c. 1350), Isis 25 (1936), 1645.
[26] Lam Lay Yong,A Chinese Genesis, Rewriting the history of our numeral system, Archive for History of Exact Science
38: 101108.
[27] B. L. van der Waerden (1985). A History of Algebra. From Khwarizmi to Emmy Noether. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
[28] Indian numerals. Ancient Indian mathematics. Retrieved 2015-05-22.
[29] Azar, Beth (1999). English words may hinder math skills development. American Psychology Association Monitor. 30
(4). Archived from the original on 2007-10-21.
[30] Avelino, Heriberto (2006). The typology of Pame number systems and the limits of Mesoamerica as a linguistic area
(PDF). Linguistic Typology. 10 (1): 4160. doi:10.1515/LINGTY.2006.002.
[31] Marcia Ascher. Ethnomathematics: A Multicultural View of Mathematical Ideas. The College Mathematics Journal.
[32] McClean, R. J. (July 1958), Observations on the Germanic numerals, German Life and Letters, 11 (4): 293299,
doi:10.1111/j.1468-0483.1958.tb00018.x, Some of the Germanic languages appear to show traces of an ancient blending
of the decimal with the vigesimal system.
[33] Voyles, Joseph (October 1987),The cardinal numerals in pre-and proto-Germanic, The Journal of English and Germanic
Philology, 86 (4): 487495, JSTOR 27709904.
[34] There is a surviving list of Ventureo language number words up to 32 written down by a Spanish priest ca. 1819. Chu-
mashan Numeralsby Madison S. Beeler, in Native American Mathematics, edited by Michael P. Closs (1986), ISBN
0-292-75531-7.
[35] Hammarstrm, Harald (17 May 2007).Rarities in Numeral Systems. In Wohlgemuth, Jan; Cysouw, Michael. Rethinking
Universals: How rarities aect linguistic theory (PDF). Empirical Approaches to Language Typology. 45. Berlin: Mouton
de Gruyter (published 2010). Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 August 2007.
[36] Harris, John (1982). Hargrave, Susanne, ed. Facts and fallacies of aboriginal number systems (PDF). Work Papers of
SIL-AAB Series B. 8. pp. 153181. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-08-31.
[37] Dawson, J. "Australian Aborigines: The Languages and Customs of Several Tribes of Aborigines in the Western District of
Victoria (1881), p. xcviii.
[38] Matsushita, Shuji (1998). Decimal vs. Duodecimal: An interaction between two systems of numeration. 2nd Meeting of the
AFLANG, October 1998, Tokyo. Archived from the original on 2008-10-05. Retrieved 2011-05-29.
[39] Mazaudon, Martine (2002). Les principes de construction du nombre dans les langues tibto-birmanes. In Franois,
Jacques. La Pluralit (PDF). Leuven: Peeters. pp. 91119. ISBN 90-429-1295-2
[40] Cheetham, Brian (1978). Counting and Number in Huli. Papua New Guinea Journal of Education. 14: 1635.
Archived from the original on 2007-09-28.
[41] Bowers, Nancy; Lepi, Pundia (1975). Kaugel Valley systems of reckoning (PDF). Journal of the Polynesian Society.
84 (3): 309324. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-06-04.
[42] Owens, Kay (2001), The Work of Glendon Lean on the Counting Systems of Papua New Guinea and Oceania,
Mathematics Education Research Journal, 13 (1): 4771, doi:10.1007/BF03217098, archived from the original on 2015-
09-26
9.10 External links

Decimal arithmetic FAQ
Cultural Aspects of Young Children's Mathematics Knowledge

Chapter 10
Division (mathematics)
This article is about the arithmetical operation. For other uses, see Division (disambiguation).
Dividedredirects here. For other uses, see Divided (disambiguation).
Division is one of the four basic operations of arithmetic, the others being addition, subtraction, and multiplication.
The division of two natural numbers is the process of calculating the number of times one number is contained within
one another.* [1]* :7 For example, in the picture on the right, the 20 apples are divided into groups of ve apples, and
there exist four groups, meaning that ve can be contained within 20 four times, or 20 5 = 4. Division can also be
thought of as the process of evaluating a fraction, and fractional notation (a/b and * ab ) is commonly used to represent
division.* [2]
Division can be viewed either as quotition or as partition. In quotition, 20 5 means the number of 5s that must be
added to get 20. In partition, 20 5 means the size of each of 5 parts into which a set of size 20 is divided.
Division is the inverse of multiplication; if a b = c, then a = c b, as long as b is not zero. Division by zero is
undened for the real numbers and most other contexts,* [3]* :246 because if b = 0, then a cannot be deduced from
b and c, as then c will always equal zero regardless of a. In some contexts, division by zero can be dened although
to a limited extent, and limits involving division of a real number as it approaches zero are dened.* [lower-alpha
1]* [2]* [4]
In division, the dividend is divided by the divisor to get a quotient. In the above example, 20 is the dividend, ve is the
divisor, and four is the quotient. In some cases, the divisor may not be contained fully by the dividend; for example,
10 3 leaves a remainder of one, as 10 is not a multiple of three. Sometimes this remainder is added to the quotient
as a fractional part, so 10 3 is equal to 31/3 or 3.33 . . ., but in the context of integer division, where numbers have
no fractional part, the remainder is kept separately or discarded.* [5]
Besides dividing apples, division can be applied to other physical and abstract objects. Division has been dened in
several contexts, such as for the real and complex numbers and for more abstract contexts such as for vector spaces
and elds.
Division is the most mentally dicult of the four basic operations of arithmetic , but the discipline and mastery of
it provides an educational bridge from arithmetic to number theory and algebra. Teaching the objective concept of
dividing integers introduces students to the arithmetic of fractions. Unlike addition, subtraction, and multiplication,
the set of all integers is not closed under division. Dividing two integers may result in a remainder. To complete the
division of the remainder, the number system is extended to include fractions or rational numbers as they are more
generally called. When students advance to algebra, the abstract theory of division intuited from arithmetic naturally
extends to algebraic division of variables, polynomials, and matrices.
10.1 Notation
Division is often shown in algebra and science by placing the dividend over the divisor with a horizontal line, also
called a fraction bar, between them. For example, a divided by b is written
a
b
62
10.1. NOTATION 63
20 5 = 4, because 20 apples contain ve apples four times. That is an example of division as quotition rather than as partition.
One can also say that 20 5 = 4 because when 20 apples are divided into 5 equal sets of apples, then there are 4 in each such set.
That is division as partition rather than as quotition.
This can be read out loud as "a divided by b", "a by b" or "a over b". A way to express division all on one line is to
write the dividend (or numerator), then a slash, then the divisor (or denominator), like this:
64 CHAPTER 10. DIVISION (MATHEMATICS)
a/b
This is the usual way to specify division in most computer programming languages since it can easily be typed as a
simple sequence of ASCII characters. Some mathematical software, such as MATLAB and GNU Octave, allows the
operands to be written in the reverse order by using the backslash as the division operator:
b\a
A typographical variation halfway between these two forms uses a solidus (fraction slash) but elevates the dividend,
and lowers the divisor:
*
ab
Any of these forms can be used to display a fraction. A fraction is a division expression where both dividend and
divisor are integers (typically called the numerator and denominator), and there is no implication that the division
must be evaluated further. A second way to show division is to use the obelus (or division sign), common in arithmetic,
in this manner:
ab
This form is infrequent except in elementary arithmetic. ISO 80000-29.6 states it should not be used. The obelus
is also used alone to represent the division operation itself, as for instance as a label on a key of a calculator.
In some non-English-speaking cultures, a divided by bis written a : b. This notation was introduced in 1631 by
William Oughtred in his Clavis Mathematicae and later popularized by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz.* [6] However, in
English usage the colon is restricted to expressing the related concept of ratios (then "a is to b").
In elementary classes of some countries, the notation b) a or b)a is used to denote a divided by b, especially when
discussing long division; similarly, commonly used in Latin America, b)a for short division (as shown in an example
on that page). This notation was rst introduced by Michael Stifel in Arithmetica integra, published in 1544.* [6]
10.2 Computing
Main articles: Long division and Division algorithm
10.2.1 Manual methods

Division is often introduced through the notion of sharing outa set of objects, for example a pile of sweets, into
a number of equal portions. Distributing the objects several at a time in each round of sharing to each portion leads
to the idea of "chunking", i.e., division by repeated subtraction.
More systematic and more ecient (but also more formalised and more rule-based, and more removed from an overall
holistic picture of what division is achieving), a person who knows the multiplication tables can divide two integers
using pencil and paper using the method of short division, if the divisor is simple. Long division is used for larger
integer divisors. If the dividend has a fractional part (expressed as a decimal fraction), one can continue the algorithm
past the ones place as far as desired. If the divisor has a fractional part, we can restate the problem by moving the
decimal to the right in both numbers until the divisor has no fraction.
A person can calculate division with an abacus by repeatedly placing the dividend on the abacus, and then subtracting
the divisor the oset of each digit in the result, counting the number of divisions possible at each oset.
A person can use logarithm tables to divide two numbers, by subtracting the two numbers' logarithms, then looking
up the antilogarithm of the result.
A person can calculate division with a slide rule by aligning the divisor on the C scale with the dividend on the D
scale. The quotient can be found on the D scale where it is aligned with the left index on the C scale. The user is
responsible, however, for mentally keeping track of the decimal point.
10.3. PROPERTIES 65
10.2.2 By computer or with computer assistance

Modern computers compute division by methods that are faster than long division: see Division algorithm.
In modular arithmetic, some numbers have a multiplicative inverse with respect to the modulus. We can calculate
division by multiplication in such a case. This approach is useful in computers that do not have a fast division
instruction.
10.3 Properties
Division is right-distributive over addition and subtraction. That means:
a+b a b
= (a + b) c = +
c c c
in the same way as in multiplication (a + b) c = a c + b c . But division is not left-distributive, i.e. we have
a a a
= a (b + c) = +
b+c b c
unlike multiplication.
If there are multiple divisions in a row the order of operation goes from left to right:* [7]* [8]
a b c = (a b) c = a (b c) = a b1 c1
10.4 Euclidean division

Main article: Euclidean division
The Euclidean division is the mathematical formulation of the outcome of the usual process of division of integers.
It asserts that, given two integers, a, the dividend, and b, the divisor, such that b 0, there are unique integers q, the
quotient, and r, the remainder, such that a = bq + r and 0 r < |b|, where |b| denotes the absolute value of b.
10.5 Of integers
Division of integers is not closed. Apart from division by zero being undened, the quotient is not an integer unless
the dividend is an integer multiple of the divisor. For example, 26 cannot be divided by 11 to give an integer. Such
a case uses one of ve approaches:
1. Say that 26 cannot be divided by 11; division becomes a partial function.

2. Give an approximate answer as a decimal fraction or a mixed number, so 26
11 2.36 or 26
11 2 100
36
. This is the
approach usually taken in numerical computation.
3. Give the answer as a fraction representing a rational number, so the result of the division of 26 by 11 is 26 11 .
But, usually, the resulting fraction should be simplied: the result of the division of 52 by 22 is also 26
11 . This
simplication may be done by factoring out the greatest common divisor.
4. Give the answer as an integer quotient and a remainder, so 26 11 = 2 remainder 4. To make the distinction with
the previous case, this division, with two integers as result, is sometimes called Euclidean division, because it
is the basis of the Euclidean algorithm.
26
5. Give the integer quotient as the answer, so 11 = 2. This is sometimes called integer division.
Dividing integers in a computer program requires special care. Some programming languages, such as C, treat integer
division as in case 5 above, so the answer is an integer. Other languages, such as MATLAB and every computer algebra
system return a rational number as the answer, as in case 3 above. These languages also provide functions to get the
results of the other cases, either directly or from the result of case 3.
Names and symbols used for integer division include div, /, \, and %. Denitions vary regarding integer division when
the dividend or the divisor is negative: rounding may be toward zero (so called T-division) or toward (F-division);
rarer styles can occur see Modulo operation for the details.
Divisibility rules can sometimes be used to quickly determine whether one integer divides exactly into another.
10.6 Of rational numbers

The result of dividing two rational numbers is another rational number when the divisor is not 0. The division of two
rational numbers p/q and r/s can be computed as
p/q p s ps
= = .
r/s q r qr
All four quantities are integers, and only p may be 0. This denition ensures that division is the inverse operation of
multiplication.
10.7 Of real numbers

Division of two real numbers results in another real number when the divisor is not 0. It is dened such a/b = c if and
only if a = cb and b 0.
10.8 By zero
Main article: Division by zero
Division of any number by zero (where the divisor is zero) is undened. This is because zero multiplied by any nite
number always results in a product of zero. Entry of such an expression into most calculators produces an error
message.
10.9 Of complex numbers

Dividing two complex numbers results in another complex number when the divisor is not 0, which is found using
the conjugate of the denominator:
p + iq (p + iq)(r is) pr + qs + i(qr ps) pr + qs qr ps

= = = 2 +i 2 .
r + is (r + is)(r is) r2 + s2 r + s2 r + s2
This process of multiplying and dividing by r is is called 'realisation' or (by analogy) rationalisation. All four
quantities p, q, r, s are real numbers, and r and s may not both be 0.
Division for complex numbers expressed in polar form is simpler than the denition above:
peiq peiq eis p

is
= is is
= ei(qs) .
re re e r
Again all four quantities p, q, r, s are real numbers, and r may not be 0.
10.10. OF POLYNOMIALS 67
10.10 Of polynomials
One can dene the division operation for polynomials in one variable over a eld. Then, as in the case of integers,
one has a remainder. See Euclidean division of polynomials, and, for hand-written computation, polynomial long
division or synthetic division.
10.11 Of matrices
One can dene a division operation for matrices. The usual way to do this is to dene A / B = AB* 1, where B* 1
denotes the inverse of B, but it is far more common to write out AB* 1 explicitly to avoid confusion. An elementwise
division can also be dened in terms of the Hadamard product.
10.11.1 Left and right division
Because matrix multiplication is not commutative, one can also dene a left division or so-called backslash-division
as A \ B = A* 1B. For this to be well dened, B* 1 need not exist, however A* 1 does need to exist. To avoid
confusion, division as dened by A / B = AB* 1 is sometimes called right division or slash-division in this context.
Note that with left and right division dened this way, A / (BC) is in general not the same as (A / B) / C and nor is
(AB) \ C the same as A \ (B \ C), but A / (BC) = (A / C) / B and (AB) \ C = B \ (A \ C).
10.11.2 Pseudoinverse
To avoid problems when A* 1 and/or B* 1 do not exist, division can also be dened as multiplication with the
pseudoinverse, i.e., A / B = AB* + and A \ B = A* +B, where A* + and B* + denote the pseudoinverse of A and B.
10.12 Abstract algebra

In abstract algebra, given a magma with binary operation (which could nominally be termed multiplication), left
division of b by a (written a \ b) is typically dened as the solution x to the equation a x = b, if this exists and
is unique. Similarly, right division of b by a (written b / a) is the solution y to the equation y a = b. Division in
this sense does not require to have any particular properties (such as commutativity, associativity, or an identity
element).
Divisionin the sense of cancellationcan be done in any magma by an element with the cancellation property.
Examples include matrix algebras and quaternion algebras. A quasigroup is a structure in which division is always
possible, even without an identity element and hence inverses. In an integral domain, where not every element need
have an inverse, division by a cancellative element a can still be performed on elements of the form ab or ca by left
or right cancellation, respectively. If a ring is nite and every nonzero element is cancellative, then by an application
of the pigeonhole principle, every nonzero element of the ring is invertible, and division by any nonzero element is
possible. To learn about when algebras (in the technical sense) have a division operation, refer to the page on division
algebras. In particular Bott periodicity can be used to show that any real normed division algebra must be isomorphic
to either the real numbers R, the complex numbers C, the quaternions H, or the octonions O.
10.13 Calculus
The derivative of the quotient of two functions is given by the quotient rule:
( )
f f g f g
= .
g g2
10.14 See also

400AD Sunzi division algorithm
Division by two
Field
Fraction (mathematics)
Galley division
Group
Inverse element
Order of operations
Quasigroup
Repeating decimal
10.15 Notes
[1] For example: limx0 sin x/x = 1.* [4]
10.16 References
[1] Blake, A. G. (1887). Arithmetic. Dublin, Ireland: Alexander Thom & Company.
[2] Weisstein, Eric W. Division. MathWorld.
[3] Derbyshire, John (2004). Prime Obsession: Bernhard Riemann and the Greatest Unsolved Problem in Mathematics. New
York City: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0452285255.
[4] Weisstein, Eric W. Division by Zero. MathWorld.
[5] Weisstein, Eric W. Integer Division. MathWorld.
[6] Earliest Uses of Symbols of Operation, Je MIller
[7] George Mark Bergman: Order of arithmetic operations
[8] Education Place: The Order of Operations
10.17 External links

Division. PlanetMath.
Division on a Japanese abacus selected from Abacus: Mystery of the Bead

Chinese Short Division Techniques on a Suan Pan
Rules of divisibility
Chapter 11
Division by two
In mathematics, division by two or halving has also been called mediation or dimidiation.* [1] The treatment of
this as a dierent operation from multiplication and division by other numbers goes back to the ancient Egyptians,
whose multiplication algorithm used division by two as one of its fundamental steps.* [2] Some mathematicians as
late as the sixteenth century continued to view halving as a separate operation,* [3]* [4] and it often continues to be
treated separately in modern computer programming.* [5] Performing this operation is simple in decimal arithmetic,
in the binary numeral system used in computer programming, and in other even-numbered bases.
11.1 Binary
In binary arithmetic, division by two can be performed by a bit shift operation that shifts the number one place to
the right. This is a form of strength reduction optimization. For example, 1101001 in binary (the decimal number
105), shifted one place to the right, is 110100 (the decimal number 52): the lowest order bit, a 1, is removed.
Similarly, division by any power of two 2* k may be performed by right-shifting k positions. Because bit shifts are
often much faster operations than division, replacing a division by a shift in this way can be a helpful step in program
optimization.* [5] However, for the sake of software portability and readability, it is often best to write programs using
the division operation and trust in the compiler to perform this replacement.* [6] An example from Common Lisp:
(setq number #b1101001) ; #b1101001 105 (ash number 1) ; #b0110100 105 >> 1 52 (ash number 4) ;
#b0000110 105 >> 4 105 / 2 6
The above statements, however, are not always true when dealing with dividing signed binary numbers. Shifting right
by 1 bit will divide by two, always rounding down. However, in some languages, division of signed binary numbers
round towards 0 (which, if the result is negative, means it rounds up). For example, Java is one such language: in Java,
3 / 2 evaluates to 1, whereas 3 >> 1 evaluates to 2. So in this case, the compiler cannot optimize division by
two by replacing it by a bit shift, when the dividend could possibly be negative.
11.2 Binary oating point

In binary oating-point arithmetic, division by two can be performed by decreasing the exponent by one (as long as
the result is not a subnormal number). Many programming languages provide functions that can be used to divide
a oating point number by a power of two. For example, the Java programming language provides the method
java.lang.Math.scalb for scaling by a power of two,* [7] and the C programming language provides the function ldexp
for the same purpose.* [8]
11.3 Decimal
The following algorithm is for decimal. However, it can be used as a model to construct an algorithm for taking half
of any number N in any even base.
69
70 CHAPTER 11. DIVISION BY TWO
Write out N, putting a zero to its left.
Go through the digits of N in overlapping pairs, writing down digits of the result from the following table.
Example: 1738/2=?
Write 01738. We will now work on nding the result.
01: even digit followed by 1, write 0.
17: odd digit followed by 7, write 8.

Result: 0869.
From the example one can see that 0 is even.
If the last digit of N is odd digit one should add 0.5 to the result.
11.4 See also

One half
Median, a value that splits a set of data values into two equal subsets
Bisection, the partition of a geometric object into two equal halves

Dimidiation, a heraldic method of joining two coats of arms by splitting their designs into halves
11.5 References
[1] Steele, Robert (1922), The Earliest arithmetics in English, Early English Text Society, 118, Oxford University Press, p. 82.
[2] Chabert, Jean-Luc; Barbin, velyne (1999), A history of algorithms: from the pebble to the microchip, Springer-Verlag, p.
16, ISBN 978-3-540-63369-3.
[3] Jackson, Lambert Lincoln (1906), The educational signicance of sixteenth century arithmetic from the point of view of the
present time, Contributions to education, 8, Columbia University, p. 76.
[4] Waters, E. G. R. (1929), A Fifteenth Century French Algorism from Lige, Isis, 12 (2): 194236, JSTOR 224785,
doi:10.1086/346408.
[5] Wadleigh, Kevin R.; Crawford, Isom L. (2000), Software optimization for high-performance computing, Prentice Hall, p.
92, ISBN 978-0-13-017008-8.
[6] Hook, Brian (2005), Write portable code: an introduction to developing software for multiple platforms, No Starch Press, p.
133, ISBN 978-1-59327-056-8.
[7] Math.scalb. Java Platform Standard Ed. 6. Retrieved 2009-10-11.
[8] Programming languages C, International Standard ISO/IEC 9899:1999, Section 7.12.6.6.

Chapter 12
Elementary arithmetic
The basic elementary arithmetic symbols.
Elementary arithmetic is the simplied portion of arithmetic that includes the operations of addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division. It should not be confused with elementary function arithmetic.
Elementary arithmetic starts with the natural numbers and the written symbols (digits) that represent them. The
71
72 CHAPTER 12. ELEMENTARY ARITHMETIC
process for combining a pair of these numbers with the four basic operations traditionally relies on memorized results
for small values of numbers, including the contents of a multiplication table to assist with multiplication and division.
Elementary arithmetic also includes fractions and negative numbers, which can be represented on a number line.
12.1 The digits

Main article: Numerical digit
Digits are the entire set of symbols used to represent numbers. In a particular numeral system, a single digit represents
a dierent amount than any other digit, although the symbols in the same numeral system might vary between cultures.
In modern usage, the Arabic numerals are the most common set of symbols, and the most frequently used form of
these digits is the Western style. Each single digit, if used as a standalone number, matches the following amounts:
0, zero. Used in the absence of objects to be counted. For example, a dierent way of saying there are no sticks
here, is to say the number of sticks here is 0.
1, one. Applied to a single item. For example, here is one stick: I
2, two. Applied to a pair of items. Here are two sticks: I I
3, three. Applied to three items. Here are three sticks: I I I
4, four. Applied to four items. Here are four sticks: I I I I
5, ve. Applied to ve items. Here are ve sticks: I I I I I
6, six. Applied to six items. Here are six sticks: I I I I I I
7, seven. Applied to seven items. Here are seven sticks: I I I I I I I
8, eight. Applied to eight items. Here are eight sticks: I I I I I I I I
9, nine. Applied to nine items. Here are nine sticks: I I I I I I I I I
Any numeral system denes the value of all numbers that contain more than one digit, most often by addition of the
value for adjacent digits. The HinduArabic numeral system includes positional notation to determine the value for
any numeral. In this type of system, the increase in value for an additional digit includes one or more multiplications
with the radix value and the result is added to the value of an adjacent digit. With Arabic numerals, the radix value
of ten produces a value of twenty-one (equal to 210 + 1) for the numeral 21. An additional multiplication with
the radix value occurs for each additional digit, so the numeral 201represents a value of two-hundred-and-one
(equal to 21010 + 010 + 1).
The elementary level of study typically includes understanding the value of individual whole numbers using Arabic
numerals with a maximum of seven digits, and performing the four basic operations using Arabic numerals with a
maximum of four digits each.
12.2 Addition
Main article: Addition
When two numbers are added together, the result is called a sum. The two numbers being added together are called
addends.
12.2.1 What does it mean to add two natural numbers?

Suppose you have two bags, one bag holding ve apples and a second bag holding three apples. Grabbing a third,
empty bag, move all the apples from the rst and second bags into the third bag. The third bag now holds eight apples.
This illustrates the combination of three apples and ve apples is eight apples; or more generally: three plus ve is
eightor three plus ve equals eightor eight is the sum of three and ve. Numbers are abstract, and the
addition of a group of three things to a group of ve things will yield a group of eight things. Addition is a regrouping:
two sets of objects that were counted separately are put into a single group and counted together: the count of the
new group is the sumof the separate counts of the two original groups.
This operation of combining is only one of several possible meanings that the mathematical operation of addition can
have. Other meanings for addition include:
12.2. ADDITION 73
comparing (Tom has 5 apples. Jane has 3 more apples than Tom. How many apples does Jane have?"),
joining (Tom has 5 apples. Jane gives him 3 more apples. How many apples does Tom have now?"),
measuring (Tom's desk is 3 feet wide. Jane's is also 3 feet wide. How wide will their desks be when put
together?"),
and even sometimes separating (Tom had some apples. He gave 3 to Jane. Now he has 5. How many did he
start with?").
Symbolically, addition is represented by the "plus sign": +. So the statement three plus ve equals eightcan be
written symbolically as 3 + 5 = 8. The order in which two numbers are added does not matter, so 3 + 5 = 5 + 3 = 8.
This is the commutative property of addition.
To add a pair of digits using the table, nd the intersection of the row of the rst digit with the column of the second
digit: the row and the column intersect at a square containing the sum of the two digits. Some pairs of digits add up
to two-digit numbers, with the tens-digit always being a 1. In the addition algorithm the tens-digit of the sum of a
pair of digits is called the "carry digit.
12.2.2 Addition algorithm
For simplicity, consider only numbers with three digits or fewer. To add a pair of numbers (written in Arabic nu-
merals), write the second number under the rst one, so that digits line up in columns: the rightmost column will
contain the ones-digit of the second number under the ones-digit of the rst number. This rightmost column is the
ones-column. The column immediately to its left is the tens-column. The tens-column will have the tens-digit of the
second number (if it has one) under the tens-digit of the rst number (if it has one). The column immediately to the
left of the tens-column is the hundreds-column. The hundreds-column will line up the hundreds-digit of the second
number (if there is one) under the hundreds-digit of the rst number (if there is one).
After the second number has been written down under the rst one so that digits line up in their correct columns,
draw a line under the second (bottom) number. Start with the ones-column: the ones-column should contain a pair
of digits: the ones-digit of the rst number and, under it, the ones-digit of the second number. Find the sum of these
two digits: write this sum under the line and in the ones-column. If the sum has two digits, then write down only the
ones-digit of the sum. Write the carry digitabove the top digit of the next column: in this case the next column
is the tens-column, so write a 1 above the tens-digit of the rst number.
If both rst and second number each have only one digit then their sum is given in the addition table, and the addition
algorithm is unnecessary.
Then comes the tens-column. The tens-column might contain two digits: the tens-digit of the rst number and the
tens-digit of the second number. If one of the numbers has a missing tens-digit then the tens-digit for this number
can be considered to be a 0. Add the tens-digits of the two numbers. Then, if there is a carry digit, add it to this sum.
If the sum was 18 then adding the carry digit to it will yield 19. If the sum of the tens-digits (plus carry digit, if there
is one) is less than ten then write it in the tens-column under the line. If the sum has two digits then write its last digit
in the tens-column under the line, and carry its rst digit (which should be a 1) over to the next column: in this case
the hundreds-column.
If none of the two numbers has a hundreds-digit then if there is no carry digit then the addition algorithm has nished.
If there is a carry digit (carried over from the tens-column) then write it in the hundreds-column under the line, and
the algorithm is nished. When the algorithm nishes, the number under the line is the sum of the two numbers.
If at least one of the numbers has a hundreds-digit then if one of the numbers has a missing hundreds-digit then write
a 0 digit in its place. Add the two hundreds-digits, and to their sum add the carry digit if there is one. Then write the
sum of the hundreds-column under the line, also in the hundreds column. If the sum has two digits then write down
the last digit of the sum in the hundreds-column and write the carry digit to its left: on the thousands-column.
Example
Say one wants to nd the sum of the numbers 653 and 274. Write the second number under the rst one, with digits
aligned in columns, like so:
Then draw a line under the second number and put a plus sign. The addition starts with the ones-column. The ones-
digit of the rst number is 3 and of the second number is 4. The sum of three and four is seven, so write a 7 in the
ones-column under the line:
Next, the tens-column. The tens-digit of the rst number is 5, and the tens-digit of the second number is 7, and ve
plus seven is twelve: 12, which has two digits, so write its last digit, 2, in the tens-column under the line, and write
the carry digit on the hundreds-column above the rst number:
Next, the hundreds-column. The hundreds-digit of the rst number is 6, while the hundreds-digit of the second
number is 2. The sum of six and two is eight, but there is a carry digit, which added to eight is equal to nine. Write
the 9 under the line in the hundreds-column:
No digits (and no columns) have been left unadded, so the algorithm nishes, and
653 + 274 = 927.
12.3 Successorship and size

The result of the addition of one to a number is the successor of that number. Examples:
the successor of zero is one,
the successor of one is two,
the successor of two is three,
the successor of ten is eleven.
Every natural number has a successor.
The predecessor of the successor of a number is the number itself. For example, ve is the successor of four therefore
four is the predecessor of ve. Every natural number except zero has a predecessor.
If a number is the successor of another number, then the rst number is said to be larger than the other number. If
a number is larger than another number, and if the other number is larger than a third number, then the rst number
is also larger than the third number. Example: ve is larger than four, and four is larger than three, therefore ve
is larger than three. But six is larger than ve, therefore six is also larger than three. But seven is larger than six,
therefore seven is also larger than three ... therefore eight is larger than three ... therefore nine is larger than three,
etc.
If two non-zero natural numbers are added together, then their sum is larger than either one of them. Example: three
plus ve equals eight, therefore eight is larger than three (8 > 3) and eight is larger than ve (8 > 5). The symbol for
larger thanis >.
If a number is larger than another one, then the other is smaller than the rst one. Examples: three is smaller than
eight (3 < 8) and ve is smaller than eight (5 < 8). The symbol for smaller than is <. A number cannot be at the
same time larger and smaller than another number. Neither can a number be at the same time larger than and equal
to another number. Given a pair of natural numbers, one and only one of the following cases must be true:
the rst number is larger than the second one,
the rst number is equal to the second one,
the rst number is smaller than the second one.
12.4 Counting
To count a group of objects means to assign a natural number to each one of the objects, as if it were a label for that
object, such that a natural number is never assigned to an object unless its predecessor was already assigned to another
object, with the exception that zero is not assigned to any object: the smallest natural number to be assigned is one,
and the largest natural number assigned depends on the size of the group. It is called the count and it is equal to the
number of objects in that group.
The process of counting a group is the following:
12.5. SUBTRACTION 75
1. Let the countbe equal to zero. The countis a variable quantity, which though beginning with a value
of zero, will soon have its value changed several times.
2. Find at least one object in the group which has not been labeled with a natural number. If no such object can
be found (if they have all been labeled) then the counting is nished. Otherwise choose one of the unlabeled
objects.
3. Increase the count by one. That is, replace the value of the count by its successor.
4. Assign the new value of the count, as a label, to the unlabeled object chosen in Step 2.
5. Go back to Step 2.
When the counting is nished, the last value of the count will be the nal count. This count is equal to the number
of objects in the group.
Often, when counting objects, one does not keep track of what numerical label corresponds to which object: one only
keeps track of the subgroup of objects which have already been labeled, so as to be able to identify unlabeled objects
necessary for Step 2. However, if one is counting persons, then one can ask the persons who are being counted to
each keep track of the number which the person's self has been assigned. After the count has nished it is possible to
ask the group of persons to le up in a line, in order of increasing numerical label. What the persons would do during
the process of lining up would be something like this: each pair of persons who are unsure of their positions in the
line ask each other what their numbers are: the person whose number is smaller should stand on the left side and the
one with the larger number on the right side of the other person. Thus, pairs of persons compare their numbers and
their positions, and commute their positions as necessary, and through repetition of such conditional commutations
they become ordered.
12.5 Subtraction
Main article: Subtraction
Subtraction is the mathematical operation which describes a reduced quantity. The result of this operation is the
dierence between two numbers, the minuend and the subtrahend. As with addition, subtraction can have a number
of interpretations, such as:
separating (Tom has 8 apples. He gives away 3 apples. How many does he have left?")
comparing (Tom has 8 apples. Jane has 3 fewer apples than Tom. How many does Jane have?")
combining (Tom has 8 apples. Three of the apples are green and the rest are red. How many are red?")
and sometimes joining (Tom had some apples. Jane gave him 3 more apples, so now he has 8 apples. How
many did he start with?").
As with addition, there are other possible interpretations, such as motion.

Symbolically, the minus sign ("") represents the subtraction operation. So the statement ve minus three equals
twois also written as 5 3 = 2. In elementary arithmetic, subtraction uses smaller positive numbers for all values
to produce simpler solutions.
Unlike addition, subtraction is not commutative, so the order of numbers in the operation will change the result.
Therefore, each number is provided a dierent distinguishing name. The rst number (5 in the previous example) is
formally dened as the minuend and the second number (3 in the previous example) as the subtrahend. The value of
the minuend is larger than the value of the subtrahend so that the result is a positive number, but a smaller value of
the minuend will result in negative numbers.
There are several methods to accomplish subtraction. The method which is in the United States of America referred to
as traditional mathematics taught elementary school students to subtract using methods suitable for hand calculation.
The particular method used varies from country to country, and within a country, dierent methods are in fashion at
dierent times. Reform mathematics is distinguished generally by the lack of preference for any specic technique,
replaced by guiding 2nd-grade students to invent their own methods of computation, such as using properties of
negative numbers in the case of TERC.
American schools currently teach a method of subtraction using borrowing and a system of markings called crutches.
Although a method of borrowing had been known and published in textbooks prior, apparently the crutches are the
invention of William A. Browell, who used them in a study in November 1937 . This system caught on rapidly,
displacing the other methods of subtraction in use in America at that time.
Students in some European countries are taught, and some older Americans employ, a method of subtraction called
the Austrian method, also known as the additions method. There is no borrowing in this method. There are also
crutches (markings to aid the memory) which [probably] vary according to country.
In the method of borrowing, a subtraction such as 86 39 will accomplish the ones-place subtraction of 9 from 6 by
borrowing a 10 from 80 and adding it to the 6. The problem is thus transformed into (70 + 16) 39, eectively. This
is indicated by striking through the 8, writing a small 7 above it, and writing a small 1 above the 6. These markings
are called crutches. The 9 is then subtracted from 16, leaving 7, and the 30 from the 70, leaving 40, or 47 as the
result.
In the additions method, a 10 is borrowed to make the 6 into 16, in preparation for the subtraction of 9, just as in
the borrowing method. However, the 10 is not taken by reducing the minuend, rather one augments the subtrahend.
Eectively, the problem is transformed into (80 + 16) ( 39 + 10). Typically a crutch of a small one is marked just
below the subtrahend digit as a reminder. Then the operations proceed: 9 from 16 is 7; and 40 (that is, 30 + 10) from
80 is 40, or 47 as the result.
The additions method seem to be taught in two variations, which dier only in psychology. Continuing the example
of 86 39, the rst variation attempts to subtract 9 from 6, and then 9 from 16, borrowing a 10 by marking near
the digit of the subtrahend in the next column. The second variation attempts to nd a digit which, when added to 9,
gives 6, and recognizing that is not possible, gives 16, and carrying the 10 of the 16 as a one marking near the same
digit as in the rst method. The markings are the same; it is just a matter of preference as to how one explains its
appearance.
As a nal caution, the borrowing method gets a bit complicated in cases such as 100 87, where a borrow cannot be
made immediately, and must be obtained by reaching across several columns. In this case, the minuend is eectively
rewritten as 90 + 10, by taking a 100 from the hundreds, making ten 10s from it, and immediately borrowing that
down to nine 10s in the tens column and nally placing a 10 in the ones column.
12.6 Multiplication
Main article: Multiplication
When two numbers are multiplied together, the result is called a product. The two numbers being multiplied together
are called factors, with multiplicand and multiplier also used.
12.6.1 What does it mean to multiply two natural numbers?

Suppose there are ve red bags, each one containing three apples. Now grabbing an empty green bag, move all the
apples from all ve red bags into the green bag. Now the green bag will have fteen apples.
Thus the product of ve and three is fteen.
This can also be stated asve times three is fteenorve times three equals fteenorfteen is the product
of ve and three. Multiplication can be seen to be a form of repeated addition: the rst factor indicates how many
times the second factor occurs in repeated addition; the nal sum being the product.
Symbolically, multiplication is represented by the multiplication sign: . So the statement ve times three equals
fteencan be written symbolically as
5 3 = 15.
In some countries, and in more advanced arithmetic, other multiplication signs are used, e.g. 5 3. In some situations,
especially in algebra, where numbers can be symbolized with letters, the multiplication symbol may be omitted; e.g.
12.6. MULTIPLICATION 77
xy means x y. The order in which two numbers are multiplied does not matter, so that, for example, three times
four equals four times three. This is the commutative property of multiplication.
To multiply a pair of digits using the table, nd the intersection of the row of the rst digit with the column of the
second digit: the row and the column intersect at a square containing the product of the two digits. Most pairs of
digits produce two-digit numbers. In the multiplication algorithm the tens-digit of the product of a pair of digits is
called the "carry digit.
12.6.2 Multiplication algorithm for a single-digit factor

Consider a multiplication where one of the factors has multiple digits, whereas the other factor has only one digit.
Write down the multi-digit factor, then write the single-digit factor under the last digit of the multi-digit factor. Draw
a horizontal line under the single-digit factor. Henceforth, the multi-digit factor will be called the multiplicand, and
the single-digit factor will be called the multiplier.
Suppose for simplicity that the multiplicand has three digits. The rst digit is the hundreds-digit, the middle digit is
the tens-digit, and the last, rightmost, digit is the ones-digit. The multiplier only has a ones-digit. The ones-digits of
the multiplicand and multiplier form a column: the ones-column.
Start with the ones-column: the ones-column should contain a pair of digits: the ones-digit of the multiplicand and,
under it, the ones-digit of the multiplier. Find the product of these two digits: write this product under the line and in
the ones-column. If the product has two digits, then write down only the ones-digit of the product. Write thecarry
digitas a superscript of the yet-unwritten digit in the next column and under the line: in this case the next column
is the tens-column, so write the carry digit as the superscript of the yet-unwritten tens-digit of the product (under the
line).
If both rst and second number each have only one digit then their product is given in the multiplication table, and
the multiplication algorithm is unnecessary.
Then comes the tens-column. The tens-column so far contains only one digit: the tens-digit of the multiplicand
(though it might contain a carry digit under the line). Find the product of the multiplier and the tens-digits of the
multiplicand. Then, if there is a carry digit (superscripted, under the line and in the tens-column), add it to this
product. If the resulting sum is less than ten then write it in the tens-column under the line. If the sum has two digits
then write its last digit in the tens-column under the line, and carry its rst digit over to the next column: in this case
the hundreds column.
If the multiplicand does not have a hundreds-digit then if there is no carry digit then the multiplication algorithm has
nished. If there is a carry digit (carried over from the tens-column) then write it in the hundreds-column under the
line, and the algorithm is nished. When the algorithm nishes, the number under the line is the product of the two
numbers.
If the multiplicand has a hundreds-digit, nd the product of the multiplier and the hundreds-digit of the multiplicand,
and to this product add the carry digit if there is one. Then write the resulting sum of the hundreds-column under
the line, also in the hundreds column. If the sum has two digits then write down the last digit of the sum in the
hundreds-column and write the carry digit to its left: on the thousands-column.
Example
Say one wants to nd the product of the numbers 3 and 729. Write the single-digit multiplier under the multi-digit
multiplicand, with the multiplier under the ones-digit of the multiplicand, like so:
Then draw a line under the multiplier and put a multiplication symbol. Multiplication starts with the ones-column.
The ones-digit of the multiplicand is 9 and the multiplier is 3. The product of 3 and 9 is 27, so write a 7 in the
ones-column under the line, and write the carry-digit 2 as a superscript of the yet-unwritten tens-digit of the product
under the line:
Next, the tens-column. The tens-digit of the multiplicand is 2, the multiplier is 3, and three times two is six. Add
the carry-digit, 2, to the product, 6, to obtain 8. Eight has only one digit: no carry-digit, so write in the tens-column
under the line. You can erase the two now.
Next, the hundreds-column. The hundreds-digit of the multiplicand is 7, while the multiplier is 3. The product
of 3 and 7 is 21, and there is no previous carry-digit (carried over from the tens-column). The product 21 has two
digits: write its last digit in the hundreds-column under the line, then carry its rst digit over to the thousands-column.
Since the multiplicand has no thousands-digit, then write this carry-digit in the thousands-column under the line (not
superscripted):
No digits of the multiplicand have been left unmultiplied, so the algorithm nishes, and
3 729 = 2187
12.6.3 Multiplication algorithm for multi-digit factors

Given a pair of factors, each one having two or more digits, write both factors down, one under the other one, so that
digits line up in columns.
For simplicity consider a pair of three-digits numbers. Write the last digit of the second number under the last digit of
the rst number, forming the ones-column. Immediately to the left of the ones-column will be the tens-column: the
top of this column will have the second digit of the rst number, and below it will be the second digit of the second
number. Immediately to the left of the tens-column will be the hundreds-column: the top of this column will have
the rst digit of the rst number and below it will be the rst digit of the second number. After having written down
both factors, draw a line under the second factor.
The multiplication will consist of two parts. The rst part will consist of several multiplications involving one-digit
multipliers. The operation of each one of such multiplications was already described in the previous multiplication
algorithm, so this algorithm will not describe each one individually, but will only describe how the several multipli-
cations with one-digit multipliers shall be coordinated. The second part will add up all the subproducts of the rst
part, and the resulting sum will be the product.
First part. Let the rst factor be called the multiplicand. Let each digit of the second factor be called a multiplier.
Let the ones-digit of the second factor be called the ones-multiplier. Let the tens-digit of the second factor be
called the tens-multiplier. Let the hundreds-digit of the second factor be called the hundreds-multiplier.
Start with the ones-column. Find the product of the ones-multiplier and the multiplicand and write it down in a row
under the line, aligning the digits of the product in the previously-dened columns. If the product has four digits,
then the rst digit will be the beginning of the thousands-column. Let this product be called the ones-row.
Then the tens-column. Find the product of the tens-multiplier and the multiplicand and write it down in a rowcall
it the tens-rowunder the ones-row, but shifted one column to the left. That is, the ones-digit of the tens-row will
be in the tens-column of the ones-row; the tens-digit of the tens-row will be under the hundreds-digit of the ones-row;
the hundreds-digit of the tens-row will be under the thousands-digit of the ones-row. If the tens-row has four digits,
then the rst digit will be the beginning of the ten-thousands-column.
Next, the hundreds-column. Find the product of the hundreds-multiplier and the multiplicand and write it down
in a rowcall it the hundreds-row under the tens-row, but shifted one more column to the left. That is, the
ones-digit of the hundreds-row will be in the hundreds-column; the tens-digit of the hundreds-row will be in the
thousands-column; the hundreds-digit of the hundreds-row will be in the ten-thousands-column. If the hundreds-row
has four digits, then the rst digit will be the beginning of the hundred-thousands-column.
After having down the ones-row, tens-row, and hundreds-row, draw a horizontal line under the hundreds-row. The
multiplications are over.
Second part. Now the multiplication has a pair of lines. The rst one under the pair of factors, and the second
one under the three rows of subproducts. Under the second line there will be six columns, which from right to
left are the following: ones-column, tens-column, hundreds-column, thousands-column, ten-thousands-column, and
hundred-thousands-column.
Between the rst and second lines, the ones-column will contain only one digit, located in the ones-row: it is the
ones-digit of the ones-row. Copy this digit by rewriting it in the ones-column under the second line.
Between the rst and second lines, the tens-column will contain a pair of digits located in the ones-row and the tens-
row: the tens-digit of the ones-row and the ones-digit of the tens-row. Add these digits up and if the sum has just
one digit then write this digit in the tens-column under the second line. If the sum has two digits then the rst digit
is a carry-digit: write the last digit down in the tens-column under the second line and carry the rst digit over to the
hundreds-column, writing it as a superscript to the yet-unwritten hundreds-digit under the second line.
Between the rst and second lines, the hundreds-column will contain three digits: the hundreds-digit of the ones-row,
the tens-digit of the tens-row, and the ones-digit of the hundreds-row. Find the sum of these three digits, then if
12.7. DIVISION 79
there is a carry-digit from the tens-column (written in superscript under the second line in the hundreds-column)
then add this carry-digit as well. If the resulting sum has one digit then write it down under the second line in the
hundreds-column; if it has two digits then write the last digit down under the line in the hundreds-column, and carry
the rst digit over to the thousands-column, writing it as a superscript to the yet-unwritten thousands-digit under the
line.
Between the rst and second lines, the thousands-column will contain either two or three digits: the hundreds-digit
of the tens-row, the tens-digit of the hundreds-row, and (possibly) the thousands-digit of the ones-row. Find the
sum of these digits, then if there is a carry-digit from the hundreds-column (written in superscript under the second
line in the thousands-column) then add this carry-digit as well. If the resulting sum has one digit then write it down
under the second line in the thousands-column; if it has two digits then write the last digit down under the line in
the thousands-column, and carry the rst digit over to the ten-thousands-column, writing it as a superscript to the
yet-unwritten ten-thousands-digit under the line.
Between the rst and second lines, the ten-thousands-column will contain either one or two digits: the hundreds-digit
of the hundreds-column and (possibly) the thousands-digit of the tens-column. Find the sum of these digits (if the
one in the tens-row is missing think of it as a 0), and if there is a carry-digit from the thousands-column (written
in superscript under the second line in the ten-thousands-column) then add this carry-digit as well. If the resulting
sum has one digit then write it down under the second line in the ten-thousands-column; if it has two digits then
write the last digit down under the line in the ten-thousands-column, and carry the rst digit over to the hundred-
thousands-column, writing it as a superscript to the yet-unwritten hundred-thousands digit under the line. However,
if the hundreds-row has no thousands-digit then do not write this carry-digit as a superscript, but in normal size, in
the position of the hundred-thousands-digit under the second line, and the multiplication algorithm is over.
If the hundreds-row does have a thousands-digit, then add to it the carry-digit from the previous row (if there is no
carry-digit then think of it as a 0) and write the single-digit sum in the hundred-thousands-column under the second
line.
The number under the second line is the sought-after product of the pair of factors above the rst line.
Example
Let our objective be to nd the product of 789 and 345. Write the 345 under the 789 in three columns, and draw a
horizontal line under them:
First part. Start with the ones-column. The multiplicand is 789 and the ones-multiplier is 5. Perform the multiplication
in a row under the line:
Then the tens-column. The multiplicand is 789 and the tens-multiplier is 4. Perform the multiplication in the tens-
row, under the previous subproduct in the ones-row, but shifted one column to the left:
Next, the hundreds-column. The multiplicand is once again 789, and the hundreds-multiplier is 3. Perform the
multiplication in the hundreds-row, under the previous subproduct in the tens-row, but shifted one (more) column to
the left. Then draw a horizontal line under the hundreds-row:
Second part. Now add the subproducts between the rst and second lines, but ignoring any superscripted carry-digits
located between the rst and second lines.
The answer is
789 345 = 272205
12.7 Division
Main articles: Division (mathematics) and Long division
In mathematics, especially in elementary arithmetic, division is an arithmetic operation which is the inverse of
multiplication.
Specically, if c times b equals a, written:
cb=a
where b is not zero, then a divided by b equals c, written:
a
=c
b
For instance,
6
=2
3
since
23=6
In the above expression, a is called the dividend, b the divisor and c the quotient.
Division by zero (i.e. where the divisor is zero) is not dened.
12.7.1 Division notation

Division is most often shown by placing the dividend over the divisor with a horizontal line, also called a vinculum,
between them. For example, a divided by b is written
a
.
b
This can be read out loud as "a divided by b" or "a over b". A way to express division all on one line is to write the
dividend, then a slash, then the divisor, like this:
a/b.
This is the usual way to specify division in most computer programming languages since it can easily be typed as a
simple sequence of characters.
A handwritten or typographical variation, which is halfway between these two forms, uses a solidus (fraction slash)
but elevates the dividend, and lowers the divisor:
*
ab .
Any of these forms can be used to display a fraction. A common fraction is a division expression where both dividend
and divisor are integers (although typically called the numerator and denominator), and there is no implication that
the division needs to be evaluated further.
A more basic way to show division is to use the obelus (or division sign) in this manner:
a b.
This form is infrequent except in basic arithmetic. The obelus is also used alone to represent the division operation
itself, for instance, as a label on a key of a calculator.
In some non-English-speaking cultures, "a divided by b" is written a : b. However, in English usage the colon is
restricted to expressing the related concept of ratios (then "a is to b").
12.8. EDUCATIONAL STANDARDS 81
With a knowledge of multiplication tables, two integers can be divided on paper using the method of long division.
If the dividend has a fractional part (expressed as a decimal fraction), one can continue the algorithm past the ones
place as far as desired. If the divisor has a decimal fractional part, one can restate the problem by moving the decimal
to the right in both numbers until the divisor has no fraction.
To divide by a fraction, multiply by the reciprocal (reversing the position of the top and bottom parts) of that fraction.
5 1
2 =5 2
1 = 5 2 = 10
2
3 2
5 = 2
3 5
2 = 10
6 = 5
3
12.8 Educational standards

Local standards usually dene the educational methods and content included in the elementary level of instruction.
In the United States and Canada, controversial subjects include the amount of calculator usage compared to manual
computation and the broader debate between traditional mathematics and reform mathematics.
In the United States, the 1989 NCTM standards led to curricula which de-emphasized or omitted much of what was
considered to be elementary arithmetic in elementary school, and replaced it with emphasis on topics traditionally
studied in college such as algebra, statistics and problem solving, and non-standard computation methods unfamiliar
to most adults.
12.9 Tools
The abacus is an early mechanical device for performing elementary arithmetic, which is still used in many parts
of Asia. Modern calculating tools that perform elementary arithmetic operations include cash registers, electronic
calculators, and computers.
12.10 See also

0
binary arithmetic
equals sign
number line
long division
plus and minus signs
subtraction
Subtraction without borrowing
unary numeral system
Early numeracy
12.11 References

"Subtraction in the United States: An Historical Perspective", Susan Ross, Mary Pratt-Cotter, The Mathematics
Educator, Vol. 8, No. 1.
Browell, W.A. (1939). Learning as reorganization: An experimental study in third-grade arithmetic, Duke
University Press.

A Friendly Gift on the Science of Arithmeticis an Arabic document from the 15th century that talks about
basic arithmetic.
Chapter 13
Elementary denition
In mathematical logic, an elementary denition is a denition that can be made using only nitary rst-order logic,
and in particular without reference to set theory or using extensions such as plural quantication.
Elementary denitions are of particular interest because they admit a complete proof apparatus while still being
expressive enough to support most everyday mathematics (via the addition of elementarily-expressible axioms such
as ZFC).
Saying that a denition is elementary is a weaker condition than saying it is algebraic.
13.1 Related
Elementary sentence
Elementary theory
13.2 References
Mac Lane and Moerdijk, Sheaves in Geometry and Logic: A First Introduction to Topos Theory, page 4.
83
Chapter 14
Elementary sentence
In mathematical logic, an elementary sentence is one that is stated using only nitary rst-order logic, without
reference to set theory or using any axioms which have consistency strength equal to set theory.
Saying that a sentence is elementary is a weaker condition than saying it is algebraic.
14.1 Related
Elementary theory
Elementary denition
14.2 References
84
Chapter 15
Elementary theory
In mathematical logic, an elementary theory is one that involves axioms using only nitary rst-order logic, without
reference to set theory or using any axioms which have consistency strength equal to set theory.
Saying that a theory is elementary is a weaker condition than saying it is algebraic.
15.1 Related
Elementary sentence
Elementary denition
Elementary theory of the reals
15.2 References
85
Chapter 16
Equality (mathematics)
In mathematics, equality is a relationship between two quantities or, more generally two mathematical expressions,
asserting that the quantities have the same value, or that the expressions represent the same mathematical object. The
equality between A and B is written A = B, and pronounced A equals B. The symbol "=" is called an "equals sign".
Thus there are three kinds of equality, which are formalized in dierent ways.
Two symbols refer to the same object.* [1]
Two sets have the same elements.* [2]
Two expressions evaluate to the same value, such as a number, vector, function or set.
These may be thought of as the logical, set-theoretic and algebraic concepts of equality respectively.
16.1 Etymology
The etymology of the word is from the Latin aequlis (equal,like,comparable,similar) from aequus
(equal, level, fair, just).
16.2 Equality in mathematical logic
16.2.1 Logical formulations

See also: First-order logic Equality and its axioms
Leibniz characterized the notion of equality as follows:
Given any x and y, x = y if and only if, given any predicate P, P(x) if and only if P(y).
In this law, "P(x) if and only if P(y)" can be weakened to "P(x) if P(y)"; the modied law is equivalent to the original.
Instead of considering Leibniz's law as a true statement that can be proven from the usual laws of logic (including
axioms about equality such as symmetry, reexivity and substitution), it can also be taken as the denition of equality.
The property of being an equivalence relation, as well as the properties given below, can then be proved: they become
theorems.
16.2.2 Some basic logical properties of equality

The substitution property states:
86
16.3. EQUALITY IN SET THEORY 87
For any quantities a and b and any expression F(x), if a = b, then F(a) = F(b) (if both sides make sense, i.e.
are well-formed).
In rst-order logic, this is a schema, since we can't quantify over expressions like F (which would be a functional
predicate).
Some specic examples of this are:
For any real numbers a, b, and c, if a = b, then a + c = b + c (here F(x) is x + c);
For any real numbers a, b, and c, if a = b, then a c = b c (here F(x) is x c);
For any real numbers a, b, and c, if a = b, then ac = bc (here F(x) is xc);
For any real numbers a, b, and c, if a = b and c is not zero, then a/c = b/c (here F(x) is x/c).
The reexive property states:
For any quantity a, a = a.
This property is generally used in mathematical proofs as an intermediate step.

The symmetric property states:
For any quantities a and b, if a = b, then b = a.
The transitive property states:
For any quantities a, b, and c, if a = b and b = c, then a = c.
These three properties were originally included among the Peano axioms for natural numbers. Although the sym-
metric and transitive properties are often seen as fundamental, they can be proved if the substitution and reexive
properties are assumed instead.
16.2.3 Equalities as predicates

When A and B are not fully specied or depend on some variables, equality is a proposition, which may be true
for some values and false for some other values. Equality is a binary relation, or, in other words, a two-arguments
predicate, which may produce a truth value (false or true) from its arguments. In computer programming, its com-
putation from two expressions is known as comparison.
16.3 Equality in set theory

Main article: Axiom of extensionality
Equality of sets is axiomatized in set theory in two dierent ways, depending on whether the axioms are based on a
rst-order language with or without equality.
16.3.1 Set equality based on rst-order logic with equality

In FOL with equality, the axiom of extensionality states that two sets which contain the same elements are the same
set.* [3]
Logic axiom: x = y z, (z x z y)
88 CHAPTER 16. EQUALITY (MATHEMATICS)
Logic axiom: x = y z, (x z y z)
Set theory axiom: (z, (z x z y)) x = y
Incorporating half of the work into the rst-order logic may be regarded as a mere matter of convenience, as noted
by Lvy.
The reason why we take up rst-order predicate calculus with equality is a matter of convenience; by
this we save the labor of dening equality and proving all its properties; this burden is now assumed by
the logic.* [4]
16.3.2 Set equality based on rst-order logic without equality

In FOL without equality, two sets are dened to be equal if they contain the same elements. Then the axiom of
extensionality states that two equal sets are contained in the same sets.* [5]
Set theory denition: "x = y" means z, (z x z y)
Set theory axiom: x = y z, (x z y z)
16.4 Equality in algebra and analysis
16.4.1 Identities
Main article: Identity (mathematics)
When A and B may be viewed as functions of some variables, then A = B means that A and B dene the same function.
Such an equality of functions is sometimes called an identity. An example is (x + 1)2 = x2 + 2x + 1.
16.4.2 Equations
An equation is the problem of nding values of some variables, called unknowns, for which the specied equality is
true. Equation may also refer to an equality relation that is satised only for the values of the variables that one is
interested on. For example, x2 + y2 = 1 is the equation of the unit circle.
There is no standard notation that distinguishes an equation from an identity or other use of the equality relation: a
reader has to guess an appropriate interpretation from the semantics of expressions and the context. An identity is
asserted to be true for all values of variables in a given domain. An equationmay sometimes mean an identity,
but more often it species a subset of the variable space to be the subset where the equation is true.
16.4.3 Congruences
Main articles: Congruence relation and Congruence (geometry)
In some cases, one may consider as equal two mathematical objects that are only equivalent for the properties that
are considered. This is, in particular the case in geometry, where two geometric shapes are said equal when one may
be moved to coincide with the other. The word congruence is also used for this kind of equality.
16.4.4 Approximate equality

There are some logic systems that do not have any notion of equality. This reects the undecidability of the equality
of two real numbers dened by formulas involving the integers, the basic arithmetic operations, the logarithm and the
exponential function. In other words, there cannot exist any algorithm for deciding such an equality.
16.5. RELATION WITH EQUIVALENCE AND ISOMORPHISM 89
The binary relation "is approximately equal" between real numbers or other things, even if more precisely dened,
is not transitive (it may seem so at rst sight, but many small dierences can add up to something big). However,
equality almost everywhere is transitive.
16.5 Relation with equivalence and isomorphism

Main articles: Equivalence relation and Isomorphism
Viewed as a relation, equality is the archetype of the more general concept of an equivalence relation on a set:
those binary relations that are reexive, symmetric, and transitive. The identity relation is an equivalence relation.
Conversely, let R be an equivalence relation, and let us denote by x* R the equivalence class of x, consisting of all
elements z such that x R z. Then the relation x R y is equivalent with the equality x* R = y* R. It follows that equality is
the nest equivalence relation on any set S, in the sense that it is the relation that has the smallest equivalence classes
(every class is reduced to a single element).
In some contexts, equality is sharply distinguished from equivalence or isomorphism.* [6] For example, one may
distinguish fractions from rational numbers, the latter being equivalence classes of fractions: the fractions 1/2 and
2/4 are distinct as fractions, as dierent strings of symbols, but theyrepresentthe same rational number, the same
point on a number line. This distinction gives rise to the notion of a quotient set.
Similarly, the sets
{A, B, C} and {1, 2, 3}
are not equal sets the rst consists of letters, while the second consists of numbers but they are both sets of three
elements, and thus isomorphic, meaning that there is a bijection between them, for example
A 7 1, B 7 2, C 7 3.
However, there are other choices of isomorphism, such as
A 7 3, B 7 2, C 7 1,
and these sets cannot be identied without making such a choice any statement that identies them depends
on choice of identication. This distinction, between equality and isomorphism, is of fundamental importance in
category theory, and is one motivation for the development of category theory.
16.6 See also

Equals sign
Inequality
Logical equality
Extensionality
16.7 Notes
[1] Rosser 2008, p. 163.
[2] Lvy 2002, pp. 13, 358. Mac Lane & Birkho 1999, p. 2. Mendelson 1964, p. 5.
[3] Kleene 2002, p. 189. Lvy 2002, p. 13. Shoeneld 2001, p. 239.
90 CHAPTER 16. EQUALITY (MATHEMATICS)
[4] Lvy 2002, p. 4.
[5] Mendelson 1964, pp. 159161. Rosser 2008, pp. 211213
[6] (Mazur 2007)
16.8 References
Kleene, Stephen Cole (2002) [1967]. Mathematical Logic. Mineola, New York: Dover Publications. ISBN
978-0-486-42533-7.
Lvy, Azriel (2002) [1979]. Basic set theory. Mineola, New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-
42079-0.
Mac Lane, Saunders; Birkho, Garrett (1999) [1967]. Algebra (Third ed.). Providence, Rhode Island: Amer-
ican Mathematical Society.
Mazur, Barry (12 June 2007), When is one thing equal to some other thing? (PDF)
Mendelson, Elliott (1964). Introduction to Mathematical Logic. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Rosser, John Barkley (2008) [1953]. Logic for mathematicians. Mineola, New York: Dover Publication. ISBN
978-0-486-46898-3.
Shoeneld, Joseph Robert (2001) [1967]. Mathematical Logic (2nd ed.). A K Peters. ISBN 978-1-56881-
135-2.
16.9 External links

Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001) [1994], Equality axioms, Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer Sci-
ence+Business Media B.V. / Kluwer Academic Publishers, ISBN 978-1-55608-010-4
Chapter 17
In arithmetic and algebra, the fth power of a number n is the result of multiplying ve instances of n together. So:
n5 = n n n n n.
Fifth powers are also formed by multiplying a number by its fourth power, or the square of a number by its cube.
The sequence of fth powers of integers is:
0, 1, 32, 243, 1024, 3125, 7776, 16807, 32768, 59049, 100000, 161051, 248832, 371293, 537824,
759375, 1048576, 1419857, 1889568, 2476099, 3200000, 4084101, 5153632, 6436343, 7962624,
9765625, ... (sequence A000584 in the OEIS)
17.1 Properties
The last digit of the fth power of an integer n is the last digit of n.
By the Abel-Runi theorem, there is no general algebraic formula (formula expressed in terms of radical expressions)
for the solution of polynomial equations containing a fth power of the unknown as their highest power. This is the
lowest power for which this is true. See quintic equation, sextic equation, and septic equation.
Along with the fourth power, the fth power is one of two powers k that can be expressed as the sum of k 1 other
k-th powers, providing counterexamples to Euler's sum of powers conjecture. Specically,
275 + 845 + 1105 + 1335 = 1445 (Lander & Parkin, 1966)* [1]
17.2 See also

Seventh power
Sixth power
Fourth power
Cube (algebra)
Square (algebra)
Perfect power
17.3 Footnotes
[1] Lander, L. J.; Parkin, T. R. (1966). Counterexample to Euler's conjecture on sums of like powers. Bull. Amer. Math.
Soc. 72 (6): 1079. doi:10.1090/S0002-9904-1966-11654-3.
91
92 CHAPTER 17. FIFTH POWER (ALGEBRA)
17.4 References
Rde, Lennart; Westergren, Bertil (2000). Springers mathematische Formeln: Taschenbuch fr Ingenieure,
Naturwissenschaftler, Informatiker, Wirtschaftswissenschaftler (in German) (3 ed.). Springer-Verlag. p. 44.
ISBN 3-540-67505-1.
Vega, Georg (1783). Logarithmische, trigonometrische, und andere zum Gebrauche der Mathematik eingerichtete
Tafeln und Formeln (in German). Vienna. p. 358.
Jahn, Gustav Adolph (1839). Tafeln der Quadrat- und Kubikwurzeln aller Zahlen von 1 bis 25500, der Quadratzahlen
aller Zahlen von 1 bis 27000 und der Kubikzahlen aller Zahlen von 1 bis 24000 (in German). Leipzig: Verlag
von Johann Ambrosius Barth. p. 241.
Deza, Elena; Deza, Michel (2012). Figurate Numbers. Singapore: World Scientic Publishing. p. 173. ISBN
978-981-4355-48-3.
Rosen, Kenneth H.; Michaels, John G. (2000). Handbook of Discrete and Combinatorial Mathematics. Boca
Raton, Florida: CRC Press. p. 159. ISBN 0-8493-0149-1.
Prndel, Johann Georg (1815). Arithmetik in weiterer Bedeutung, oder Zahlen- und Buchstabenrechnung in
einem Lehrkurse - mit Tabellen ber verschiedene Mnzsorten, Gewichte und Ellenmaae und einer kleinen
Erdglobuslehre (in German). Munich. p. 264.
Chapter 18
Finger binary
Finger binary is a system for counting and displaying binary numbers on the ngers of one or more hands. It is
possible to count from 0 to 31 (25 1) using the ngers of a single hand, or from 0 through 1023 (210 1) if both
hands are used.
18.1 Mechanics
Further information: Binary numeral system
In the binary number system, each numerical digit has two possible states (0 or 1) and each successive digit represents
an increasing power of two. Note: What follows is but one of several possible schemes for assigning the values 1, 2,
4, 8, 16, etc. to ngers, not necessarily the best. (see below the illustrations.): The rightmost digit represents two to
the zeroth power (i.e., it is the ones digit); the digit to its left represents two to the rst power (the twos digit
); the next digit to the left represents two to the second power (the fours digit); and so on. (The decimal number
system is essentially the same, only that powers of ten are used: ones digit,tens digithundreds digit, etc.)
It is possible to use anatomical digits to represent numerical digits by using a raised nger to represent a binary digit
in the 1state and a lowered nger to represent it in the 0state. Each successive nger represents a higher
power of two.
With palms oriented toward the counter's face, the values for when only the right hand is used are:
When only the left hand is used:
When both hands are used:
And, alternately, with the palms oriented away from the counter:
The values of each raised nger are added together to arrive at a total number. In the one-handed version, all ngers
raised is thus 31 (16 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1), and all ngers lowered (a st) is 0. In the two-handed system, all ngers raised
is 1,023 (512 + 256 + 128 + 64 + 32 + 16 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1) and two sts (no ngers raised) represents 0.
It is also possible to have each hand represent an independent number between 0 and 31; this can be used to represent
various types of paired numbers, such as month and day, X-Y coordinates, or sports scores (such as for table tennis
or baseball).
18.1.1 Examples
93
94 CHAPTER 18. FINGER BINARY
Right hand
0 = empty sum
16 = 16
28 = 16 + 8 + 4
2=2
26 = 16 + 8 + 2
6=4+2
18.1. MECHANICS 95
14 = 8 + 4 + 2
30 = 16 + 8 + 4 + 2
19 = 16 + 2 + 1
7=4+2+1
31 = 16 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1
Left hand
When used in addition to the right.
512 = 512
256 = 256
768 = 512 + 256
448 = 256 + 128 + 64
544 = 512 + 32
480 = 256 + 128 + 64 + 32
992 = 512 + 256 + 128 + 64 + 32
18.2 Negative numbers and non-integers

For more details on this topic, see Binary numeral system Representing real numbers.
18.2. NEGATIVE NUMBERS AND NON-INTEGERS 97
Just as fractional and negative numbers can be represented in binary, they can be represented in nger binary.
18.2.1 Negative numbers
Representing negative numbers is extremely simple, by using the leftmost nger as a sign bit: raised means the number
is negative, in a sign-magnitude system. Anywhere between 511 and +511 can be represented this way, using two
hands. Note that, in this system, both a positive and a negative zero may be represented.
If a convention were reached on palm up/palm down or ngers pointing up/down representing positive/negative, you
could maintain 210 - 1 in both positive and negative numbers (1023 to +1023, with positive and negative zero still
represented).
18.2.2 Fractions
There are multiple ways of representing fractions in nger binary.
Dyadic fractions
1
Fractions can be stored natively in a binary format by having each nger represent a fractional power of two: 2x .
(These are known as dyadic fractions.)
Using the left hand only:
Using two hands:
3/4, in fractional nger binary

The total is calculated by adding all the values in the same way as regular (non-fractional) nger binary, then dividing
by the largest fractional power being used (32 for one-handed fractional binary, 1024 for two-handed), and simplifying
the fraction as necessary.
For example, with thumb and index nger raised on the left hand and no ngers raised on the right hand, this is (512
+ 256)/1024 = 768/1024 = 3/4. If using only one hand (left or right), it would be (16 + 8)/32 = 24/32 = 3/4 also.
The simplication process can itself be greatly simplied by performing a bit shift operation: all digits to the right
of the rightmost raised nger (i.e., all trailing zeros) are discarded and the rightmost raised nger is treated as the
ones digit. The digits are added together using their now-shifted values to determine the numerator and the rightmost
nger's original value is used to determine the denominator.
For instance, if the thumb and index nger on the left hand are the only raised digits, the rightmost raised nger (the
index nger) becomes1. The thumb, to its immediate left, is now the 2s digit; added together, they equal 3. The
index nger's original value (1/4) determines the denominator: the result is 3/4.
Rational numbers
Combined integer and fractional values (i.e., rational numbers) can be represented by setting a radix point somewhere
between two ngers (for instance, between the left and right pinkies). All digits to the left of the radix point are
integers; those to the right are fractional.
18.2.3 Decimal fractions and vulgar fractions

Dyadic fractions, explained above, unfortunately have limited use in a society based around decimal gures. A simple
non-dyadic fraction such as 1/3 can be approximated as 341/1024 (0.3330078125), but the conversion between dyadic
and decimal (0.333) or vulgar (1/3) forms is complicated.
Instead, either decimal or vulgar fractions can be represented natively in nger binary. Decimal fractions can be
represented by using regular integer binary methods and dividing the result by 10, 100, 1000, or some other power
of ten. Numbers between 0 and 102.3, 10.23, 1.023, etc. can be represented this way, in increments of 0.1, 0.01,
0.001, etc.
Vulgar fractions can be represented by using one hand to represent the numerator and one hand to represent the
denominator; a spectrum of rational numbers can be represented this way, ranging from 1/31 to 31/1 (as well as 0).
18.3 Finger ternary

In theory, it is possible to use other positions of the ngers to represent more than two states (0 and 1); for instance,
a ternary numeral system (base 3) could be used by having a fully raised nger represent 2, fully lowered represent 0,
and curled(half-lowered) represent 1. This would make it possible to count up to 59,048 (310 1) on two hands.
In practice, however, many people will nd it dicult to hold all ngers independently (especially the middle and ring
ngers) in more than two distinct positions.
18.4 See also

Chisanbop
Senary#Finger counting
18.5 References
Pohl, Frederik (2003). Chasing Science (reprint, illustrated ed.). Macmillan. p. 304. ISBN 978-0-7653-0829-
0.
Pohl, Frederik (1976). The Best of Frederik Pohl. Sidgwick & Jackson. p. 363.
Fahnestock, James D. (1959). Computers and how They Work. Zi-Davis Pub. Co. p. 228.
18.6 External links

Binary Counting
Chapter 19
Fourth power
This article is about mathematics. For other uses, see Fourth branch of government and Fourth Estate.
In arithmetic and algebra, the fourth power of a number n is the result of multiplying four instances of n together.
So:
n4 = n n n n
Fourth powers are also formed by multiplying a number by its cube. Furthermore, they are squares of squares.
The sequence of fourth powers of integers (also known as biquadratic numbers or tesseractic numbers) is:
0, 1, 16, 81, 256, 625, 1296, 2401, 4096, 6561, 10000, 14641, 20736, 28561, 38416, 50625, 65536,
83521, 104976, 130321, 160000, 194481, 234256, 279841, 331776, 390625, 456976, 531441, 614656,
707281, 810000, ... (sequence A000583 in the OEIS)
19.1 Properties
The last two digits of a fourth power of an integer in base 10 can be easily shown (for instance, by computing the
squares of possible last two digits of square numbers) to be restricted to only twelve possibilities:
if a number ends in 0, its fourth power ends in 00 (in fact in 0000 )
if a number ends in 1, 3, 7 or 9 its fourth power ends in 01 , 21 , 41 , 61 or 81
if a number ends in 2, 4, 6, or 8 its fourth power ends in 16 , 36 , 56 , 76 or 96
if a number ends in 5 its fourth power ends in 25 (in fact in 0625 )
These twelve possibilities can be conveniently expressed as 00, e1, o6 or 25 where o is an odd digit and e an even
digit.
Every positive integer can be expressed as the sum of at most 19 fourth powers; every suciently large integer can
be expressed as the sum of at most 16 fourth powers (see Waring's problem).
Fermat knew that a fourth power cannot be the sum of two other fourth powers (the n=4 case of Fermat's Last
Theorem; see Fermat's right triangle theorem). Euler conjectured that a fourth power cannot be written as the sum
of three fourth powers, but 200 years later, in 1986, this was disproven by Elkiies with:
206156734 = 187967604 + 153656394 + 26824404 .
Elkies showed that there are innitely many other counterexamples for exponent four, some of which are:* [1]
100
19.2. EQUATIONS CONTAINING A FOURTH POWER 101
28130014 = 27676244 + 13904004 + 6738654
87074814 = 83322084 + 55078804 + 17055754

121974574 = 112890404 + 82825434 + 58700004
160030174 = 141737204 + 125522004 + 44790314
164305134 = 162810094 + 70286004 + 36428404
4224814 = 4145604 + 2175194 + 958004
6385232494 = 6306626244 + 2751562404 + 2190764654
That the equation x4 + y4 = z4 has no solutions in nonzero integers (a special case of Fermat's Last Theorem), was
known by Fermat; see Fermat's right triangle theorem.
19.2 Equations containing a fourth power

Fourth degree equations, which contain a fourth degree (but no higher) polynomial are, by the Abel-Runi theorem,
the highest degree equations having a general solution using radicals.
19.3 See also

Square (algebra)
Cube (algebra)
Exponentiation
Sixth power
Seventh power
Perfect power
19.4 References
Weisstein, Eric W. Biquadratic Number. MathWorld.
[1] Quoted in Meyrignac, Jean-Charles (14 February 2001). Computing Minimal Equal Sums Of Like Powers: Best Known
Solutions. Retrieved 17 July 2017.
Chapter 20
Fraction (mathematics)
A cake with one quarter (one fourth) removed. The remaining three fourths are shown. Dotted lines indicate where the cake may
be cut in order to divide it into equal parts. Each fourth of the cake is denoted by the fraction .
A fraction (from Latin fractus, broken) represents a part of a whole or, more generally, any number of equal
parts. When spoken in everyday English, a fraction describes how many parts of a certain size there are, for example,
one-half, eight-fths, three-quarters. A common, vulgar, or simple fraction (examples: 12 and 17/3) consists of an
integer numerator displayed above a line (or before a slash), and a non-zero integer denominator, displayed below (or
after) that line. Numerators and denominators are also used in fractions that are not common, including compound
fractions, complex fractions, and mixed numerals.
The numerator represents a number of equal parts, and the denominator, which cannot be zero, indicates how many
of those parts make up a unit or a whole. For example, in the fraction 3/4, the numerator, 3, tells us that the fraction
represents 3 equal parts, and the denominator, 4, tells us that 4 parts make up a whole. The picture to the right
illustrates 34 or of a cake.
102
20.1. VOCABULARY 103
Fractional numbers can also be written without using explicit numerators or denominators, by using decimals, percent
signs, or negative exponents (as in 0.01, 1%, and 10* 2 respectively, all of which are equivalent to 1/100). An integer
such as the number 7 can be thought of as having an implicit denominator of one: 7 equals 7/1.
Other uses for fractions are to represent ratios and to represent division.* [1] Thus the fraction is also used to
represent the ratio 3:4 (the ratio of the part to the whole) and the division 3 4 (three divided by four).
In mathematics the set of all numbers that can be expressed in the form a/b, where a and b are integers and b is not
zero, is called the set of rational numbers and is represented by the symbol Q, which stands for quotient. The test for
a number being a rational number is that it can be written in that form (i.e., as a common fraction). However, the
word fraction is also used to describe mathematical expressions that are not rational numbers, for example algebraic
fractions (quotients of algebraic expressions), and expressions that contain irrational numbers, such as 2/2 (see
square root of 2) and /4 (see proof that is irrational).
20.1 Vocabulary
In a fraction, the number of equal parts being described is the numerator (equivalent to the dividend in division) and
the number of equal parts that make up a whole is the denominator (equivalent to the divisor). Informally, they may
be distinguished by placement alone but in formal contexts they are always separated by a fraction bar. The fraction
bar may be horizontal (as in 1/3), oblique (as in 1/5), or diagonal (as in 1 9 ).* [2] These marks are respectively known
as the horizontal bar, the slash (US) or stroke (UK), the division slash, and the fraction slash.* [n 1] In typography,
horizontal fractions are also known as "en" or "nut fractionsand diagonal fractions as "em fractions, based on the
width of a line they take up.* [2]
The denominators of English fractions are generally expressed as ordinal numbers, in the plural if the numerator is not
one. (For example, 2 5 and 3 5 are both read as a number offths.) Exceptions include the denominator 2, which is
always readhalforhalves, the denominator 4, which may be alternatively expressed asquarter"/"quartersor
asfourth"/"fourths, and the denominator 100, which may be alternatively expressed ashundredth"/"hundredths
or "percent". When the denominator is 1, it may be expressed in terms ofwholesbut is more commonly ignored,
with the numerator read out as a whole number. (For example, 3/1 may be described asthree wholesor as simply
three.) When the numerator is one, it may be omitted. (For example, a tenthoreach quarter.) A fraction
may be expressed as a single composition, in which case it is hyphenated, or as a number of fractions with a numerator
of one, in which case they are not. (For example, two-fthsis the fraction 2/5 and two fthsis the same
fraction understood as 2 instances of 1 5 .) Fractions should always be hyphenated when used as adjectives.
Alternatively, a fraction may be described by reading it out as the numerator overthe denominator, with the
denominator expressed as a cardinal number. (For example, 3/1 may also be expressed as three over one.) The
termoveris used even in the case of solidus fractions, where the numbers are placed left and right of a slash mark.
(For example, may be read one-half, one half, or one over two.) Fractions with large denominators
that are not powers of ten are often rendered in this fashion (e.g., 1/117 as one over one hundred seventeen)
while those with denominators divisible by ten are typically read in the normal ordinal fashion (e.g., 6/1000000 as
six-millionths, six millionths, or six one-millionths).
20.2 Forms of fractions
20.2.1 Simple, common, or vulgar fractions

A simple fraction (also known as a common fraction or vulgar fraction) is a rational number written as a/b or
a *
b , where a and b are both integers. [6] As with other fractions, the denominator (b) cannot be zero. Examples
8 8
include 2 , 5 , 5 , 5 , and 3/17. Simple fractions can be positive or negative, proper, or improper (see below).
1 8
Compound fractions, complex fractions, mixed numerals, and decimals (see below) are not simple fractions, though,
unless irrational, they can be evaluated to a simple fraction.
20.2.2 Proper and improper fractions

Common fractions can be classied as either proper or improper. When the numerator and the denominator are both
positive, the fraction is called proper if the numerator is less than the denominator, and improper otherwise.* [7]* [8]
104 CHAPTER 20. FRACTION (MATHEMATICS)
In general, a common fraction is said to be a proper fraction if the absolute value of the fraction is strictly less than
onethat is, if the fraction is greater than 1 and less than 1.* [9]* [10] It is said to be an improper fraction, or
sometimes top-heavy fraction,* [11] if the absolute value of the fraction is greater than or equal to 1. Examples of
proper fractions are 2/3, 3/4, and 4/9; examples of improper fractions are 9/4, 4/3, and 3/3.
20.2.3 Mixed numbers
A mixed numeral (also called a mixed fraction or, mistakenly, mixed number) is a traditional denotation of the sum
3
of a non-zero integer and a proper fraction (having the same sign). It is used primarily in measurement: 2 16 inches,
for example. Scientic measurements almost invariably use decimals rather than mixed numbers. The sum is implicit
without the use of any visible operator such as the appropriate "+". For example, in referring to two entire cakes and
three quarters of another cake, the numerals denoting the integer part and the fractional part of the cakes are written
next to each other as: 2 34 instead of the unambiguous notation 2 + 43 . Negative mixed numerals, as in 2 43 , are
treated like (2 + 34 ) = 2 34 .
This tradition is, formally, in contradiction to the algebra rule for denoting products generally with adjacent factors,
without any operator in between. When two algebraic expressions are written next to each other, the operation of
multiplication is implied by this general rule: 2x always means the product of 2 and x , even if the value of x is a
fraction. The expression 2 cb for example is not a mixed number, instead, multiplication is expressly required, where
2 cb = 2 cb .
To achieve better readability, the multiplication is sometimes made explicit, and the use of parentheses can further
this still more. So 2 cb may be written as
(b)
2 cb , or 2 cb , or 2 c , ...
For another way to write a whole plus a part see the section improper fraction above.
An improper fraction can be converted to a mixed number as follows:
11
1. Divide the numerator by the denominator. In the example, 4 , divide 11 by 4. 11 4 = 2 with remainder 3.
2. The quotient (without the remainder) becomes the whole number part of the mixed number. The remainder
becomes the numerator of the fractional part. In the example, 2 is the whole number part and 3 is the numerator
of the fractional part.
3. The new denominator is the same as the denominator of the improper fraction. In the example, they are both
4. Thus 11 3
4 = 24 .
20.2.4 Ratios
A ratio is a relationship between two or more numbers that can be sometimes expressed as a fraction. Typically, a
number of items are grouped and compared in a ratio, specifying numerically the relationship between each group.
Ratios are expressed as group 1 to group 2 ... to group n". For example, if a car lot had 12 vehicles, of which
2 are white,
6 are red, and
4 are yellow,
then the ratio of red to white to yellow cars is 6 to 2 to 4. The ratio of yellow cars to white cars is 4 to 2 and may be
expressed as 4:2 or 2:1.
A ratio is often converted to a fraction when it is expressed as a ratio to the whole. In the above example, the ratio
of yellow cars to all the cars on the lot is 4:12 or 1:3. We can convert these ratios to a fraction and say that 4/12 of
the cars or of the cars in the lot are yellow. Therefore, if a person randomly chose one car on the lot, then there is
a one in three chance or probability that it would be yellow.
20.2. FORMS OF FRACTIONS 105
20.2.5 Reciprocals and the invisible denominator

The reciprocal of a fraction is another fraction with the numerator and denominator exchanged. The reciprocal of 37
, for instance, is 73 . The product of a fraction and its reciprocal is 1, hence the reciprocal is the multiplicative inverse
of a fraction.
Any integer can be written as a fraction with the number one as denominator. For example, 17 can be written as 17 1
, where 1 is sometimes referred to as the invisible denominator. Therefore, every fraction or integer except for zero
1
has a reciprocal. The reciprocal of 17 is 17 .
20.2.6 Complex fractions

Not to be confused with fractions involving complex numbers
In a complex fraction, either the numerator, or the denominator, or both, is a fraction or a mixed number,* [12]* [13]
1 3
12 4
corresponding to division of fractions. For example, 2
1 and 26 are complex fractions. To reduce a complex fraction
3
to a simple fraction, treat the longest fraction line as representing division. For example:
1
2
1 = 1
2 3
1 = 3
2 = 1 12
3
12 43
= 12 34 1
26 = 124+3
4 1
26 = 51
4 1
26 = 51
104
26
3
2
= 3
2 1
5 = 3
10
5
8
1 =8 3
1 = 24.
3
If, in a complex fraction, there is no unique way to tell which fraction lines takes precedence, then this expression is
improperly formed, because of ambiguity. So 5/10/20/40 is not a valid mathematical expression, because of multiple
possible interpretations, e.g. as
5
5 1
5/(10/(20/40)) = 20 = 4 or as (5/10)/(20/40) = 10
20 =1
10/ 40 40
20.2.7 Compound fractions

A compound fraction is a fraction of a fraction, or any number of fractions connected with the word of,* [12]* [13]
corresponding to multiplication of fractions. To reduce a compound fraction to a simple fraction, just carry out the
multiplication (see the section on multiplication). For example, 43 of 57 is a compound fraction, corresponding to
4 7 = 28 . The terms compound fraction and complex fraction are closely related and sometimes one is used as a
3 5 15
synonym for the other.
20.2.8 Decimal fractions and percentages

A decimal fraction is a fraction whose denominator is not given explicitly, but is understood to be an integer power
of ten. Decimal fractions are commonly expressed using decimal notation in which the implied denominator is
determined by the number of digits to the right of a decimal separator, the appearance of which (e.g., a period, a
raised period (), a comma) depends on the locale (for examples, see decimal separator). Thus for 0.75 the numerator
is 75 and the implied denominator is 10 to the second power, viz. 100, because there are two digits to the right of the
decimal separator. In decimal numbers greater than 1 (such as 3.75), the fractional part of the number is expressed
by the digits to the right of the decimal (with a value of 0.75 in this case). 3.75 can be written either as an improper
75
fraction, 375/100, or as a mixed number, 3 100 .
Decimal fractions can also be expressed using scientic notation with negative exponents, such as 6.02310* 7,
which represents 0.0000006023. The 10* 7 represents a denominator of 107 . Dividing by 107 moves the decimal
point 7 places to the left.
Decimal fractions with innitely many digits to the right of the decimal separator represent an innite series. For
example, = 0.333... represents the innite series 3/10 + 3/100 + 3/1000 + ... .
Another kind of fraction is the percentage (Latin per centum meaning per hundred, represented by the symbol
%), in which the implied denominator is always 100. Thus, 51% means 51/100. Percentages greater than 100 or less
than zero are treated in the same way, e.g. 311% equals 311/100, and 27% equals 27/100.
The related concept of permille or parts per thousand has an implied denominator of 1000, while the more general
parts-per notation, as in 75 parts per million, means that the proportion is 75/1,000,000.
Whether common fractions or decimal fractions are used is often a matter of taste and context. Common fractions
are used most often when the denominator is relatively small. By mental calculation, it is easier to multiply 16 by
3/16 than to do the same calculation using the fraction's decimal equivalent (0.1875). And it is more accurate to
multiply 15 by 1/3, for example, than it is to multiply 15 by any decimal approximation of one third. Monetary
values are commonly expressed as decimal fractions, for example $3.75. However, as noted above, in pre-decimal
British currency, shillings and pence were often given the form (but not the meaning) of a fraction, as, for example
3/6 (read three and six) meaning 3 shillings and 6 pence, and having no relationship to the fraction 3/6.
20.2.9 Special cases

A unit fraction is a vulgar fraction with a numerator of 1, e.g. 17 . Unit fractions can also be expressed using
negative exponents, as in 2* 1, which represents 1/2, and 2* 2, which represents 1/(22 ) or 1/4.
An Egyptian fraction is the sum of distinct positive unit fractions, for example 12 + 13 . This denition derives
from the fact that the ancient Egyptians expressed all fractions except 12 , 23 and 34 in this manner. Every positive
rational number can be expanded as an Egyptian fraction. For example, 75 can be written as 12 + 61 + 21 1
. Any
positive rational number can be written as a sum of unit fractions in innitely many ways. Two ways to write
13 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
17 are 2 + 4 + 68 and 3 + 4 + 6 + 68 .
A dyadic fraction is a vulgar fraction in which the denominator is a power of two, e.g. 1
8 .
20.3 Arithmetic with fractions

Like whole numbers, fractions obey the commutative, associative, and distributive laws, and the rule against division
by zero.
20.3.1 Equivalent fractions

Multiplying the numerator and denominator of a fraction by the same (non-zero) number results in a fraction that is
equivalent to the original fraction. This is true because for any non-zero number n , the fraction nn = 1 . Therefore,
multiplying by nn is equivalent to multiplying by one, and any number multiplied by one has the same value as the
original number. By way of an example, start with the fraction 12 . When the numerator and denominator are both
multiplied by 2, the result is 24 , which has the same value (0.5) as 12 . To picture this visually, imagine cutting a cake
into four pieces; two of the pieces together ( 24 ) make up half the cake ( 12 ).
Dividing the numerator and denominator of a fraction by the same non-zero number will also yield an equivalent
fraction. This is called reducing or simplifying the fraction. A simple fraction in which the numerator and denominator
are coprime (that is, the only positive integer that goes into both the numerator and denominator evenly is 1) is said
to be irreducible, in lowest terms, or in simplest terms. For example, 39 is not in lowest terms because both 3 and 9
can be exactly divided by 3. In contrast, 83 is in lowest termsthe only positive integer that goes into both 3 and 8
evenly is 1.
5 1 10 50
Using these rules, we can show that 10 = 2 = 20 = 100 .
A common fraction can be reduced to lowest terms by dividing both the numerator and denominator by their greatest
63
common divisor. For example, as the greatest common divisor of 63 and 462 is 21, the fraction 462 can be reduced
20.3. ARITHMETIC WITH FRACTIONS 107
to lowest terms by dividing the numerator and denominator by 21:
63 6321 3
462 = 46221 = 22
The Euclidean algorithm gives a method for nding the greatest common divisor of any two positive integers.
20.3.2 Comparing fractions

Comparing fractions with the same denominator only requires comparing the numerators.
3 2
4 > 4 because 3>2.
If two positive fractions have the same numerator, then the fraction with the smaller denominator is the larger number.
When a whole is divided into equal pieces, if fewer equal pieces are needed to make up the whole, then each piece
must be larger. When two positive fractions have the same numerator, they represent the same number of parts, but
in the fraction with the smaller denominator, the parts are larger.
One way to compare fractions with dierent numerators and denominators is to nd a common denominator. To
compare ab and dc , these are converted to ad bc
bd and bd . Then bd is a common denominator and the numerators ad and
bc can be compared.
2 1 4 3
3 ? 2 gives 6 > 6
It is not necessary to determine the value of the common denominator to compare fractions. This short cut is known
as cross multiplying you can just compare ad and bc, without computing the denominator.
5 4
18 ? 17
Multiply top and bottom of each fraction by the denominator of the other fraction, to get a common denominator:
517 418
1817 ? 1718
The denominators are now the same, but it is not necessary to calculate their value only the numerators need to be
5 4
compared. Since 517 (= 85) is greater than 418 (= 72), 18 > 17 .
Also note that every negative number, including negative fractions, is less than zero, and every positive number,
including positive fractions, is greater than zero, so every negative fraction is less than any positive fraction.
20.3.3 Addition
The rst rule of addition is that only like quantities can be added; for example, various quantities of quarters. Unlike
quantities, such as adding thirds to quarters, must rst be converted to like quantities as described below: Imagine a
pocket containing two quarters, and another pocket containing three quarters; in total, there are ve quarters. Since
four quarters is equivalent to one (dollar), this can be represented as follows:
2 3 5
4 + 4 = 4 = 1 14
Adding unlike quantities
To add fractions containing unlike quantities (e.g. quarters and thirds), it is necessary to convert all amounts to
like quantities. It is easy to work out the chosen type of fraction to convert to; simply multiply together the two
denominators (bottom number) of each fraction.
If 12 of a cake is to be added to 1
4
of a cake, the pieces need to be converted into comparable quantities, such as cake-eighths or
cake-quarters.
For adding quarters to thirds, both types of fraction are converted to twelfths, thus:
1 1 13 14 3 4 7
+ = + = + = .
4 3 43 34 12 12 12
Consider adding the following two quantities:
3 2
+
5 3
First, convert 35 into fteenths by multiplying both the numerator and denominator by three: 3
5 3
3 = 9
15 . Since 3
3
equals 1, multiplication by 33 does not change the value of the fraction.
Second, convert 2
3 into fteenths by multiplying both the numerator and denominator by ve: 2
3 5
5 = 10
15 .
Now it can be seen that:
3 2
+
5 3
is equivalent to:
9 10 19 4
+ = =1
15 15 15 15
This method can be expressed algebraically:
20.3. ARITHMETIC WITH FRACTIONS 109
a c ad + cb
+ =
b d bd
And for expressions consisting of the addition of three fractions:
a c e a(df ) + c(bf ) + e(bd)

+ + =
b d f bdf
This method always works, but sometimes there is a smaller denominator that can be used (a least common denom-
inator). For example, to add 34 and 12
5
the denominator 48 can be used (the product of 4 and 12), but the smaller
denominator 12 may also be used, being the least common multiple of 4 and 12.
3 5 9 5 14 7 1
+ = + = = =1
4 12 12 12 12 6 6
20.3.4 Subtraction
The process for subtracting fractions is, in essence, the same as that of adding them: nd a common denominator,
and change each fraction to an equivalent fraction with the chosen common denominator. The resulting fraction will
have that denominator, and its numerator will be the result of subtracting the numerators of the original fractions.
For instance,
2
3 1
2 = 4
6 3
6 = 1
6
Multiplying a fraction by another fraction
To multiply fractions, multiply the numerators and multiply the denominators. Thus:
2
3 3
4 = 6
12
To explain the process, consider one third of one quarter. Using the example of a cake, if three small slices of equal
size make up a quarter, and four quarters make up a whole, twelve of these small, equal slices make up a whole.
Therefore, a third of a quarter is a twelfth. Now consider the numerators. The rst fraction, two thirds, is twice as
large as one third. Since one third of a quarter is one twelfth, two thirds of a quarter is two twelfth. The second
fraction, three quarters, is three times as large as one quarter, so two thirds of three quarters is three times as large
as two thirds of one quarter. Thus two thirds times three quarters is six twelfths.
A short cut for multiplying fractions is called cancellation. Eectively the answer is reduced to lowest terms
during multiplication. For example:
A two is a common factor in both the numerator of the left fraction and the denominator of the right and is divided
out of both. Three is a common factor of the left denominator and right numerator and is divided out of both.
Multiplying a fraction by a whole number
Since a whole number can be rewritten as itself divided by 1, normal fraction multiplication rules can still apply.
6 3
4 = 6
1 3
4 = 18
4
Multiplying mixed numbers
When multiplying mixed numbers, it is considered preferable to convert the mixed number into an improper fraction.
For example:
(8 )
3 2 34 = 3 4 + 3
4 =3 11
4 = 33
4 = 8 14
In other words, 2 34 is the same as 84 + 34 , making 11 quarters in total (because 2 cakes, each split into quarters makes
8 quarters total) and 33 quarters is 8 14 , since 8 cakes, each made of quarters, is 32 quarters in total.
20.3.6 Division
To divide a fraction by a whole number, you may either divide the numerator by the number, if it goes evenly into
the numerator, or multiply the denominator by the number. For example, 103 5 equals 3 and also equals 35 = 15 ,
2 10 10
2
which reduces to 3 . To divide a number by a fraction, multiply that number by the reciprocal of that fraction. Thus,
2 4 = 2 3 = 23 = 3 .
1 3 1 4 14 2
20.3.7 Converting between decimals and fractions

To change a common fraction to a decimal, divide the denominator into the numerator. Round the answer to the
desired accuracy. For example, to change to a decimal, divide 4 into 1.00, to obtain 0.25. To change to a
decimal, divide 3 into 1.0000..., and stop when the desired accuracy is obtained. Note that can be written exactly
with two decimal digits, while cannot be written exactly with any nite number of decimal digits. To change a
decimal to a fraction, write in the denominator a 1 followed by as many zeroes as there are digits to the right of the
decimal point, and write in the numerator all the digits in the original decimal, omitting the decimal point. Thus
12.3456 = 123456/10000.
Converting repeating decimals to fractions
See also: Repeating decimal
Decimal numbers, while arguably more useful to work with when performing calculations, sometimes lack the pre-
cision that common fractions have. Sometimes an innite repeating decimal is required to reach the same precision.
Thus, it is often useful to convert repeating decimals into fractions.
The preferred way to indicate a repeating decimal is to place a bar over the digits that repeat, for example 0.789
= 0.789789789For repeating patterns where the repeating pattern begins immediately after the decimal point, a
simple division of the pattern by the same number of nines as numbers it has will suce. For example:
0.5 = 5/9
0.62 = 62/99
0.264 = 264/999
0.6291 = 6291/9999
In case leading zeros precede the pattern, the nines are suxed by the same number of trailing zeros:
0.05 = 5/90
0.000392 = 392/999000
0.0012 = 12/9900
In case a non-repeating set of decimals precede the pattern (such as 0.1523987), we can write it as the sum of the
non-repeating and repeating parts, respectively:
20.4. FRACTIONS IN ABSTRACT MATHEMATICS 111
0.1523 + 0.0000987
Then, convert both parts to fractions, and add them using the methods described above:
1523/10000 + 987/9990000 = 1522464/9990000
Alternatively, algebra can be used, such as below:
1. Let x = the repeating decimal:
x = 0.1523987
2. Multiply both sides by the power of 10 just great enough (in this case 104 ) to move the decimal point just
before the repeating part of the decimal number:
10,000x = 1,523.987
3. Multiply both sides by the power of 10 (in this case 103 ) that is the same as the number of places that repeat:
10,000,000x = 1,523,987.987
4. Subtract the two equations from each other (if a = b and c = d, then a c = b d):
10,000,000x 10,000x = 1,523,987.987 1,523.987
5. Continue the subtraction operation to clear the repeating decimal:
9,990,000x = 1,523,987 1,523

9,990,000x = 1,522,464
6. Divide both sides to represent x as a fraction
x = 1522464/9990000
20.4 Fractions in abstract mathematics

In addition to being of great practical importance, fractions are also studied by mathematicians, who check that the
rules for fractions given above are consistent and reliable. Mathematicians dene a fraction as an ordered pair (a,
b) of integers a and b 0, for which the operations addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division are dened as
follows:* [14]
(a, b) + (c, d) = (ad + bc, bd)
(a, b) (c, d) = (ad bc, bd)
(a, b) (c, d) = (ac, bd)
(a, b) (c, d) = (ad, bc)0) c (when

In addition, an equivalence relation is specied as follows: (a, b) (c, d) if and only if ad = bc .
These denitions agree in every case with the denitions given above; only the notation is dierent.
More generally, a and b may be elements of any integral domain R, in which case a fraction is an element of the eld
of fractions of R. For example, when a and b are polynomials in one indeterminate, the eld of fractions is the eld
of rational fractions (also known as the eld of rational functions). When a and b are integers, the eld of fractions
is the eld of rational numbers.
20.5 Algebraic fractions

Main article: Algebraic fraction
An algebraic fraction

is the indicated quotient of two algebraic expressions. Two examples of algebraic fractions are
3x x+2
x2 +2x3 and x2 3 . Algebraic fractions are subject to the same laws as arithmetic fractions.
3x
If the numerator and the denominator are polynomials, as in x2 +2x3 , the algebraic fraction is called a rational
fraction (or rational

expression). An irrational fraction is one that contains the variable under a fractional exponent
or root, as in x2x+2
3 .
The terminology used to describe algebraic fractions is similar to that used for ordinary fractions. For example, an
algebraic fraction is in lowest terms if the only factors common to the numerator and the denominator are 1 and 1.
1
1+ x
An algebraic fraction whose numerator or denominator, or both, contain a fraction, such as 1 , is called a complex
1 x
fraction.
Rational numbers are the quotient eld of integers. Rational expressions are the quotient eld of the polynomials
(over some integral domain). Since a coecient is a polynomial of degree zero, a radical expression such as 2/2 is
a rational fraction. Another example (over the reals) is 2 , the radian measure of a right angle.
The term partial fraction is used when decomposing rational expressions into sums. The goal is to write the rational
expression as the sum of other rational expressions with denominators of lesser degree. For example, the rational
expression x22x 1 1
1 can be rewritten as the sum of two fractions: x+1 + x1 . This is useful in many areas such as
integral calculus and dierential equations.
20.6 Radical expressions

Main articles: Nth root and Rationalization (mathematics)
A fraction may also contain radicals in the numerator and/or the denominator. If the denominator contains radicals,
it can be helpful to rationalize it (compare Simplied form of a radical expression), especially if further operations,
such as adding or comparing that fraction to another, are to be carried out. It is also more convenient if division is to
be done manually. When the denominator is a monomial square root, it can be rationalized by multiplying both the
top and the bottom of the fraction by the denominator:

3 3 7 3 7
= =
7 7 7 7
The process of rationalization of binomial denominators involves multiplying the top and the bottom of a fraction by
the conjugate of the denominator so that the denominator becomes a rational number. For example:

3 3 3+2 5 3(3 + 2 5) 3(3 + 2 5) 9+6 5
= = = =
32 5 32 5 3+2 5 32 (2 5)2 9 20 11

3 3 32 5 3(3 2 5) 3(3 2 5) 96 5
= = = =
3+2 5 3+2 5 32 5 32 (2 5)2 9 20 11
Even if this process results in the numerator being irrational, like in the examples above, the process may still facilitate
subsequent manipulations by reducing the number of irrationals one has to work with in the denominator.
20.7 Typographical variations

In computer displays and typography, simple fractions are sometimes printed as a single character, e.g. (one half).
See the article on Number Forms for information on doing this in Unicode.
20.8. HISTORY 113
Scientic publishing distinguishes four ways to set fractions, together with guidelines on use:* [15]
special fractions: fractions that are presented as a single character with a slanted bar, with roughly the same
height and width as other characters in the text. Generally used for simple fractions, such as: , , , , and
. Since the numerals are smaller, legibility can be an issue, especially for small-sized fonts. These are not
used in modern mathematical notation, but in other contexts.
case fractions: similar to special fractions, these are rendered as a single typographical character, but with a
horizontal bar, thus making them upright. An example would be 12 , but rendered with the same height as other
characters. Some sources include all rendering of fractions as case fractions if they take only one typographical
space, regardless of the direction of the bar.* [16]
shilling or solidus fractions: 1/2, so called because this notation was used for pre-decimal British currency
(sd), as in 2/6 for a half crown, meaning two shillings and six pence. While the notation two shillings
and six pencedid not represent a fraction, the forward slash is now used in fractions, especially for fractions
inline with prose (rather than displayed), to avoid uneven lines. It is also used for fractions within fractions
(complex fractions) or within exponents to increase legibility. Fractions written this way, also known as piece
fractions,* [17] are written all on one typographical line, but take 3 or more typographical spaces.
built-up fractions: 12 . This notation uses two or more lines of ordinary text, and results in a variation in spacing
between lines when included within other text. While large and legible, these can be disruptive, particularly
for simple fractions or within complex fractions.
20.8 History
The earliest fractions were reciprocals of integers: ancient symbols representing one part of two, one part of three,
one part of four, and so on.* [18] The Egyptians used Egyptian fractions c. 1000 BC. About 4000 years ago, Egyptians
divided with fractions using slightly dierent methods. They used least common multiples with unit fractions. Their
methods gave the same answer as modern methods.* [19] The Egyptians also had a dierent notation for dyadic
fractions in the Akhmim Wooden Tablet and several Rhind Mathematical Papyrus problems.
The Greeks used unit fractions and (later) continued fractions. Followers of the Greek philosopher Pythagoras (c.
530 BC) discovered that the square root of two cannot be expressed as a fraction of integers. (This is commonly
though probably erroneously ascribed to Hippasus of Metapontum, who is said to have been executed for revealing
this fact.) In 150 BC Jain mathematicians in India wrote the "Sthananga Sutra", which contains work on the theory
of numbers, arithmetical operations, and operations with fractions.
The modern expression of fractions known as bhinnarasi seems to have originated in India in the work of Aryabhatta
(c. AD 500), Brahmagupta (c. 628), and Bhaskara (c. 1150).* [20] Their works form fractions by placing the numer-
ators (Sanskrit: amsa) over the denominators (cheda), but without a bar between them.* [20] In Sanskrit literature,
fractions were always expressed as an addition to or subtraction from an integer. The integer was written on one line
and the fraction in its two parts on the next line. If the fraction was marked by a small circle or cross +, it is
subtracted from the integer; if no such sign appears, it is understood to be added. For example, Bhaskara I writes* [21]
which is the equivalent of
612
1 1 1
459
and would be written in modern notation as 61/4, 11/5, and 21/9 (i.e., 18/9).
The horizontal fraction bar is rst attested in the work of Al-Hassr (. 1200),* [20] a Muslim mathematician from
Fez, Morocco, who specialized in Islamic inheritance jurisprudence. In his discussion he writes, "... for example,
if you are told to write three-fths and a third of a fth, write thus, 35 13 .* [22] The same fractional notation
with the fraction given before the integer* [20]appears soon after in the work of Leonardo Fibonacci in the 13th
century.* [23]
In discussing the origins of decimal fractions, Dirk Jan Struik states:* [24]
The introduction of decimal fractions as a common computational practice can be dated back
to the Flemish pamphlet De Thiende, published at Leyden in 1585, together with a French transla-
tion, La Disme, by the Flemish mathematician Simon Stevin (15481620), then settled in the Northern
Netherlands. It is true that decimal fractions were used by the Chinese many centuries before Stevin and
that the Persian astronomer Al-Ksh used both decimal and sexagesimal fractions with great ease in his
Key to arithmetic (Samarkand, early fteenth century).* [25]
While the Persian mathematician Jamshd al-Ksh claimed to have discovered decimal fractions himself in the 15th
century, J. Lennart Berggren notes that he was mistaken, as decimal fractions were rst used ve centuries before
him by the Baghdadi mathematician Abu'l-Hasan al-Uqlidisi as early as the 10th century.* [26]* [n 2]
20.9 In formal education
20.9.1 Pedagogical tools

In primary schools, fractions have been demonstrated through Cuisenaire rods, Fraction Bars, fraction strips, fraction
circles, paper (for folding or cutting), pattern blocks, pie-shaped pieces, plastic rectangles, grid paper, dot paper,
geoboards, counters and computer software.
20.9.2 Documents for teachers

Several states in the United States have adopted learning trajectories from the Common Core State Standards Ini-
tiative's guidelines for mathematics education. Aside from sequencing the learning of fractions and operations with
fractions, the document provides the following denition of a fraction: A number expressible in the form ab where
a is a whole number and b is a positive whole number. (The word fraction in the standards always refers to a non-
negative number.)"* [28] The document itself also refers to negative fractions.
20.10 See also

Continued fraction
0.999...
Multiple
20.11 Notes
[1] Some typographers such as Bringhurst mistakenly distinguish the slash / as the virgule and the fraction slash as the
solidus,* [3] although in fact both are synonyms for the standard slash.* [4]* [5]
[2] While there is some disagreement among history of mathematics scholars as to the primacy of al-Uqlidisi's contribution,
there is no question as to his major contribution to the concept of decimal fractions.* [27]
20.12 References
[1] H. Wu,The Mis-Education of Mathematics Teachers, Notices of the American Mathematical Society, Volume 58, Issue
03 (March 2011), page 374
20.12. REFERENCES 115
[2] Ambrose, Gavin; et al. (2006). The Fundamentals of Typography, (2nd ed.). Lausanne: AVA Publishing. p. 74. ISBN
978-2-940411-76-4..
[3] Bringhurst, Robert (2002). 5.2.5: Use the Virgule with Words and Dates, the Solidus with Split-level Fractions. The
Elements of Typographic Style (3rd ed.). Point Roberts: Hartley & Marks. pp. 8182. ISBN 978-0-88179-206-5.
[4]virgule, n.". Oxford English Dictionary (1st ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1917.
[5]solidus, n.1 ". Oxford English Dictionary (1st ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1913..
[6] Weisstein, Eric W. Common Fraction. MathWorld.
[7] World Wide Words: Vulgar fractions. World Wide Words. Retrieved 2014-10-30.
[8] Weisstein, Eric W. Improper Fraction. MathWorld.
[9] Laurel (31 March 2004).Math Forum Ask Dr. Math:Can Negative Fractions Also Be Proper or Improper?". Retrieved
2014-10-30.
[10] New England Compact Math Resources.
[11] Greer, A. (1986). New comprehensive mathematics for 'O' level (2nd ed., reprinted. ed.). Cheltenham: Thornes. p. 5.
ISBN 9780859501590. Retrieved 2014-07-29.
[12] Trotter, James (1853). A complete system of arithmetic. p. 65.
[13] Barlow, Peter (1814). A new mathematical and philosophical dictionary.
[14] Fraction. Encyclopedia of Mathematics. 2012-04-06. Retrieved 2012-08-15.
[15] Galen, Leslie Blackwell (March 2004). Putting Fractions in Their Place(PDF). American Mathematical Monthly. 111
(3). doi:10.2307/4145131.
[16] built fraction. allbusiness.com glossary. Retrieved 2013-06-18.
[17] piece fraction. allbusiness.com glossary. Retrieved 2013-06-18.
[18] Eves, Howard (1990). An introduction to the history of mathematics (6th ed.). Philadelphia: Saunders College Pub. ISBN
0-03-029558-0.
[19] Milo Gardner (December 19, 2005). Math History. Retrieved 2006-01-18. See for examples and an explanation.
[20] Miller, Je (22 December 2014). Earliest Uses of Various Mathematical Symbols. Retrieved 15 February 2016..
[21] Filliozat (2004), p. 152
[22] Cajori, Florian (1928). A History of Mathematical Notations. 1. La Salle, Illinois: Open Court Publishing Company. p.
269.
[23] Cajori (1928), pg.89
[24] A Source Book in Mathematics 12001800. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. 1986. ISBN 0-691-02397-2.
[25] Die Rechenkunst bei amd b. Mas'd al-K. Wiesbaden: Steiner. 1951.
[26] Berggren, J. Lennart (2007). Mathematics in Medieval Islam. The Mathematics of Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, India,
and Islam: A Sourcebook. Princeton University Press. p. 518. ISBN 978-0-691-11485-9.
[27] MacTutor's al-Uqlidisi biography. Retrieved 2011-11-22.
[28] Common Core State Standards for Mathematics (PDF). Common Core State Standards Initiative. 2010. p. 85.

Fraction, arithmetical. The Online Encyclopaedia of Mathematics.
Weisstein, Eric W. Fraction. MathWorld.
Fraction. Encyclopdia Britannica.

Fraction (mathematics)". Citizendium.
Fraction. PlanetMath. Archived from the original on 2011-10-11.

Online program for exact conversion between fractions and decimals
Online Fractions Calculator with detailed solution
Fraction Practice endless numbers of Fraction problems with various levels of diculties.
Fractions Practice & Worksheets Fractions : Practice, Test and Worksheets.
Chapter 21
Partial products algorithm
In mathematics education at the level of primary school or elementary school, the grid method (also known as the box
method) of multiplication is an introductory approach to multi-digit multiplication calculations, i.e. multiplications
involving numbers larger than ten.
Compared to traditional long multiplication, the grid method diers in clearly breaking the multiplication and addition
into two steps, and in being less dependent on place value.
Whilst less ecient than the traditional method, grid multiplication is considered to be more reliable, in that children
are less likely to make mistakes. Most pupils will go on to learn the traditional method, once they are comfortable
with the grid method; but knowledge of the grid method remains a useful fall back, in the event of confusion. It
is also argued that since anyone doing a lot of multiplication would nowadays use a pocket calculator, eciency for
its own sake is less important; equally, since this means that most children will use the multiplication algorithm less
often, it is useful for them to become familiar with a more explicit (and hence more memorable) method.
Use of the grid method has been standard in mathematics education in primary schools in England and Wales since the
introduction of a National Numeracy Strategy with itsnumeracy hourin the 1990s. It can also be found included
in various curricula elsewhere. Essentially the same calculation approach, but not necessarily with the explicit grid
arrangement, is also known as the partial products algorithm or partial products method.
21.1 Calculations
21.1.1 Introductory motivation

The grid method can be introduced by thinking about how to add up the number of points in a regular array, for
example the number of squares of chocolate in a chocolate bar. As the size of the calculation becomes larger, it
becomes easier to start counting in tens; and to represent the calculation as a box which can be sub-divided, rather
than drawing lots and lots of dots.* [1]* [2]
At the simplest level, pupils might be asked to apply the method to a calculation like 3 17. Breaking up (partition-
ing) the 17 as (10 + 7), this unfamiliar multiplication can be worked out as the sum of two simple multiplications:
so 3 17 = 30 + 21 = 51.
This is the gridor boxesstructure which gives the multiplication method its name.
Faced with a slightly larger multiplication, such as 34 13, pupils may initially be encouraged to also break this into
tens. So, expanding 34 as 10 + 10 + 10 + 4 and 13 as 10 + 3, the product 34 13 might be represented:
Totalling the contents of each row, it is apparent that the nal result of the calculation is (100 + 100 + 100 + 40) +
(30 + 30 + 30 + 12) = 340 + 102 = 442.
117
118 CHAPTER 21. PARTIAL PRODUCTS ALGORITHM
21.1.2 Standard blocks
Once pupils have become comfortable with the idea of splitting the whole product into contributions from separate
boxes, it is a natural step to group the tens together, so that the calculation 34 13 becomes
giving the addition
so 34 13 = 442.
This is the most usual form for a grid calculation. In countries such as the U.K. where teaching of the grid method
is usual, pupils may spend a considerable period of time regularly setting out calculations like the above, until the
method is entirely comfortable and familiar.
21.1.3 Larger numbers
The grid method extends straightforwardly to calculations involving larger numbers.

For example, to calculate 345 28, the student could construct the grid with six easy multiplications
to nd the answer 6900 + 2760 = 9660.

However, by this stage (at least in standard current U.K. teaching practice) pupils may be starting to be encouraged
to set out such a calculation using the traditional long multiplication form without having to draw up a grid.
Traditional long multiplication can be related to a grid multiplication in which only one of the numbers is broken into
tens and units parts to be multiplied separately:
The traditional method is ultimately faster and much more compact; but it requires two signicantly more dicult
multiplications which pupils may at rst struggle with . Compared to the grid method, traditional long multiplication
may also be more abstract and less manifestly clear , so some pupils nd it harder to remember what is to be done at
each stage and why . Pupils may therefore be encouraged for quite a period to use the simpler grid method alongside
the more ecient traditional long multiplication method, as a check and a fall-back.
21.2 Other applications
21.2.1 Fractions
While not normally taught as a standard method for multiplying fractions, the grid method can readily be applied to
simple cases where it is easier to nd a product by breaking it down.
For example, the calculation 2 1 can be set out using the grid method
to nd that the resulting product is 2 + + 1 + = 3

21.3. MATHEMATICS 119
21.2.2 Algebra
The grid method can also be used to illustrate the multiplying out of a product of binomials, such as (a + 3)(b + 2),
a standard topic in elementary algebra (although one not usually met until secondary school):
Thus (a + 3)(b + 2) = ab + 3b + 2a + 6.
21.3 Mathematics
Mathematically, the ability to break up a multiplication in this way is known as the distributive law, which can be
expressed in algebra as the property that a(b+c) = ab + ac. The grid method uses the distributive property twice to
expand the product, once for the horizontal factor, and once for the vertical factor.
Historically the grid calculation (tweaked slightly) was the basis of a method called lattice multiplication, which was
the standard method of multiple-digit multiplication developed in medieval Arabic and Hindu mathematics. Lattice
multiplication was introduced into Europe by Fibonacci at the start of the thirteenth century along with the so-called
Arabic numerals themselves; although, like the numerals also, the ways he suggested to calculate with them were
initially slow to catch on. Napier's bones were a calculating help introduced by the Scot John Napier in 1617 to assist
lattice method calculations.
21.4 See also

Multiplication algorithm
Multiplication Table
21.5 References
Rob Eastaway and Mike Askew, Maths for Mums and Dads, Square Peg, 2010. ISBN 978-0-224-08635-6.
pp. 140153.
[1] Long multiplication The Box method
[2] Long multiplication and division
21.6 External links

Long multiplication The Box method, Maths online.
Long multiplication and division, BBC GCSE Bitesize
Chapter 22
Irreducible fraction
An irreducible fraction (or fraction in lowest terms or reduced fraction) is a fraction in which the numerator
and denominator are integers that have no other common divisors than 1 (and 1, when negative numbers are con-
sidered).* [1] In other words, a fraction * ab is irreducible if and only if a and b are coprime, that is, if a and b have
a greatest common divisor of 1. In higher mathematics, "irreducible fraction" may also refer to rational fractions
such that the numerator and the denominator are coprime polynomials.* [2] Every positive rational number can be
represented as an irreducible fraction in exactly one way.* [3]
An equivalent denition is sometimes useful: if a, b are integers, then the fraction * ab is irreducible if and only if
there is no other equal fraction * cd such that |c| < |a| or |d| < |b|, where |a| means the absolute value of a.* [4] (Two
fractions * ab and * cd are equal or equivalent if and only if ad = bc.)
For example, 1 4 , 5 6 , and * 101100 are all irreducible fractions. On the other hand, 2 4 is reducible since it is equal
in value to 1 2 , and the numerator of 1 2 is less than the numerator of 2 4 .
A fraction that is reducible can be reduced by dividing both the numerator and denominator by a common factor. It
can be fully reduced to lowest terms if both are divided by their greatest common divisor.* [5] In order to nd the
greatest common divisor, the Euclidean algorithm or prime factorization may be used. The Euclidean algorithm is
commonly preferred because it allows one to reduce fractions with numerators and denominators too large to be easily
factored.* [6]
22.1 Examples
120 12 4
= = .
90 9 3
In the rst step both numbers were divided by 10, which is a factor common to both 120 and 90. In the second step,
they were divided by 3. The nal result, 4 /3 , is an irreducible fraction because 4 and 3 have no common factors other
than 1.
The original fraction could have also been reduced in a single step by using the greatest common divisor of 90 and
120, which is 30 (i.e., gcd(90,120)=30).
120 4
= .
90 3
Which method is faster by handdepends on the fraction and the ease with which common factors are spotted.
In case a denominator and numerator remain that are too large to ensure they are coprime by inspection, a greatest
common divisor computation is needed anyway to ensure the fraction is actually irreducible.
120
22.2. UNIQUENESS 121
22.2 Uniqueness
Every rational number has a unique representation as an irreducible fraction with a positive denominator* [3] (however
2 2
3 = 3 although both are irreducible). Uniqueness is a consequence of the unique prime factorization of integers,
since ab = dc implies ad = bc and so both sides of the latter must share the same prime factorization, yet a and b share
no prime factors so the set of prime factors of a (with multiplicity) is a subset of those of c and vice versa meaning
a = c and b = d .
22.3 Applications
The fact that any rational number has a unique representation as an irreducible fraction is utilized in various proofs
of the irrationality of the square root of 2 and of other irrational numbers. For example, one proof notes that if
the square root of 2 could be represented as a ratio of integers, then it would have in particular the fully reduced
representation ab where a and b are the smallest possible; but given that ab equals the square root of 2, so does 2ba ab
(since cross-multiplying this with ab shows that they are equal). Since the latter is a ratio of smaller integers, this is a
contradiction, so the premise that the square root of two has a representation as the ratio of two integers is false.
22.4 Generalization
The notion of irreducible fraction generalizes to the eld of fractions of any unique factorization domain: any element
of such a eld can be written as a fraction in which denominator and numerator are coprime, by dividing both by
their greatest common divisor.* [7] This applies notably to rational expressions over a eld. The irreducible fraction
for a given element is unique up to multiplication of denominator and numerator by the same invertible element. In
the case of the rational numbers this means that any number has two irreducible fractions, related by a change of sign
of both numerator and denominator; this ambiguity can be removed by requiring the denominator to be positive. In
the case of rational functions the denominator could similarly be required to be a monic polynomial.* [8]
22.5 See also

Anomalous cancellation, an erroneous arithmetic procedure that produces the correct irreducible fraction by
cancelling digits of the original unreduced form
Diophantine approximation, the approximation of real numbers by rational numbers.
22.6 References
[1] Stepanov, S. A. (2001) [1994],Fraction, in Hazewinkel, Michiel, Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer Science+Business
Media B.V. / Kluwer Academic Publishers, ISBN 978-1-55608-010-4
[2] E.g., see Laudal, Olav Arnnn; Piene, Ragni (2004), The Legacy of Niels Henrik Abel: The Abel Bicentennial, Oslo, June
3-8, 2002, Springer, p. 155
[3] Scott, William (1844), Elements of Arithmetic and Algebra: For the Use of the Royal Military College, College text books,
Sandhurst. Royal Military College, 1, Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, p. 75.
[4] Scott (1844), p. 74.
[5] Sally, Judith D.; Sally, Paul J., Jr. (2012), 9.1. Reducing a fraction to lowest terms, Integers, Fractions, and Arith-
metic: A Guide for Teachers, MSRI mathematical circles library, 10, American Mathematical Society, pp. 131134, ISBN
9780821887981.
[6] Cuoco, Al; Rotman, Joseph (2013), Learning Modern Algebra, Mathematical Association of America Textbooks, Mathematical
Association of America, p. 33, ISBN 9781939512017.
[7] Garrett, Paul B. (2007), Abstract Algebra, CRC Press, p. 183, ISBN 9781584886907.
[8] Grillet, Pierre Antoine (2007), Abstract Algebra, Graduate Texts in Mathematics, 242, Springer, Lemma 9.2, p. 183, ISBN
9780387715681.
122 CHAPTER 22. IRREDUCIBLE FRACTION
22.7 External links

Weisstein, Eric W. Reduced Fraction. MathWorld.
Chapter 23
Least common multiple
LCMs of numbers 1 through 10 with numbers 2 through 10. Line labels = rst number. X axis = second number minus 1. Y axis =
LCM of the two numbers.
In arithmetic and number theory, the least common multiple, lowest common multiple, or smallest common
multiple of two integers a and b, usually denoted by LCM(a, b), is the smallest positive integer that is divisible by
123
124 CHAPTER 23. LEAST COMMON MULTIPLE
2
14
28 10
70
28
7
30
140 6
210
140
42
3
35 420
420
105
21
84 84
15 60 12
60 12
5 20
20
4
4
A Venn Diagram showing the least common multiples of combinations of 2, 3, 4, 5 and 7 (6 is skipped as it is 2 3, both of which
are already represented).
For example, a card game which requires its cards to be divided equally among up to 5 players requires at least 60 cards, the number
at the intersection of the 2, 3, 4 and 5 sets, but not the 7 set.
both a and b.* [1] Since division of integers by zero is undened, this denition has meaning only if a and b are both
dierent from zero.* [2] However, some authors dene lcm(a,0) as 0 for all a, which is the result of taking the lcm to
be the least upper bound in the lattice of divisibility.
The LCM is the "lowest common denominator" (LCD) that must be determined before fractions can be added,
subtracted or compared. The LCM of more than two integers is also well-dened: it is the smallest positive integer
that is divisible by each of them.
23.1 Overview
A multiple of a number is the product of that number and an integer. For example, 10 is a multiple of 5 because 5
2 = 10, so 10 is divisible by 5 and 2. Because 10 is the smallest positive integer that is divisible by both 5 and 2, it is
the least common multiple of 5 and 2. By the same principle, 10 is the least common multiple of 5 and 2 as well.
23.2. COMPUTING THE LEAST COMMON MULTIPLE 125
23.1.1 Notation
In this article we will denote the least common multiple of two integers a and b as lcm(a, b).
Some older textbooks use [a, b].* [2]* [3]
The programming language J uses a*.b
23.1.2 Example
What is the LCM of 4 and 6?
Multiples of 4 are:
4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, 32, 36, 40, 44, 48, 52, 56, 60, 64, 68, 72, 76, ...
and the multiples of 6 are:
6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36, 42, 48, 54, 60, 66, 72, ...
Common multiples of 4 and 6 are simply the numbers that are in both lists:
12, 24, 36, 48, 60, 72, ....
So, from this list of the rst few common multiples of the numbers 4 and 6, their least common multiple is 12.
23.1.3 Applications
When adding, subtracting, or comparing vulgar fractions, it is useful to nd the least common multiple of the denom-
inators, often called the lowest common denominator, because each of the fractions can be expressed as a fraction
with this denominator. For instance,
2 1 4 7 11
+ = + =
21 6 42 42 42
where the denominator 42 was used because it is the least common multiple of 21 and 6.
23.1.4 Gears problem

Suppose there are two meshing gears in a machine, having m and n teeth, respectively, and the gears are marked
by a line segment drawn from the center of the rst gear to the center of the second gear. When the gears begin
rotating, we can determine how many rotations the rst gear must complete to realign the line segment by making
use of LCM(m,n). The rst gear must complete LCM(m,n)/m rotations for the realignment. By that time, the second
gear will have made LCM(m,n)/n rotations.
23.2 Computing the least common multiple
23.2.1 Reduction by the greatest common divisor

The following formula reduces the problem of computing the least common multiple to the problem of computing
the greatest common divisor (GCD), also known as the greatest common factor:
|a b|
lcm(a, b) = .
gcd(a, b)
This formula is also valid when exactly one of a and b is 0, since gcd(a, 0) = |a|. However, if both a and b are 0, this
formula would cause division by zero; lcm(0, 0) = 0 is a special case.
There are fast algorithms for computing the GCD that do not require the numbers to be factored, such as the Euclidean
algorithm. To return to the example above,
21 6 21 6 21 6 126
lcm(21, 6) = = = = = 42.
gcd(21, 6) gcd(3, 6) 3 3
Because gcd(a, b) is a divisor of both a and b, it is more ecient to compute the LCM by dividing before multiplying:
( ) ( )
|a| |b|
lcm(a, b) = |b| = |a|.
gcd(a, b) gcd(a, b)
This reduces the size of one input for both the division and the multiplication, and reduces the required storage needed
for intermediate results (overow in the ab computation). Because gcd(a, b) is a divisor of both a and b, the division
is guaranteed to yield an integer, so the intermediate result can be stored in an integer. Done this way, the previous
example becomes:
21 21 21
lcm(21, 6) = 6= 6= 6 = 7 6 = 42.
gcd(21, 6) gcd(3, 6) 3
23.2.2 Finding least common multiples by prime factorization

The unique factorization theorem says that every positive integer greater than 1 can be written in only one way as a
product of prime numbers. The prime numbers can be considered as the atomic elements which, when combined
together, make up a composite number.
For example:
90 = 21 32 51 = 2 3 3 5.
Here we have the composite number 90 made up of one atom of the prime number 2, two atoms of the prime number
3 and one atom of the prime number 5.
This knowledge can be used to nd the LCM of a set of numbers.
Example: Find the value of lcm(8,9,21).
First, factor each number and express it as a product of prime number powers.
8 = 23
9 = 32
21 = 31 71
The lcm will be the product of multiplying the highest power of each prime number together. The highest power of
the three prime numbers 2, 3, and 7 is 23 , 32 , and 71 , respectively. Thus,
lcm(8, 9, 21) = 23 32 71 = 8 9 7 = 504.

This method is not as ecient as reducing to the greatest common divisor, since there is no known general ecient
algorithm for integer factorization, but is useful for illustrating concepts.
This method can be illustrated using a Venn diagram as follows. Find the prime factorization of each of the two
numbers. Put the prime factors into a Venn diagram with one circle for each of the two numbers, and all factors they
share in common in the intersection. To nd the LCM, just multiply all of the prime numbers in the diagram.
Here is an example:
23.2. COMPUTING THE LEAST COMMON MULTIPLE 127
48 = 2 2 2 2 3,
180 = 2 2 3 3 5,
and what they share in common is two 2"s and a 3":
2
2 3
2
2 5
3
Least common multiple = 2 2 2 2 3 3 5 = 720

Greatest common divisor = 2 2 3 = 12
This also works for the greatest common divisor (GCD), except that instead of multiplying all of the numbers in the
Venn diagram, one multiplies only the prime factors that are in the intersection. Thus the GCD of 48 and 180 is 2
2 3 = 12.
23.2.3 A simple algorithm

This method works as easily for nding the LCM of several integers.
Let there be a nite sequence of positive integers X = (x1 , x2 , ..., xn ), n > 1. The algorithm proceeds in steps as
follows: on each step m it examines and updates the sequence X* (m) = (x1 * (m), x2 * (m), ..., xn * (m)), X* (1) = X,
where X* (m) is the mth iteration of X, i.e. X at step m of the algorithm, etc. The purpose of the examination is to
pick the least (perhaps, one of many) element of the sequence X* (m). Assuming xk0 * (m) is the selected element, the
sequence X* (m+1) is dened as
xk * (m+1) = xk * (m), k k0
xk0 * (m+1) = xk0 * (m) + xk0 * (1).
In other words, the least element is increased by the corresponding x whereas the rest of the elements pass from X* (m)
to X* (m+1) unchanged.
The algorithm stops when all elements in sequence X* (m) are equal. Their common value L is exactly LCM(X).
23.2.4 A method using a table

This method works for any number of factors. One begins by listing all of the numbers vertically in a table (in this
example 4, 7, 12, 21, and 42):
4
7
12
21
42
The process begins by dividing all of the factors by 2. If any of them divides evenly, write 2 at the top of the table
and the result of division by 2 of each factor in the space to the right of each factor and below the 2. If a number does
not divide evenly, just rewrite the number again. If 2 does not divide evenly into any of the numbers, try 3.
Now, check if 2 divides again:
Once 2 no longer divides, divide by 3. If 3 no longer divides, try 5 and 7. Keep going until all of the numbers have
been reduced to 1.
Now, multiply the numbers on the top and you have the LCM. In this case, it is 2 2 3 7 = 84. You will get to
the LCM the quickest if you use prime numbers and start from the lowest prime, 2.
As a general computational algorithm, the above is quite inecient. One would never want to implement it in software:
it takes too many steps, and requires too much storage space. A far more ecient numerical algorithm can be obtained
simply by using Euclid's algorithm to compute the gcd rst, and then obtaining the lcm by division.
23.3 Formulas
23.3.1 Fundamental theorem of arithmetic

According to the fundamental theorem of arithmetic a positive integer is the product of prime numbers, and, except
for their order, this representation is unique:

n = 2n2 3n3 5n5 7n7 = pnp ,
p
where the exponents n2 , n3 , ... are non-negative integers; for example, 84 = 22 31 50 71 110 130 ...

Given two positive integers a = p pap and b = p pbp their least common multiple and greatest common divisor
are given by the formulas

gcd(a, b) = pmin(ap ,bp )
p
and

lcm(a, b) = pmax(ap ,bp ) .
p
Since
min(x, y) + max(x, y) = x + y,
this gives
gcd(a, b) lcm(a, b) = a b.
In fact, any rational number can be written uniquely as the product of primes if negative exponents are allowed. When
this is done, the above formulas remain valid. For example:
4 = 22 30 , 6 = 21 31 , gcd(4, 6) = 21 30 , lcm(4, 6) = 22 31 .
1
3 = 20 31 50 , 2
5 = 21 30 51 , gcd( 13 , 25 ) = 20 31 51 , lcm( 13 , 25 ) = 21 30 50 ,
1
6 = 21 31 , 3
4 = 22 31 , gcd( 16 , 34 ) = 22 31 , lcm( 16 , 34 ) = 21 31 .
23.4. THE LCM IN COMMUTATIVE RINGS 129
23.3.2 Lattice-theoretic
The positive integers may be partially ordered by divisibility: if a divides b (i.e. if b is an integer multiple of a) write
a b (or equivalently, b a). (Forget the usual magnitude-based denition of in this section - it isn't used.)
Under this ordering, the positive integers become a lattice with meet given by the gcd and join given by the lcm. The
proof is straightforward, if a bit tedious; it amounts to checking that lcm and gcd satisfy the axioms for meet and
join. Putting the lcm and gcd into this more general context establishes a duality between them:
If a formula involving integer variables, gcd, lcm, and is true, then the formula obtained by
switching gcd with lcm and switching with is also true. (Remember is dened as divides).
The following pairs of dual formulas are special cases of general lattice-theoretic identities.
It can also be shown* [4] that this lattice is distributive, i.e. that lcm distributes over gcd and, dually, that gcd distributes
over lcm:
lcm(a, gcd(b, c)) = gcd(lcm(a, b), lcm(a, c)),
gcd(a, lcm(b, c)) = lcm(gcd(a, b), gcd(a, c)).

This identity is self-dual:
gcd(lcm(a, b), lcm(b, c), lcm(a, c)) = lcm(gcd(a, b), gcd(b, c), gcd(a, c)).
23.3.3 Other
Let D be the product of (D) distinct prime numbers (i.e. D is squarefree).
Then* [5]
|{(x, y) : lcm(x, y) = D}| = 3(D) ,
where the absolute bars || denote the cardinality of a set.
23.4 The LCM in commutative rings

The least common multiple can be dened generally over commutative rings as follows: Let a and b be elements of a
commutative ring R. A common multiple of a and b is an element m of R such that both a and b divide m (i.e. there
exist elements x and y of R such that ax = m and by = m). A least common multiple of a and b is a common multiple
that is minimal in the sense that for any other common multiple n of a and b, m divides n.
In general, two elements in a commutative ring can have no least common multiple or more than one. However, any
two least common multiples of the same pair of elements are associates. In a unique factorization domain, any two
elements have a least common multiple. In a principal ideal domain, the least common multiple of a and b can be
characterised as a generator of the intersection of the ideals generated by a and b (the intersection of a collection of
ideals is always an ideal).
23.5 See also

Anomalous cancellation
Chebyshev function
Greatest common divisor
23.6 Notes
[1] Hardy & Wright, 5.1, p. 48
[2] Long (1972, p. 39)
[3] Pettofrezzo & Byrkit (1970, p. 56)
[4] The next three formulas are from Landau, Ex. III.3, p. 254
[5] Crandall & Pomerance, ex. 2.4, p. 101.
23.7 References
Crandall, Richard; Pomerance, Carl (2001), Prime Numbers: A Computational Perspective, New York: Springer,
ISBN 0-387-94777-9
Hardy, G. H.; Wright, E. M. (1979), An Introduction to the Theory of Numbers (Fifth edition), Oxford: Oxford
University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-853171-5
Landau, Edmund (1966), Elementary Number Theory, New York: Chelsea
Long, Calvin T. (1972), Elementary Introduction to Number Theory (2nd ed.), Lexington: D. C. Heath and
Company, LCCN 77-171950
Pettofrezzo, Anthony J.; Byrkit, Donald R. (1970), Elements of Number Theory, Englewood Clis: Prentice
Hall, LCCN 77-81766
Chapter 24
Lowest common denominator
This article is about mathematics. For computers, see Lowest common denominator (computers).
In mathematics, the lowest common denominator or least common denominator (abbreviated LCD) is the least
common multiple of the denominators of a set of fractions. It simplies adding, subtracting, and comparing fractions.
24.1 Description
The least common denominator of a set of fractions is the least number that is a multiple of all the denominators:
their least common multiple. The product of the denominators is always a common denominator, as in:
1 2 3 4 7
+ = + =
2 3 6 6 6
but it's not always the least common denominator, as in:
5 11 15 22 37
+ = + =
12 18 36 36 36
Here, 36 is the least common multiple of 12 and 18. Their product, 216, is also a common denominator, but calcu-
lating with that denominator involves larger numbers:
5 11 90 132 222
+ = + =
12 18 216 216 216
With variables rather than numbers, the same principles apply:* [1]
a c abd c2 abd + c2
+ 2 = 2 + 2 =
bc b d b cd b cd b2 cd
Some methods of calculating the LCD are at Least common multiple#Computing the least common multiple.
24.2 Role in arithmetic and algebra

The same fraction can be expressed in many dierent forms. As long as the ratio between numerator and denominator
is the same, the fractions represent the same number. For example:
2 6 12 144 200, 000

= = = =
3 9 18 216 300, 000
131
132 CHAPTER 24. LOWEST COMMON DENOMINATOR
because they are all multiplied by 1 written as a fraction:
2 2 3 2 6 2 72 2 100, 000
= = = = .
3 3 3 3 6 3 72 3 100, 000
It is usually easiest to add, subtract, or compare fractions when each is expressed with the same denominator, called
a common denominator. For example, the numerators of fractions with common denominators can simply be
5 6
added, such that 12 + 12 = 11 5 11
12 and that 12 < 12 , since each fraction has the common denominator 12. Without
5
computing a common denominator, it is not obvious as to what 12 + 11 5
18 equals, or whether 12 is greater than or less
11
than 18 . Any common denominator will do, but usually the least common denominator is desirable because it makes
the rest of the calculation as simple as possible.* [2]
24.3 See also

Greatest common divisor
Partial fraction expansion reverses the process of adding fractions into uncommon denominators.
Anomalous cancellation
24.4 References
[1] Brooks, Edward (1901). The Normal Elementary Algebra, Part 1. C. Sower Company. p. 80. Retrieved 7 January 2014.
[2]Fractions. The World Book: Organized Knowledge in Story and Picture, Volume 3. Hanson-Roach-Fowler Company.
1918. pp. 22852286. Retrieved 7 January 2014.
Chapter 25
Mediant (mathematics)
For mediant in music, see mediant. Mediantshould not be confused with median.
In mathematics, the mediant of two fractions
a b
and
c d
is
a+b
.
c+d
that is to say, the numerator and denominator of the mediant are the sums of the numerators and denominators of
the given fractions, respectively. It is sometimes called the freshman sum, as it is a common mistake in the usual
addition of fractions.
In general, this is an operation on fractions rather than on rational numbers. That is to say, for two rational numbers
q1 , q2 , the value of the mediant depends on how the rational numbers are expressed using integer pairs. For example,
the mediant of 1/1 and 1/2 is 2/3, but the mediant of 2/2 and 1/2 is 3/4.
A way around this, where required, is to specify that both rationals are to be represented as fractions in their lowest
terms (with c > 0, d > 0). With such a restriction, mediant becomes a well-dened binary operation on rationals.
The Stern-Brocot tree provides an enumeration of all positive rational numbers, in lowest terms, obtained purely by
iterative computation of the mediant according to a simple algorithm.
25.1 Properties
The mediant inequality: An important property (also explaining its name) of the mediant is that it lies strictly
between the two fractions of which it is the mediant: If a/c < b/d and a, b, c, d 0 , then
a a+b b
< < .
c c+d d
This property follows from the two relations
( )
a+b a bc ad d b a
= =
c+d c c(c + d) c+d d c
and
133
134 CHAPTER 25. MEDIANT (MATHEMATICS)
( )
b a+b bc ad c b a
= = .
d c+d d(c + d) c+d d c
Assume that the pair of fractions a/c and b/d satises the determinant relation bc ad = 1 . Then the mediant
has the property that it is the simplest fraction in the interval (a/c, b/d), in the sense of being the fraction with the
smallest denominator. More precisely, if the fraction a /c with positive denominator c' lies (strictly) between
a/c and b/d, then its numerator and denominator can be written as a = 1 a + 2 b and c = 1 c + 2 d with
two positive real (in fact rational) numbers 1 , 2 . To see why the i must be positive note that
1 a + 2 b a bc ad
= 2
1 c + 2 d c c(1 c + 2 d)
and
b 1 a + 2 b bc ad
= 1
d 1 c + 2 d d(1 c + 2 d)
must be positive. The determinant relation
bc ad = 1
then implies that both 1 , 2 must be integers, solving the system of linear equations
a = 1 a + 2 b
c = 1 c + 2 d
for 1 , 2 . Therefore c c + d.
The converse is also true: assume that the pair of reduced fractions a/c < b/d has the property that the reduced
fraction with smallest denominator lying in the interval (a/c, b/d) is equal to the mediant of the two fractions.
Then the determinant relation bc ad = 1 holds. This fact may be deduced e.g. with the help of Pick's theorem
which expresses the area of a plane triangle whose vertices have integer coordinates in terms of the number
vinterior of lattice points (strictly) inside the triangle and the number vboundary of lattice points on the boundary
of the triangle. Consider the triangle (v1 , v2 , v3 ) with the three vertices v1 = (0, 0), v2 = (a, c), v3 = (b, d).
Its area is equal to
bc ad
area() = .
2
A point p = (p1 , p2 ) inside the triangle can be parametrized as
p1 = 1 a + 2 b, p2 = 1 c + 2 d,
where
1 0, 2 0, 1 + 2 1.
The Pick formula

vboundary
area() = vinterior + 1
2
now implies that there must be a lattice point q = (q1 , q2 ) lying inside the triangle dierent from the
three vertices if bc ad >1 (then the area of the triangle is 1 ). The corresponding fraction q1 /q2 lies
(strictly) between the given (by assumption reduced) fractions and has denominator
25.2. GENERALIZATION 135
q2 = 1 c + 2 d max(c, d) < c + d
as
1 + 2 1.
Relatedly, if p/q and r/s are reduced fractions on the unit interval such that |ps rq| = 1 (so that they are adjacent
elements of a row of the Farey sequence) then
( ) ( ( ) ( ))
p+r
? q+s = 1
2 ? pq + ? rs
where ? is Minkowski's question mark function.
In fact, mediants commonly occur in the study of continued fractions and in particular, Farey fractions.
The nth Farey sequence F n is dened as the (ordered with respect to magnitude) sequence of reduced
fractions a/b (with coprime a, b) such that b n. If two fractions a/c < b/d are adjacent (neighbouring)
fractions in a segment of Fn then the determinant relation bc ad = 1 mentioned above is generally
valid and therefore the mediant is the simplest fraction in the interval (a/c, b/d), in the sense of being the
fraction with the smallest denominator. Thus the mediant will then (rst) appear in the (c + d)th Farey
sequence and is the nextfraction which is inserted in any Farey sequence between a/c and b/d. This
gives the rule how the Farey sequences F n are successively built up with increasing n.
25.2 Generalization
The notion of mediant can be generalized to n fractions, and a generalized mediant inequality holds,* [1] a fact that
seems to have
been rst noticed by Cauchy. More precisely, the weighted mediant mw of n fractions a1 /b2 , . . . , an /bn
w a
is dened by i wii bii (with wi > 0 ). It can be shown that mw lies somewhere between the smallest and the largest
i
fraction among the ai /bi .
25.3 References
[1] Bensimhoun, Michael (2013). A note on the mediant inequality (PDF).
25.4 External links

Mediant Fractions at cut-the-knot
MATHPAGES, Kevin Brown: Generalized Mediant

Chapter 26
Multiplication
For other uses, see Multiplication (disambiguation).

Multiplication (often denoted by the cross symbol "", by a point " ", by juxtaposition, or, on computers, by
an asterisk "") is one of the four elementary mathematical operations of arithmetic; with the others being addition,
subtraction and division.
The multiplication of whole numbers may be thought as a repeated addition; that is, the multiplication of two numbers
is equivalent to adding as many copies of one of them, the multiplicand, as the value of the other one, the multiplier.
Normally, the multiplier is written rst and multiplicand second,* [1] (though this can vary by language.* [2])
a b = b + + b
| {z }
a
For example, 4 multiplied by 3 (often written as 3 4 and spoken as 3 times 4) can be calculated by adding 3
copies of 4 together:
3 4 = 4 + 4 + 4 = 12
Here 3 and 4 are the factorsand 12 is the product.

One of the main properties of multiplication is the commutative property: adding 3 copies of 4 gives the same result
as adding 4 copies of 3:
4 3 = 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 = 12
Thus the designation of multiplier and multiplicand does not aect the result of the multiplication.
The multiplication of integers (including negative numbers), rational numbers (fractions) and real numbers is dened
by a systematic generalization of this basic denition.
Multiplication can also be visualized as counting objects arranged in a rectangle (for whole numbers) or as nding the
area of a rectangle whose sides have given lengths. The area of a rectangle does not depend on which side is measured
rst, which illustrates the commutative property. The product of two measurements is a new type of measurement,
for instance multiplying the lengths of the two sides of a rectangle gives its area, this is the subject of dimensional
analysis.
The inverse operation of multiplication is division. For example, since 4 multiplied by 3 equals 12, then 12 divided by
3 equals 4. Multiplication by 3, followed by division by 3, yields the original number (since the division of a number
other than 0 by itself equals 1).
Multiplication is also dened for other types of numbers, such as complex numbers, and more abstract constructs,
like matrices. For these more abstract constructs, the order that the operands are multiplied sometimes does matter.
A listing of the many dierent kinds of products that are used in mathematics is given in the product (mathematics)
page.
136
26.1. NOTATION AND TERMINOLOGY 137
Four bags with three marbles per bag gives twelve marbles (4 3 = 12).
26.1 Notation and terminology

In arithmetic, multiplication is often written using the sign "" between the terms; that is, in inx notation.* [3] For
example,
2 3 = 6 (verbally, two times three equals six)

3 4 = 12
2 3 5 = 6 5 = 30
2 2 2 2 2 = 32
The sign is encoded in Unicode at U+00D7 MULTIPLICATION SIGN (HTML × ×).
138 CHAPTER 26. MULTIPLICATION
0
32=6
1
0 1 2
2
3
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Multiplication can also be thought of as scaling. Here we see 2 being multiplied by 3 using scaling, giving 6 as a result.
Animation for the multiplication 2 3 = 6.
There are other mathematical notations for multiplication:
Multiplication is also denoted by dot signs,* [4] usually a middle-position dot (rarely period):
52 or 5 . 2
The middle dot notation, encoded in Unicode as U+22C5 dot operator, is standard in the United States,
the United Kingdom, and other countries where the period is used as a decimal point. When the dot
operator character is not accessible, the interpunct () is used. In other countries that use a comma as a
decimal mark, either the period or a middle dot is used for multiplication.
In algebra, multiplication involving variables is often written as a juxtaposition (e.g., xy for x times y or 5x
for ve times x), also called implied multiplication.* [5] The notation can also be used for quantities that are
surrounded by parentheses (e.g., 5(2) or (5)(2) for ve times two). This implicit usage of multiplication can
26.1. NOTATION AND TERMINOLOGY 139
4 5 = 20. The large rectangle is composed of 20 squares, each having dimensions of 1 by 1.
1/2 1/2 1/2 1/2 1/4
1 1 1 1 1/2
1 1 1 1 1/2
Area of a cloth 4.5m 2.5m = 11.25m2 ; {{{1}}}
cause ambiguity when the concatenated variables happen to match the name of another variable, when a variable
The multiplication sign
name in front of a parenthesis can be confused with a function name, or in the correct determination of the
order of operations.
In matrix multiplication, there is a distinction between the cross and the dot symbols. The cross symbol gen-
erally denotes the taking a cross product of two vectors, yielding a vector as the result, while the dot denotes
taking the dot product of two vectors, resulting in a scalar.
In computer programming, the asterisk (as in 5*2) is still the most common notation. This is due to the fact that most
computers historically were limited to small character sets (such as ASCII and EBCDIC) that lacked a multiplica-
tion sign (such as or ), while the asterisk appeared on every keyboard. This usage originated in the FORTRAN
programming language.
The numbers to be multiplied are generally called the "factors". The number to be multiplied is called the multi-
plicand, while the number of times the multiplicand is to be multiplied comes from the multiplier. Usually
the multiplier is placed rst and the multiplicand is placed second,* [1] however sometimes the rst factor is the mul-
tiplicand and the second the multiplier.* [6] Additionally, there are some sources in which the term multiplicand
is regarded as a synonym for factor.* [7] In algebra, a number that is the multiplier of a variable or expression
(e.g., the 3 in 3xy2 ) is called a coecient.
26.2. COMPUTATION 141
The result of a multiplication is called a product. A product of integers is a multiple of each factor. For example, 15
is the product of 3 and 5, and is both a multiple of 3 and a multiple of 5.
26.2 Computation
The common methods for multiplying numbers using pencil and paper require a multiplication table of memorized
or consulted products of small numbers (typically any two numbers from 0 to 9), however one method, the peasant
multiplication algorithm, does not.
Multiplying numbers to more than a couple of decimal places by hand is tedious and error prone. Common logarithms
were invented to simplify such calculations. The slide rule allowed numbers to be quickly multiplied to about three
places of accuracy. Beginning in the early 20th century, mechanical calculators, such as the Marchant, automated
multiplication of up to 10 digit numbers. Modern electronic computers and calculators have greatly reduced the need
for multiplication by hand.
26.2.1 Historical algorithms

Methods of multiplication were documented in the Egyptian, Greek, Indian and Chinese civilizations.
The Ishango bone, dated to about 18,000 to 20,000 BC, hints at a knowledge of multiplication in the Upper Paleolithic
era in Central Africa.
Egyptians
Main article: Ancient Egyptian multiplication
The Egyptian method of multiplication of integers and fractions, documented in the Ahmes Papyrus, was by suc-
cessive additions and doubling. For instance, to nd the product of 13 and 21 one had to double 21 three times,
obtaining 2 21 = 42, 4 21 = 2 42 = 84, 8 21 = 2 84 = 168. The full product could then be found by adding
the appropriate terms found in the doubling sequence:
13 21 = (1 + 4 + 8) 21 = (1 21) + (4 21) + (8 21) = 21 + 84 + 168 = 273.
Babylonians
The Babylonians used a sexagesimal positional number system, analogous to the modern day decimal system. Thus,
Babylonian multiplication was very similar to modern decimal multiplication. Because of the relative diculty of
remembering 60 60 dierent products, Babylonian mathematicians employed multiplication tables. These tables
consisted of a list of the rst twenty multiples of a certain principal number n: n, 2n, ..., 20n; followed by the multiples
of 10n: 30n 40n, and 50n. Then to compute any sexagesimal product, say 53n, one only needed to add 50n and 3n
computed from the table.
Chinese
In the mathematical text Zhoubi Suanjing, dated prior to 300 BC, and the Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art,
multiplication calculations were written out in words, although the early Chinese mathematicians employed Rod
calculus involving place value addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. These place value decimal arithmetic
algorithms were introduced by Al Khwarizmi to Arab countries in the early 9th century.
26.2.2 Modern methods

The modern method of multiplication based on the HinduArabic numeral system was rst described by Brahmagupta.
Brahmagupta gave rules for addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Henry Burchard Fine, then professor
of Mathematics at Princeton University, wrote the following:
38 76 = 2888
The Indians are the inventors not only of the positional decimal system itself, but of most of the processes
involved in elementary reckoning with the system. Addition and subtraction they performed quite as they
are performed nowadays; multiplication they eected in many ways, ours among them, but division they
did cumbrously.* [8]
Grid Method
Grid method multiplication or the box method, is used in primary schools in England and Wales to help teach an
understanding of how multiple digit multiplication works. An example of multiplying 34 by 13 would be to lay the
numbers out in a grid like:
and then add the entries.
26.2.3 Computer algorithms
Main article: Multiplication algorithm
The classical method of multiplying two n-digit numbers requires n2 simple multiplications. Multiplication algo-
rithms have been designed that reduce the computation time considerably when multiplying large numbers. In par-
ticular for very large numbers, methods based on the Discrete Fourier Transform can reduce the number of simple
multiplications to the order of n log2 (n) log2 log2 (n).
26.3. PRODUCTS OF MEASUREMENTS 143
Product of 45 and 256. Note the order of the numerals in 45 is reversed down the left column. The carry step of the multiplication
can be performed at the nal stage of the calculation (in bold), returning the nal product of {{{1}}}. This is a variant of Lattice
multiplication.
26.3 Products of measurements

Main article: Dimensional analysis
One can only meaningfully add or subtract quantities of the same type but can multiply or divide quantities of dierent
types. Four bags with three marbles each can be though of as:* [1]
[4 bags] [3 marbles per bag] = 12 marbles.
When two measurements are multiplied together the product is of a type depending on the types of the measurements.
The general theory is given by dimensional analysis. This analysis is routinely applied in physics but has also found
applications in nance.
A common example is multiplying speed by time gives distance, so
50 kilometers per hour 3 hours = 150 kilometers.
Other examples:
2.5meters 4.5meters = 11.25meters square
11meters/second 9seconds = 99meters

26.4 Products of sequences
26.4.1 Capital Pi notation

The product of a sequence of terms can be written with the product symbol, which derives from the capital letter
(Pi) in the Greek alphabet. Unicode position U+220F () contains a glyph for denoting such a product, distinct from
U+03A0 (), the letter. The meaning of this notation is given by:
4
i = 1 2 3 4,
i=1
that is
4
i = 24.
i=1
The subscript gives the symbol for a dummy variable (i in this case), called the index of multiplicationtogether
with its lower bound (1), whereas the superscript (here 4) gives its upper bound. The lower and upper bound are
expressions denoting integers. The factors of the product are obtained by taking the expression following the product
operator, with successive integer values substituted for the index of multiplication, starting from the lower bound and
incremented by 1 up to and including the upper bound. So, for example:
6
i = 1 2 3 4 5 6 = 720
i=1
More generally, the notation is dened as
n
xi = xm xm+1 xm+2 xn1 xn ,
i=m
where m and n are integers or expressions that evaluate to integers. In case m = n, the value of the product is the same
as that of the single factor xm . If m > n, the product is the empty product, with the value 1.
26.4.2 Innite products

Main article: Innite product
One may also consider products of innitely many terms; these are called innite products. Notationally, we would
replace n above by the lemniscate . The product of such a series is dened as the limit of the product of the rst n
terms, as n grows without bound. That is, by denition,

n
xi = lim xi .
n
i=m i=m
One can similarly replace m with negative innity, and dene:

( ) ( )

0
n
xi = lim xi lim xi ,
m n
i= i=m i=1
provided both limits exist.

26.5. PROPERTIES 145
26.5 Properties
Multiplication of numbers 010. Line labels = multiplicand. X axis = multiplier. Y axis = product.
Extension of this pattern into other quadrants gives the reason why a negative number times a negative number yields a positive
number.
Note also how multiplication by zero causes a reduction in dimensionality, as does multiplication by a singular matrix where the
determinant is 0. In this process, information is lost and cannot be regained.
For the real and complex numbers, which includes for example natural numbers, integers and fractions, multiplication
has certain properties:
Commutative property The order in which two numbers are multiplied does not matter:
x y = y x.
Associative property Expressions solely involving multiplication or addition are invariant with respect to order of
operations:
(x y) z = x (y z)
Distributive property Holds with respect to multiplication over addition. This identity is of prime importance in
simplifying algebraic expressions:
x (y + z) = x y + x z
Identity element The multiplicative identity is 1; anything multiplied by 1 is itself. This feature of 1 is known as
the identity property:
x1=x
Property of 0 Any number multiplied by 0 is 0. This is known as the zero property of multiplication:
x0=0
Negation 1 times any number is equal to the additive inverse of that number.
(1) x = (x) where (x) + x = 0
1 times 1 is 1.
(1) (1) = 1
(1)
Inverse element Every number x, except 0, has a multiplicative inverse, 1
x , such that x x =1.
Order preservation Multiplication by a positive number preserves order:

For a > 0, if b > c then ab > ac.
Multiplication by a negative number reverses order:
For a < 0, if b > c then ab < ac.
The complex numbers do not have an ordering.
Other mathematical systems that include a multiplication operation may not have all these properties. For example,
multiplication is not, in general, commutative for matrices and quaternions.
26.6 Axioms
Main article: Peano axioms
In the book Arithmetices principia, nova methodo exposita, Giuseppe Peano proposed axioms for arithmetic based on
his axioms for natural numbers.* [9] Peano arithmetic has two axioms for multiplication:
x0=0
x S(y) = (x y) + x
Here S(y) represents the successor of y, or the natural number that follows y. The various properties like associativity
can be proved from these and the other axioms of Peano arithmetic including induction. For instance S(0), denoted
by 1, is a multiplicative identity because
x 1 = x S(0) = (x 0) + x = 0 + x = x
The axioms for integers typically dene them as equivalence classes of ordered pairs of natural numbers. The model
is based on treating (x,y) as equivalent to x y when x and y are treated as integers. Thus both (0,1) and (1,2) are
equivalent to 1. The multiplication axiom for integers dened this way is
(xp , xm ) (yp , ym ) = (xp yp + xm ym , xp ym + xm yp )
The rule that 1 1 = 1 can then be deduced from
(0, 1) (0, 1) = (0 0 + 1 1, 0 1 + 1 0) = (1, 0)
Multiplication is extended in a similar way to rational numbers and then to real numbers.
26.7. MULTIPLICATION WITH SET THEORY 147
26.7 Multiplication with set theory

The product of non-negative integers can be dened with set theory using cardinal numbers or the Peano axioms. See
below how to extend this to multiplying arbitrary integers, and then arbitrary rational numbers. The product of real
numbers is dened in terms of products of rational numbers, see construction of the real numbers.
26.8 Multiplication in group theory

There are many sets that, under the operation of multiplication, satisfy the axioms that dene group structure. These
axioms are closure, associativity, and the inclusion of an identity element and inverses.
A simple example is the set of non-zero rational numbers. Here we have identity 1, as opposed to groups under
addition where the identity is typically 0. Note that with the rationals, we must exclude zero because, under multi-
plication, it does not have an inverse: there is no rational number that can be multiplied by zero to result in 1. In this
example we have an abelian group, but that is not always the case.
To see this, look at the set of invertible square matrices of a given dimension, over a given eld. Now it is straight-
forward to verify closure, associativity, and inclusion of identity (the identity matrix) and inverses. However, matrix
multiplication is not commutative, therefore this group is nonabelian.
Another fact of note is that the integers under multiplication is not a group, even if we exclude zero. This is easily
seen by the nonexistence of an inverse for all elements other than 1 and 1.
Multiplication in group theory is typically notated either by a dot, or by juxtaposition (the omission of an operation
symbol between elements). So multiplying element a by element b could be notated a b or ab. When referring
to a group via the indication of the set and operation, the dot is used, e.g., our rst example could be indicated by
(Q {0}, )
26.9 Multiplication of dierent kinds of numbers

Numbers can count (3 apples), order (the 3rd apple), or measure (3.5 feet high); as the history of mathematics has
progressed from counting on our ngers to modelling quantum mechanics, multiplication has been generalized to
more complicated and abstract types of numbers, and to things that are not numbers (such as matrices) or do not look
much like numbers (such as quaternions).
Integers N M is the sum of N copies of M when N and M are positive whole numbers. This gives the number
of things in an array N wide and M high. Generalization to negative numbers can be done by
N (M ) = (N ) M = (N M ) and
(N ) (M ) = N M
The same sign rules apply to rational and real numbers.
Rational numbers Generalization to fractions B A

D C
is by multiplying the numerators and denominators respec-
(AC)
tively: B D = (BD) . This gives the area of a rectangle B
A C A
high and DC
wide, and is the same as the number
of things in an array when the rational numbers happen to be whole numbers.
Real numbers Real numbers and their products can be dened in terms of sequences of rational numbers.
Complex numbers Considering complex numbers z1 and z2 as ordered pairs of real numbers (a1 , b1 ) and (a2 , b2 )
, the product z1 z2 is (a1 a2 b1 b2 , a1 b2 + a2 b1 ) . This is the same as for reals, a1 a2 , when
the imaginary parts b1 and b2 are zero.

Equivalently, denoting 1 as i , we have z1 z2 = (a1 + b1 i)(a2 + b2 i) = (a1 a2 ) + (a1 b2 i) +
(b1 a2 i) + (b1 b2 i2 ) = (a1 a2 b1 b2 ) + (a1 b2 + b1 a2 )i.
Further generalizations See Multiplication in group theory, above, and Multiplicative group, which for example
includes matrix multiplication. A very general, and abstract, concept of multiplication is as themultiplicatively
denoted(second) binary operation in a ring. An example of a ring that is not any of the above number systems is
a polynomial ring (you can add and multiply polynomials, but polynomials are not numbers in any usual sense.)
( )
x 1
Division Often division, y , is the same as multiplication by an inverse, x y . Multiplication for some types of
numbersmay have corresponding division, without inverses; in an integral domain x may have no inverse "
1 x
x " but y may be dened. In a division ring there are inverses, but xy may be ambiguous in non-commutative
( ) ( )
rings since x y1 need not be the same as y1 x .
26.10 Exponentiation
Main article: Exponentiation
When multiplication is repeated, the resulting operation is known as exponentiation. For instance, the product of
three factors of two (222) istwo raised to the third power, and is denoted by 23 , a two with a superscript three.
In this example, the number two is the base, and three is the exponent. In general, the exponent (or superscript)
indicates how many times the base appears in the expression, so that the expression
an = a a a
| {z }
n
indicates that n copies of the base a are to be multiplied together. This notation can be used whenever multiplication
is known to be power associative.
26.11 See also
26.12 Notes
[1] Devlin, Keith (January 2011). What Exactly is Multiplication?". Mathematical Association of America. Retrieved May
14, 2017. With multiplication you have a multiplicand (written second) multiplied by a multiplier (written rst)
[2] " " [In elementary school multiplication lessons, the order
would appear to be meaningful] (in Japanese). September 30, 2009. Retrieved May 14, 2017.
[3] Khan Academy (2015-08-14), Intro to multiplication | Multiplication and division | Arithmetic | Khan Academy, retrieved
2017-03-07
[4] Khan Academy (2012-09-06), Why aren't we using the multiplication sign? | Introduction to algebra | Algebra I | Khan
Academy, retrieved 2017-03-07
[5] Announcing the TI Programmable 88! (PDF). Texas Instruments. 1982. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-08-03.
[6] Crewton Ramone. Multiplicand and Multiplier. Crewton Ramone's House of Math. Retrieved 10 November 2015..
[7] Google book search. Google Book Search.
[8] Fine, Henry B. (1907). The Number System of Algebra Treated Theoretically and Historically (PDF) (2nd ed.). p. 90.
[9] Peano arithmetic. PlanetMath.
26.13 References
Boyer, Carl B. (revised by Merzbach, Uta C.) (1991). History of Mathematics. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
ISBN 0-471-54397-7.

Multiplication and Arithmetic Operations In Various Number Systems at cut-the-knot
Modern Chinese Multiplication Techniques on an Abacus

Chapter 27
Negative number
This thermometer is indicating a negative Fahrenheit temperature (4F).
In mathematics, a negative number is a real number that is less than zero. Negative numbers represent opposites.
If positive represents movement to the right, negative represents movement to the left. If positive represents above
sea level, then negative represents below level. If positive represents a deposit, negative represents a withdrawal.
They are often used to represent the magnitude of a loss or deciency. A debt that is owed may be thought of as a
negative asset, a decrease in some quantity may be thought of as a negative increase. If a quantity may have either
of two opposite senses, then one may choose to distinguish between those sensesperhaps arbitrarilyas positive
and negative. In the medical context of ghting a tumor, an expansion could be thought of as a negative shrinkage.
Negative numbers are used to describe values on a scale that goes below zero, such as the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales
for temperature. The laws of arithmetic for negative numbers ensure that the common sense idea of an opposite is
reected in arithmetic. For example, 3 = 3 because the opposite of an opposite is the original thing.
Negative numbers are usually written with a minus sign in front. For example, 3 represents a negative quantity with
a magnitude of three, and is pronounced minus threeor negative three. To help tell the dierence between
a subtraction operation and a negative number, occasionally the negative sign is placed slightly higher than the minus
sign (as a superscript). Conversely, a number that is greater than zero is called positive; zero is usually* [1] thought of
as neither positive nor negative.* [2] The positivity of a number may be emphasized by placing a plus sign before it,
150
27.1. INTRODUCTION 151
e.g. +3. In general, the negativity or positivity of a number is referred to as its sign.
Every real number other than zero is either positive or negative. The positive whole numbers are referred to as natural
numbers, while the positive and negative whole numbers (together with zero) are referred to as integers.
In bookkeeping, amounts owed are often represented by red numbers, or a number in parentheses, as an alternative
notation to represent negative numbers.
Negative numbers appeared for the rst time in history in the Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art, which in its
present form dates from the period of the Chinese Han Dynasty (202 BC AD 220), but may well contain much
older material.* [3] Liu Hui (c. 3rd century) established rules for adding and subtracting negative numbers.* [4] By
the 7th century, Indian mathematicians such as Brahmagupta were describing the use of negative numbers. Islamic
mathematicians further developed the rules of subtracting and multiplying negative numbers and solved problems with
negative coecients.* [5] Western mathematicians accepted the idea of negative numbers by the 17th century. Prior
to the concept of negative numbers, mathematicians such as Diophantus considered negative solutions to problems
falseand equations requiring negative solutions were described as absurd.* [6]
27.1 Introduction
27.1.1 As the result of subtraction

Negative numbers can be thought of as resulting from the subtraction of a larger number from a smaller. For example,
negative three is the result of subtracting three from zero:
0 3 = 3.
In general, the subtraction of a larger number from a smaller yields a negative result, with the magnitude of the result
being the dierence between the two numbers. For example,
5 8 = 3
since 8 5 = 3.
27.1.2 The number line

Main article: Number line
The relationship between negative numbers, positive numbers, and zero is often expressed in the form of a number
line:
-9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
The number line
Numbers appearing farther to the right on this line are greater, while numbers appearing farther to the left are less.
Thus zero appears in the middle, with the positive numbers to the right and the negative numbers to the left.
Note that a negative number with greater magnitude is considered less. For example, even though (positive) 8 is
greater than (positive) 5, written
8>5
negative 8 is considered to be less than negative 5:
8 < 5.
152 CHAPTER 27. NEGATIVE NUMBER
(Because, for example, if you have 8, a debt of 8, you would have less after adding, say 10, to it than if you
have 5.) It follows that any negative number is less than any positive number, so
8 < 5 and 5 < 8.
27.1.3 Signed numbers
Main article: Sign (mathematics)
In the context of negative numbers, a number that is greater than zero is referred to as positive. Thus every real
number other than zero is either positive or negative, while zero itself is not considered to have a sign. Positive
numbers are sometimes written with a plus sign in front, e.g. +3 denotes a positive three.
Because zero is neither positive nor negative, the term nonnegative is sometimes used to refer to a number that is
either positive or zero, while nonpositive is used to refer to a number that is either negative or zero. Zero is a neutral
number.
27.2 Everyday uses of negative numbers
27.2.1 Sport
Goal dierence in association football and hockey; points dierence in rugby football; net run rate in cricket;
golf scores relative to par.
Plus-minus dierential in ice hockey: the dierence in total goals scored for the team (+) and against the team
() when a particular player is on the ice is the players +/ rating. Players can have a negative (+/) rating.
Run dierential in baseball: the run dierential is negative if the team allows more runs than they scored.
British football clubs are deducted points if they enter administration, and thus have a negative points total
until they have earned at least that many points that season.
Lap (or sector) times in Formula 1 may be given as the dierence compared to a previous lap (or sector) (such
as the previous record, or the lap just completed by a driver in front), and will be positive if slower and negative
if faster.
In some athletics events, such as sprint races, the hurdles, the triple jump and the long jump, the wind assistance
is measured and recorded,* [7] and is positive for a tailwind and negative for a headwind.* [8]
27.2.2 Science
Temperatures which are colder than 0 C or 0 F.
Latitudes south of the equator and longitudes west of the prime meridian.
Topographical features of the earths surface are given a height above sea level, which can be negative (e.g.
The surface elevation of The Dead Sea or Death Valley).
Electrical circuits. When a battery is connected in reverse polarity, the voltage applied is said to be the opposite
of its rated voltage. For example, a 6(V) battery connected in reverse applies a voltage of 6(V).
Ions have a positive or negative electrical charge.
Impedance of an AM broadcast tower used in multi-tower directional antenna arrays can have a positive or
negative impedance.
27.3. ARITHMETIC INVOLVING NEGATIVE NUMBERS 153
27.2.3 Finance
Bank account balances which are overdrawn.
Refunds to a credit card or debit card are a negative debit.
A company might make a negative annual prot (i.e. a loss).
The annual percentage growth in a countrys GDP might be negative, which is one indicator of being in a
recession.* [9]
Occasionally, a rate of ination may be negative (deation), indicating a fall in average prices.* [10]
The daily change in a share price or stock market index, such as the FTSE 100 or the Dow Jones.
A negative number in nancing is synonymous with debtand decitwhich are also known as being
in the red.
Interest rates can be negative,* [11]* [12]* [13] when the lender is charged to deposit their money.
27.2.4 Other
The numbering of storeys in a building below the ground oor.
When playing an audio le on a portable media player, such as an iPod, the screen display may show the time
remaining as a negative number, which increases up to zero at the same rate as the time already played increases
from zero.
Television game shows:
Participants on QI often nish with a negative points score.

Teams on University Challenge have a negative score if their rst answers are incorrect and interrupt the
question.
Jeopardy! has a negative money score contestants play for an amount of money and any incorrect answer
that costs them more than what they have now can result in a negative score.
The Price Is Right pricing game Buy or Sell, if any money is lost and is more than the amount currently
in the bank, it also incurs a negative score.
The change in support for a political party between elections, known as swing.
A politician's approval rating.* [14]
In video games, a negative number indicates loss of life, damage, a score penalty, or consumption of a resource,
depending on the genre of the simulation.
Employees with exible working hours may have a negative balance on their timesheet if theyve worked
fewer total hours than contracted to that point. Employees may be able to take more than their annual holiday
allowance in a year, and carry forward a negative balance to the next year.
Transposing notes on an electronic keyboard are shown on the display with positive numbers for increases and
negative numbers for decreases, e.g. '1' for one semitone down.
27.3 Arithmetic involving negative numbers

The minus sign "" signies the operator for both the binary (two-operand) operation of subtraction (as in y z) and
the unary (one-operand) operation of negation (as in x, or twice in (x)). A special case of unary negation occurs
when it operates on a positive number, in which case the result is a negative number (as in 5).
The ambiguity of the "" symbol does not generally lead to ambiguity in arithmetical expressions, because the order
of operations makes only one interpretation or the other possible for each "". However, it can lead to confusion
and be dicult for a person to understand an expression when operator symbols appear adjacent to one another. A
solution can be to parenthesize the unary "" along with its operand.
For example, the expression 7 + 5 may be clearer if written 7 + (5) (even though they mean exactly the same thing
formally). The subtraction expression 75 is a dierent expression that doesn't represent the same operations, but it
evaluates to the same result.
Sometimes in elementary schools a number may be prexed by a superscript minus sign or plus sign to explicitly
distinguish negative and positive numbers as in* [15]
*
2 + * 5 gives * 7.
27.3.1 Addition
Addition of two negative numbers is very similar to addition of two positive numbers. For example,
(3) + (5) = 8.
The idea is that two debts can be combined into a single debt of greater magnitude.
When adding together a mixture of positive and negative numbers, one can think of the negative numbers as positive
quantities being subtracted. For example:
8 + (3) = 8 3 = 5 and (2) + 7 = 7 2 = 5.
In the rst example, a credit of 8 is combined with a debt of 3, which yields a total credit of 5. If the negative number
has greater magnitude, then the result is negative:
(8) + 3 = 3 8 = 5 and 2 + (7) = 2 7 = 5.
Here the credit is less than the debt, so the net result is a debt.
27.3.2 Subtraction
As discussed above, it is possible for the subtraction of two non-negative numbers to yield a negative answer:
5 8 = 3
In general, subtraction of a positive number yields the same result as the addition of a negative number of equal
magnitude. Thus
5 8 = 5 + (8) = 3
and
(3) 5 = (3) + (5) = 8
On the other hand, subtracting a negative number yields the same result as the addition a positive number of equal
magnitude. (The idea is that losing a debt is the same thing as gaining a credit.) Thus
3 (5) = 3 + 5 = 8
and
(5) (8) = (5) + 8 = 3.

27.3. ARITHMETIC INVOLVING NEGATIVE NUMBERS 155
A visual representation of the addition of positive and negative numbers. Larger balls represent numbers with greater magnitude.
When multiplying numbers, the magnitude of the product is always just the product of the two magnitudes. The sign
of the product is determined by the following rules:
The product of one positive number and one negative number is negative.
The product of two negative numbers is positive.
Thus
(2) 3 = 6
and
(2) (3) = 6.
The reason behind the rst example is simple: adding three 2's together yields 6:
(2) 3 = (2) + (2) + (2) = 6.
The reasoning behind the second example is more complicated. The idea again is that losing a debt is the same thing
as gaining a credit. In this case, losing two debts of three each is the same as gaining a credit of six:
(2 debts ) (3 each) = +6 credit.
The convention that a product of two negative numbers is positive is also necessary for multiplication to follow the
distributive law. In this case, we know that
(2) (3) + 2 (3) = (2 + 2) (3) = 0 (3) = 0.
Since 2 (3) = 6, the product (2) (3) must equal 6.

These rules lead to another (equivalent) rulethe sign of any product a b depends on the sign of a as follows:
if a is positive, then the sign of a b is the same as the sign of b, and

if a is negative, then the sign of a b is the opposite of the sign of b.
The justication for why the product of two negative numbers is a positive number can be observed in the analysis of
complex numbers.
27.3.4 Division
The sign rules for division are the same as for multiplication. For example,
8 (2) = 4,
(8) 2 = 4,
and
(8) (2) = 4.
If dividend and divisor have the same sign, the result is always positive. Another method of dividing negative numbers
is that if one of the numbers being divided is a negative, the answer will be negative.
27.4. NEGATION 157
27.4 Negation
Main article: Additive inverse
The negative version of a positive number is referred to as its negation. For example, 3 is the negation of the positive
number 3. The sum of a number and its negation is equal to zero:
3 + (3) = 0.
That is, the negation of a positive number is the additive inverse of the number.
Using algebra, we may write this principle as an algebraic identity:
x + (x ) = 0.
This identity holds for any positive number x. It can be made to hold for all real numbers by extending the denition
of negation to include zero and negative numbers. Specically:
The negation of 0 is 0, and

The negation of a negative number is the corresponding positive number.
For example, the negation of 3 is +3. In general,
(x) = x.
The absolute value of a number is the non-negative number with the same magnitude. For example, the absolute
value of 3 and the absolute value of 3 are both equal to 3, and the absolute value of 0 is 0.
27.5 Formal construction of negative integers

See also: Integer Construction
In a similar manner to rational numbers, we can extend the natural numbers N to the integers Z by dening integers as
an ordered pair of natural numbers (a, b). We can extend addition and multiplication to these pairs with the following
rules:
(a, b) + (c, d) = (a + c, b + d)
(a, b) (c, d) = (a c + b d, a d + b c)
We dene an equivalence relation ~ upon these pairs with the following rule:
(a, b) ~ (c, d) if and only if a + d = b + c.
This equivalence relation is compatible with the addition and multiplication dened above, and we may dene Z to
be the quotient set N/~, i.e. we identify two pairs (a, b) and (c, d) if they are equivalent in the above sense. Note that
Z, equipped with these operations of addition and multiplication, is a ring, and is in fact, the prototypical example of
a ring.
We can also dene a total order on Z by writing
(a, b) (c, d) if and only if a + d b + c.
This will lead to an additive zero of the form (a, a), an additive inverse of (a, b) of the form (b, a), a multiplicative
unit of the form (a + 1, a), and a denition of subtraction
(a, b) (c, d) = (a + d, b + c).
This construction is a special case of the Grothendieck construction.

27.5.1 Uniqueness
The negative of a number is unique, as is shown by the following proof.
Let x be a number and let y be its negative. Suppose y is another negative of x. By an axiom of the real number
system
x + y = 0,
x + y = 0.
And so, x + y = x + y. Using the law of cancellation for addition, it is seen that y = y. Thus y is equal to any other
negative of x. That is, y is the unique negative of x.
27.6 History
For a long time, negative solutions to problems were considered false. In Hellenistic Egypt, the Greek mathe-
matician Diophantus in the third century A.D. referred to an equation that was equivalent to 4x + 20 = 0 (which has
a negative solution) in Arithmetica, saying that the equation was absurd.
Negative numbers appear for the rst time in history in the Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art (Jiu zhang suan-
shu), which in its present form dates from the period of the Han Dynasty (202 BC AD 220), but may well contain
much older material.* [3] The mathematician Liu Hui (c. 3rd century) established rules for the addition and subtraction
of negative numbers. The historian Jean-Claude Martzlo theorized that the importance of duality in Chinese natural
philosophy made it easier for the Chinese to accept the idea of negative numbers.* [4] The Chinese were able to solve
simultaneous equations involving negative numbers. The Nine Chapters used red counting rods to denote positive
coecients and black rods for negative.* [4] This system is the exact opposite of contemporary printing of positive
and negative numbers in the elds of banking, accounting, and commerce, wherein red numbers denote negative
values and black numbers signify positive values. Liu Hui writes:
Now there are two opposite kinds of counting rods for gains and losses, let them be called positive
and negative. Red counting rods are positive, black counting rods are negative.* [4]
The ancient Indian Bakhshali Manuscript carried out calculations with negative numbers, using "+" as a negative
sign.* [16] The date of the manuscript is uncertain. LV Gurjar dates it no later than the 4th century,* [17] Hoernle
dates it between the third and fourth centuries, Ayyangar and Pingree dates it to the 8th or 9th centuries,* [18] and
George Gheverghese Joseph dates it to about AD 400 and no later than the early 7th century,* [19]
During the 7th century AD, negative numbers were used in India to represent debts. The Indian mathematician
Brahmagupta, in Brahma-Sphuta-Siddhanta (written c. AD 628), discussed the use of negative numbers to produce
the general form quadratic formula that remains in use today. He also found negative solutions of quadratic equations
and gave rules regarding operations involving negative numbers and zero, such as A debt cut o from nothingness
becomes a credit; a credit cut o from nothingness becomes a debt. " He called positive numbers fortunes,zero
a cipher,and negative numbers debts.* [20]* [21]
In the 9th century, Islamic mathematicians were familiar with negative numbers from the works of Indian mathe-
maticians, but the recognition and use of negative numbers during this period remained timid.* [5] Al-Khwarizmi
in his Al-jabr wa'l-muqabala (from which we get the word algebra) did not use negative numbers or negative
coecients.* [5] But within fty years, Abu Kamil illustrated the rules of signs for expanding the multiplication
(a b)(c d) ,* [22] and al-Karaji wrote in his al-Fakhr that negative quantities must be counted as terms.* [5]
In the 10th century, Ab al-Waf' al-Bzjn considered debts as negative numbers in A Book on What Is Necessary
from the Science of Arithmetic for Scribes and Businessmen.* [22]
By the 12th century, al-Karaji's successors were to state the general rules of signs and use them to solve polynomial
divisions.* [5] As al-Samaw'al writes:
the product of a negative number al-nqi by a positive number al-zid is negative, and
by a negative number is positive. If we subtract a negative number from a higher negative number, the
remainder is their negative dierence. The dierence remains positive if we subtract a negative number
27.7. SEE ALSO 159
from a lower negative number. If we subtract a negative number from a positive number, the remainder
is their positive sum. If we subtract a positive number from an empty power (martaba khliyya), the
remainder is the same negative, and if we subtract a negative number from an empty power, the remainder
is the same positive number.* [5]
In the 12th century in India, Bhskara II gave negative roots for quadratic equations but rejected them because they
were inappropriate in the context of the problem. He stated that a negative value is "in this case not to be taken, for it
is inadequate; people do not approve of negative roots."
European mathematicians, for the most part, resisted the concept of negative numbers until the 17th century, although
Fibonacci allowed negative solutions in nancial problems where they could be interpreted as debits (chapter 13 of
Liber Abaci, AD 1202) and later as losses (in Flos).
In the 15th century, Nicolas Chuquet, a Frenchman, used negative numbers as exponents* [23] but referred to them
as absurd numbers.* [24]
In his 1544 Arithmetica Integra Michael Stifel also dealt with negative numbers, also calling them numeri absurdi.
In 1545, Cardano in his Ars Magna did not allow negative numbers in his consideration of cubic equations, so he had
to treat, for example, x3 + ax = b separately from x3 = ax + b (with a,b > 0 in both cases). In all, Cardano was driven
to the study of thirteen dierent types of cubic equations, each expressed purely in terms of positive numbers.
In A.D. 1759, Francis Maseres, an English mathematician, wrote that negative numbers darken the very whole
doctrines of the equations and make dark of the things which are in their nature excessively obvious and simple.
He came to the conclusion that negative numbers were nonsensical.* [25]
In the 18th century it was common practice to ignore any negative results derived from equations, on the assumption
that they were meaningless.* [26]
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz was the rst mathematician to systematically employ negative numbers as part of a coher-
ent mathematical system, the innitesimal calculus. Calculus made negative numbers necessary and their dismissal
as absurd numbersquickly faded.
27.7 See also

Signed zero
Additive inverse
History of zero
Integers
Positive and negative parts
Rational numbers
Real numbers
Sign function
Sign (mathematics)
Signed number representations
27.8 References
27.8.1 Citations
[1] For exceptions, see signed zero.
[2] The convention that zero is neither positive nor negative is not universal. For example, in the French convention, zero is
considered to be both positive and negative. The French words positif and ngatif mean the same as English positive or
zeroand negative or zerorespectively.
[3] Struik, page 3233. "In these matrices we nd negative numbers, which appear here for the rst time in history."
[4] Luke Hodgkin (2005). A History of Mathematics : From Mesopotamia to Modernity: From Mesopotamia to Modernity.
Oxford University Press. p. 88. ISBN 978-0-19-152383-0. Liu is explicit on this; at the point where the Nine Chapters
give a detailed and helpful 'Sign Rule'
[5] Rashed, R. (1994-06-30). The Development of Arabic Mathematics: Between Arithmetic and Algebra. Springer. pp. 3637.
ISBN 9780792325659.
[6] Diophantus, Arithmetica.
[7] BBC website
[8] Elitefeet
[9] BBC article
[10] Article in The Independent
[11] BBC article
[12] Think negative interest rates can't happen here? Think again
[13] Swiss National Bank will cut interest rate to minus 0.25%
[14] Popularity of Miliband and Clegg falls to lowest levels recorded by ICM poll
[15] Grant P. Wiggins; Jay McTighe (2005). Understanding by design. ACSD Publications. p. 210. ISBN 1-4166-0035-3.
[16] Teresi, Dick. (2002). Lost Discoveries: The Ancient Roots of Modern Sciencefrom the Babylonians to the Mayas. New
York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-83718-8. Page 65.
[17] Pearce, Ian (May 2002). The Bakhshali manuscript. The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive. Retrieved
2007-07-24.
[18] Takao Hayashi (2008), Helaine Selin, ed.,Bakhshl Manuscript, Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology,
and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures, Springer, 1, p. B2, ISBN 9781402045592
[19] Teresi, Dick. (2002). Lost Discoveries: The Ancient Roots of Modern Sciencefrom the Babylonians to the Mayas. New
York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-83718-8. Page 6566.
[20] Colva M. Roney-Dougal, Lecturer in Pure Mathematics at the University of St Andrews, stated this on the BBC Radio 4
programme In Our Time,on 9 March 2006.
[21] Knowledge Transfer and Perceptions of the Passage of Time, ICEE-2002 Keynote Address by Colin Adamson-Macedo.
"Referring again to Brahmagupta's great work, all the necessary rules for algebra, including the 'rule of signs', were stipulated,
but in a form which used the language and imagery of commerce and the market place. Thus 'dhana' (= fortunes) is used to
represent positive numbers, whereas 'rina' (= debts) were negative".
[22] Mat Rofa Bin Ismail (2008), Helaine Selin, ed., Algebra in Islamic Mathematics, Encyclopaedia of the History of
Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures (2nd ed.), Springer, 1, p. 115, ISBN 9781402045592
[23] Flegg, Graham; Hay, C.; Moss, B. (1985), Nicolas Chuquet, Renaissance Mathematician: a study with extensive translations
of Chuquet's mathematical manuscript completed in 1484, D. Reidel Publishing Co., p. 354, ISBN 9789027718723.
[24] Famous Problems and Their Mathematicians, Greenwood Publishing Group, 1999, p. 56, ISBN 9781563084461.
[25] Maseres, Francis (1758). A dissertation on the use of the negative sign in algebra: containing a demonstration of the rules
usually given concerning it; and shewing how quadratic and cubic equations may be explained, without the consideration of
negative roots. To which is added, as an appendix, Mr. Machin's Quadrature of the Circle. Quoting from Maseres' work: If
any single quantity is marked either with the sign + or the sign without aecting some other quantity, the mark will have
no meaning or signicance, thus if it be said that the square of 5, or the product of 5 into 5, is equal to +25, such an
assertion must either signify no more than 5 times 5 is equal to 25 without any regard for the signs, or it must be mere nonsense
or unintelligible jargon.
[26] Martinez, Alberto A. (2006). Negative Math: How Mathematical Rules Can Be Positively Bent. Princeton University Press.
a history of controversies on negative numbers, mainly from the 1600s until the early 1900s.
27.8.2 Bibliography
Bourbaki, Nicolas (1998). Elements of the History of Mathematics. Berlin, Heidelberg, and New York:
Springer-Verlag. ISBN 3-540-64767-8.
Struik, Dirk J. (1987). A Concise History of Mathematics. New York: Dover Publications.
27.9 External links

Maseres' biographical information
BBC Radio 4 series In Our Time,on Negative Numbers, 9 March 2006
Endless Examples & Exercises: Operations with Signed Integers

Math Forum: Ask Dr. Math FAQ: Negative Times a Negative
Chapter 28
Number bond
In mathematics education at primary school level, a number bond (sometimes alternatively called an addition fact)
is a simple addition sum which has become so familiar that a child can recognise it and complete it almost instantly,
with recall as automatic as that of an entry from a multiplication table in multiplication.
For example,
5+2=7
A child who knowsthis number bond should be able to immediately ll in any one of these three numbers if it
were missing, given the other two, without having to work it out.
Number bonds are often learned in sets for which the sum is a common round number such as 10 or 20. Having
acquired some familiar number bonds, children should also soon learn how to use them to develop strategies to
complete more complicated sums, for example by navigating from a new sum to an adjacent number bond they know,
i.e. 5 + 2 and 4 + 3 are both number bonds that make 7; or by strategies likemaking ten, for example recognising
that 7 + 6 = (7 + 3) + 3 = 13.
The term number bondis also used to refer to a pictorial representation of part-part-whole relationships, often
found in the Singapore mathematics curriculum. Number bonds consist of a minimum of 3 circles that are connected
by lines. Thewholeis written in the rst circle and itspartsare written in the adjoining circles. Number bonds
are used to build deeper understanding of math facts.* [1]
28.1 History
The term number bondis sometimes derided as a piece of unnecessary new mathematical jargon, adding an
element of pointless abstraction or incomprehensibility for those not familiar with it (such as children's parents) to a
subject even as simple as primary school addition.* [2] The term has been used at least since the 1920s* [3]* [4] and
formally entered the primary curriculum in Singapore in the early 1970s.* [5]
In the U.K. the phrase came into widespread classroom use from the late 1990s when the National Numeracy Strategy
brought in an emphasis on in-classroom discussion of strategies for developing mental arithmetic in its numeracy
hour.
28.2 See also

Addition Elementary methods and Addition Decimal system
28.3 References
[1] Number Bonds. numberbond.com.
162
[2] e.g. Ebner, Sarah (12 March 2010). Can you help an eight-year-old with her maths homework?". The Times Online.
Archived from the original on 6 August 2010. Retrieved 18 April 2013.
[3] Myers, G.C.(1924) Persistence of Errors in Arithmetic, Journal of Educational Research, Vol 10, June 1924,19-28
[4] Gordon Pemberton and A. Haigh (1963), Number bond workbooks, books 14, Glasgow: Blackie, 1963
[5] Peng Yee Lee (2008), Sixty years of Mathematics syllabi and textbooks in Singapore, in Zalman Usiskin, Edwin Willmore
(eds), Mathematics curriculum in Pacic rim countriesChina, Japan, Korea, and Singapore: proceedings of a conference,
Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing, p.89 ISBN 1-59311-953-4
28.4 External links

Number Bond machine - online number bond practice applet, Ambleside C.E. Primary School
Let's play math: Number bonds

Number Bond Worksheet
Number Bonds to 20 - Free printable PDF number bonds to 20 worksheet (number bonds to 10 and to 100
also available)
Chapter 29
Parity (mathematics)
Cuisenaire rods: 5 (yellow) cannot be evenly divided in 2 (red) by any 2 rods of the same color/length, while 6 (dark green) can be
evenly divided in 2 by 3 (light green).
In mathematics, parity is the property of an integer's inclusion in one of two categories: even or odd. An integer is
even if it is evenly divisible by two and odd if it is not even.* [1] For example, 6 is even because there is no remainder
when dividing it by 2. By contrast, 3, 5, 7, 21 leave a remainder of 1 when divided by 2. Examples of even numbers
include 4, 0, 8, and 1738. In particular, zero is an even number.* [2] Some examples of odd numbers are 5, 3, 9,
and 73.
A formal denition of an even number is that it is an integer of the form n = 2k, where k is an integer;* [3] it can then
be shown that an odd number is an integer of the form n = 2k + 1. It is important to realize that the above denition
of parity applies only to integer numbers, hence it cannot be applied to numbers like 1/2, 4.201. See the section
Higher mathematicsbelow for some extensions of the notion of parity to a larger class of numbersor in other
more general settings.
The sets of even and odd numbers can be dened as following:* [4]
Even = {2k : k Z}
Odd = {2k + 1 : k Z}
164
29.1. ARITHMETIC ON EVEN AND ODD NUMBERS 165
A number (i.e., integer) expressed in the decimal numeral system is even or odd according to whether its last digit is
even or odd. That is, if the last digit is 1, 3, 5, 7, or 9, then it is odd; otherwise it is even. The same idea will work
using any even base. In particular, a number expressed in the binary numeral system is odd if its last digit is 1 and
even if its last digit is 0. In an odd base, the number is even according to the sum of its digits it is even if and only
if the sum of its digits is even.* [5]
29.1 Arithmetic on even and odd numbers

The following laws can be veried using the properties of divisibility. They are a special case of rules in modular
arithmetic, and are commonly used to check if an equality is likely to be correct by testing the parity of each side. As
with ordinary arithmetic, multiplication and addition are commutative and associative in modulo 2 arithmetic, and
multiplication is distributive over addition. However, subtraction in modulo 2 is identical to addition, so subtraction
also possesses these properties, which is not true for normal integer arithmetic.
29.1.1 Addition and subtraction

even even = even;* [1]
even odd = odd;* [1]
odd odd = even;* [1]
Rules analogous to these for divisibility by 9 are used in the method of casting out nines.
even even = even;* [1]
even odd = even;* [1]
odd odd = odd.* [1]
The structure ({even, odd}, +, ) is in fact a eld with just two elements.
29.1.3 Division
The division of two whole numbers does not necessarily result in a whole number. For example, 1 divided by 4 equals
1/4, which is neither even nor odd, since the concepts even and odd apply only to integers. But when the quotient is
an integer, it will be even if and only if the dividend has more factors of two than the divisor.* [6]
29.2 History
The ancient Greeks considered 1, the monad, to be neither fully odd nor fully even.* [7] Some of this sentiment
survived into the 19th century: Friedrich Wilhelm August Frbel's 1826 The Education of Man instructs the teacher
to drill students with the claim that 1 is neither even nor odd, to which Frbel attaches the philosophical afterthought,
It is well to direct the pupil's attention here at once to a great far-reaching law of nature and of
thought. It is this, that between two relatively dierent things or ideas there stands always a third, in a
sort of balance, seeming to unite the two. Thus, there is here between odd and even numbers one number
(one) which is neither of the two. Similarly, in form, the right angle stands between the acute and obtuse
angles; and in language, the semi-vowels or aspirants between the mutes and vowels. A thoughtful teacher
and a pupil taught to think for himself can scarcely help noticing this and other important laws.* [8]
166 CHAPTER 29. PARITY (MATHEMATICS)
29.3 Higher mathematics
29.3.1 Higher dimensions and more general classes of numbers

The two white bishops are conned to squares of opposite parity; the black knight can only jump to squares of alter-
nating parity.
Integer coordinates of points in Euclidean spaces of two or more dimensions also have a parity, usually dened as
the parity of the sum of the coordinates. For instance, the face-centered cubic lattice and its higher-dimensional
generalizations, the Dn lattices, consist of all of the integer points whose sum of coordinates is even.* [9] This feature
manifests itself in chess, where the parity of a square is indicated by its color: bishops are constrained to squares
of the same parity; knights alternate parity between moves.* [10] This form of parity was famously used to solve the
mutilated chessboard problem: if two opposite corner squares are removed from a chessboard, then the remaining
board cannot be covered by dominoes, because each domino covers one square of each parity and there are two more
squares of one parity than of the other.* [11]
The parity of an ordinal number may be dened to be even if the number is a limit ordinal, or a limit ordinal plus a
nite even number, and odd otherwise.* [12]
Let R be a commutative ring and let I be an ideal of R whose index is 2. Elements of the coset 0 + I may be called
even, while elements of the coset 1 + I may be called odd. As an example, let R = Z(2) be the localization of Z at
the prime ideal (2). Then an element of R is even or odd if and only if its numerator is so in Z.
29.3.2 Number theory

The even numbers form an ideal in the ring of integers,* [13] but the odd numbers do not this is clear from the
fact that the identity element for addition, zero, is an element of the even numbers only. An integer is even if it is
congruent to 0 modulo this ideal, in other words if it is congruent to 0 modulo 2, and odd if it is congruent to 1
modulo 2.
All prime numbers are odd, with one exception: the prime number 2.* [14] All known perfect numbers are even; it is
unknown whether any odd perfect numbers exist.* [15]
Goldbach's conjecture states that every even integer greater than 2 can be represented as a sum of two prime numbers.
Modern computer calculations have shown this conjecture to be true for integers up to at least 4 1018 , but still no
general proof has been found.* [16]
29.3.3 Group theory

The parity of a permutation (as dened in abstract algebra) is the parity of the number of transpositions into which
the permutation can be decomposed.* [17] For example (ABC) to (BCA) is even because it can be done by swapping
A and B then C and A (two transpositions). It can be shown that no permutation can be decomposed both in an
even and in an odd number of transpositions. Hence the above is a suitable denition. In Rubik's Cube, Megaminx,
and other twisting puzzles, the moves of the puzzle allow only even permutations of the puzzle pieces, so parity is
important in understanding the conguration space of these puzzles.* [18]
The FeitThompson theorem states that a nite group is always solvable if its order is an odd number. This is an
example of odd numbers playing a role in an advanced mathematical theorem where the method of application of the
simple hypothesis of odd orderis far from obvious.* [19]
29.3.4 Analysis
The parity of a function describes how its values change when its arguments are exchanged with their negations. An
even function, such as an even power of a variable, gives the same result for any argument as for its negation. An odd
function, such as an odd power of a variable, gives for any argument the negation of its result when given the negation
of that argument. It is possible for a function to be neither odd nor even, and for the case f(x) = 0, to be both odd
and even.* [20] The Taylor series of an even function contains only terms whose exponent is an even number, and the
Taylor series of an odd function contains only terms whose exponent is an odd number.* [21]
29.4. ADDITIONAL APPLICATIONS 167
Rubik's Revenge in solved state
29.3.5 Combinatorial game theory
In combinatorial game theory, an evil number is a number that has an even number of 1's in its binary representation,
and an odious number is a number that has an odd number of 1's in its binary representation; these numbers play an
important role in the strategy for the game Kayles.* [22] The parity function maps a number to the number of 1's in its
binary representation, modulo 2, so its value is zero for evil numbers and one for odious numbers. The ThueMorse
sequence, an innite sequence of 0's and 1's, has a 0 in position i when i is evil, and a 1 in that position when i is
odious.* [23]
29.4 Additional applications

In information theory, a parity bit appended to a binary number provides the simplest form of error detecting code.
If a single bit in the resulting value is changed, then it will no longer have the correct parity: changing a bit in the
original number gives it a dierent parity than the recorded one, and changing the parity bit while not changing the
number it was derived from again produces an incorrect result. In this way, all single-bit transmission errors may be
reliably detected.* [24] Some more sophisticated error detecting codes are also based on the use of multiple parity
bits for subsets of the bits of the original encoded value.* [25]
168 CHAPTER 29. PARITY (MATHEMATICS)
In wind instruments with a cylindrical bore and in eect closed at one end, such as the clarinet at the mouthpiece, the
harmonics produced are odd multiples of the fundamental frequency. (With cylindrical pipes open at both ends, used
for example in some organ stops such as the open diapason, the harmonics are even multiples of the same frequency
for the given bore length, but this has the eect of the fundamental frequency being doubled and all multiples of this
fundamental frequency being produced.) See harmonic series (music).* [26]
In some countries, house numberings are chosen so that the houses on one side of a street have even numbers and
the houses on the other side have odd numbers.* [27] Similarly, among United States numbered highways, even num-
bers primarily indicate east-west highways while odd numbers primarily indicate north-south highways.* [28] Among
airline ight numbers, even numbers typically identify eastbound or northbound ights, and odd numbers typically
identify westbound or southbound ights.* [29]
29.5 References
[1] A.V.Vijaya & Dora Rodriguez, Figuring Out Mathematics, Pearson Education India, pp. 2021, ISBN 9788131703571.
[2] Bna, Mikls (2011), A Walk Through Combinatorics: An Introduction to Enumeration and Graph Theory, World Scientic,
p. 178, ISBN 9789814335232.
[3] Bassarear, Tom (2010), Mathematics for Elementary School Teachers, Cengage Learning, p. 198, ISBN 9780840054630.
[4] Sidebotham, Thomas H. (2003), The A to Z of Mathematics: A Basic Guide, John Wiley & Sons, p. 181, ISBN 9780471461630.
[5] Owen, Ruth L. (1992),Divisibility in bases(PDF), The Pentagon: A Mathematics Magazine for Students, 51 (2): 1720.
[6] Plya, George; Tarjan, Robert E.; Woods, Donald R. (2009), Notes on Introductory Combinatorics, Springer, pp. 2122,
ISBN 9780817649524.
[7] Tankha (2006), Ancient Greek Philosophy: Thales to Gorgias, Pearson Education India, p. 136, ISBN 9788177589399.
[8] Froebel, Friedrich; Translator Josephine Jarvis (1885). The Education of Man. New York: A Lovell & Company. p. 240.
[9] Conway, J. H.; Sloane, N. J. A. (1999), Sphere packings, lattices and groups, Grundlehren der Mathematischen Wis-
senschaften [Fundamental Principles of Mathematical Sciences], 290 (3rd ed.), New York: Springer-Verlag, p. 10, ISBN
0-387-98585-9, MR 1662447.
[10] Pandolni, Bruce (1995), Chess Thinking: The Visual Dictionary of Chess Moves, Rules, Strategies and Concepts, Simon
and Schuster, pp. 273274, ISBN 9780671795023.
[11] Mendelsohn, N. S. (2004),Tiling with dominoes, The College Mathematics Journal, 35 (2): 115120, JSTOR 4146865,
doi:10.2307/4146865.
[12] Bruckner, Andrew M.; Bruckner, Judith B.; Thomson, Brian S. (1997), Real Analysis, p. 37, ISBN 0-13-458886-X.
[13] Stillwell, John (2003), Elements of Number Theory, Springer, p. 199, ISBN 9780387955872.
[14] Lial, Margaret L.; Salzman, Stanley A.; Hestwood, Diana (2005), Basic College Mathematics (7th ed.), Addison Wesley, p.
128, ISBN 9780321257802.
[15] Dudley, Underwood (1992), Perfect numbers, Mathematical Cranks, MAA Spectrum, Cambridge University Press,
pp. 242244, ISBN 9780883855072.
[16] Oliveira e Silva, Toms; Herzog, Siegfried; Pardi, Silvio (2013),Empirical verication of the even Goldbach conjecture,
and computation of prime gaps, up to 41018 " (PDF), Mathematics of Computation, doi:10.1090/s0025-5718-2013-02787-
1. In press.
[17] Cameron, Peter J. (1999), Permutation Groups, London Mathematical Society Student Texts, 45, Cambridge University
Press, pp. 2627, ISBN 9780521653787.
[18] Joyner, David (2008), 13.1.2 Parity conditions, Adventures in Group Theory: Rubik's Cube, Merlin's Machine, and
Other Mathematical Toys, JHU Press, pp. 252253, ISBN 9780801897269.
[19] Bender, Helmut; Glauberman, George (1994), Local analysis for the odd order theorem, London Mathematical Soci-
ety Lecture Note Series, 188, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-45716-5, MR 1311244; Peterfalvi,
Thomas (2000), Character theory for the odd order theorem, London Mathematical Society Lecture Note Series, 272,
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-64660-X, MR 1747393.
[20] Gustafson, Roy David; Hughes, Jerey D. (2012), College Algebra (11th ed.), Cengage Learning, p. 315, ISBN 9781111990909.
[21] Jain, R. K.; Iyengar, S. R. K. (2007), Advanced Engineering Mathematics, Alpha Science Int'l Ltd., p. 853, ISBN 9781842651858.
[22] Guy, Richard K. (1996), Impartial games, Games of no chance (Berkeley, CA, 1994), Math. Sci. Res. Inst. Publ., 29,
Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, pp. 6178, MR 1427957. See in particular p. 68.
[23] Bernhardt, Chris (2009), Evil twins alternate with odious twins, Mathematics Magazine, 82 (1): 5762, JSTOR
27643161, doi:10.4169/193009809x469084.
[24] Moser, Stefan M.; Chen, Po-Ning (2012), A Student's Guide to Coding and Information Theory, Cambridge University
Press, pp. 1920, ISBN 9781107015838.
[25] Berrou, Claude (2011), Codes and turbo codes, Springer, p. 4, ISBN 9782817800394.
[26] Randall, Robert H. (2005), An Introduction to Acoustics, Dover, p. 181, ISBN 9780486442518.
[27] Cromley, Ellen K.; McLaerty, Sara L. (2011), GIS and Public Health (2nd ed.), Guilford Press, p. 100, ISBN 9781462500628.
[28] Swift, Earl (2011), The Big Roads: The Untold Story of the Engineers, Visionaries, and Trailblazers Who Created the
American Superhighways, Houghton Miin Harcourt, p. 95, ISBN 9780547549132.
[29] Lauer, Chris (2010), Southwest Airlines, Corporations that changed the world, ABC-CLIO, p. 90, ISBN 9780313378638.
Chapter 30
Parity of zero
The weighing pans of this balance scale contain zero objects, divided into two equal groups.
Zero is an even number. In other words, its paritythe quality of an integer being even or oddis even. The simplest
way to prove that zero is even is to check that it ts the denition ofeven": it is an integer multiple of 2, specically
170
30.1. WHY ZERO IS EVEN 171
0 2. As a result, zero shares all the properties that characterize even numbers: 0 is divisible by 2, 0 is neighbored
on both sides by odd numbers, 0 is the sum of an integer (0) with itself, and a set of 0 objects can be split into two
equal sets.
Zero also ts into the patterns formed by other even numbers. The parity rules of arithmetic, such as even even =
even, require 0 to be even. Zero is the additive identity element of the group of even integers, and it is the starting
case from which other even natural numbers are recursively dened. Applications of this recursion from graph theory
to computational geometry rely on zero being even. Not only is 0 divisible by 2, it is divisible by every power of 2,
which is relevant to the binary numeral system used by computers. In this sense, 0 is the most evennumber of
all.* [1]
Among the general public, the parity of zero can be a source of confusion. In reaction time experiments, most people
are slower to identify 0 as even than 2, 4, 6, or 8. Some students of mathematicsand some teachersthink that zero
is odd, or both even and odd, or neither. Researchers in mathematics education propose that these misconceptions
can become learning opportunities. Studying equalities like 0 2 = 0 can address students' doubts about calling
0 a number and using it in arithmetic. Class discussions can lead students to appreciate the basic principles of
mathematical reasoning, such as the importance of denitions. Evaluating the parity of this exceptional number is an
early example of a pervasive theme in mathematics: the abstraction of a familiar concept to an unfamiliar setting.
30.1 Why zero is even
The standard denition ofeven numbercan be used to directly prove that zero is even. A number is calledeven
if it is an integer multiple of 2. As an example, the reason that 10 is even is that it equals 5 2. In the same way,
zero is an integer multiple of 2, namely 0 2, so zero is even.* [2]
It is also possible to explain why zero is even without referring to formal denitions.* [3] The following explanations
make sense of the idea that zero is even in terms of fundamental number concepts. From this foundation, one can
provide a rationale for the denition itselfand its applicability to zero.
30.1.1 Basic explanations
Zero is a number, and numbers are used for counting. Given a set of objects, one uses a number to describe how
many objects are in the set. Zero is the count of no objects; in more formal terms, it is the number of objects in the
empty set. The concept of parity is used for making groups of two objects. If the objects in a set can be marked o
into groups of two, with none left over, then the number of objects is even. If an object is left over, then the number
of objects is odd. The empty set contains zero groups of two, and no object is left over from this grouping, so zero is
even.* [5]
These ideas can be illustrated by drawing objects in pairs. It is dicult to depict zero groups of two, or to emphasize
the nonexistence of a leftover object, so it helps to draw other groupings and to compare them with zero. For example,
in the group of ve objects, there are two pairs. More importantly, there is a leftover object, so 5 is odd. In the group
of four objects, there is no leftover object, so 4 is even. In the group of just one object, there are no pairs, and there
is a leftover object, so 1 is odd. In the group of zero objects, there is no leftover object, so 0 is even.* [6]
There is another concrete denition of evenness: if the objects in a set can be placed into two groups of equal size,
then the number of objects is even. This denition is equivalent to the rst one. Again, zero is even because the
empty set can be divided into two groups of zero items each.* [7]
Numbers can also be visualized as points on a number line. When even and odd numbers are distinguished from each
other, their pattern becomes obvious, especially if negative numbers are included:
The even and odd numbers alternate. Starting at any even number, counting up or down by twos reaches the other
even numbers, and there is no reason to skip over zero.* [8]
With the introduction of multiplication, parity can be approached in a more formal way using arithmetic expressions.
Every integer is either of the form (2 ) + 0 or (2 ) + 1; the former numbers are even and the latter are odd.
For example, 1 is odd because 1 = (2 0) + 1, and 0 is even because 0 = (2 0) + 0. Making a table of these facts
then reinforces the number line picture above.* [9]
172 CHAPTER 30. PARITY OF ZERO
The box with 0 objects has no red object left over.* [4]
4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
30.1.2 Dening parity
The precise denition of a mathematical term, such as evenmeaning integer multiple of two, is ultimately a
convention. Unlike even, some mathematical terms are purposefully constructed to exclude trivial or degenerate
cases. Prime numbers are a famous example. Before the 20th century, denitions of primality were inconsistent,
and signicant mathematicians such as Goldbach, Lambert, Legendre, Cayley, and Kronecker wrote that 1 was
prime.* [10] The modern denition of prime numberis positive integer with exactly 2 factors", so 1 is not
prime. This denition can be rationalized by observing that it more naturally suits mathematical theorems that con-
cern the primes. For example, the fundamental theorem of arithmetic is easier to state when 1 is not considered
prime.* [11]
It would be possible to similarly redene the termevenin a way that no longer includes zero. However, in this case,
the new denition would make it more dicult to state theorems concerning the even numbers. Already the eect
can be seen in the algebraic rules governing even and odd numbers.* [12] The most relevant rules concern addition,
subtraction, and multiplication:
even even = even

odd odd = even
even integer = even
30.2. MATHEMATICAL CONTEXTS 173
Inserting appropriate values into the left sides of these rules, one can produce 0 on the right sides:
22=0
3 + 3 = 0
40=0
The above rules would therefore be incorrect if zero were not even.* [12] At best they would have to be modied.
For example, one test study guide asserts that even numbers are characterized as integer multiples of two, but zero is
neither even nor odd.* [13] Accordingly, the guide's rules for even and odd numbers contain exceptions:
even even = even (or zero)

odd odd = even (or zero)
even nonzero integer = even* [13]
Making an exception for zero in the denition of evenness forces one to make such exceptions in the rules for even
numbers. From another perspective, taking the rules obeyed by positive even numbers and requiring that they continue
to hold for integers forces the usual denition and the evenness of zero.* [12]
30.2 Mathematical contexts

Countless results in number theory invoke the fundamental theorem of arithmetic and the algebraic properties of
even numbers, so the above choices have far-reaching consequences. For example, the fact that positive numbers
have unique factorizations means that one can determine whether a number has an even or odd number of distinct
prime factors. Since 1 is not prime, nor does it have prime factors, it is a product of 0 distinct primes; since 0 is an
even number, 1 has an even number of distinct prime factors. This implies that the Mbius function takes the value
(1) = 1, which is necessary for it to be a multiplicative function and for the Mbius inversion formula to work.* [14]
30.2.1 Not being odd

A number n is odd if there is an integer k such that n = 2k + 1. One way to prove that zero is not odd is by contradiction:
if 0 = 2k + 1 then k = 1/2, which is not an integer.* [15] Since zero is not odd, if an unknown number is proven
to be odd, then it cannot be zero. This apparently trivial observation can provide a convenient and revealing proof
explaining why a number is nonzero.
A classic result of graph theory states that a graph of odd order (having an odd number of vertices) always has at least
one vertex of even degree. (The statement itself requires zero to be even: the empty graph has an even order, and an
isolated vertex has an even degree.)* [16] In order to prove the statement, it is actually easier to prove a stronger result:
any odd-order graph has an odd number of even degree vertices. The appearance of this odd number is explained
by a still more general result, known as the handshaking lemma: any graph has an even number of vertices of odd
degree.* [17] Finally, the even number of odd vertices is naturally explained by the degree sum formula.
Sperner's lemma is a more advanced application of the same strategy. The lemma states that a certain kind of
coloring on a triangulation of a simplex has a subsimplex that contains every color. Rather than directly construct
such a subsimplex, it is more convenient to prove that there exists an odd number of such subsimplices through an
induction argument.* [18] A stronger statement of the lemma then explains why this number is odd: it naturally breaks
down as (n + 1) + n when one considers the two possible orientations of a simplex.* [19]
30.2.2 Even-odd alternation

The fact that zero is even, together with the fact that even and odd numbers alternate, is enough to determine the
parity of every other natural number. This idea can be formalized into a recursive denition of the set of even natural
numbers:
0 is even.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Recursive denition of natural number parity
(n + 1) is even if and only if n is not even.
This denition has the conceptual advantage of relying only on the minimal foundations of the natural numbers:
the existence of 0 and of successors. As such, it is useful for computer logic systems such as LF and the Isabelle
theorem prover.* [20] With this denition, the evenness of zero is not a theorem but an axiom. Indeed, zero is an
even numbermay be interpreted as one of the Peano axioms, of which the even natural numbers are a model.* [21]
A similar construction extends the denition of parity to transnite ordinal numbers: every limit ordinal is even,
including zero, and successors of even ordinals are odd.* [22]
1 3 5
0 2 4
Point in polygon test
The classic point in polygon test from computational geometry applies the above ideas. To determine if a point lies
within a polygon, one casts a ray from innity to the point and counts the number of times the ray crosses the edge of
polygon. The crossing number is even if and only if the point is outside the polygon. This algorithm works because
if the ray never crosses the polygon, then its crossing number is zero, which is even, and the point is outside. Every
time the ray does cross the polygon, the crossing number alternates between even and odd, and the point at its tip
alternates between outside and inside.* [23]
In graph theory, a bipartite graph is a graph whose vertices are split into two colors, such that neighboring vertices
have dierent colors. If a connected graph has no odd cycles, then a bipartition can be constructed by choosing a base
vertex v and coloring every vertex black or white, depending on whether its distance from v is even or odd. Since the
distance between v and itself is 0, and 0 is even, the base vertex is colored dierently from its neighbors, which lie at
a distance of 1.* [24]
30.2.3 Algebraic patterns

In abstract algebra, the even integers form various algebraic structures that require the inclusion of zero. The fact that
the additive identity (zero) is even, together with the evenness of sums and additive inverses of even numbers and
the associativity of addition, means that the even integers form a group. Moreover, the group of even integers under
addition is a subgroup of the group of all integers; this is an elementary example of the subgroup concept.* [16] The
earlier observation that the ruleeven even = evenforces 0 to be even is part of a general pattern: any nonempty
subset of an additive group that is closed under subtraction must be a subgroup, and in particular, must contain the
identity.* [25]
30.2. MATHEMATICAL CONTEXTS 175
1 4
2
3 4
0
1 4 5
Constructing a bipartition
3
1 4
1
2
3
0
2
4
2Z (blue) as subgroup of Z
Since the even integers form a subgroup of the integers, they partition the integers into cosets. These cosets may be
described as the equivalence classes of the following equivalence relation: x ~ y if (x y) is even. Here, the evenness
of zero is directly manifested as the reexivity of the binary relation ~.* [26] There are only two cosets of this subgroup
the even and odd numbersso it has index 2.
Analogously, the alternating group is a subgroup of index 2 in the symmetric group on n letters. The elements of the
alternating group, called even permutations, are the products of even numbers of transpositions. The identity map,
an empty product of no transpositions, is an even permutation since zero is even; it is the identity element of the
group.* [27]
The rule even integer = evenmeans that the even numbers form an ideal in the ring of integers, and the above
equivalence relation can be described as equivalence modulo this ideal. In particular, even integers are exactly those
integers k where k 0 (mod 2). This formulation is useful for investigating integer zeroes of polynomials.* [28]
30.2.4 2-adic order
There is a sense in which some multiples of 2 are more eventhan others. Multiples of 4 are called doubly even,
since they can be divided by 2 twice. Not only is zero divisible by 4, zero has the unique property of being divisible
by every power of 2, so it surpasses all other numbers in evenness.* [1]
One consequence of this fact appears in the bit-reversed ordering of integer data types used by some computer
algorithms, such as the CooleyTukey fast Fourier transform. This ordering has the property that the farther to the
left the rst 1 occurs in a number's binary expansion, or the more times it is divisible by 2, the sooner it appears.
Zero's bit reversal is still zero; it can be divided by 2 any number of times, and its binary expansion does not contain
any 1s, so it always comes rst.* [29]
Although 0 is divisible by 2 more times than any other number, it is not straightforward to quantify exactly how many
times that is. For any nonzero integer n, one may dene the 2-adic order of n to be the number of times n is divisible
by 2. This description does not work for 0; no matter how many times it is divided by 2, it can always be divided by
2 again. Rather, the usual convention is to set the 2-order of 0 to be innity as a special case.* [30] This convention
is not peculiar to the 2-order; it is one of the axioms of an additive valuation in higher algebra.* [31]
The powers of two1, 2, 4, 8, ...form a simple sequence of numbers of increasing 2-order. In the 2-adic numbers,
such sequences actually converge to zero.* [32]
30.3 Education
Percentage responses over time* [33]
The subject of the parity of zero is often treated within the rst two or three years of primary education, as the concept
of even and odd numbers is introduced and developed.* [34]
30.3. EDUCATION 177
30.3.1 Students' knowledge
The chart on the right* [33] depicts children's beliefs about the parity of zero, as they progress from Year 1 to Year
6 of the English education system. The data are from Len Frobisher, who conducted a pair of surveys of English
schoolchildren. Frobisher was interested in how knowledge of single-digit parity translates to knowledge of multiple-
digit parity, and zero gures prominently in the results.* [35]
In a preliminary survey of nearly 400 seven-year-olds, 45% chose even over odd when asked the parity of zero.* [36]
A follow-up investigation oered more choices: neither, both, and don't know. This time the number of children in
the same age range identifying zero as even dropped to 32%.* [37] Success in deciding that zero is even initially shoots
up and then levels o at around 50% in Years 3 to 6.* [38] For comparison, the easiest task, identifying the parity of
a single digit, levels o at about 85% success.* [39]
In interviews, Frobisher elicited the students' reasoning. One fth-year decided that 0 was even because it was found
on the 2 times table. A couple of fourth-years realized that zero can be split into equal parts. Another fourth-year
reasoned1 is odd and if I go down it's even.* [40] The interviews also revealed the misconceptions behind incorrect
responses. A second-year was quite convincedthat zero was odd, on the basis that it is the rst number you
count.* [41] A fourth-year referred to 0 as noneand thought that it was neither odd nor even, since it's not
a number.* [42] In another study, Annie Keith observed a class of 15 second grade students who convinced each
other that zero was an even number based on even-odd alternation and on the possibility of splitting a group of zero
things in two equal groups.* [43]
More in-depth investigations were conducted by Esther Levenson, Pessia Tsamir, and Dina Tirosh, who interviewed a
pair of sixth-grade students who were performing highly in their mathematics class. One student preferred deductive
explanations of mathematical claims, while the other preferred practical examples. Both students initially thought
that 0 was neither even nor odd, for dierent reasons. Levenson et al. demonstrated how the students' reasoning
reected their concepts of zero and division.* [44]
Deborah Loewenberg Ball analyzed a third grade class students' ideas about even and odd numbers and zero, which
they had just been discussing with a group of fourth-graders. The students discussed the parity of zero, the rules
for even numbers, and how mathematics is done. The claims about zero took many forms, as seen in the list on
the right.* [45] Ball and her coauthors argued that the episode demonstrated how students can do mathematics in
school, as opposed to the usual reduction of the discipline to the mechanical solution of exercises.* [46]
One of the themes in the research literature is the tension between students' concept images of parity and their concept
denitions.* [47] Levenson et al.'s sixth-graders both dened even numbers as multiples of 2 or numbers divisible by
2, but they were initially unable to apply this denition to zero, because they were unsure how to multiply or divide
zero by 2. The interviewer eventually led them to conclude that zero was even; the students took dierent routes to
this conclusion, drawing on a combination of images, denitions, practical explanations, and abstract explanations. In
another study, David Dickerson and Damien Pitman examined the use of denitions by ve advanced undergraduate
mathematics majors. They found that the undergraduates were largely able to apply the denition ofevento zero,
but they were still not convinced by this reasoning, since it conicted with their concept images.* [48]
30.3.2 Teachers' knowledge
Researchers of mathematics education at the University of Michigan have included the true-or-false prompt0 is an
even numberin a database of over 250 questions designed to measure teachers' content knowledge. For them, the
question exemplies common knowledge ... that any well-educated adult should have, and it is ideologically
neutralin that the answer does not vary between traditional and reform mathematics. In a 20002004 study of 700
primary teachers in the United States, overall performance on these questions signicantly predicted improvements in
students' standardized test scores after taking the teachers' classes.* [49] In a more in-depth 2008 study, the researchers
found a school where all of the teachers thought that zero was neither odd nor even, including one teacher who was
exemplary by all other measures. The misconception had been spread by a math coach in their building.* [50]
It is uncertain how many teachers harbor misconceptions about zero. The Michigan studies did not publish data for
individual questions. Betty Lichtenberg, an associate professor of mathematics education at the University of South
Florida, in a 1972 study reported that when a group of prospective elementary school teachers were given a true-or-
false test including the item Zero is an even number, they found it to be a tricky question, with about two
thirds answering False.* [51]
30.3.3 Implications for instruction

Mathematically, proving that zero is even is a simple matter of applying a denition, but more explanation is needed
in the context of education. One issue concerns the foundations of the proof; the denition of evenas integer
multiple of 2is not always appropriate. A student in the rst years of primary education may not yet have learned
what integeror multiplemeans, much less how to multiply with 0.* [52] Additionally, stating a denition of
parity for all integers can seem like an arbitrary conceptual shortcut if the only even numbers investigated so far have
been positive. It can help to acknowledge that as the number concept is extended from positive integers to include
zero and negative integers, number properties such as parity are also extended in a nontrivial way.* [53]
30.4 Numerical cognition
Statistical analysis of experimental data, showing separation of 0. In this smallest space analysis, only the clustering of data is
meaningful; the axes are arbitrary.* [54]
Adults who do believe that zero is even can nevertheless be unfamiliar with thinking of it as even, enough so to
measurably slow them down in a reaction time experiment. Stanislas Dehaene, a pioneer in the eld of numerical
cognition, led a series of such experiments in the early 1990s. A numeral or a number word is ashed to the subject
on a monitor, and a computer records the time it takes the subject to push one of two buttons to identify the number
as odd or even. The results showed that 0 was slower to process than other even numbers. Some variations of the
experiment found delays as long as 60 milliseconds or about 10% of the average reaction timea small dierence
but a signicant one.* [55]
Dehaene's experiments were not designed specically to investigate 0 but to compare competing models of how
parity information is processed and extracted. The most specic model, the mental calculation hypothesis, suggests
that reactions to 0 should be fast; 0 is a small number, and it is easy to calculate 0 2 = 0. (Subjects are known
to compute and name the result of multiplication by zero faster than multiplication of nonzero numbers, although
they are slower to verify proposed results like 2 0 = 0.) The results of the experiments suggested that something
quite dierent was happening: parity information was apparently being recalled from memory along with a cluster of
related properties, such as being prime or a power of two. Both the sequence of powers of two and the sequence of
positive even numbers 2, 4, 6, 8, ... are well-distinguished mental categories whose members are prototypically even.
Zero belongs to neither list, hence the slower responses.* [56]
30.5. EVERYDAY CONTEXTS 179
Repeated experiments have shown a delay at zero for subjects with a variety of ages and national and linguistic
backgrounds, confronted with number names in numeral form, spelled out, and spelled in a mirror image. Dehaene's
group did nd one dierentiating factor: mathematical expertise. In one of their experiments, students in the cole
Normale Suprieure were divided into two groups: those in literary studies and those studying mathematics, physics,
or biology. The slowing at 0 was essentially found in the [literary] group, and in fact, before the experiment,
some L subjects were unsure whether 0 was odd or even and had to be reminded of the mathematical denition
.* [57]
This strong dependence on familiarity again undermines the mental calculation hypothesis.* [58] The eect also sug-
gests that it is inappropriate to include zero in experiments where even and odd numbers are compared as a group.
As one study puts it, Most researchers seem to agree that zero is not a typical even number and should not be
investigated as part of the mental number line.* [59]
30.5 Everyday contexts

Some of the contexts where the parity of zero makes an appearance are purely rhetorical. The issue provides material
for Internet message boards and ask-the-expert websites.* [60] Linguist Joseph Grimes muses that askingIs zero an
even number?" to married couples is a good way to get them to disagree.* [61] People who think that zero is neither
even nor odd may use the parity of zero as proof that every rule has a counterexample,* [62] or as an example of a
trick question.* [63]
Around the year 2000, media outlets noted a pair of unusual milestones: 1999/11/19was the last calendar date
composed of all odd digits that would occur for a very long time, and that 2000/02/02was the rst all-even date
to occur in a very long time.* [64] Since these results make use of 0 being even, some readers disagreed with the
idea.* [65]
In standardized tests, if a question asks about the behavior of even numbers, it might be necessary to keep in mind
that zero is even.* [66] Ocial publications relating to the GMAT and GRE tests both state that 0 is even.* [67]
The parity of zero is relevant to oddeven rationing, in which cars may drive or purchase gasoline on alternate days,
according to the parity of the last digit in their license plates. Half of the numbers in a given range end in 0, 2, 4, 6,
8 and the other half in 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, so it makes sense to include 0 with the other even numbers. However, in 1977, a
Paris rationing system led to confusion: on an odd-only day, the police avoided ning drivers whose plates ended in
0, because they did not know whether 0 was even.* [68] To avoid such confusion, the relevant legislation sometimes
stipulates that zero is even; such laws have been passed in New South Wales* [69] and Maryland.* [70]
On U.S. Navy vessels, even-numbered compartments are found on the port side, but zero is reserved for compartments
that intersect the centerline. That is, the numbers read 6-4-2-0-1-3-5 from port to starboard.* [71] In the game of
roulette, the number 0 does not count as even or odd, giving the casino an advantage on such bets.* [72] Similarly,
the parity of zero can aect payos in prop bets when the outcome depends on whether some randomized number is
odd or even, and it turns out to be zero.* [73]
The game of "odds and evens" is also aected: if both players cast zero ngers, the total number of ngers is zero,
so the even player wins.* [74] One teachers' manual suggests playing this game as a way to introduce children to the
concept that 0 is divisible by 2.* [75]
30.6 References
30.6.1 Notes
[1] Arnold 1919, p. 21 By the same test zero surpasses all numbers in 'evenness.'"; Wong 1997, p. 479 Thus, the integer
b000000 = 0 is the most 'even.'
[2] Penner 1999, p. 34: Lemma B.2.2, The integer 0 is even and is not odd. Penner uses the mathematical symbol , the
existential quantier, to state the proof: To see that 0 is even, we must prove that k (0 = 2k), and this follows from the
equality 0 = 2 0.
[3] Ball, Lewis & Thames (2008, p. 15) discuss this challenge for the elementary-grades teacher, who wants to give mathe-
matical reasons for mathematical facts, but whose students neither use the same denition, nor would understand it if it
were introduced.
[4] Compare Lichtenberg (1972, p. 535) Fig. 1
[5] Lichtenberg 1972, pp. 535536 "...numbers answer the question How many? for the set of objects ... zero is the number
property of the empty set ... If the elements of each set are marked o in groups of two ... then the number of that set is
an even number.
[6] Lichtenberg 1972, pp. 535536 Zero groups of two stars are circled. No stars are left. Therefore, zero is an even
number.
[7] Dickerson & Pitman 2012, p. 191.
[8] Lichtenberg 1972, p. 537; compare her Fig. 3. If the even numbers are identied in some special way ... there is no
reason at all to omit zero from the pattern.
[9] Lichtenberg 1972, pp. 537538 At a more advanced level ... numbers expressed as (2 ) + 0 are even numbers ...
zero ts nicely into this pattern.
[10] Caldwell & Xiong 2012, pp. 56.
[11] Gowers 2002, p. 118 The seemingly arbitrary exclusion of 1 from the denition of a prime does not express some
deep fact about numbers: it just happens to be a useful convention, adopted so there is only one way of factorizing any
given number into primes.For a more detailed discussion, see Caldwell & Xiong (2012).
[12] Partee 1978, p. xxi
[13] Stewart 2001, p. 54 These rules are given, but they are not quoted verbatim.
[14] Devlin 1985, pp. 3033
[15] Penner 1999, p. 34.
[16] Berlingho, Grant & Skrien 2001 For isolated vertices see p. 149; for groups see p. 311.
[17] Lovsz, Pelikn & Vesztergombi 2003, pp. 127128
[18] Starr 1997, pp. 5862
[19] Border 1985, pp. 2325
[20] Lorentz 1994, pp. 56; Lovas & Pfenning 2008, p. 115; Nipkow, Paulson & Wenzel 2002, p. 127
[21] Bunch 1982, p. 165
[22] Salzmann et al. 2007, p. 168
[23] Wise 2002, pp. 6667
[24] Anderson 2001, p. 53; Hartseld & Ringel 2003, p. 28
[25] Dummit & Foote 1999, p. 48
[26] Andrews 1990, p. 100
[27] Tabachnikova & Smith 2000, p. 99; Anderson & Feil 2005, pp. 437438
[28] Barbeau 2003, p. 98
[29] Wong 1997, p. 479
[30] Gouva 1997, p. 25 Of a general prime p: The reasoning here is that we can certainly divide 0 by p, and the answer is
0, which we can divide by p, and the answer is 0, which we can divide by p" (ellipsis in original)
[31] Krantz 2001, p. 4
[32] Salzmann et al. 2007, p. 224
[33] Frobisher 1999, p. 41
[34] This is the timeframe in United States, Canada, Great Britain, Australia, and Israel; see Levenson, Tsamir & Tirosh (2007,
p. 85).
[35] Frobisher 1999, pp. 31 (Introduction); 4041 (The number zero); 48 (Implications for teaching)
[36] Frobisher 1999, pp. 37, 40, 42; results are from the survey conducted in the mid-summer term of 1992.
[37] Frobisher 1999, p. 41 The percentage of Year 2 children deciding that zero is an even number is much lower than in the
previous study, 32 per cent as opposed to 45 per cent
[38] Frobisher 1999, p. 41 The success in deciding that zero is an even number did not continue to rise with age, with
approximately one in two children in each of Years 2 to 6 putting a tick in the 'evens' box ...
[39] Frobisher 1999, pp. 4042, 47; these results are from the February 1999 study, including 481 children, from three schools
at a variety of attainment levels.
[40] Frobisher 1999, p. 41, attributed to Jonathan
[41] Frobisher 1999, p. 41, attributed to Joseph
[42] Frobisher 1999, p. 41, attributed to Richard
[43] Keith 2006, pp. 3568 There was little disagreement on the idea of zero being an even number. The students convinced
the few who were not sure with two arguments. The rst argument was that numbers go in a pattern ...odd, even, odd, even,
odd, even... and since two is even and one is odd then the number before one, that is not a fraction, would be zero. So zero
would need to be even. The second argument was that if a person has zero things and they put them into two equal groups
then there would be zero in each group. The two groups would have the same amount, zero
[44] Levenson, Tsamir & Tirosh 2007, pp. 8395
[45] Ball, Lewis & Thames 2008, p. 27, Figure 1.5 Mathematical claims about zero.
[46] Ball, Lewis & Thames 2008, p. 16.
[47] Levenson, Tsamir & Tirosh 2007; Dickerson & Pitman 2012
[48] Dickerson & Pitman 2012.
[49] Ball, Hill & Bass 2005, pp. 1416
[50] Hill et al. 2008, pp. 446447.
[51] Lichtenberg 1972, p. 535
[52] Ball, Lewis & Thames 2008, p. 15. See also Ball's keynote for further discussion of appropriate denitions.
[53] As concluded by Levenson, Tsamir & Tirosh (2007, p. 93), referencing Freudenthal (1983, p. 460)
[54] Nuerk, Iversen & Willmes (2004, p. 851): It can also be seen that zero strongly diers from all other numbers regardless
of whether it is responded to with the left or the right hand. (See the line that separates zero from the other numbers.)"
[55] See data throughout Dehaene, Bossini & Giraux (1993), and summary by Nuerk, Iversen & Willmes (2004, p. 837).
[56] Dehaene, Bossini & Giraux 1993, pp. 374376
[57] Dehaene, Bossini & Giraux 1993, pp. 376377
[58] Dehaene, Bossini & Giraux 1993, p. 376 In some intuitive sense, the notion of parity is familiar only for numbers larger
than 2. Indeed, before the experiment, some L subjects were unsure whether 0 was odd or even and had to be reminded of
the mathematical denition. The evidence, in brief, suggests that instead of being calculated on the y by using a criterion
of divisibility by 2, parity information is retrieved from memory together with a number of other semantic properties ...
If a semantic memory is accessed in parity judgments, then interindividual dierences should be found depending on the
familiarity of the subjects with number concepts.
[59] Nuerk, Iversen & Willmes 2004, pp. 838, 860861
[60] The Math Forum participants 2000; Straight Dope Science Advisory Board 1999; Doctor Rick 2001
[61] Grimes 1975, p. 156 "...one can pose the following questions to married couples of his acquaintance: (1) Is zero an even
number? ... Many couples disagree...
[62] Wilden & Hammer 1987, p. 104
[63] Snow 2001; Morgan 2001
[64] Steinberg 1999; Siegel 1999; Stingl 2006

[65] Sones & Sones 2002 It follows that zero is even, and that 2/20/2000 nicely cracks the puzzle. Yet it's always surprising
how much people are bothered by calling zero even..."; Column 8 readers 2006a "'...according to mathematicians, the
number zero, along with negative numbers and fractions, is neither even nor odd,' writes Etan..."; Column 8 readers 2006b
"'I agree that zero is even, but is Professor Bunder wise to 'prove' it by stating that 0 = 2 x 0? By that logic (from a PhD in
mathematical logic, no less), as 0 = 1 x 0, it's also odd!' The prof will dispute this and, logically, he has a sound basis for
doing so, but we may be wearing this topic a little thin ...
[66] Kaplan Sta 2004, p. 227
[67] Graduate Management Admission Council 2005, pp. 108, 295297; Educational Testing Service 2009, p. 1
[68] Arsham 2002; The quote is attributed to the heute broadcast of October 1, 1977. Arsham's account is repeated by
Crumpacker (2007, p. 165).
[69] Sones & Sones 2002 Penn State mathematician George Andrews, who recalls a time of gas rationing in Australia ...
Then someone in the New South Wales parliament asserted this meant plates ending in zero could never get gas, because
'zero is neither odd nor even. So the New South Wales parliament ruled that for purposes of gas rationing, zero is an even
number!'"
[70] A 1980 Maryland law species, "(a) On even numbered calendar dates gasoline shall only be purchased by operators of
vehicles bearing personalized registration plates containing no numbers and registration plates with the last digit ending in
an even number. This shall not include ham radio operator plates. Zero is an even number; (b) On odd numbered calendar
dates ...Partial quotation taken from Department of Legislative Reference (1974), Laws of the State of Maryland, Volume
2, p. 3236, retrieved 2 June 2013
[71] Cutler 2008, pp. 237238
[72] Brisman 2004, p. 153
[73] Smock 2006; Hohmann 2007; Turner 1996
[74] Diagram Group 1983, p. 213
[75] Baroody & Coslick 1998, p. 1.33
30.6.2 Bibliography
Anderson, Ian (2001), A First Course in Discrete Mathematics, London: Springer, ISBN 1-85233-236-0
Anderson, Marlow; Feil, Todd (2005), A First Course in Abstract Algebra: Rings, Groups, And Fields, London:
CRC Press, ISBN 1-58488-515-7
Andrews, Edna (1990), Markedness Theory: the union of asymmetry and semiosis in language, Durham: Duke
University Press, ISBN 0-8223-0959-9
Arnold, C. L. (January 1919),The Number Zero, The Ohio Educational Monthly, 68 (1): 2122, retrieved
11 April 2010
Arsham, Hossein (January 2002),Zero in Four Dimensions: Historical, Psychological, Cultural, and Logical
Perspectives, The Pantaneto Forum, retrieved 24 September 2007
Ball, Deborah Loewenberg; Hill, Heather C.; Bass, Hyman (2005), Knowing Mathematics for Teaching:
Who Knows Mathematics Well Enough To Teach Third Grade, and How Can We Decide?" (PDF), American
Educator, retrieved 16 September 2007
Ball, Deborah Loewenberg; Lewis, Jennifer; Thames, Mark Hoover (2008), Making mathematics work in
school(PDF), Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, M14: 1344 and 195200, retrieved 4 March
2010
Barbeau, Edward Joseph (2003), Polynomials, Springer, ISBN 0-387-40627-1
Baroody, Arthur; Coslick, Ronald (1998), Fostering Children's Mathematical Power: An Investigative Approach
to K-8, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, ISBN 0-8058-3105-3
Berlingho, William P.; Grant, Kerry E.; Skrien, Dale (2001), A Mathematics Sampler: Topics for the Liberal
Arts (5th rev. ed.), Rowman & Littleeld, ISBN 0-7425-0202-3
Border, Kim C. (1985), Fixed Point Theorems with Applications to Economics and Game Theory, Cambridge
University Press, ISBN 0-521-38808-2
Brisman, Andrew (2004), Mensa Guide to Casino Gambling: Winning Ways, Sterling, ISBN 1-4027-1300-2
Bunch, Bryan H. (1982), Mathematical Fallacies and Paradoxes, Van Nostrand Reinhold, ISBN 0-442-24905-
5
Caldwell, Chris K.; Xiong, Yeng (27 December 2012), What is the Smallest Prime?", Journal of Integer
Sequences, 15 (9), arXiv:1209.2007
Column 8 readers (10 March 2006a), Column 8, The Sydney Morning Herald (First ed.), p. 18, Factiva
SMHH000020060309e23a00049
Column 8 readers (16 March 2006b), Column 8, The Sydney Morning Herald (First ed.), p. 20, Factiva
SMHH000020060315e23g0004z
Crumpacker, Bunny (2007), Perfect Figures: The Lore of Numbers and How We Learned to Count, Macmillan,
ISBN 0-312-36005-3
Cutler, Thomas J. (2008), The Bluejacket's Manual: United States Navy (Centennial ed.), Naval Institute Press,
ISBN 1-55750-221-8
Dehaene, Stanislas; Bossini, Serge; Giraux, Pascal (1993),The mental representation of parity and numerical
magnitude (PDF), Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 122 (3): 371396, doi:10.1037/0096-
3445.122.3.371, retrieved 13 September 2007
Devlin, Keith (April 1985), The golden age of mathematics, New Scientist, 106 (1452)
Diagram Group (1983), The Ocial World Encyclopedia of Sports and Games, Paddington Press, ISBN 0-448-
22202-7
Dickerson, David S; Pitman, Damien J (July 2012), Tai-Yih Tso, ed.,Advanced college-level students' cate-
gorization and use of mathematical denitions(PDF), Proceedings of the 36th Conference of the International
Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education, 2: 187195
Dummit, David S.; Foote, Richard M. (1999), Abstract Algebra (2e ed.), New York: Wiley, ISBN 0-471-
36857-1
Educational Testing Service (2009), Mathematical Conventions for the Quantitative Reasoning Measure of the
GRE revised General Test (PDF), Educational Testing Service, retrieved 6 September 2011
Freudenthal, H. (1983), Didactical phenomenology of mathematical structures, Dordrecht, The Netherlands:
Reidel
Frobisher, Len (1999), Anthony Orton, ed., Primary School Children's Knowledge of Odd and Even Numbers,
London: Cassell, pp. 3148
Gouva, Fernando Quadros (1997), p-adic numbers: an introduction (2nd ed.), Springer-Verlag, ISBN 3-540-
62911-4
Gowers, Timothy (2002), Mathematics: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-
285361-5
Graduate Management Admission Council (September 2005), The Ocial Guide for GMAT Review (11th ed.),
McLean, VA: Graduate Management Admission Council, ISBN 0-9765709-0-4
Grimes, Joseph E. (1975), The Thread of Discourse, Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 90-279-3164-X
Hartseld, Nora; Ringel, Gerhard (2003), Pearls in Graph Theory: A Comprehensive Introduction, Mineola:
Courier Dover, ISBN 0-486-43232-7
Hill, Heather C.; Blunk, Merrie L.; Charalambous, Charalambos Y.; Lewis, Jennifer M.; Phelps, Geof-
frey C.; Sleep, Laurie; Ball, Deborah Loewenberg (2008), Mathematical Knowledge for Teaching and the
Mathematical Quality of Instruction: An Exploratory Study, Cognition and Instruction, 26 (4): 430511,
doi:10.1080/07370000802177235
Hohmann, George (25 October 2007),Companies let market determine new name, Charleston Daily Mail,
p. P1C, Factiva CGAZ000020071027e3ap0001l
Kaplan Sta (2004), Kaplan SAT 2400, 2005 Edition, Simon and Schuster, ISBN 0-7432-6035-X
Keith, Annie (2006), Mathematical Argument in a Second Grade Class: Generating and Justifying Generalized
Statements about Odd and Even Numbers, IAP, ISBN 1-59311-495-8
Krantz, Steven George (2001), Dictionary of algebra, arithmetic, and trigonometry, CRC Press, ISBN 1-58488-
052-X
Levenson, Esther; Tsamir, Pessia; Tirosh, Dina (2007),Neither even nor odd: Sixth grade students' dilemmas
regarding the parity of zero, The Journal of Mathematical Behavior, 26 (2): 8395, doi:10.1016/j.jmathb.2007.05.004
Lichtenberg, Betty Plunkett (November 1972), Zero is an even number, The Arithmetic Teacher, 19 (7):
535538
Lorentz, Richard J. (1994), Recursive Algorithms, Intellect Books, ISBN 1-56750-037-4
Lovas, William; Pfenning, Frank (22 January 2008), A Bidirectional Renement Type System for LF,
Electronic Notes in Theoretical Computer Science, 196: 113128, doi:10.1016/j.entcs.2007.09.021, retrieved
16 June 2012
Lovsz, Lszl; Pelikn, Jzsef; Vesztergombi, Katalin L. (2003), Discrete Mathematics: Elementary and Be-
yond, Springer, ISBN 0-387-95585-2
Morgan, Frank (5 April 2001), Old Coins, Frank Morgan's Math Chat, The Mathematical Association of
America, retrieved 22 August 2009
Nipkow, Tobias; Paulson, Lawrence C.; Wenzel, Markus (2002), Isabelle/Hol: A Proof Assistant for Higher-
Order Logic, Springer, ISBN 3-540-43376-7
Nuerk, Hans-Christoph; Iversen, Wiebke; Willmes, Klaus (July 2004),Notational modulation of the SNARC
and the MARC (linguistic markedness of response codes) eect, The Quarterly Journal of Experimental
Psychology A, 57 (5): 835863, doi:10.1080/02724980343000512
Partee, Barbara Hall (1978), Fundamentals of Mathematics for Linguistics, Dordrecht: D. Reidel, ISBN 90-
277-0809-6
Penner, Robert C. (1999), Discrete Mathematics: Proof Techniques and Mathematical Structures, River Edje:
World Scientic, ISBN 981-02-4088-0
Salzmann, H.; Grundhfer, T.; Hhl, H.; Lwen, R. (2007), The Classical Fields: Structural Features of the
Real and Rational Numbers, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-86516-6
Siegel, Robert (19 November 1999), Analysis: Today's date is signied in abbreviations using only odd
numbers. 1-1, 1-9, 1-9-9-9. The next time that happens will be more than a thousand years from now., All
Things Considered, National Public Radio
Smock, Doug (6 February 2006),The odd bets: Hines Ward vs. Tiger Woods, Charleston Gazette, p. P1B,
Factiva CGAZ000020060207e226000bh
Snow, Tony (23 February 2001), Bubba's fools, Jewish World Review, retrieved 22 August 2009
Sones, Bill; Sones, Rich (8 May 2002),To hide your age, button your lips, Deseret News, p. C07, retrieved
21 June 2014
Starr, Ross M. (1997), General Equilibrium Theory: An Introduction, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-
521-56473-5
Steinberg, Neil (30 November 1999), Even year, odd facts, Chicago Sun-Times (5XS ed.), p. 50, Factiva
chi0000020010826dvbu0119h
Stewart, Mark Alan (2001), 30 Days to the GMAT CAT, Stamford: Thomson, ISBN 0-7689-0635-0
Stingl, Jim (5 April 2006), 01:02:03 04/05/06; We can count on some things in life, Milwaukee Journal
Sentinel (Final ed.), p. B1, archived from the original on 27 April 2006, retrieved 21 June 2014
Tabachnikova, Olga M.; Smith, Geo C. (2000), Topics in Group Theory, London: Springer, ISBN 1-85233-
235-2
The Math Forum participants (2000), A question around zero, Math Forum Discussions History
Historia-Matematica, Drexel University, retrieved 25 September 2007
Turner, Julian (13 July 1996), Sports Betting For Lytham Look to the South Pacic, The Guardian, p.
23, Factiva grdn000020011017ds7d00bzg
Wilden, Anthony; Hammer, Rhonda (1987), The rules are no game: the strategy of communication, Routledge
Kegan & Paul, ISBN 0-7100-9868-5
Wise, Stephen (2002), GIS Basics, CRC Press, ISBN 0-415-24651-2
Wong, Samuel Shaw Ming (1997), Computational Methods in Physics and Engineering, World Scientic, ISBN
981-02-3043-5
30.7 External links

Doctor Rick (2001), Is Zero Even?", Ask Dr. Math, The Math Forum, retrieved 6 June 2013
Straight Dope Science Advisory Board (1999), Is zero odd or even?", The Straight Dope Mailbag, retrieved
6 June 2013
Is Zero Even? - Numberphile, video with Dr. James Grime, University of Nottingham
Chapter 31
Partial products algorithm
In mathematics education at the level of primary school or elementary school, the grid method (also known as the box
method) of multiplication is an introductory approach to multi-digit multiplication calculations, i.e. multiplications
involving numbers larger than ten.
Compared to traditional long multiplication, the grid method diers in clearly breaking the multiplication and addition
into two steps, and in being less dependent on place value.
Whilst less ecient than the traditional method, grid multiplication is considered to be more reliable, in that children
are less likely to make mistakes. Most pupils will go on to learn the traditional method, once they are comfortable
with the grid method; but knowledge of the grid method remains a useful fall back, in the event of confusion. It
is also argued that since anyone doing a lot of multiplication would nowadays use a pocket calculator, eciency for
its own sake is less important; equally, since this means that most children will use the multiplication algorithm less
often, it is useful for them to become familiar with a more explicit (and hence more memorable) method.
Use of the grid method has been standard in mathematics education in primary schools in England and Wales since the
introduction of a National Numeracy Strategy with itsnumeracy hourin the 1990s. It can also be found included
in various curricula elsewhere. Essentially the same calculation approach, but not necessarily with the explicit grid
arrangement, is also known as the partial products algorithm or partial products method.
31.1 Calculations
31.1.1 Introductory motivation

The grid method can be introduced by thinking about how to add up the number of points in a regular array, for
example the number of squares of chocolate in a chocolate bar. As the size of the calculation becomes larger, it
becomes easier to start counting in tens; and to represent the calculation as a box which can be sub-divided, rather
than drawing lots and lots of dots.* [1]* [2]
At the simplest level, pupils might be asked to apply the method to a calculation like 3 17. Breaking up (partition-
ing) the 17 as (10 + 7), this unfamiliar multiplication can be worked out as the sum of two simple multiplications:
so 3 17 = 30 + 21 = 51.
This is the gridor boxesstructure which gives the multiplication method its name.
Faced with a slightly larger multiplication, such as 34 13, pupils may initially be encouraged to also break this into
tens. So, expanding 34 as 10 + 10 + 10 + 4 and 13 as 10 + 3, the product 34 13 might be represented:
Totalling the contents of each row, it is apparent that the nal result of the calculation is (100 + 100 + 100 + 40) +
(30 + 30 + 30 + 12) = 340 + 102 = 442.
186
31.2. OTHER APPLICATIONS 187
31.1.2 Standard blocks
Once pupils have become comfortable with the idea of splitting the whole product into contributions from separate
boxes, it is a natural step to group the tens together, so that the calculation 34 13 becomes
giving the addition
so 34 13 = 442.
This is the most usual form for a grid calculation. In countries such as the U.K. where teaching of the grid method
is usual, pupils may spend a considerable period of time regularly setting out calculations like the above, until the
method is entirely comfortable and familiar.
31.1.3 Larger numbers
The grid method extends straightforwardly to calculations involving larger numbers.

For example, to calculate 345 28, the student could construct the grid with six easy multiplications
to nd the answer 6900 + 2760 = 9660.

However, by this stage (at least in standard current U.K. teaching practice) pupils may be starting to be encouraged
to set out such a calculation using the traditional long multiplication form without having to draw up a grid.
Traditional long multiplication can be related to a grid multiplication in which only one of the numbers is broken into
tens and units parts to be multiplied separately:
The traditional method is ultimately faster and much more compact; but it requires two signicantly more dicult
multiplications which pupils may at rst struggle with . Compared to the grid method, traditional long multiplication
may also be more abstract and less manifestly clear , so some pupils nd it harder to remember what is to be done at
each stage and why . Pupils may therefore be encouraged for quite a period to use the simpler grid method alongside
the more ecient traditional long multiplication method, as a check and a fall-back.
31.2 Other applications
31.2.1 Fractions
While not normally taught as a standard method for multiplying fractions, the grid method can readily be applied to
simple cases where it is easier to nd a product by breaking it down.
For example, the calculation 2 1 can be set out using the grid method
to nd that the resulting product is 2 + + 1 + = 3

188 CHAPTER 31. PARTIAL PRODUCTS ALGORITHM
31.2.2 Algebra
The grid method can also be used to illustrate the multiplying out of a product of binomials, such as (a + 3)(b + 2),
a standard topic in elementary algebra (although one not usually met until secondary school):
Thus (a + 3)(b + 2) = ab + 3b + 2a + 6.
31.3 Mathematics
Mathematically, the ability to break up a multiplication in this way is known as the distributive law, which can be
expressed in algebra as the property that a(b+c) = ab + ac. The grid method uses the distributive property twice to
expand the product, once for the horizontal factor, and once for the vertical factor.
Historically the grid calculation (tweaked slightly) was the basis of a method called lattice multiplication, which was
the standard method of multiple-digit multiplication developed in medieval Arabic and Hindu mathematics. Lattice
multiplication was introduced into Europe by Fibonacci at the start of the thirteenth century along with the so-called
Arabic numerals themselves; although, like the numerals also, the ways he suggested to calculate with them were
initially slow to catch on. Napier's bones were a calculating help introduced by the Scot John Napier in 1617 to assist
lattice method calculations.
31.4 See also

Multiplication algorithm
Multiplication Table
31.5 References
Rob Eastaway and Mike Askew, Maths for Mums and Dads, Square Peg, 2010. ISBN 978-0-224-08635-6.
pp. 140153.
[1] Long multiplication The Box method
[2] Long multiplication and division
31.6 External links

Long multiplication The Box method, Maths online.
Long multiplication and division, BBC GCSE Bitesize
Chapter 32
Percentage
Android Opera
Safari 4.59% 4.53%
Other
15.59% 4.46%
Firefox
19.26%
Chrome
29.03%
IE
22.54%
A pie chart showing the percentage by web browser visiting Wikimedia sites (April 2009 to 2012)
In mathematics, a percentage is a number or ratio expressed as a fraction of 100. It is often denoted using the percent
sign, "%", or the abbreviations pct., pct"; sometimes the abbreviation pcis also used.* [1] A percentage is
a dimensionless number (pure number).
189
190 CHAPTER 32. PERCENTAGE
32.1 Examples
For example, 45% (read as forty-ve percent) is equal to 45 100 , 45:100, or 0.45. Percentages are often used to
express a proportionate part of a total.
(Similarly, one can express a number as a fraction of 1,000 using the term "per mille" or the symbol "".)
32.1.1 Example 1
If 50% of the total number of students in the class are male, that means that 50 out of every 100 students are male.
If there are 1000 students, then 500 of them are male.
32.1.2 Example 2
An increase of $0.15 on a price of $2.50 is an increase by a fraction of 0.15/2.50 = 0.06. Expressed as a percentage,
this is a 6% increase.
While many percentage values are between 0 and 100, there is no mathematical restriction and percentages may
take on other values.* [2] For example, it is common to refer to 111% or 35%, especially for percent changes and
comparisons.
32.2 History
In Ancient Rome, long before the existence of the decimal system, computations were often made in fractions which
were multiples of 1 100 . For example, Augustus levied a tax of 1 100 on goods sold at auction known as centesima
rerum venalium. Computation with these fractions was equivalent to computing percentages. As denominations of
money grew in the Middle Ages, computations with a denominator of 100 became more standard and from the late
15th century to the early 16th century it became common for arithmetic texts to include such computations. Many
of these texts applied these methods to prot and loss, interest rates, and the Rule of Three. By the 17th century it
was standard to quote interest rates in hundredths.* [3]
32.3 Percent sign

Main article: percent sign
The term per centis derived from the Latin per centum, meaning by the hundred.* [4] The sign for per
centevolved by gradual contraction of the Italian term per cento, meaningfor a hundred. Theperwas often
abbreviated as p.and eventually disappeared entirely. The centowas contracted to two circles separated by
a horizontal line, from which the modern "%" symbol is derived.* [5]
32.4 Calculations
The percent value is computed by multiplying the numeric value of the ratio by 100. For example, to nd 50 apples
as a percentage of 1250 apples, rst compute the ratio 50 1250 = 0.04, and then multiply by 100 to obtain 4%. The
percent value can also be found by multiplying rst, so in this example the 50 would be multiplied by 100 to give
5,000, and this result would be divided by 1250 to give 4%.
To calculate a percentage of a percentage, convert both percentages to fractions of 100, or to decimals, and multiply
them. For example, 50% of 40% is:
50
100 40 100 = 0.50 0.40 = 0.20 = 20 100 = 20%.
It is not correct to divide by 100 and use the percent sign at the same time. (E.g. 25% = 25 100 = 0.25, not * 25%100 ,
which actually is 25 100 /100 = 0.0025. A term such as 100 100 % would also be incorrect, this would be read as 1
percent even if the intent was to say 100%.)
32.5. PERCENTAGE INCREASE AND DECREASE 191
A percent sign
Whenever we talk about a percentage, it is important to specify what it is relative to, i.e. what is the total that
corresponds to 100%. The following problem illustrates this point.
In a certain college 60% of all students are female, and 10% of all students are computer science majors.
If 5% of female students are computer science majors, what percentage of computer science majors are
female?
We are asked to compute the ratio of female computer science majors to all computer science majors. We know
that 60% of all students are female, and among these 5% are computer science majors, so we conclude that 60 100
5
100 = 3 100 or 3% of all students are female computer science majors. Dividing this by the 10% of all students that
are computer science majors, we arrive at the answer: * 3%10% = 30 100 or 30% of all computer science majors are
female.
This example is closely related to the concept of conditional probability.
32.5 Percentage increase and decrease

Due to inconsistent usage, it is not always clear from the context what a percentage is relative to. When speaking of
a 10% riseor a 10% fallin a quantity, the usual interpretation is that this is relative to the initial value of that
quantity. For example, if an item is initially priced at $200 and the price rises 10% (an increase of $20), the new
price will be $220. Note that this nal price is 110% of the initial price (100% + 10% = 110%).
Some other examples of percent changes:
An increase of 100% in a quantity means that the nal amount is 200% of the initial amount (100% of initial
+ 100% of increase = 200% of initial); in other words, the quantity has doubled.
An increase of 800% means the nal amount is 9 times the original (100% + 800% = 900% = 9 times as large).
A decrease of 60% means the nal amount is 40% of the original (100% 60% = 40%).
A decrease of 100% means the nal amount is zero (100% 100% = 0%).
In general, a change of x percent in a quantity results in a nal amount that is 100 + x percent of the original amount
(equivalently, 1 + 0.01x times the original amount).
32.6 Compounding percentages

Percent changes applied sequentially do not add up in the usual way. For example, if the 10% increase in price
considered earlier (on the $200 item, raising its price to $220) is followed by a 10% decrease in the price (a decrease
of $22), the nal price will be $198, not the original price of $200. The reason for the apparent discrepancy is that the
two percent changes (+10% and 10%) are measured relative to dierent quantities ($200 and $220, respectively),
and thus do not cancel out.
In general, if an increase of x percent is followed by a decrease of x percent, and the initial amount was p, the nal
amount is p(1 + 0.01x)(1 0.01x) = p(1 (0.01x)2 ); thus the net change is an overall decrease by x percent of x
percent (the square of the original percent change when expressed as a decimal number). Thus, in the above example,
after an increase and decrease of x = 10 percent, the nal amount, $198, was 10% of 10%, or 1%, less than the initial
amount of $200. The net change is the same for a decrease of x percent followed by an increase of x percent; the
nal amount is p(1 - 0.01x)(1 + 0.01x) = p(1 (0.01x)2 ).
This can be expanded for a case where you do not have the same percent change. If the initial percent change is x
and the second percent change is y, and the initial amount was p, then the nal amount is p(1 + 0.01x)(1 + 0.01y).
To change the above example, after an increase of x = 10 percent and decrease of y = 5 percent, the nal amount,
$209, is 4.5% more than the initial amount of $200.
As shown above, percent changes can be applied in any order and have the same eect.
In the case of interest rates, a very common but ambiguous way to say that an interest rate rose from 10% per annum
to 15% per annum, for example, is to say that the interest rate increased by 5%, which could theoretically mean
that it increased from 10% per annum to 10.05% per annum. It is clearer to say that the interest rate increased by 5
percentage points (pp). The same confusion between the dierent concepts of percent(age) and percentage points can
potentially cause a major misunderstanding when journalists report about election results, for example, expressing
both new results and dierences with earlier results as percentages. For example, if a party obtains 41% of the vote
and this is said to be a 2.5% increase, does that mean the earlier result was 40% (since 41 = 40 (1 + * 2.5/100 )) or
38.5% (since 41 = 38.5 + 2.5)?
In nancial markets, it is common to refer to an increase of one percentage point (e.g. from 3% per annum to 4%
per annum) as an increase of 100 basis points.
32.7 Word and symbol

Main article: Percent sign
In British English, percent is usually written as two words (per cent), although percentage and percentile are written as
one word.* [6] In American English, percent is the most common variant* [7] (but per mille is written as two words).
In the early 20th century, there was a dotted abbreviation form "per cent.", as opposed to "per cent". The form "per
cent." is still in use in the highly formal language found in certain documents like commercial loan agreements (par-
ticularly those subject to, or inspired by, common law), as well as in the Hansard transcripts of British Parliamentary
proceedings. The term has been attributed to Latin per centum.* [8] The concept of considering values as parts of a
32.8. OTHER USES 193
hundred is originally Greek. The symbol for percent (%) evolved from a symbol abbreviating the Italian per cento.
In some other languages, the form procent or prosent is used instead. Some languages use both a word derived from
percent and an expression in that language meaning the same thing, e.g. Romanian procent and la sut (thus, 10% can
be read or sometimes written ten for [each] hundred, similarly with the English one out of ten). Other abbreviations
are rarer, but sometimes seen.
Grammar and style guides often dier as to how percentages are to be written. For instance, it is commonly suggested
that the word percent (or per cent) be spelled out in all texts, as in 1 percentand not 1%". Other guides prefer
the word to be written out in humanistic texts, but the symbol to be used in scientic texts. Most guides agree that
they always be written with a numeral, as in 5 percentand not ve percent, the only exception being at the
beginning of a sentence: Ten percent of all writers love style guides.Decimals are also to be used instead of
fractions, as in 3.5 percent of the gainand not 3 1/2 percent of the gain. However the titles of bonds issued
by governments and other issuers use the fractional form, e.g. 3 1/2% Unsecured Loan Stock 2032 Series 2.
(When interest rates are very low, the number 0 is included if the interest rate is less than 1%, e.g. 0 3 /4 % Treasury
Stock, not "3 /4 % Treasury Stock.) It is also widely accepted to use the percent symbol (%) in tabular and graphic
material.
In line with common English practice, style guidessuch as The Chicago Manual of Stylegenerally state that the
number and percent sign are written without any space in between.* [9] However, the International System of Units
and the ISO 31-0 standard require a space.* [10]* [11]
32.8 Other uses

The word percentageis often a misnomer in the context of sports statistics, when the referenced number is
expressed as a decimal proportion, not a percentage: The Phoenix Suns' Shaquille O'Neal led the NBA with a .609
eld goal percentage (FG%) during the 200809 season.(O'Neal made 60.9% of his shots, not 0.609%.) Likewise,
the winning percentage of a team, the fraction of matches that the club has won, is also usually expressed as a decimal
proportion; a team that has a .500 winning percentage has won 50% of their matches. The practice is probably related
to the similar way that batting averages are quoted.
Aspercentit is used to describe the steepness of the slope of a road or railway, formula for which is 100 rise/run
which could also be expressed as the tangent of the angle of inclination times 100. This is the ratio of distances a
vehicle would advance vertically and horizontally, respectively, when going up- or downhill, expressed in percent.
Percentage is also used to express composition of a mixture by mass percent and mole percent.
32.9 Related units

Percentage point
Per mille () 1 part in 1,000
Basis point () 1 part in 10,000
Per cent mille (pcm) 1 part in 100,000
Parts-per notation
Grade (slope)
Per-unit system
32.10 Practical applications

Baker percentage
Volume percent
1% 1 1
1 ppm
Visualisation of 1%, 1, 1 and 1 ppm as the fraction of the red cube to its respective block (click for larger version)
32.11 See also

Percent dierence
Percentage change
Proportion
32.12 References
[1] http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/economics/11329769/Eurozone-officially-falls-into-deflation-piling-pressure-on-ECB.
html
[2] Bennett, Jerey; Briggs, William (2005), Using and Understanding Mathematics / A Quantitative Reasoning Approach (3rd
ed.), Pearson Addison Wesley, p. 134, ISBN 0-321-22773-5
[3] Smith, D.E. (1958) [1951]. History of Mathematics. 2. Courier Dover Publications. pp. 247249. ISBN 0-486-20430-8.
[4] American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 3rd ed. (1992) Houghton Miin
[5] Smith p. 250
[6] Brians, Paul.Percent/per cent. Common Errors in English Usage. Washington State University. Retrieved 22 November
2010.
[7] Percent (per cent)". Oxford Dictionaries. Retrieved 22 November 2010.
[8] Percent. Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. September 2005. (Subscription or UK public
library membership required.)
[9] The Chicago Manual of Style. University of Chicago Press. 2003. Retrieved 2007-01-05.
[10] The International System of Units(PDF). International Bureau of Weights and Measures. 2006. Retrieved 2007-08-06.
[11] ISO 31-0 Quantities and units Part 0: General principles. International Organization for Standardization. 1999-
12-22. Retrieved 2007-01-05.
Chapter 33
Plus and minus signs
For these two signs conjoined as the symbol "", see Plus-minus sign.
Minusredirects here. For the mathematical operation represented by the minus sign, see Subtraction. For other
uses, see Minus (disambiguation).
"+" redirects here. For other uses, see + (disambiguation).
The plus and minus signs (+ and ) are mathematical symbols used to represent the notions of positive and negative
as well as the operations of addition and subtraction. Their use has been extended to many other meanings, more or
less analogous. Plus and minus are Latin terms meaning moreand less, respectively.
33.1 History
Though the signs now seem as familiar as the alphabet or the Hindu-Arabic numerals, they are not of great antiquity.
The Egyptian hieroglyphic sign for addition, for example, resembled a pair of legs walking in the direction in which
the text was written (Egyptian could be written either from right to left or left to right), with the reverse sign indicating
subtraction:* [1]
Nicole Oresme's manuscripts from the 14th century show what may be one of the earliest uses of the plus sign "+".* [2]
In Europe in the early 15th century the letters Pand Mwere generally used.* [3] The symbols (P with line p
for pi, i.e., plus, and M with line m for meno, i.e., minus) appeared for the rst time in Luca Paciolis mathematics
compendium, Summa de arithmetica, geometria, proportioni et proportionalit, rst printed and published in Venice
in 1494.* [4] The + is a simplication of the Latinet(comparable to the ampersand &).* [5] The may be derived
from a tilde written over m when used to indicate subtraction; or it may come from a shorthand version of the letter
m itself.* [6] In his 1489 treatise Johannes Widmann referred to the symbols and + as minus and mer (Modern
German mehr; more): was ist, das ist minus, und das + ist das mer.* [7] They weren't used for addition
and subtraction here, but to indicate surplus and decit; their rst use in their modern sense appears in a book by
Henricus Grammateus in 1518.* [8]* [9]
Robert Recorde, the designer of the equals sign, introduced plus and minus to Britain in 1557 in The Whetstone of
Witte:* [10] There be other 2 signes in often use of which the rst is made thus + and betokeneth more: the other
is thus made and betokeneth lesse.
33.2 Plus sign

"+" redirects here. For other uses, see + (disambiguation).
The plus sign (+) is a binary operator that indicates addition, as in 2 + 3 = 5. It can also serve as a unary operator that
leaves its operand unchanged (+x means the same as x). This notation may be used when it is desired to emphasize
the positiveness of a number, especially when contrasting with the negative (+5 versus 5).
The plus sign can also indicate many other operations, depending on the mathematical system under consideration.
196
33.3. MINUS SIGN 197
Many algebraic structures have some operation which is called, or is equivalent to, addition. It is conventional to
use the plus sign to only denote commutative operations.* [11] Moreover, the symbolism has been extended to very
dierent operations; plus can also mean:
exclusive or (usually written ): 1 + 1 = 0, 1 + 0 = 1

logical disjunction (usually written ): 1 + 1 = 1, 1 + 0 = 1
33.3 Minus sign

The minus sign () has three main uses in mathematics:* [12]
1. The subtraction operator: A binary operator to indicate the operation of subtraction, as in 5 3 = 2. Subtraction
is the inverse of addition.
2. Directly in front of a number (numeric literal) and when it is not a subtraction operator it means a negative
number. For instance 5 is negative 5.
3. A unary operator that acts as an instruction to replace the operand by its additive inverse. For example, if x is
3, then x is 3, but if x is 3, then x is 3. Similarly, (2) is equal to 2. The above is a special case of this.
All three uses can be referred to asminusin everyday speech. In most English-speaking countries, 5 (for example)
is normally pronouncedminus ve, but in modern US usage it is instead sometimes pronouncednegative ve";
here, minusmay be used by speakers born before 1950, and is still popular in some contexts, but negativeis
usually taught as the only correct reading.* [13] Further, some textbooks in the United States encourage x to be read
asthe opposite of x" orthe additive inverse of x" to avoid giving the impression that x is necessarily negative.* [14]
In some contexts, dierent glyphs are used for these meanings; for instance in the computer language APL and the
expression language used by Texas Instruments graphing calculators (denitely at least the early models including
the TI-81 and TI-82) a raised minus sign is used in negative numbers (as in 2 5 shows * 3), but such usage is
uncommon.
In mathematics and most programming languages, the rules for the order of operations mean that 52 is equal to
25: Powers bind more strongly than the unary minus, which binds more strongly than multiplication or division.
However, in some programming languages and Microsoft Excel in particular, unary operators bind strongest, so in
those cases 5^2 is 25 but 05^2 is 25.* [15]
33.4 Use in elementary education

Some elementary teachers use raised plus and minus signs before numbers to show they are positive or negative
numbers.* [16] For example, subtracting 5 from 3 might be read as positive three take away negative 5and be
shown as
3 * 5 becomes 3 + 5 = 8,
or even as
*
+3 * 5 becomes * +3 + * +5 = * +8.
33.5 Use as a qualier

In grading systems (such as examination marks), the plus sign indicates a grade one level higher and the minus sign a
grade lower. For example, B (B minus) is one grade lower than B. Sometimes this is extended to two plus or
minus signs; for example A++ is two grades higher than A.
Positive and negative are sometimes abbreviated as +ve and ve.* [17]
198 CHAPTER 33. PLUS AND MINUS SIGNS
In mathematics the one-sided limit xa* + means x approaches a from the right, and xa* means x approaches a
from the left. For example, when calculating what x* 1 is when x approaches 0, because x* 1+ when x0* +
but x* 1 when x0* .
Blood types are often qualied with a plus or minus to indicate the presence or absence of the Rh factor; for instance,
A+ means A-type blood with the Rh factor present, while B means B-type blood with the Rh factor absent.
In music, augmented chords are symbolized with a plus sign, although this practice is not universal as there are other
methods for spelling those chords. For example, C+" is read C augmented chord. Also used as superscript.
33.6 Uses in computing

As well as the normal mathematical usage plus and minus may be used for a number of other purposes in computing.
Plus and minus signs are often used in tree view on a computer screen to show if a folder is collapsed or not.
In some programming languages, concatenation of strings is written a+ b, and results in ab.
In most programming languages, subtraction and negation are indicated with the ASCII hyphen-minus character, .
In APL a raised minus sign (Unicode U+00AF) is used to denote a negative number, as in 3. While in J a negative
number is denoted by an underscore, as in _5.
In C and some other computer programming languages, two plus signs indicate the increment operator and two minus
signs a decrement. For example, x++ means increment the value of x by oneand x-- means decrement the
value of x by one. By extension, "++" is sometimes used in computing terminology to signify an improvement, as
in the name of the language C++.
In regular expressions, "+" is used to indicate 1 or morein a pattern to be matched. For example, x+" means
one or more of the letter x.
There is no concept of negative zero in mathematics, but in computing 0 may have a separate representation from
zero. In the IEEE oating-point standard, 1 / 0 is negative innity () whereas 1 / 0 is positive innity ().
33.7 Other uses

In chemistry, the minus sign (rather than an en dash) is used for a single covalent bond between two atoms, as in the
skeletal formula.
Subscripted plus and minus signs are used as diacritics in the International Phonetic Alphabet to indicate advanced
or retracted articulations of speech sounds.
The minus sign is also used as tone letter in the orthographies of Dan, Krumen, Karaboro, Mwan, Wan, Yaour, W,
Nyabwa and Godi.* [18] The Unicode character used for the tone letter (U+02D7) is dierent from the mathematical
minus sign.
In the algebraic notation used to record games of chess, the plus sign (+) is used to denote a move that puts the
opponent into check. A double plus (++) is sometimes used to denote double check. Combinations of the plus and
minus signs are used to evaluate a move (+/, +/=, =/+, /+).
33.8 Character codes

The hyphen-minus sign (-) is the ASCII alternative/version of the minus sign, and doubles as a hyphen. It is usually
shorter in length than the plus sign and sometimes at a dierent height. It can be used as a substitute for the true
minus sign when the character set is limited to ASCII. Most programming languages and other computer readable
languages do this, since ASCII is generally available as a subset of most character encodings, while U+2212 is a
Unicode feature only.
There is a commercial minus sign (), which looks somewhat like an obelus, at U+2052 (HTML ⁒).
For detailed distinctions between minus signs and dashes, see Dash#Similar Unicode characters.
33.9. SEE ALSO 199
Plus, minus, and hyphen-minus.
33.8.1 Alternative plus sign

See also: Up tack
A Jewish tradition that dates from at least the 19th century is to write plus using a symbol like an inverted T.* [19]
This practice was adopted into Israeli schools and is still commonplace today in elementary schools (including secular
schools) but in fewer secondary schools.* [20] It is also used occasionally in books by religious authors, but most books
for adults use the international symbol "+". The reason for this practice is that it avoids the writing of a symbol "+"
that looks like a Christian cross.* [19]* [20] Unicode has this symbol at position U+FB29 HEBREW LETTER
ALTERNATIVE PLUS SIGN.* [21]
33.9 See also

Graft-chimaera for the meaning of + in botanical names
List of international call prexes that + can represent the numbers required to dial out of a country as seen in
a phone number
Table of mathematical symbols
En dash, a dash that looks similar to the subtraction symbol but is used for dierent purposes
Asterisk, the star mark * * denoting unattested linguistic reconstructions, sometimes replaced by a superscript
plus* +
33.10 References and footnotes

[1] Karpinski, Louis C. (1917). Algebraical Developments Among the Egyptians and Babylonians. The American Math-
ematical Monthly. 24 (6): 257265. MR 1518824. doi:10.2307/2973180.
[2] The birth of symbols Zdena Lustigova, Faculty of Mathematics and Physics Charles University, Prague
[3] Stallings, Lynn (May 2000).A brief history of algebraic notation. School Science and Mathematics. Retrieved 13 April
2009.
[4] Sangster, Alan; Stoner, Greg; McCarthy, Patricia (2008). The market for Luca Paciolis Summa Arithmetica(PDF).
Accounting Historians Journal. 35 (1): 111134 [p. 115].
[5] Cajori, Florian (1928). Origin and meanings of the signs + and -". A History of Mathematical Notations, Vol. 1. The
Open Court Company, Publishers.
[6] Wright, D. Franklin; New, Bill D. (2000). Intermediate Algebra (4th ed.). Thomson Learning. p. 1. The minus sign or
bar, , is thought to be derived from the habit of early scribes of using a bar to represent the letter m
200 CHAPTER 33. PLUS AND MINUS SIGNS
[7] plus. Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. September 2005. (Subscription or UK public
library membership required.)
[8] Smith, D.E. (1951). History of Mathematics. 1. Courier Dover Publications. pp. 258, 330. ISBN 0486204308.
[9] Earliest Uses of Various Mathematical Symbols
[10] Cajori, Florian (2007), A History of Mathematical Notations, Cosimo, p. 164, ISBN 9781602066847.
[11] Fraleigh, John B. (1989). A First Course in Abstract Algebra (4 ed.). United States: Addison-Wesley. p. 52. ISBN
0-201-52821-5.
[12] Henri Picciotto. The Algebra Lab. Creative Publications. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-88488-964-9.
[13] Schwartzman, Steven (1994). The words of mathematics. The Mathematical Association of America. p. 136.
[14] Wheeler, Ruric E. (2001). Modern Mathematics (11 ed.). p. 171.
[15] Microsoft Oce Excel Calculation operators and precedence. Archived from the original on 2009-08-11. Retrieved
2009-07-29.
[16] Grant P. Wiggins; Jay McTighe (2005). Understanding by design. ACSD Publications. p. 210. ISBN 1-4166-0035-3.
[17] Castledine, George; Close, Ann (2009). Oxford Handbook of Adult Nursing. Oxford University Press. p. xvii. ISBN
9780191039676..
[18] Hartell, Rhonda L., ed. (1993), The Alphabets of Africa. Dakar: UNESCO and SIL.
[19] Kaufmann Kohler (19011906). Cross. In Cyrus Adler; et al. Jewish Encyclopedia.
[20] Christian-Jewish Dialogue: Theological Foundations By Peter von der Osten-Sacken (1986 Fortress Press ISBN 0-
8006-0771-6) In Israel the plus sign used in mathematics is represented by a horizontal stroke with a vertical hook
instead of the sign otherwise used all over the world, because the latter is reminiscent of a cross.(Page 96)
[21] Unicode U+FB29 reference page This form of the plus sign is also used on the control buttons at individual seats on board
the El Al Israel Airlines aircraft.
Chapter 34
Plus-minus sign
For other uses, see plus-minus (disambiguation).
The plus-minus sign () is a mathematical symbol with multiple meanings.
In mathematics, it generally indicates a choice of exactly two possible values, one of which is the negation of
the other.
In experimental sciences, the sign commonly indicates the condence interval or error in a measurement, often
the standard deviation or standard error.* [1] The sign may also represent an inclusive range of values that a
reading might have.
In engineering the sign indicates the tolerance, which is the range of values that are considered to be acceptable,
safe, or which comply with some standard, or with a contract.* [2]
In botany it is used in morphological descriptions to notate more or less.
In chemistry the sign is used to indicate a racemic mixture.
In chess, the sign indicates a clear advantage for the white player; the complementary sign indicates the same
advantage for the black player.* [3]
The sign is normally pronounced plus or minus.
34.1 History
A version of the sign, including also the French word ou or
( ) was used in its mathematical meaning by Albert Girard
in 1626, and the sign in its modern form was used as early as William Oughtred's Clavis Mathematicae (1631).* [4]
34.2 Usage
34.2.1 In mathematics
In mathematical formulas, the symbol may be used to indicate a symbol that may be replaced by either the + or
symbols, allowing the formula to represent two values or two equations.
For example, given the equation x2 = 1, one may give the solution as x = 1. This indicates that the equation has two
solutions, each of which may be obtained by replacing this equation by one of the two equations x = +1 or x = 1.
Only one of these two replaced equations is true for any valid solution. A common use of this notation is found in
the quadratic formula
201
202 CHAPTER 34. PLUS-MINUS SIGN

b b2 4ac
x= .
2a
describing the two solutions to the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0.
Similarly, the trigonometric identity
sin(A B) = sin(A) cos(B) cos(A) sin(B).

can be interpreted as a shorthand for two equations: one with "+" on both sides of the equation, and one with ""
on both sides. The two copies of the sign in this identity must both be replaced in the same way: it is not valid to
replace one of them with "+" and the other of them with "". In contrast to the quadratic formula example, both of
the equations described by this identity are simultaneously valid.
A third related usage is found in this presentation of the formula for the Taylor series of the sine function:
x3 x5 x7 1
sin (x) = x + + x2n+1 + .
3! 5! 7! (2n + 1)!
Here, the plus-or-minus sign indicates that the signs of the terms alternate, where (starting the count at 0) the terms
with an even index n are added while those with an odd index are subtracted. A more rigorous presentation of the
same formula would multiply each term by a factor of (1)* n, which gives +1 when n is even and 1 when n is odd.
34.2.2 In statistics
The use of for an approximation is most commonly encountered in presenting the numerical value of a quantity
together with its tolerance or its statistical margin of error.* [1] For example,5.70.2may be anywhere in the range
from 5.5 to 5.9 inclusive. In scientic usage it sometimes refers to a probability of being within the stated interval,
usually corresponding to either 1 or 2 standard deviations (a probability of 68.3% or 95.4% in a Normal distribution).
A percentage may also be used to indicate the error margin. For example, 230 10% V refers to a voltage within
10% of either side of 230 V (from 207 V to 253 V inclusive). Separate values for the upper and lower bounds may
also be used. For example, to indicate that a value is most likely 5.7 but may be as high as 5.9 or as low as 5.6, one
may write 5.7+0.2
0.1.
34.2.3 In chess
The symbols and are used in chess notation to denote an advantage for white and black respectively. However,
the more common chess notation would be only + and . * [3] If a dierence is made, the symbol + and denote a
larger advantage than and .
34.3 Minus-plus sign

The minus-plus sign () is generally used in conjunction with the "" sign, in such expressions as x y z,
which can be interpreted as meaning "x + y z" and/or "x y + z", but not "x + y + z" or "x y z". The upper ""
in "" is considered to be associated to the "+" of "" (and similarly for the two lower symbols) even though there
is no visual indication of the dependency. (However, the "" sign is generally preferred over the "" sign, so if they
both appear in an equation it is safe to assume that they are linked. On the other hand, if there are two instances of
the "" sign in an expression, it is impossible to tell from notation alone whether the intended interpretation is as two
or four distinct expressions.) The original expression can be rewritten as "x (y z)" to avoid confusion, but cases
such as the trigonometric identity
cos(A B) = cos(A) cos(B) sin(A) sin(B)

34.4. ENCODINGS 203
are most neatly written using the "" sign. The trigonometric equation above thus represents the two equations:
cos(A + B) = cos(A) cos(B) sin(A) sin(B)

cos(A B) = cos(A) cos(B) + sin(A) sin(B)
but not
cos(A + B) = cos(A) cos(B) + sin(A) sin(B)

cos(A B) = cos(A) cos(B) sin(A) sin(B)
because the signs are exclusively alternating.

Another example is
( )
x3 1 = (x 1) x2 x + 1
which represents two equations.
34.4 Encodings
In Unicode: U+00B1 PLUS-MINUS SIGN (HTML ± ±)
In ISO 8859-1, 7, 8, 9, 13, 15, and 16, the plus-minus symbol is given by the code 0xB1hex Since
the rst 256 code points of Unicode are identical to the contents of ISO-8859-1 this symbol is also at Unicode
code point U+00B1.
The symbol also has a HTML entity representation of ±.
The rarer minus-plus sign () is not generally found in legacy encodings and does not have a named HTML
entity but is available in Unicode with codepoint U+2213 and so can be used in HTML using ∓ or
∓.
In TeX 'plus-or-minus' and 'minus-or-plus' symbols are denoted \pm and \mp, respectively.
These characters may also be produced as an underlined or overlined + symbol ( + or + ), but beware of the
formatting being stripped at a later date, changing the meaning.
34.4.1 Typing
On Windows systems, it may be entered by means of Alt codes, by holding the ALT key while typing the
numbers 0177 or 241 on the numeric keypad.
On Unix-like systems, it can be entered by typing the sequence compose + .
On Macintosh systems, it may be entered by pressing option shift = (on the non-numeric keypad).
34.5 Similar characters

The plus-minus sign resembles the Chinese characters and , whereas the minus-plus sign resembles .
204 CHAPTER 34. PLUS-MINUS SIGN
34.6 See also

Plus and minus signs
Table of mathematical symbols

(approximately equal to)
Engineering tolerance
34.7 References
[1] Brown, George W. (1982), Standard Deviation, Standard Error: Which 'Standard' Should We Use?", American Journal
of Diseases of Children, 136 (10): 937941, doi:10.1001/archpedi.1982.03970460067015.
[2] Engineering tolerance
[3] Eade, James (2005), Chess For Dummies (2nd ed.), John Wiley & Sons, p. 272, ISBN 9780471774334.
[4] Cajori, Florian (1928), A History of Mathematical Notations, Volumes 1-2, Dover, p. 245, ISBN 9780486677668.
Chapter 35
Repeating decimal
Repeating fractionredirects here. It is not to be confused with Continued fraction.
A repeating or recurring decimal is decimal representation of a number whose decimal digits are periodic (repeating
its values at regular intervals) and the innitely-repeated portion is not zero. It can be shown that a number is rational
if and only if its decimal representation is repeating or terminating (i.e. all except nitely many digits are zero). For
example, the decimal representation of becomes periodic just after the decimal point, repeating the single digit
3forever, i.e. 0.333. A more complicated example is 3227/555, whose decimal becomes periodic after the
second digit following the decimal point and then repeats the sequence 144forever, i.e. 5.8144144144. At
present, there is no single universally accepted notation or phrasing for repeating decimals.
The innitely-repeated digit sequence is called the repetend or reptend. If the repetend is a zero, this decimal
representation is called a terminating decimal rather than a repeating decimal, since the zeros can be omitted and
the decimal terminates before these zeros.* [1] Every terminating decimal representation can be written as a decimal
fraction, a fraction whose divisor is a power of 10 (e.g. 1.585 = 1585/1000); it may also be written as a ratio of
the form k/2* n5* m (e.g. 1.585 = 317/23 52 ). However, every number with a terminating decimal representation also
trivially has a second, alternative representation as a repeating decimal whose repetend is the digit 9. This is obtained
by decreasing the nal non-zero digit by one and appending a repetend of 9. 1.000... = 0.999 and 1.585000... =
1.584999are two examples of this. (This type of repeating decimal can be obtained by long division if one uses a
modied form of the usual division algorithm.* [2])
Any number that cannot be expressed as a ratio of two integers is said to be irrational. Their decimal representation
neither terminates nor innitely repeats but extends forever without regular repetition. Examples of such irrational
numbers are the square root of 2 and pi.
35.1 Background
35.1.1 Notation
While there are several notational conventions for representing repeating decimals, none of them are accepted uni-
versally. In the United States, the convention is generally to indicate a repeating decimal by drawing a horizontal line
(a vinculum) above the repetend ( 13 = 0.3 ). In the United Kingdom and mainland China, the convention is to place
dots above the outermost numerals of the repetend ( 13 = 0.3 ). In some Latin American countries both vinculum

and dots notation are used besides the arc notation over the repetend ( 13 = 0. 3 ). Another notation employed in
parts of Europe is to enclose the repetend in parentheses ( 13 = 0.(3) ). Repeating decimals may also be represented
by three periods (an ellipsis, e.g., 0.333), although this method introduces uncertainty as to which digits should be
repeated or even whether repetition is occurring at all, unless spaces are inserted between periods, since such ellipses
are also employed for irrational decimals such as 3.14159
In English, there are various ways to read repeating decimals aloud. Some common ones (for ) includezero point
three repeating, zero point three repeated, zero point three recurring, and zero point three into innity
. Mention of the initial zero may also be omitted.
205
206 CHAPTER 35. REPEATING DECIMAL
35.1.2 Decimal expansion and recurrence sequence

In order to convert a rational number represented as a fraction into decimal form, one may use long division. For
example, consider the rational number 5/74:
. . 0.0675 74 ) 5.00000 4.44 560 518 420 370 500
etc. Observe that at each step we have a remainder; the successive remainders displayed above are 56, 42, 50. When
we arrive at 50 as the remainder, and bring down the 0, we nd ourselves dividing 500 by 74, which is the same
problem we began with. Therefore, the decimal repeats: 0.0675 675 675 .
35.1.3 Every rational number is either a terminating or repeating decimal

For any given divisor, only nitely many dierent remainders can occur. In the example above, the 74 possible
remainders are 0, 1, 2, , 73. If at any point in the division the remainder is 0, the expansion terminates at that
point. If 0 never occurs as a remainder, then the division process continues for ever, and eventually a remainder must
occur that has occurred before. The next step in the division will yield the same new digit in the quotient, and the
same new remainder, as the previous time the remainder was the same. Therefore, the following division will repeat
the same results.
35.1.4 Every repeating or terminating decimal is a rational number

Each repeating decimal number satises a linear equation with integer coecients, and its unique solution is a rational
number. To illustrate the latter point, the number = 5.8144144144above satises the equation 10000 10
= 58144.144144 58.144144= 58086, whose solution is = 58086/9990 = 3227/555. The process of how to
nd these integer coecients is described below.
35.2 Table of values

The period length of 1/n are
0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 1, 6, 0, 1, 0, 2, 1, 6, 6, 1, 0, 16, 1, 18, 0, 6, 2, 22, 1, 0, 6, 3, 6, 28, 1, 15, 0, 2, 16, 6, 1, 3,

18, 6, 0, 5, 6, 21, 2, 1, 22, 46, 1, 42, 0, 16, 6, 13, 3, 2, 6, 18, 28, 58, 1, 60, 15, 6, 0, 6, 2, 33, 16, 22, 6,
35, 1, 8, 3, 1, ... (sequence A051626 in the OEIS).
The periodic part of 1/n are
0, 0, 3, 0, 0, 6, 142857, 0, 1, 0, 09, 3, 076923, 714285, 6, 0, 0588235294117647, 5, 052631578947368421,

0, 047619, 45, 0434782608695652173913, 6, 0, 384615, 037, 571428, 0344827586206896551724137931,
3, ... (sequence A036275 in the OEIS).
The period length of 1/(nth prime) are
0, 1, 0, 6, 2, 6, 16, 18, 22, 28, 15, 3, 5, 21, 46, 13, 58, 60, 33, 35, 8, 13, 41, 44, 96, 4, 34, 53, 108, 112,
42, 130, 8, 46, 148, 75, 78, 81, 166, 43, 178, 180, 95, 192, 98, 99, 30, 222, 113, 228, 232, 7, 30, 50,
256, 262, 268, 5, 69, 28, ... (sequence A002371 in the OEIS).
The least prime p which 1/p with period length n are
3, 11, 37, 101, 41, 7, 239, 73, 333667, 9091, 21649, 9901, 53, 909091, 31, 17, 2071723, 19, 1111111111111111111,
3541, 43, 23, 11111111111111111111111, 99990001, 21401, 859, 757, 29, 3191, 211, ... (sequence
A007138 in the OEIS).
The least prime p which k/p has n dierent cycles (1kp1) are
7, 3, 103, 53, 11, 79, 211, 41, 73, 281, 353, 37, 2393, 449, 3061, 1889, 137, 2467, 16189, 641, 3109,
4973, 11087, 1321, 101, 7151, 7669, 757, 38629, 1231, ... (sequence A054471 in the OEIS).
35.3. FRACTIONS WITH PRIME DENOMINATORS 207
35.3 Fractions with prime denominators

A fraction in lowest terms with a prime denominator other than 2 or 5 (i.e. coprime to 10) always produces a repeating
decimal. The length of the repetend (period of the repeating decimal) of 1/p is equal to the order of 10 modulo p. If
10 is a primitive root modulo p, the repetend length is equal to p 1; if not, the repetend length is a factor of p 1.
This result can be deduced from Fermat's little theorem, which states that 10* p1 1 (mod p).
The base-10 repetend of the reciprocal of any prime number greater than 5 is divisible by 9.* [3]
If the repetend length of 1/p for prime p is equal to p 1 then the repetend, expressed as an integer, is called a cyclic
number.
35.3.1 Cyclic numbers

Main article: Cyclic number
Examples of fractions belonging to this group are:
1/7 = 0.142857, 6 repeating digits

1/17 = 0.05882352 94117647, 16 repeating digits
1/97 = 0.010309278350515463917525773195876288659793814432 989690721649484536082474226804123711340206185
96 repeating digits
The list can go on to include the fractions 1/109, 1/113, 1/131, 1/149, 1/167, 1/179, 1/181, 1/193, etc. (sequence
Every proper multiple of a cyclic number (that is, a multiple having the same number of digits) is a rotation.
1/7 = 1 0.142857 . . . = 0.142857 . . .

2/7 = 2 0.142857 . . . = 0.285714 . . .
3/7 = 3 0.142857 . . . = 0.428571 . . .
4/7 = 4 0.142857 . . . = 0.571428 . . .
5/7 = 5 0.142857 . . . = 0.714285 . . .
6/7 = 6 0.142857 . . . = 0.857142 . . .
The reason for the cyclic behavior is apparent from an arithmetic exercise of long division of 1 7 : the sequential
remainders are the cyclic sequence {1, 3, 2, 6, 4, 5}. See also the article 142857 for more properties of this cyclic
number.
A fraction which is cyclic thus has a recurring decimal of even length that divides into two sequences in 9's complement
form. For example 1/7 starts '142' and is followed by '857' while 6/7 (by rotation) starts '857' followed by its 9's
complement '142'.
A proper prime is a prime p which ends in the digit 1 in base 10 and whose reciprocal in base 10 has a repetend with
length p1. In such primes, each digit 0, 1, . . . , 9 appears in the repeating sequence the same number of times as
does each other digit (namely, (p1)/10 times). They are:* [4]* :166
61, 131, 181, 461, 491, 541, 571, 701, 811, 821, 941, 971, 1021, 1051, 1091, 1171, 1181, 1291, 1301,
1349, 1381, 1531, 1571, 1621, 1741, 1811, 1829, 1861, . . . (sequence A073761 in the OEIS).
A prime is a proper prime if and only if it is a full reptend prime and congruent to 1 mod 10.
If a prime p is both full reptend prime and safe prime, then 1/p will produce a stream of p 1 pseudo-random digits.
Those primes are
7, 23, 47, 59, 167, 179, 263, 383, 503, 863, 887, 983, 1019, 1367, 1487, 1619, 1823, . . . (sequence
35.3.2 Other reciprocals of primes

Some reciprocals of primes that do not generate cyclic numbers are:
1/3 = 0.3, which has a period of 1.

(sequence A006559 in the OEIS)

The reason is that 3 is a divisor of 9, 11 is a divisor of 99, 41 is a divisor of 99999, etc. To nd the period of 1/p, we
can check whether the prime p divides some number 999...999 in which the number of digits divides p 1. Since
the period is never greater than p 1, we can obtain this by calculating 10 p 1 . For example, for 11 we get
p1
10111 1
= 909090909
11
and then by inspection nd the repetend 09 and period of 2.
Those reciprocals of primes can be associated with several sequences of repeating decimals. For example, the mul-
tiples of 1/13 can be divided into two sets, with dierent repetends. The rst set is:
1/13 = 0.076923 . . .
10/13 = 0.769230 . . .
9/13 = 0.692307 . . .
12/13 = 0.923076 . . .
3/13 = 0.230769 . . .
4/13 = 0.307692 . . . ,
where the repetend of each fraction is a cyclic re-arrangement of 076923. The second set is:
2/13 = 0.153846 . . .
35.4. RECIPROCALS OF COMPOSITE INTEGERS COPRIME TO 10 209
7/13 = 0.538461 . . .
5/13 = 0.384615 . . .
11/13 = 0.846153 . . .
6/13 = 0.461538 . . .
8/13 = 0.615384 . . . ,
where the repetend of each fraction is a cyclic re-arrangement of 153846.

In general, the set of proper multiples of reciprocals of a prime p consists of n subsets, each with repetend length k,
where nk = p 1.
35.3.3 Totient rule

For an arbitrary integer n the length (n) of the repetend of 1/n divides (n) , where is the totient function. The
length is equal to (n) if and only if 10 is a primitive root modulo n.* [5]
In particular, it follows that (p) = p 1 if and only if p is a prime and 10 is a primitive root modulo p. Then,
the decimal expansions of n/p for n = 1, 2, , p 1, all have periods of length p 1 and dier only by a cyclic
permutation. Such numbers p are called full repetend primes.
35.4 Reciprocals of composite integers coprime to 10

1
If p is a prime other than 2 or 5, the decimal representation of the fraction p2 repeats, e.g.:
1/49 = 0.020408163265306122448 979591836734693877551.
The period (repetend length) must be a factor of (49) = 42, where (n) is known as the Carmichael function. This
follows from Carmichael's theorem which states that if n is a positive integer then (n) is the smallest integer m such
that
am 1 (mod n)
for every integer a that is coprime to n.

The period of p12 is usually pT p , where T p is the period of p1 . There are three known primes for which this is not
true, and for those the period of p12 is the same as the period of p1 because p2 divides 10* p11. These three primes
are 3, 487 and 56598313 (sequence A045616 in the OEIS).* [6]
Similarly, the period of 1
pk
is usually p* k1Tp
1
If p and q are primes other than 2 or 5, the decimal representation of the fraction pq repeats. An example is 1/119:
119 = 7 17
(7 17) = LCM((7), (17))
= LCM(6, 16)
= 48,
where LCM denotes the least common multiple.

1
The period T of pq is a factor of (pq) and it happens to be 48 in this case:
1/119 = 0.008403361344537815126050 420168067226890756302521.

1 1 1
The period T of pq is LCM(T p , T q ), where T p is the period of p and T q is the period of q .
If p , q, r etc. are primes other than 2 or 5, and k , , m etc. are positive integers, then pk q1rm is a repeating decimal
with a period of LCM(Tpk , Tq , Trm , . . .) where Tpk , Tq , Trm , etc. are respectively the period of the repeating
decimals p1k , q1 , r1m , etc. as dened above.
35.5 Reciprocals of integers not co-prime to 10

An integer that is not co-prime to 10 but has a prime factor other than 2 or 5 has a reciprocal that is eventually periodic,
but with a non-repeating sequence of digits that precede the repeating part. The reciprocal can be expressed as:
1
,
2a 5b pk q
where a and b are not both zero.
This fraction can also be expressed as:
5ab
,
10a pk q
if a > b, or as
2ba
,
10b pk q
if b > a, or as
1
,
10a pk q
if a = b.
The decimal has:
An initial transient of max(a, b) digits after the decimal point. Some or all of the digits in the transient can be
zeros.
A subsequent repetend which is the same as that for the fraction 1
pk q
.
For example 1/28 = 0.03571428571428:
the initial non-repeating digits are 03; and

the subsequent repeating digits are 571428.
35.6 Converting repeating decimals to fractions

Given a repeating decimal, it is possible to calculate the fraction that produced it. For example:
x = 0.333333 . . .
10x = 3.333333 . . . 10) by line above the of side each (multiplying
9x = 3 2nd) the from line 1st the (subtracting
x = 3/9 = 1/3 terms) lowest to (reducing
35.6. CONVERTING REPEATING DECIMALS TO FRACTIONS 211
Another example:
x = 0.836363636 . . .
10x = 8.3636363636 . . . repetition) of start to decimal move to 10 of power a by (multiplying
1000x = 836.36363636 . . . decimal) repeating rst of end to decimal move to 100 of power a by (multiplying
990x = 836.36363636 . . . 8.36363636 . . . = 828decimals) clear to (subtracting
828 18 46 46
x= = = .
990 18 55 55
35.6.1 A shortcut
The procedure below can be applied in particular if the repetend has n digits, all of which are 0 except the nal one
which is 1. For instance for n = 7:
x = 0.000000100000010000001 . . .
7
10 x = 1.000000100000010000001 . . .
(10 1)x = 9999999x = 1
7
1 1
x= =
107 1 9999999
So this particular repeating decimal corresponds to the fraction 1/(10* n 1), where the denominator is the number
written as n digits 9. Knowing just that, a general repeating decimal can be expressed as a fraction without having to
solve an equation. For example, one could reason:
7.48181818 . . . = 7.3 + 0.18181818 . . .
73 18 73 92 73 2
= + = + = +
10 99 10 9 11 10 11
11 73 + 10 2 823
= =
10 11 110
It is possible to get a general formula expressing a repeating decimal with an n digit period (repetend length), beginning
right after the decimal point, as a fraction:
x = 0.(A1 A2 An )
10* nx = A1 A2 An .(A1 A2 An )
(10* n 1)x = 9999x = A1 A2 An
x = A1 A2 An /(10* n 1)
= A1 A2 An /9999
More explicitly one gets the following cases.

If the repeating decimal is between 0 and 1, and the repeating block is n digits long, rst occurring right after the
decimal point, then the fraction (not necessarily reduced) will be the integer number represented by the n-digit block
divided by the one represented by n digits 9. For example,
0.444444 . . . = 4/9 since the repeating block is 4 (a 1-digit block),

0.565656 . . . = 56/99 since the repeating block is 56 (a 2-digit block),
0.012012 . . . = 12/999 since the repeating block is 012 (a 3-digit block), and this further reduces to 4/333.
0.9999999 . . . = 9/9 = 1, since the repeating block is 9 (also a 1-digit block)
If the repeating decimal is as above, except that there are k (extra) digits 0 between the decimal point and the repeating
n-digit block, then one can simply add k digits 0 after the n digits 9 of the denominator (and, as before, the fraction
may subsequently be simplied). For example,
0.000444 . . . = 4/9000 since the repeating block is 4 and this block is preceded by 3 zeros,
0.005656 . . . = 56/9900 since the repeating block is 56 and it is preceded by 2 zeros,
0.00012012 . . . = 12/99900 = 2/16650 since the repeating block is 012 and it is preceded by 2 (!) zeros.
Any repeating decimal not of the form described above can be written as a sum of a terminating decimal and a
repeating decimal of one of the two above types (actually the rst type suces, but that could require the terminating
decimal to be negative). For example,
1.23444 . . . = 1.23 + 0.00444 . . . = 123/100 + 4/900 = 1107/900 + 4/900 = 1111/900 or alternatively 1.23444
. . . = 0.79 + 0.44444 . . . = 79/100 + 4/9 = 711/900 + 400/900 = 1111/900
0.3789789 . . . = 0.3 + 0.0789789 . . . = 3/10 + 789/9990 = 2997/9990 + 789/9990 = 3786/9990 = 631/1665

or alternatively 0.3789789 . . . = 0.6 + 0.9789789 . . . = 6/10 + 978/999 = 5994/9990 + 9780/9990 =
3786/9990 = 631/1665
It follows that any repeating decimal with period n, and k digits after the decimal point that do not belong to the
repeating part, can be written as a (not necessarily reduced) fraction whose denominator is (10* n 1)10* k.
Conversely the period of the repeating decimal of a fraction c/d will be (at most) the smallest number n such that
10* n 1 is divisible by d.
For example, the fraction 2/7 has d = 7, and the smallest k that makes 10* k 1 divisible by 7 is k = 6, because 999999
= 7 142857. The period of the fraction 2/7 is therefore 6.
35.7 Repeating decimals as innite series

A repeating decimal can also be expressed as an innite series. That is, a repeating decimal can be regarded as the
sum of an innite number of rational numbers. To take the simplest example,
1 1 1 1
n
= + + + = 0.1
n=1
10 10 100 1000
The above series is a geometric series with the rst term as 1/10 and the common factor 1/10. Because the absolute
value of the common factor is less than 1, we can say that the geometric series converges and nd the exact value
in the form of a fraction by using the following formula where a is the rst term of the series and r is the common
factor.
1
a 1
= 10 1 = = 0.1
1r 1 10 9
35.8. MULTIPLICATION AND CYCLIC PERMUTATION 213
35.8 Multiplication and cyclic permutation

Main article: Cyclic permutation of integer
The cyclic behavior of repeating decimals in multiplication also leads to the construction of integers which are
cyclically permuted when multiplied by certain numbers. For example, 102564 x 4 = 410256. Note that 102564 is
the repetend of 4/39 and 410256 the repetend of 16/39.
35.9 Other properties of repetend lengths

Various properties of repetend lengths (periods) are given by Mitchell* [7] and Dickson.* [8]
The period of 1/k for integer k is always k 1.
If p is prime, the period of 1/p divides evenly into p 1.
If k is composite, the period of 1/k is strictly less than k 1.
The period of c/k, for c coprime to k, equals the period of 1/k.
If k = 2a 5b n where n > 1 and n is not divisible by 2 or 5, then the length of the transient of 1/k is max(a, b), and the
period equals r, where r is the smallest integer such that 10r 1 (mod n) .
If p, p', p, are distinct primes, then the period of 1/(pp'p") equals the lowest common multiple of the periods
of 1/p, 1/p' ,1/p, .
1
If k and k' have no common prime factors other than 2 and/or 5, then the period of kk equals the least common
multiple of the periods of k1 and k1 .
For prime p, if period( p1 ) = period( p12 ) = = period( p1m ) but period( p1m ) = period( pm+1
1
) , then for c 0 we
have period( pm+c ) = p period( p ) .
1 c 1
If p is a proper prime ending in a 1 that is, if the repetend of 1/p is a cyclic number of length p 1 and p = 10h + 1
for some h then each digit 0, 1, , 9 appears in the repetend exactly h = (p 1)/10 times.
For some other properties of repetends, see also.* [9]
35.10 Extension to other bases

Various features of repeating decimals extend to the representation of numbers in all other integer bases, not just
base 10:
Any number can be represented as an integer component followed by a radix point (the generalization of a
decimal point to non-decimal systems) followed by a nite or innite number of digits.
A rational number has a terminating sequence after the radix point if all the prime factors of the denominator
of the fully reduced fractional form are also factors of the base. This terminating representation is equivalent
to a representation with a repeating sequence that can be constructed from the terminating form by decreasing
the last digit by 1 and appending an innite sequence of a digit representing a number that is one less than the
base.
A rational number has an innitely repeating sequence of nite length less than the value of the fully reduced
fraction's denominator if the reduced fraction's denominator contains a prime factor that is not a factor of the
base. The repeating sequence is preceded after the radix point by a transient of nite length if the reduced
fraction also shares a prime factor with the base.
An irrational number has a representation of innite length that never repeats itself.
For example, in duodecimal, 1/2 = 0.6, 1/3 = 0.4, 1/4 = 0.3 and 1/6 = 0.2 all terminate; 1/5 = 0.2497 repeats with
period 4, in contrast with the equivalent decimal expansion of 0.2; 1/7 = 0.186 35 has period 6 in duodecimal, just
as it does in decimal.
If b is an integer base and k is an integer,
1 1 (b k)1 (b k)2 (b k)3 (b k)4 (b k)N 1

= + + + + + + +
k b b2 b3 b4 b5 bN
For example 1/7 in duodecimal:
1 1 5 21 5 441 1985
= + 2+ 3+ 4+ 5 + +
7 10 10 10 10 10 106
Which is 0.186 35 (base 12). Note that 10 (base 12) is 12 (base 10), 10^2 (base 12) is 144 (base 10), 21 (base 12)
is 25 (base 10), 5 (base 12) is 125 (base 10), ...
35.11 Applications to cryptography

Repeating decimals (also called decimal sequences) have found cryptographic and error-correction coding applica-
tions.* [10] In these applications repeating decimals to base 2 are generally used which gives rise to binary sequences.
The maximum length binary sequence for 1/p (when 2 is a primitive root of p) is given by:* [11]
a(i) = 2i modp mod2
These sequences of period p-1 have an autocorrelation function that has a negative peak of 1 for shift of (p1)/2.
The randomness of these sequences has been examined by diehard tests.* [12]
35.12 See also

Decimal representation
Parasitic number
Midy's theorem
Full reptend prime
Unique prime
35.13 References
[1] Courant, R. and Robbins, H. What Is Mathematics?: An Elementary Approach to Ideas and Methods, 2nd ed. Oxford,
England: Oxford University Press, 1996: p. 67 .
[2] Beswick, Kim (2004), Why Does 0.999... = 1?: A Perennial Question and Number Sense, Australian Mathematics
Teacher, 60 (4): 79
[3] Gray, Alexander J., Digital roots and reciprocals of primes,Mathematical Gazette 84.09, March 2000, 86.
[4] Dickson, L. E., History of the Theory of Numbers, Volume 1, Chelsea Publishing Co., 1952.
[5] William E. Heal Some Properties of Repetends Annals of Mathematics, Vol. 3, No. 4 (Aug., 1887), pp. 97-103
[6] Albert H. Beiler, Recreations in the Theory of Numbers, p 79

[7] Mitchell, Douglas W., A nonlinear random number generator with known, long cycle length,Cryptologia 17, January
1993, 5562.
[8] Dickson, Leonard E., History of the Theory of Numbers, Vol. I, Chelsea Publ. Co., 1952 (orig. 1918), 164173.
[9] Armstrong, N. J., and Armstrong, R. J., Some properties of repetends,Mathematical Gazette 87, November 2003,
437443.
[10] Kak, Subhash, Chatterjee, A. On decimal sequences.IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, vol. IT-27, pp. 647-
652, September 1981.
[11] Kak, Subhash,Encryption and error-correction using d-sequences.IEEE Trans. On Computers, vol. C-34, pp. 803-809,
1985.
[12] Bellamy, J. Randomness of D sequences via diehard testing.2013. arXiv:1312.3618

Weisstein, Eric W. Repeating Decimal. MathWorld.
Online fractions calculator with detailed solution

Chapter 36
Seventh power
In arithmetic and algebra the seventh power of a number n is the result of multiplying seven instances of n together.
So:
n7 = n n n n n n n.
Seventh powers are also formed by multiplying a number by its sixth power, the square of a number by its fth power,
or the cube of a number by its fourth power.
The sequence of seventh powers of integers is:
0, 1, 128, 2187, 16384, 78125, 279936, 823543, 2097152, 4782969, 10000000, 19487171, 35831808,
62748517, 105413504, 170859375, 268435456, 410338673, 612220032, 893871739, 1280000000,
1801088541, 2494357888, 3404825447, 4586471424, 6103515625, 8031810176, ... (sequence A001015
in the OEIS)
In the archaic notation of Robert Recorde, the seventh power of a number was called the second sursolid.* [1]
36.1 Properties
Leonard Eugene Dickson studied generalizations of Waring's problem for seventh powers, showing that every non-
negative integer can be represented as a sum of at most 258 non-negative seventh powers.* [2] All but nitely many
positive integers can be expressed more simply as the sum of at most 46 seventh powers.* [3] If negative powers are
allowed, only 12 powers are required.* [4]
The smallest number that can be represented in two dierent ways as a sum of four positive seventh powers is
2056364173794800.* [5]
The smallest seventh power that can be represented as a sum of eight distinct seventh powers is:* [6]
1027 = 127 + 357 + 537 + 587 + 647 + 837 + 857 + 907 .
The two known examples of a seventh power expressible as the sum of seven seventh powers are
5687 = 1277 + 2587 + 2667 + 4137 + 4307 + 4397 + 5257 (M. Dodrill, 1999);* [7]
and
6267 = 6257 + 3097 + 2587 + 2557 + 1587 + 1487 + 917 (Maurice Blondot, 11/14/2000);* [7]
any example with fewer terms in the sum would be a counterexample to Euler's sum of powers conjecture, which is
currently only known to be false for the powers 4 and 5.
216
36.2. SEE ALSO 217
36.2 See also

Sixth power

Fourth power
Cube (algebra)
Square (algebra)
36.3 References
[1] Womack, D. (2015),Beyond tetration operations: their past, present and future, Mathematics in School, 44 (1): 2326
[2] Dickson, L. E. (1934), A new method for universal Waring theorems with details for seventh powers, American
Mathematical Monthly, 41 (9): 547555, MR 1523212, doi:10.2307/2301430
[3] Kumchev, Angel V. (2005), On the Waring-Goldbach problem for seventh powers, Proceedings of the American
Mathematical Society, 133 (10): 29272937, MR 2159771, doi:10.1090/S0002-9939-05-07908-6
[4] Choudhry, Ajai (2000), On sums of seventh powers, Journal of Number Theory, 81 (2): 266269, MR 1752254,
doi:10.1006/jnth.1999.2465
[5] Ekl, Randy L. (1996), Equal sums of four seventh powers, Mathematics of Computation, 65 (216): 17551756, MR
1361807, doi:10.1090/S0025-5718-96-00768-5
[6] Stewart, Ian (1989), Game, set, and math: Enigmas and conundrums, Basil Blackwell, Oxford, p. 123, ISBN 0-631-17114-
2, MR 1253983
Chapter 37
Sign (mathematics)
Not to be confused with the sine function in trigonometry.

For symbols named "sign, see List of mathematical symbols.
In mathematics, the concept of sign originates from the property of every non-zero real number of being positive
The plus and minus symbols are used to show the sign of a number.
or negative. Zero itself is signless, although in some contexts it makes sense to consider a signed zero, and in some
contexts it makes sense to call 0 its own sign. Along with its application to real numbers, change of signis
used throughout mathematics and physics to denote the additive inverse (negation, or multiplication by 1), even for
quantities which are not real numbers (so, which are not prescribed to be either positive, negative, or zero). Also, the
wordsigncan indicate aspects of mathematical objects that resemble positivity and negativity, such as the sign of
a permutation (see below).
218
37.1. SIGN OF A NUMBER 219
37.1 Sign of a number

Every number has multiple attributes (such as value, sign and magnitude). A real number is said to be positive if its
value (not its magnitude) is greater than zero, and negative if it is less than zero. The attribute of being positive or
negative is called the sign of the number. Zero itself is not considered to have a sign (though this is context dependent,
see below). Also, signs are not dened for complex numbers, although the argument generalizes it in some sense.
In common numeral notation (which is used in arithmetic and elsewhere), the sign of a number is often denoted by
placing a plus sign or a minus sign before the number. For example, +3 denotes positive three, and 3 denotes
negative three. When no plus or minus sign is given, the default interpretation is that a number is positive. Because
of this notation, as well as the denition of negative numbers through subtraction, the minus sign is perceived to have
a strong association with negative numbers (of the negative sign). Likewise, "+" associates with positivity.
In algebra, a minus sign is usually thought of as representing the operation of additive inverse (sometimes called
negation), with the additive inverse of a positive number being negative and the additive inverse of a negative number
being positive. In this context, it makes sense to write (3) = +3.
Any non-zero number can be changed to a positive one using the absolute value function. For example, the absolute
value of 3 and the absolute value of 3 are both equal to 3. In symbols, this would be written |3| = 3 and |3| = 3.
37.1.1 Sign of zero

The number zero is neither positive nor negative, and therefore has no sign. In arithmetic, +0 and 0 both denote the
same number 0, which is the additive inverse of itself.
Note that this denition is culturally determined. In France and Belgium, 0 is said to be both positive and negative.
The positive resp. negative numbers without zero are said to be strictly positiveresp. strictly negative.
In some contexts, such as signed number representations in computing, it makes sense to consider signed versions of
zero, with positive zero and negative zero being dierent numbers (see signed zero).
One also sees +0 and 0 in calculus and mathematical analysis when evaluating one-sided limits. This notation refers
to the behaviour of a function as the input variable approaches 0 from positive or negative values respectively; these
behaviours are not necessarily the same.
37.1.2 Terminology for signs

Because zero is neither positive nor negative (in most countries), the following phrases are sometimes used to refer
to the sign of an unknown number:
A number is positive if it is greater than zero.

A number is negative if it is less than zero.
A number is non-negative if it is greater than or equal to zero.
A number is non-positive if it is less than or equal to zero.
Thus a non-negative number is either positive or zero, while a non-positive number is either negative or zero. For
example, the absolute value of a real number is always non-negative, but is not necessarily positive.
The same terminology is sometimes used for functions that take real or integer values. For example, a function would
be called positive if all of its values are positive, or non-negative if all of its values are non-negative.
37.1.3 Sign convention

Main article: Sign convention
In many contexts the choice of sign convention (which range of values is considered positive and which negative) is
natural, whereas in others the choice is arbitrary subject only to consistency, the latter necessitating an explicit sign
convention.
220 CHAPTER 37. SIGN (MATHEMATICS)
37.2 Sign function
y
1
1
Signum function y = sgn(x)
Main article: Sign function
The sign function or signum function is sometimes used to extract the sign of a number. This function is usually
dened as follows:

1 ifx < 0,
sgn(x) = 0 ifx = 0,

1 ifx > 0.
Thus sgn(x) is 1 when x is positive, and sgn(x) is 1 when x is negative. For nonzero values of x, this function can
also be dened by the formula
x |x|
sgn(x) = =
|x| x
where |x| is the absolute value of x.
37.3 Meanings of sign

37.3. MEANINGS OF SIGN 221
(0,0) A (1,0)
Measuring from the x-axis, angles on the unit circle count as positive in the counterclockwise direction, and negative in the clockwise
direction.
37.3.1 Sign of an angle

In many contexts, it is common to associate a sign with the measure of an angle, particularly an oriented angle or an
angle of rotation. In such a situation, the sign indicates whether the angle is in the clockwise or counterclockwise
direction. Though dierent conventions can be used, it is common in mathematics to have counterclockwise angles
count as positive, and clockwise angles count as negative.
It is also possible to associate a sign to an angle of rotation in three dimensions, assuming the axis of rotation has been
oriented. Specically, a right-handed rotation around an oriented axis typically counts as positive, while a left-handed
rotation counts as negative.
37.3.2 Sign of a change

When a quantity x changes over time, the change in the value of x is typically dened by the equation
x = xnal xinitial .
Using this convention, an increase in x counts as positive change, while a decrease of x counts as negative change.
In calculus, this same convention is used in the denition of the derivative. As a result, any increasing function has
positive derivative, while a decreasing function has negative derivative.
222 CHAPTER 37. SIGN (MATHEMATICS)
37.3.3 Sign of a direction
In analytic geometry and physics, it is common to label certain directions as positive or negative. For a basic example,
the number line is usually drawn with positive numbers to the right, and negative numbers to the left:
-9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
As a result, when discussing linear motion, displacement or velocity to the right is usually thought of as being positive,
while similar motion to the left is thought of as being negative.
On the Cartesian plane, the rightward and upward directions are usually thought of as positive, with rightward being
the positive x-direction, and upward being the positive y-direction. If a displacement or velocity vector is separated
into its vector components, then the horizontal part will be positive for motion to the right and negative for motion to
the left, while the vertical part will be positive for motion upward and negative for motion downward.
37.3.4 Signedness in computing
Main article: Signedness
In computing, an integer value may be either signed or unsigned, depending on whether the computer is keeping track
of a sign for the number. By restricting an integer variable to non-negative values only, one more bit can be used for
storing the value of a number. Because of the way integer arithmetic is done within computers, the sign of a signed
integer variable is usually not stored as a single independent bit, but is instead stored using two's complement or some
other signed number representation.
In contrast, real numbers are stored and manipulated as Floating point values. The oating point values are represented
using three separate values, mantissa, exponent, and sign. Given this separate sign bit, it is possible to represent both
positive and negative zero. Most programming languages normally treat positive zero and negative zero as equivalent
values, albeit, they provide means by which the distinction can be detected.
37.3.5 Other meanings
In addition to the sign of a real number, the word sign is also used in various related ways throughout mathematics
and the sciences:
Words up to sign mean that for a quantity q is known that either q = Q or q = Q for certain Q. It is often
expressed as q = Q. For real numbers, it means that only the absolute value |q| of the quantity is known. For
complex numbers and vectors, a quantity known up to sign is a stronger condition than a quantity with known
magnitude: aside Q and Q, there are many other possible values of q such that |q| = |Q|.
The sign of a permutation is dened to be positive if the permutation is even, and negative if the permutation
is odd.
In graph theory, a signed graph is a graph in which each edge has been marked with a positive or negative sign.
In mathematical analysis, a signed measure is a generalization of the concept of measure in which the measure
of a set may have positive or negative values.
In a signed-digit representation, each digit of a number may have a positive or negative sign.
The ideas of signed area and signed volume are sometimes used when it is convenient for certain areas or
volumes to count as negative. This is particularly true in the theory of determinants.
In physics, any electric charge comes with a sign, either positive or negative. By convention, a positive charge
is a charge with the same sign as that of a proton, and a negative charge is a charge with the same sign as that
of an electron.
37.4. SEE ALSO 223
Electric charge may be positive or negative.
37.4 See also

Signedness
Positive element
Symmetry in mathematics
Chapter 38
Signicance arithmetic
Signicance arithmetic is a set of rules (sometimes called signicant gure rules) for approximating the propa-
gation of uncertainty in scientic or statistical calculations. These rules can be used to nd the appropriate number
of signicant gures to use to represent the result of a calculation. If a calculation is done without analysis of the
uncertainty involved, a result that is written with too many signicant gures can be taken to imply a higher precision
than is known, and a result that is written with too few signicant gures results in an avoidable loss of precision.
Understanding these rules requires a good understanding of the concept of signicant and insignicant gures.
The rules of signicance arithmetic are an approximation based on statistical rules for dealing with probability dis-
tributions. See the article on propagation of uncertainty for these more advanced and precise rules. Signicance
arithmetic rules rely on the assumption that the number of signicant gures in the operands gives accurate infor-
mation about the uncertainty of the operands and hence the uncertainty of the result. For an alternative see interval
arithmetic.
An important caveat is that signicant gures apply only to measured values. Values known to be exact should be
ignored for determining the number of signicant gures that belong in the result. Examples of such values include:
integer counts (e.g., the number of oranges in a bag)
denitions of one unit in terms of another (e.g. a minute is 60 seconds)
actual prices asked or oered, and quantities given in requirement specications
legally dened conversions, such as international currency exchange
scalar operations, such as triplingor halving
mathematical constants, such as and e
Physical constants such as Avogadro's number, however, have a limited number of signicant digits, because these
constants are known to us only by measurement. On the other hand, c (speed of light) is exactly 299,792,458 m/s by
denition.
38.1 Multiplication and division using signicance arithmetic

When multiplying or dividing numbers, the result is rounded to the number of signicant gures in the factor with the
least signicant gures. Here, the quantity of signicant gures in each of the factors is importantnot the position
of the signicant gures. For instance, using signicance arithmetic rules:
8 8 = 6 101
8 8.0 = 6 101
8.0 8.0 = 64
224
38.2. ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION USING SIGNIFICANCE ARITHMETIC 225
8.02 8.02 = 64.3
8 / 2.0 = 4
8.6 /2.0012 = 4.3
2 0.8 = 2
If, in the above, the numbers are assumed to be measurements (and therefore probably inexact) then 8above
represents an inexact measurement with only one signicant digit. Therefore, the result of 8 8is rounded to a
result with only one signicant digit, i.e., 6 101 " instead of the unrounded 64that one might expect. In many
cases, the rounded result is less accurate than the non-rounded result; a measurement of8has an actual underlying
quantity between 7.5 and 8.5. The true square would be in the range between 56.25 and 72.25. So 6 101 is the
best one can give, as other possible answers give a false sense of accuracy. Further, the 6 101 is itself confusing (as
it might be considered to imply 60 5, which is over-optimistic; more accurate would be 64 8).
38.2 Addition and subtraction using signicance arithmetic

When adding or subtracting using signicant gures rules, results are rounded to the position of the least signicant
digit in the most uncertain of the numbers being summed (or subtracted). That is, the result is rounded to the last
digit that is signicant in each of the numbers being summed. Here the position of the signicant gures is important,
but the quantity of signicant gures is irrelevant. Some examples using these rules:
1 + 1.1 = 2
1 is signicant to the ones place, 1.1 is signicant to the tenths place. Of the two, the least precise is the
ones place. The answer cannot have any signicant gures past the ones place.
1.0 + 1.1 = 2.1
1.0 and 1.1 are signicant to the tenths place, so the answer will also have a number in the tenths place.
100 + 110 = 200
We see the answer is 200, given the signicance to the hundredths place of the 100. The answer maintains
a single digits of signicance in the hundreds place, just like the rst term in the arithmetic.
100. + 110. = 210.
100. and 110. are both signicant to the ones place (as indicated by the decimal), so the answer is also
signicant to the ones place.
1102 + 1.1102 = 2102
100 is signicant up to the hundreds place, while 110 is up to the tens place. Of the two, the least accurate
is the hundreds place. The answer should not have signicant digits past the hundreds place.
1.0102 + 111 = 2.1102
1.0102 is signicant up to the tens place while 111 has numbers up until the ones place. The answer
will have no signicant gures past the tens place.
123.25 + 46.0 + 86.26 = 255.5
123.25 and 86.26 are signicant until the hundredths place while 46.0 is only signicant until the tenths
place. The answer will be signicant up until the tenths place.
100 - 1 = 100
We see the answer is 100, given the signicance to the hundredths place of the 100. It may seem counter-
intuitive, but giving the nature of signicant digits dictating precision, we can see how this follows from
the standard rules.
226 CHAPTER 38. SIGNIFICANCE ARITHMETIC
38.3 Transcendental functions

Transcendental functions have a complicated method for determining the signicance of the result. These include the
logarithm function, the exponential function and the trigonometric functions. The signicance of the result depends on
the condition number. In general, the number of signicant gures for the result is equal to the number of signicant
gures for the input minus the order of magnitude of the condition number.
The condition number of a dierentiable function f at a point x is |xf (x)/f (x)| ; see Condition number: One variable
for details. Note that if a function has a zero at a point, its condition number at the point is innite, as innitesimal
changes in the input can change the output from zero to non-zero, yielding a ratio with zero in the denominator, hence
an innite relative change. The condition number of the mostly used functions are as follows;* [1] these can be used
to compute signicant gures for all elementary functions:
Exponential function ex : |x|

Natural logarithm function ln(x) : 1
| ln(x)|
Sine function sin(x) : |x cot(x)|

Cosine function cos(x) : |x tan(x)|
Tangent function tan(x) : |x(tan(x) + cot(x))|

Inverse sine function arcsin(x) : 1x2xarcsin(x)

Inverse cosine function arccos(x) : 1x2 xarccos(x)

Inverse tangent function arctan(x) : (1+x2 )xarctan(x)
38.4 Rounding rules

Because signicance arithmetic involves rounding, it is useful to understand a specic rounding rule that is often used
when doing scientic calculations: the round-to-even rule (also called banker's rounding). It is especially useful when
dealing with large data sets.
This rule helps to eliminate the upwards skewing of data when using traditional rounding rules. Whereas traditional
rounding always rounds up when the following digit is 5, bankers sometimes round down to eliminate this upwards
bias.
See the article on rounding for more information on rounding rules and a detailed explanation of the round-to-even
rule.
38.5 Disagreements about importance

Signicant gures are used extensively in high school and undergraduate courses as a shorthand for the precision
with which a measurement is known. However, signicant gures are not a perfect representation of uncertainty, and
are not meant to be. Instead, they are a useful tool for avoiding expressing more information than the experimenter
actually knows, and for avoiding rounding numbers in such a way as to lose precision.
For example, here are some important dierences between signicant gure rules and uncertainty:
Uncertainty is not the same as a mistake. If the outcome of a particular experiment is reported as 1.2340.056
it does not mean the observer made a mistake; it may be that the outcome is inherently statistical, and is best
described by the expression indicating a value showing only those digits that are signicant, ie the known digits
plus one uncertain digit, in this case 1.230.06. To describe that outcome as 1.234 would be incorrect under
these circumstances, even though it expresses less uncertainty.
Uncertainty is not the same as insignicance, and vice versa. An uncertain number may be highly signicant
(example: signal averaging). Conversely, a completely certain number may be insignicant.
38.6. SEE ALSO 227
Signicance is not the same as signicant digits. Digit-counting is not as rigorous a way to represent signicance
as specifying the uncertainty separately and explicitly (such as 1.2340.056).
Manual, algebraic propagation of uncertaintythe nominal topic of this articleis possible, but challenging.
Alternative methods include the crank three times method and the Monte Carlo method. Another option is
interval arithmetic, which can provide a strict upper bound on the uncertainty, but generally it is not a tight
upper bound (i.e. it does not provide a best estimate of the uncertainty). For most purposes, Monte Carlo is
more useful than interval arithmetic . Kahan considers signicance arithmetic to be unreliable as a form of
automated error analysis.* [2]
In order to explicitly express the uncertainty in any uncertain result, the uncertainty should be given separately, with
an uncertainty interval, and a condence interval. The expression 1.23 U95 = 0.06 implies that the true (unknowable)
value of the variable is expected to lie in the interval from 1.17 to 1.29 with at least 95% condence. If the condence
interval is not specied it has traditionally been assumed to be 95% corresponding to two standard deviations from the
mean. Condence intervals at one standard deviation (68%) and three standard deviations (99%) are also commonly
used.
38.6 See also

Rounding
Propagation of uncertainty
Signicant gures
Accuracy and precision
MANIAC III
Loss of signicance
38.7 References
[1] http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~{}jrh13/papers/transcendentals.pdf%5B%5D
[2] William Kahan (1 March 1998). How JAVA's Floating-Point Hurts Everyone Everywhere (PDF). pp. 3739.

Delury, D. B. (1958). Computations with approximate numbers. The Mathematics Teacher. 51 (7):
52130. JSTOR 27955748.
Bond, E. A. (1931). Signicant Digits in Computation with Approximate Numbers. The Mathematics
Teacher. 24 (4): 20812. JSTOR 27951340.
ASTM E29-06b, Standard Practice for Using Signicant Digits in Test Data to Determine Conformance with
Specications
38.9 External links

The Decimal Arithmetic FAQ Is the decimal arithmetic signicancearithmetic?
Advanced methods for handling uncertainty and some explanations of the shortcomings of signicance arith-
metic and signicant gures.
Signicant Figures Calculator Displays a number with the desired number of signicant digits.
Measurements and Uncertainties versus Signicant Digits or Signicant Figures Proper methods for express-
ing uncertainty, including a detailed discussion of the problems with any notion of signicant digits.
Chapter 39
Sixth power
In arithmetic and algebra the sixth power of a number n is the result of multiplying six instances of n together. So:
n6 = n n n n n n.
Sixth powers are also formed by multiplying a number by its fth power, the square of a number by its fourth power,
or the cube of a number by itself, by taking a square to the third power, or by squaring a cube.
The sequence of sixth powers of integers is:
0, 1, 64, 729, 4096, 15625, 46656, 117649, 262144, 531441, 1000000, 1771561, 2985984, 4826809,
7529536, 11390625, 16777216, 24137569, 34012224, 47045881, 64000000, 85766121, 113379904,
148035889, 191102976, 244140625, 308915776, 387420489, 481890304, ... (sequence A001014 in
the OEIS)
They include the signicant decimal numbers 106 (a million), 1006 (a short-scale trillion and long-scale billion), and
10006 (a long-scale trillion).
39.1 Squares and cubes
The sixth powers of integers can be characterized as the numbers that are simultaneously squares and cubes.* [1]
In this way, they are related to two other classes of gurate numbers: the square triangular numbers, which are
simultaneously square and triangular, and the solutions to the cannonball problem, which are simultaneously square
and square-pyramidal.
Because of their connection to squares and cubes, sixth powers play an important role in the study of the Mordell
curves, which are elliptic curves of the form
y 2 = x3 + k.
When k is divisible by a sixth power, this equation can be reduced by dividing by that power to give a simpler equation
of the same form. A well-known result in number theory, proven by Rudolf Fueter and Louis J. Mordell, states that,
when k is an integer that is not divisible by a sixth power (other than the exceptional cases k = 1 and k = 432 ),
this equation either has no rational solutions with both x and y nonzero or innitely many of them.* [2]
In the archaic notation of Robert Recorde, the sixth power of a number was called the zenzicube, meaning the
square of a cube. Similarly, the notation for sixth powers used in 12th century Indian mathematics by Bhskara II
also called them either the square of a cube or the cube of a square.* [3]
228
39.2. SUMS 229
39.2 Sums
There are numerous known examples of sixth powers that can be expressed as the sum of seven other sixth powers,
but no examples are yet known of a sixth power expressible as the sum of just six sixth powers.* [4] This makes it
unique among the powers with exponent k = 1, 2, ... , 8, the others of which can each be expressed as the sum of k
other k-th powers, and some of which (in violation of Euler's sum of powers conjecture) can be expressed as a sum
of even fewer k-th powers.
In connection with Waring's problem, every suciently large integer can be represented as a sum of at most 24 sixth
powers of integers.* [5]
There are innitely many dierent nontrivial solutions to the Diophantine equation* [6]
a6 + b6 + c6 = d6 + e6 + f 6 .
It has not been proven whether the equation
a6 + b6 = c6 + d6
has a nontrivial solution,* [7] but the Lander, Parkin, and Selfridge conjecture would imply that it does not.
39.3 See also

Sextic equation
Seventh power
39.4 References
[1] Dowden, Richard (April 30, 1825), "(untitled)", Mechanics' Magazine and Journal of Science, Arts, and Manufactures,
Knight and Lacey, vol. 4 no. 88, p. 54
[2] Ireland, Kenneth F.; Rosen, Michael I. (1982), A classical introduction to modern number theory, Graduate Texts in Math-
ematics, 84, Springer-Verlag, New York-Berlin, p. 289, ISBN 0-387-90625-8, MR 661047.
[3] Cajori, Florian (2013), A History of Mathematical Notations, Dover Books on Mathematics, Courier Corporation, p. 80,
ISBN 9780486161167
[5] Vaughan, R. C.; Wooley, T. D. (1994),Further improvements in Waring's problem. II. Sixth powers, Duke Mathematical
Journal, 76 (3): 683710, MR 1309326, doi:10.1215/S0012-7094-94-07626-6
[6] Brudno, Simcha (1976), Triples of sixth powers with equal sums, Mathematics of Computation, 30 (135): 646648,
MR 0406923, doi:10.2307/2005335
[7] Bremner, Andrew; Guy, Richard K. (1988),Unsolved Problems: A Dozen Dicult Diophantine Dilemmas, American
Mathematical Monthly, 95 (1): 3136, MR 1541235, doi:10.2307/2323442
39.5 External links

Weisstein, Eric W. Diophantine Equation6th Powers. MathWorld.
Chapter 40
Square (algebra)
"" redirects here. For typography of superscripts, see subscript and superscript.
In mathematics, a square is the result of multiplying a number by itself. The verbto squareis used to denote this
operation. Squaring is the same as raising to the power 2, and is denoted by a superscript 2; for instance, the square
of 3 may be written as 32 , which is the number 9. In some cases when superscripts are not available, as for instance
in programming languages or plain text les, the notations x^2 or x**2 may be used in place of x2 .
The adjective which corresponds to squaring is quadratic.
The square of an integer may also be called a square number or a perfect square. In algebra, the operation of squaring
is often generalized to polynomials, other expressions, or values in systems of mathematical values other than the
numbers. For instance, the square of the linear polynomial x + 1 is the quadratic polynomial x2 + 2x + 1.
One of the important properties of squaring, for numbers as well as in many other mathematical systems, is that (for
all numbers x), the square of x is the same as the square of its additive inverse x. That is, the square function satises
the identity x2 = (x)2 . This can also be expressed by saying that the squaring function is an even function.
40.1 In real numbers
The squaring function preserves the order of positive numbers: larger numbers have larger squares. In other words,
squaring is a monotonic function on the interval [0, +). On the negative numbers, numbers with greater absolute
value have greater squares, so squaring is a monotonically decreasing function on (,0]. Hence, zero is its global
minimum. The only cases where the square x2 of a number is less than x occur when 0 < x < 1, that is, when x belongs
to an open interval (0,1). This implies that the square of an integer is never less than the original number.
Every positive real number is the square of exactly two numbers, one of which is strictly positive and the other of
which is strictly negative. Zero is the square of only one number, itself. For this reason, it is possible to dene the
square root function, which associates with a non-negative real number the non-negative number whose square is the
original number.
No square root can be taken of a negative number within the system of real numbers, because squares of all real
numbers are non-negative. The lack of real square roots for the negative numbers can be used to expand the real
number system to the complex numbers, by postulating the imaginary unit i, which is one of the square roots of 1.
The property every non negative real number is a squarehas been generalized to the notion of a real closed eld,
which is an ordered eld such that every non negative element is a square and every polynomial of odd degree has a
root. The real closed elds cannot be distinguished from the eld of real numbers by their algebraic properties: every
property of the real numbers, which may be expressed in rst-order logic (that is expressed by a formula in which the
variables that are quantied by or represent elements, not sets), is true for every real closed eld, and conversely
every property of the rst-order logic, which is true for a specic real closed eld is also true for the real numbers.
230
40.2. IN GEOMETRY 231
5
5 5 = 25
5 = 25
5 5, or 52 (5 squared), can be shown graphically using a square. Each block represents one unit, 1 1, and the entire square
represents 5 5, or the area of the square.
40.2 In geometry
There are several major uses of the squaring function in geometry.
The name of the squaring function shows its importance in the denition of the area: it comes from the fact that
the area of a square with sides of length l is equal to l2 . The area depends quadratically on the size: the area of a
shape n times larger is n2 times greater. This holds for areas in three dimensions as well as in the plane: for instance,
the surface area of a sphere is proportional to the square of its radius, a fact that is manifested physically by the
232 CHAPTER 40. SQUARE (ALGEBRA)
y = x2 . The graph of a quadratic function has a parabolic shape. The squares of numbers make a power law.
inverse-square law describing how the strength of physical forces such as gravity varies according to distance.
The squaring function is related to distance through the Pythagorean theorem and its generalization, the parallelogram
law. Euclidean distance is not a smooth function: the three-dimensional graph of distance from a xed point forms a
cone, with a non-smooth point at the tip of the cone. However, the square of the distance (denoted d2 or r2 ), which
has a paraboloid as its graph, is a smooth and analytic function. The dot product of a Euclidean vector with itself is
equal to the square of its length: vv = v2 . This is further generalised to quadratic forms in linear spaces. The inertia
tensor in mechanics is an example of a quadratic form. It demonstrates a quadratic relation of the moment of inertia
to the size (length).
There are innitely many Pythagorean triples, sets of three positive integers such that the sum of the squares of the
rst two equals the square of the third. Each of these triples gives the integer sides of a right triangle.
40.3. IN ABSTRACT ALGEBRA AND NUMBER THEORY 233
Fresnel's zone plates have rings with equally spaced squared distances to the center
40.3 In abstract algebra and number theory

The squaring function is dened in any eld or ring. An element in the image of this function is called a square, and
the inverse images of a square are called square roots.
The notion of squaring is particularly important in the nite elds Z/pZ formed by the numbers modulo an odd prime
number p. A non-zero element of this eld is called a quadratic residue if it is a square in Z/pZ, and otherwise, it is
called a quadratic non-residue. Zero, while a square, is not considered to be a quadratic residue. Every nite eld of
this type has exactly (p 1)/2 quadratic residues and exactly (p 1)/2 quadratic non-residues. The quadratic residues
form a group under multiplication. The properties of quadratic residues are widely used in number theory.
More generally, in rings, the squaring function may have dierent properties that are sometimes used to classify rings.
Zero may be the square of some non-zero elements. A commutative ring such that the square of a non zero element
is never zero is called a reduced ring. More generally, in a commutative ring, a radical ideal is an ideal I such that
x2 I implies x I . Both notions are important in algebraic geometry, because of Hilbert's Nullstellensatz.
An element of a ring that is equal to its own square is called an idempotent. In any ring, 0 and 1 are idempotents.
There are no other idempotents in elds and more generally in integral domains. However, the ring of the integers
modulo n has 2* k idempotents, where k is the number of distinct prime factors of n. A commutative ring in which
every element is equal to its square (every element is idempotent) is called a Boolean ring; an example from computer
234 CHAPTER 40. SQUARE (ALGEBRA)
science is the ring whose elements are binary numbers, with bitwise AND as the multiplication operation and bitwise
XOR as the addition operation.
In a supercommutative algebra (away from 2), the square of any odd element equals to zero.
If A is a commutative semigroup, then one has
x, y A (xy)2 = xyxy = xxyy = x2 y 2 .

In the language of quadratic forms, this equality says that the squaring function is a form permitting composition
. In fact, the squaring function is the foundation upon which other quadratic forms are constructed which also permit
composition. The procedure was introduced by L. E. Dickson to produce the octonions out of quaternions by doubling.
The doubling method was formalized by A. A. Albert who started with the real number eld and the squaring
function, doubling it to obtain the complex number eld with quadratic form x2 + y2 , and then doubling again to
obtain quaternions. The doubling procedure is called the CayleyDickson process and the structures produced are
composition algebras.
The squaring function can be used with as the start for another use of the CayleyDickson process leading to
bicomplex, biquaternion, and bioctonion composition algebras.
40.4 In complex numbers and related algebras over the reals

See also: Exponentiation Powers of complex numbers
The complex square function z2 is a twofold cover of the complex plane, such that each non-zero complex number
has exactly two square roots. This map is related to parabolic coordinates.
40.5 Other uses

Squares are ubiquitous in algebra, more generally, in almost every branch of mathematics, and also in physics where
many units are dened using squares and inverse squares: see below.
Least squares is the standard method used with overdetermined systems.
Squaring is used in statistics and probability theory in determining the standard deviation of a set of values, or a
random variable. The deviation of each value x from the mean x of the set is dened as the dierence xi x .
These deviations are squared, then a mean is taken of the new set of numbers (each of which is positive). This mean
is the variance, and its square root is the standard deviation. In nance, the volatility of a nancial instrument is the
standard deviation of its values.
40.6 See also

Exponentiation by squaring
Polynomial SOS, the representation of a non-negative polynomial as the sum of squares of polynomials
Hilbert's seventeenth problem, for the representation of positive polynomials as a sum of squares of rational
functions
Square-free polynomial
Cube (algebra)
Metric tensor
Quadratic equation
Polynomial ring
Sums of squares (disambiguation page with various relevant links)
40.7. FOOTNOTES 235
40.6.1 Related identities

Algebraic (need a commutative ring)
Dierence of two squares

BrahmaguptaFibonacci identity, related to complex numbers in the sense discussed above
Euler's four-square identity, related to quaternions in the same way

Degen's eight-square identity, related to octonions in the same way
Lagrange's identity
Other
Pythagorean trigonometric identity

Parseval's identity
40.6.2 Related physical quantities

acceleration, length per square time
cross section (physics), an area-dimensioned quantity
coupling constant (has square charge in the denominator, and may be expressed with square distance in the
numerator)
kinetic energy (quadratic dependence on velocity)

specic energy, a (square velocity)-dimensioned quantity
40.7 Footnotes

Marshall, Murray Positive polynomials and sums of squares. Mathematical Surveys and Monographs, 146.
American Mathematical Society, Providence, RI, 2008. xii+187 pp. ISBN 978-0-8218-4402-1, ISBN 0-
8218-4402-4
Rajwade, A. R. (1993). Squares. London Mathematical Society Lecture Note Series. 171. Cambridge Uni-
versity Press. ISBN 0-521-42668-5. Zbl 0785.11022.
Chapter 41
Square number
In mathematics, a square number or perfect square is an integer that is the square of an integer;* [1] in other words,
it is the product of some integer with itself. For example, 9 is a square number, since it can be written as 3 3.
The usual notation for the square of a number n is not the product n n, but the equivalent exponentiation n2 , usually
pronounced as n squared. The name square number comes from the name of the shape; see below.
Square numbers are non-negative. Another way of saying that a (non-negative) integer is a square number, is that its
square root is again an integer. For example, 9 = 3, so 9 is a square number.
A positive integer that has no perfect square divisors except 1 is called square-free.
For a non-negative integer n, the nth square number is n2 , with 02 = 0 being the zeroth one. The concept of square
can be extended to some other number systems. If rational numbers are included, then a square is the ratio of two
( )2
square integers, and, conversely, the ratio of two square integers is a square, e.g., 49 = 23 .
Starting with 1, there are m square numbers up to and including m, where the expression x represents the oor
of the number x.
41.1 Examples
The squares (sequence A000290 in the OEIS) smaller than 602 = 3600 are:
02 = 0
12 = 1
22 = 4
32 = 9
42 = 16
52 = 25
62 = 36
72 = 49
82 = 64
92 = 81
102 = 100
112 = 121
122 = 144
132 = 169
142 = 196
236
41.1. EXAMPLES 237
152 = 225
162 = 256
172 = 289
182 = 324
192 = 361
202 = 400
212 = 441
222 = 484
232 = 529
242 = 576
252 = 625
262 = 676
272 = 729
282 = 784
292 = 841
302 = 900
312 = 961
322 = 1024
332 = 1089
342 = 1156
352 = 1225
362 = 1296
372 = 1369
382 = 1444
392 = 1521
402 = 1600
412 = 1681
422 = 1764
432 = 1849
442 = 1936
452 = 2025
462 = 2116
472 = 2209
482 = 2304
492 = 2401
502 = 2500
512 = 2601
522 = 2704
532 = 2809
542 = 2916
552 = 3025
562 = 3136
238 CHAPTER 41. SQUARE NUMBER
572 = 3249
582 = 3364
592 = 3481
The dierence between any perfect square and its predecessor is given by the identity n2 (n 1)2 = 2n 1.
Equivalently, it is possible to count up square numbers by adding together the last square, the last square's root, and
the current root, that is, n2 = (n 1)2 + (n 1) + n.
41.2 Properties
The number m is a square number if and only if one can compose a square of m equal (lesser) squares:
The unit of area is dened as the area of unit square (1 1). Hence, a square with side length n has area n2 .
The expression for the nth square number is n2 . This is also equal to the sum of the rst n odd numbers as can be
seen in the above pictures, where a square results from the previous one by adding an odd number of points (shown
in magenta). The formula follows:

n
n2 = (2k 1).
k=1
So for example, 52 = 25 = 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9.
There are several recursive methods for computing square numbers. For example, the nth square number can be
computed from the previous square by n2 = (n 1)2 + (n 1) + n = (n 1)2 + (2n 1). Alternatively, the nth square
number can be calculated from the previous two by doubling the (n 1)th square, subtracting the (n 2)th square
number, and adding 2, because n2 = 2(n 1)2 (n 2)2 + 2. For example,
2 52 42 + 2 = 2 25 16 + 2 = 50 16 + 2 = 36 = 62 .
A square number is also the sum of two consecutive triangular numbers. The sum of two consecutive square numbers
is a centered square number. Every odd square is also a centered octagonal number.
Another property of a square number is that (except 0) it has an odd number of positive divisors, while other natural
numbers have an even number of positive divisors. An integer root is the only divisor that pairs up with itself to yield
the square number, while other divisors come in pairs.
Lagrange's four-square theorem states that any positive integer can be written as the sum of four or fewer perfect
squares. Three squares are not sucient for numbers of the form 4* k(8m + 7). A positive integer can be represented
as a sum of two squares precisely if its prime factorization contains no odd powers of primes of the form 4k + 3. This
is generalized by Waring's problem.
In base 10, a square number can end only with digits 0, 1, 4, 5, 6 or 9, as follows:
if the last digit of a number is 0, its square ends in 0 (in fact, the last two digits must be 00);
if the last digit of a number is 1 or 9, its square ends in 1;
if the last digit of a number is 4 or 6, its square ends in 6; and
if the last digit of a number is 5, its square ends in 5 (in fact, the last two digits must be 25).
In base 12, a square number can end only with square digits (like in base 12, a prime number can end only with prime
digits or 1), i.e. 0, 1, 4 or 9, as follows:
41.3. SPECIAL CASES 239
if a number is divisible both by 2 and by 3 (i.e. divisible by 6), its square ends in 0;
if a number is divisible neither by 2 nor by 3, its square ends in 1;
if a number is divisible by 2, but not by 3, its square ends in 4; and
if a number is not divisible by 2, but by 3, its square ends in 9.
Similar rules can be given for other bases, or for earlier digits (the tens instead of the units digit, for example). All
such rules can be proved by checking a xed number of cases and using modular arithmetic.
In general, if a prime p divides a square number m then the square of p must also divide m; if p fails to divide m/p,
then m is denitely not square. Repeating the divisions of the previous sentence, one concludes that every prime must
divide a given perfect square an even number of times (including possibly 0 times). Thus, the number m is a square
number if and only if, in its canonical representation, all exponents are even.
Squarity testing can be used as alternative way in factorization of large numbers. Instead of testing for divisibility,
test for squarity: for given m and some number k, if k2 m is the square of an integer n then k n divides m. (This
is an application of the factorization of a dierence of two squares.) For example, 1002 9991 is the square of 3, so
consequently 100 3 divides 9991. This test is deterministic for odd divisors in the range from k n to k + n where
k covers some range of natural numbers k m.
A square number cannot be a perfect number.
The sum of the series of power numbers
N
n2 = 02 + 12 + 22 + 32 + 42 + + N 2
n=0
can also be represented by the formula
N (N + 1)(2N + 1)
.
6
The rst terms of this series (the square pyramidal numbers) are:
0, 1, 5, 14, 30, 55, 91, 140, 204, 285, 385, 506, 650, 819, 1015, 1240, 1496, 1785, 2109, 2470,
2870, 3311, 3795, 4324, 4900, 5525, 6201... (sequence A000330 in the OEIS).
The sum of odd integers starting with one are perfect squares. 1, 1 + 3, 1 + 3 + 5, 1 + 3 + 5 +7,etc.
All fourth powers, sixth powers, eighth powers and so on are perfect squares.
41.3 Special cases

If the number is of the form m5 where m represents the preceding digits, its square is n25 where n = m(m + 1)
and represents digits before 25. For example, the square of 65 can be calculated by n = 6 (6 + 1) = 42 which
makes the square equal to 4225.
If the number is of the form m0 where m represents the preceding digits, its square is n00 where n = m2 . For
example, the square of 70 is 4900.
If the number has two digits and is of the form 5m where m represents the units digit, its square is aabb where
aa = 25 + m and bb = m2 . Example: To calculate the square of 57, 25 + 7 = 32 and 72 = 49, which means 572
= 3249.
If the number ends in 5, its square will end in 5; similarly for ending in 25, 625, 0625, 90625, ... 8212890625,
etc. If the number ends in 6, its square will end in 6, similarly for ending in 76, 376, 9376, 09376, ...
1787109376. For example, the square of 55376 is 3066501376, both ending in 376. (The numbers 5, 6,
25, 76, etc. are called automorphic numbers. They are sequence A003226 in the OEIS.)
240 CHAPTER 41. SQUARE NUMBER
41.4 Odd and even square numbers

Squares of even numbers are even (and in fact divisible by 4), since (2n)2 = 4n2 .
Squares of odd numbers are odd, since (2n + 1)2 = 4(n2 + n) + 1.
It follows that square roots of even square numbers are even, and square roots of odd square numbers are odd.
As all even square numbers are divisible by 4, the even numbers of the form 4n + 2 are not square numbers.
As all odd square numbers are of the form 4n + 1, the odd numbers of the form 4n + 3 are not square numbers.
Squares of odd numbers are of the form 8n + 1, since (2n + 1)2 = 4n(n + 1) + 1 and n(n + 1) is an even number.
Every odd perfect square is a centered octagonal number. The dierence between any two odd perfect squares is a
multiple of 8. The dierence between 1 and any higher odd perfect square always is eight times a triangular number,
while the dierence between 9 and any higher odd perfect square is eight times a triangular number minus eight.
Since all triangular numbers have an odd factor, but no two values of 2* n dier by an amount containing an odd
factor, the only perfect square of the form 2* n 1 is 1, and the only perfect square of the form 2* n + 1 is 9.
41.5 See also

Automorphic number
BrahmaguptaFibonacci identity
Cubic number
Euler's four-square identity
Fermat's theorem on sums of two squares
Integer square root
Methods of computing square roots
Polygonal number
Power of two
Pythagorean triple
Quadratic residue
Square (algebra)#Related identities
Square triangular number
41.6 Notes
[1] Some authors also call squares of rational numbers perfect squares.
41.7 References
Weisstein, Eric W. Square Number. MathWorld.

Conway, J. H. and Guy, R. K. The Book of Numbers. New York: Springer-Verlag, pp. 3032, 1996. ISBN
0-387-97993-X
Kiran Parulekar. Amazing Properties of Squares and Their Calculations. Kiran Anil Parulekar, 2012 https:
//books.google.com/books?id=njEtt7rfexEC&source=gbs_navlinks_s
41.9 External links

Learn Square Numbers. Practice square numbers up to 144 with this children's multiplication game
Dario Alpern, Sum of squares. A Java applet to decompose a natural number into a sum of up to four squares.
Fibonacci and Square Numbers at Convergence
The rst 1,000,000 perfect squares Includes a program for generating perfect squares up to 1015 .
Chapter 42
Trailing zero
In mathematics, trailing zeros are a sequence of 0 in the decimal representation (or more generally, in any positional
representation) of a number, after which no other digits follow.
Trailing zeros to the right of a decimal point, as in 12.3400, do not aect the value of a number and may be omitted
if all that is of interest is its numerical value. This is true even if the zeros recur innitely. For example, in pharmacy,
trailing zeros are omitted from dose values to prevent misreading. However, trailing zeros may be useful for indicating
the number of signicant gures, for example in a measurement. In such a context, simplifyinga number by
removing trailing zeros would be incorrect.
The number of trailing zeros in a non-zero base-b integer n equals the exponent of the highest power of b that divides
n. For example, 14000 has three trailing zeros and is therefore divisible by 1000 = 103 , but not by 104 . This property
is useful when looking for small factors in integer factorization. Some computer architectures have a count trailing
zeros operation in their instruction set for eciently determining the number of trailing zero bits in a machine word.
42.1 Factorial
The number of trailing zeros in the decimal representation of n!, the factorial of a non-negative integer n, is simply the
multiplicity of the prime factor 5 in n!. This can be determined with this special case of de Polignac's formula:* [1]
k
n n n n n
f (n) = = + + + + ,
i=1
5i 5 52 53 5k
where k must be chosen such that
5k+1 > n,
more precisely
5k n < 5k+1 ,
k = log5 n ,
and a denotes the oor function applied to a. For n = 0, 1, 2, ... this is
0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 6, ... (sequence A027868 in the OEIS).
For example, 53 > 32, and therefore 32! = 263130836933693530167218012160000000 ends in

32 32
+ 2 =6+1=7
5 5
242
42.2. SEE ALSO 243
zeros. If n < 5, the inequality is satised by k = 0; in that case the sum is empty, giving the answer 0.
The formula actually counts the number of factors 5 in n!, but since there are at least as many factors 2, this is
equivalent to the number of factors 10, each of which gives one more trailing zero.
Dening
n
qi = ,
5i
the following recurrence relation holds:
q0 = n,
q
i
qi+1 = .
5
This can be used to simplify the computation of the terms of the summation, which can be stopped as soon as q i
reaches zero. The condition 5* k+1 > n is equivalent to q k+1 = 0.
42.2 See also

Leading zero
42.3 References
[1] Summarized from Factorials and Trailing Zeroes
42.4 External links

Why are trailing fractional zeros important? for some examples of when trailing zeros are signicant
Number of trailing zeros for any factorial Python program to calculate the number of trailing zeros for any
factorial
Chapter 43
Unit fraction
A unit fraction is a rational number written as a fraction where the numerator is one and the denominator is a positive
integer. A unit fraction is therefore the reciprocal of a positive integer, 1/n. Examples are 1/1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/4 ,1/5, etc.
43.1 Elementary arithmetic

Multiplying any two unit fractions results in a product that is another unit fraction:
1 1 1
= .
x y xy
However, adding, subtracting, or dividing two unit fractions produces a result that is generally not a unit fraction:
1 1 x+y
+ =
x y xy
1 1 yx
=
x y xy
1 1 y
= .
x y x
43.2 Modular arithmetic

Unit fractions play an important role in modular arithmetic, as they may be used to reduce modular division to the
calculation of greatest common divisors. Specically, suppose that we wish to perform divisions by a value x, modulo
y. In order for division by x to be well dened modulo y, x and y must be relatively prime. Then, by using the extended
Euclidean algorithm for greatest common divisors we may nd a and b such that
ax + by = 1,
from which it follows that
ax 1 (mod y),
or equivalently
1
a (mod y).
x
Thus, to divide by x (modulo y) we need merely instead multiply by a.
244
43.3. FINITE SUMS OF UNIT FRACTIONS 245
43.3 Finite sums of unit fractions

Main article: List of sums of reciprocals Finitely many terms
Any positive rational number can be written as the sum of unit fractions, in multiple ways. For example,
4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= + + = + + + .
5 2 4 20 3 5 6 10
The ancient Egyptian civilisations used sums of distinct unit fractions in their notation for more general rational
numbers, and so such sums are often called Egyptian fractions. There is still interest today in analyzing the methods
used by the ancients to choose among the possible representations for a fractional number, and to calculate with such
representations.* [1] The topic of Egyptian fractions has also seen interest in modern number theory; for instance, the
ErdsGraham conjecture and the ErdsStraus conjecture concern sums of unit fractions, as does the denition of
Ore's harmonic numbers.
In geometric group theory, triangle groups are classied into Euclidean, spherical, and hyperbolic cases according to
whether an associated sum of unit fractions is equal to one, greater than one, or less than one respectively.
43.4 Series of unit fractions

Main article: List of sums of reciprocals Innitely many terms
Many well-known innite series have terms that are unit fractions. These include:
The harmonic series, the sum of all positive unit fractions. This sum diverges, and its partial sums
1 1 1 1
+ + + +
1 2 3 n
closely approximate ln n + as n increases.
The Basel problem concerns the sum of the square unit fractions, which converges to 2 /6
Apry's constant is the sum of the cubed unit fractions.
The binary geometric series, which adds to 2, and the reciprocal Fibonacci constant are additional examples
of a series composed of unit fractions.
43.5 Matrices of unit fractions

The Hilbert matrix is the matrix with elements
1
Bi,j = .
i+j1
It has the unusual property that all elements in its inverse matrix are integers.* [2] Similarly, Richardson (2001) dened
a matrix with elements
1
Ci,j = ,
Fi+j1
where F denotes the ith Fibonacci number. He calls this matrix the Filbert matrix and it has the same property of
having an integer inverse.* [3]
246 CHAPTER 43. UNIT FRACTION
43.6 Adjacent fractions

Two fractions are called adjacent if their dierence is a unit fraction.* [4]* [5]
43.7 Unit fractions in probability and statistics

In a uniform distribution on a discrete space, all probabilities are equal unit fractions. Due to the principle of indif-
ference, probabilities of this form arise frequently in statistical calculations.* [6] Additionally, Zipf's law states that,
for many observed phenomena involving the selection of items from an ordered sequence, the probability that the
nth item is selected is proportional to the unit fraction 1/n.* [7]
43.8 Unit fractions in physics

The energy levels of photons that can be absorbed or emitted by a hydrogen atom are, according to the Rydberg
formula, proportional to the dierences of two unit fractions. An explanation for this phenomenon is provided by the
Bohr model, according to which the energy levels of electron orbitals in a hydrogen atom are inversely proportional
to square unit fractions, and the energy of a photon is quantized to the dierence between two levels.* [8]
Arthur Eddington argued that the ne structure constant was a unit fraction, rst 1/136 then 1/137. This contention
has been falsied, given that current estimates of the ne structure constant are (to 6 signicant digits) 1/137.036.* [9]
43.9 See also

Submultiple
43.10 References
[1] Guy, Richard K. (2004), D11. Egyptian Fractions, Unsolved problems in number theory (3rd ed.), Springer-Verlag,
pp. 252262, ISBN 978-0-387-20860-2.
[2] Choi, Man Duen (1983),Tricks or treats with the Hilbert matrix, The American Mathematical Monthly, 90 (5): 301312,
MR 701570, doi:10.2307/2975779.
[3] Richardson, Thomas M. (2001),The Filbert matrix(PDF), Fibonacci Quarterly, 39 (3): 268275, Bibcode:1999math......5079R,
arXiv:math.RA/9905079
[4] Adjacent Fraction at PlanetMath.org.
[5] Weisstein, Eric W. Adjacent Fraction. MathWorld.
[6] Welsh, Alan H. (1996), Aspects of statistical inference, Wiley Series in Probability and Statistics, 246, John Wiley and Sons,
p. 66, ISBN 978-0-471-11591-5.
[7] Saichev, Alexander; Malevergne, Yannick; Sornette, Didier (2009), Theory of Zipf's Law and Beyond, Lecture Notes in
Economics and Mathematical Systems, 632, Springer-Verlag, ISBN 978-3-642-02945-5.
[8] Yang, Fujia; Hamilton, Joseph H. (2009), Modern Atomic and Nuclear Physics, World Scientic, pp. 8186, ISBN 978-
981-283-678-6.
[9] Kilmister, Clive William (1994), Eddington's search for a fundamental theory: a key to the universe, Cambridge University
Press, ISBN 978-0-521-37165-0.

Weisstein, Eric W. Unit Fraction. MathWorld.
Chapter 44
sandbox
Not to be confused with allegation.
Alligation is a method of solving arithmetic problems related to mixtures of ingredients. There are two types of
alligation, Alligation medial and Alligation alternate. Alligation medial involves nding the a weighted mean concen-
tration, or mean price of a mixture of ingredients by mass. Alligation alternate is a procedure where the proportions
of ingredients needed to achieve a target mean concentration or price are found.
There are two further variations on Alligation alternate, Alligation Partial and Alligation Total, These involve nding
the precise quantities of ingredients needed to achieve a target mean concentration or price.
44.1 Alligation medial

Suppose you make a cocktail drink combination out of 1/2 Coke, 1/4 Sprite, and 1/4 orange soda. The Coke has
120 grams of sugar per liter, the Sprite has 100 grams of sugar per liter, and the orange soda has 150 grams of sugar
per liter. How much sugar does the drink have? This is an example of alligation medial because you want to nd the
amount of sugar in the mixture given the amounts of sugar in its ingredients. The solution is just to nd the weighted
average by composition:
1 1 1
120 + 100 + 150 = 122.5
2 4 4
44.2 Alligation alternate

Alligation alternate may be thought of as the inverse of alligation medial. Given several numbers, to nd multiples
of those numbers, that would result in a given mean value. Such a problem does not have a unique answer, and there
are several methods by which the problem may be solved.
1. Write the mean.
2. Write each of the [prices] in descending order beside the mean in a column.
3. Draw a line,connecting a number greater than the mean, with one or more numbers that is less than the mean.
4. Find the [absolute value of the dierence] between the mean and each of the numbers. Write the diernce
beside the numbers that are linked to the subtrahend, in a third column. Do not write this dierence beside the
subtrahend itself.
5. The numbers found in step (4) are the relative proportions of the quantities to be taken, to generate the mean.
If more than one number results from step 4, add the numbers together.
247
248 CHAPTER 44. SANDBOX
44.2.1 Example 1
There are four solutions of alcohol. They have concentrations of 20%, 15%, 5% and 1%. In what proportions must
the they be mixed, to give a mixture that has the average concentration of 13% ?
1. The concentrations are rst written down, along with the mean:
| 20 13| 15 | 5 | 1
2. Then lines are drawn, connecting a term that is greater than the mean, to a price less than the mean.
| 20 13| 15 | 5 | 1
3. The numbers written down in step (1) are one by one, subtracted from the mean (or, if greater than the mean,
the mean subtracted from them). The result of the subtraction is written beside the number that was linked to the
minuend in step 2, and not the minuend itself.
(Explanation) | 20 12(13-1) 13| 15 8 (13-5) | 5 2 (15-13) | 1 7 (20-13)
In this example, 13 is subtracted from 20. The dierence, seven, is written beside the number 1, which was linked to
20 in step 2. Likewise, the dierence between 13 and 1, twelve is written beside 20, the number that it was linked to.
The numbers that are produced by step 3 are the relative proportions of the solutions. So, to achieve the desired
concentration, one must mix 12 parts of the 20% with 8 parts of the 15% with 2 parts of 5% and 7 parts of 1%.
Linking the numbers in the following manner would also yield a correct answer.
| 20 8 13| 15 12 | 5 7 | 1 2
44.2.2 Example 2
There ve types of tea. Each costs $20, $12, $3, $2 and $1 per kilogram. In what proportions must the teas be mixed
to give a mixture with an average cost of $8 per kilogram?
Owing to the odd number of terms, three terms are be linked to one another. Here 20 is linked to 1 and 2
| 20 | 12 8| 3 | 2 | 1
The subtractions are performed as in the previous example. As two terms are linked to 20, so two dierences
are written beside it.
| 20 7, 6 (8-1),(8-2) | 12 5 (8-3) 8| 3 14 (20-8) | 2 12 (20-8) | 1
12 (20-8)
There are two dierences beside 20.These are added up. The nal sum is the answer.
(answer) | 20 7,6 13 | 12 5 5 8| 3 14 4 | 2 12 12 | 1
12 2
Another answer may be obtained as follows:
| 20 11 | | 12 7 | 8| 3 12 8| | 2 12 | | 1 4 |
44.2.3 Alligation partial
Alligation partial nds the exact quantities of ingredients needed to generate a mixture of a given concentration, when
the quantity of one of the ingredients is already xed. This is a matter of proportion.
44.2.4 Alligation Total
Alligation total is a variation on alligation alternate, when the total mass of the nal mixture is xed.
Suppose you like 1% milk, but you have only 3% whole milk and 0.5% low fat milk. How much of each should you
mix to make an 8-ounce cup of 1% milk?
By performing alligation alternate, the respective proportions of milk are 0.5 parts of 3%, and 2 parts of 0.5%.
1| 3.00.5 | 0.52
44.3. A GENERAL FORMULA 249
As the total amount of milk in the nal mixture is xed at 8 ounces, nding the respective masses of milk, is simply
a matter of nding the appopriate proportion of eight ounces.
The total amount, 8 ounces, is then divided by the sum {\displaystyle 2+{1 \over 2}={5 \over 2}} {\displaystyle
2+{1 \over 2}={5 \over 2}} to yield {\displaystyle 16 \over 5} {\displaystyle 16 \over 5}, and the amounts of the two
ingredients are {\displaystyle {16 \over 5}\times {1 \over 2}={8 \over 5}} {\displaystyle {16 \over 5}\times {1 \over
2}={8 \over 5}} ounces whole milk and {\displaystyle {16 \over 5}\times 2={32 \over 5}} {\displaystyle {16 \over
5}\times 2={32 \over 5}} ounces low fat milk.
44.3 A general formula

A general formula that works for both alligation alternateand alligation medialis the following:
Aa + Bb = Cc.
In this formula, A is the volume of ingredient A and a is its mixture coecient (i.e. a= 3%); B is volume of ingredient
B and b is its mixture coecient; and C is the desired volume C, and c is its mixture coecient. Returning to example
4,
A(0.03) + B(0.005) = 8oz(0.01). We know B = (8oz-A), and so can easily solve for A and B to get
1.6 and 6.4oz, respectively. Using this formula you can solve for any of the 6 variables A,a,B,b,C,c,
regardless of whether you're dealing with medial, alternate, etc.
44.4 References
Alligation, Forerunner of Linear Programming, Frederick V. Waugh, Journal of Farm Economics Vol. 40, No.
1 (Feb., 1958), pp. 89103 http://www.jstor.org/stable/1235348 This article incorporates text from a publication
now in the public domain: Chambers, Ephraim, ed. (1728). "* article name needed". Cyclopdia, or an Universal
Dictionary of Arts and Sciences (rst ed.). James and John Knapton, et al.
44.5 External links

Alligation alterne et medial: www.formatp.ca/alligation.php
Alligation Alternate and the Composition of Medicines: Arithmetic and Medicine in Early Modern England
Robinson's Progressive Practical Arithmetic

44.6 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

44.6.1 Text
0 Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/0?oldid=801014047 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Magnus Manske, The Epopt, Calypso, Sodium,
Bryan Derksen, Zundark, The Anome, Manning Bartlett, Ed Poor, Andre Engels, Josh Grosse, Jrincayc, XJaM, Arvindn, Christian List,
Toby Bartels, William Avery, Heron, Camembert, Montrealais, Patrick, Infrogmation, D, Michael Hardy, Wshun, Llywrch, Lexor, GUll-
man, Liftarn, MartinHarper, Menchi, TakuyaMurata, Delirium, Tregoweth, Egil, Ulrich.fuchs~enwiki, Ellywa, Ahoerstemeier, Docu,
Samuelsen, Angela, Alvaro, Kragen, LittleDan, Bogdangiusca, AugPi, Llull, Andres, Jeandr du Toit, Evercat, Mxn, Schneelocke, Ask-
tav, Mulad, Emperorbma, Charles Matthews, Crissov, Dcoetzee, Random832, Dysprosia, Doradus, DJ Clayworth, Natevw, Furrykef,
Saltine, LMB, Head, Vaceituno, Jeanmichel~enwiki, Elwoz, Bloodshedder, Power~enwiki, Jerzy, Bamos, Slawojarek, Owen, Denel-
son83, Chuunen Baka, Robbot, Fredrik, PBS, RedWolf, Securiger, Rfc1394, Henrygb, Texture, Yacht, Rrjanbiah, Wereon, Paul Mur-
ray, PrimeFan, Diberri, Guy Peters, Xanzzibar, Mattaschen, Mfc, Tea2min, Robert Happelberg, Giftlite, Dbenbenn, Graeme Bartlett,
DavidCary, Gene Ward Smith, Sj, Joaopaulo1511, Numerao, Anton Mravcek, Everyking, No Guru, Markus Kuhn, Jcobb, Varlaam,
Joe Kress, Rick Block, Duncharris, Mboverload, Eequor, Jackol, AdamJacobMuller, Tagishsimon, Ryanaxp, Doshell, Utcursch, Far-
side~enwiki, UgenBot, Yath, Noe, Q17, Beland, Pm, Eregli bob, Kaldari, Ihavenolife, Yanamad, Secfan, RetiredUser2, Pmanderson,
Indolering, Soman, Ctac, Petershank, Rgrg, Abdull, Trevor MacInnis, Drbalaji md, Lacrimosus, Grstain, Mike Rosoft, Brianjd, Cypa,
Jayjg, Poccil, Duja, Flora~enwiki, Discospinster, Steve Farrell, 4pq1injbok, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, David Schaich, Dbachmann,
Paul August, Wwhitlock, DcoetzeeBot~enwiki, Bender235, Mykhal, Project2501a, CanisRufus, BenjBot, Livajo, El C, Kwamikagami,
Edward Z. Yang, Spearhead, Triona, Spoon!, Bobo192, Denorris, NetBot, Smalljim, BrokenSegue, Cmdrjameson, Jojit fb, Haham
hanuka, Krellis, Paullaw, Jonathunder, Nsaa, Eddideigel, Jumbuck, Alansohn, Anthony Appleyard, Zik-Zak, Halsteadk, Countdown-
Crispy, Jeltz, Jezmck, Sade, Axl, Sligocki, Benna, Samohyl Jan, Sobolewski, Fordan, Harej, RainbowOfLight, Dirac1933, Woodstone,
Gmel, Shrap, Czolgolz, Bookandcoee, Oleg Alexandrov, A D Monroe III, Roylee, Nuno Tavares, Velho, Richard Arthur Norton (1958-
), Woohookitty, Linas, Wheresthebrain, LOL, DoctorWho42, Ae-a, StradivariusTV, Jonathan de Boyne Pollard, Uncle G, Deeahbz,
MattGiuca, Pol098, Ruud Koot, WadeSimMiser, Kmg90, Dmol, Cbdorsett, Steinbach, Gisling, Palica, Marudubshinki, Dysepsion,
Rnt20, Graham87, Jp3z, TAKASUGI Shinji, BD2412, Roger McCoy, Pranathi, DePiep, Jclemens, Mendaliv, Jshadias, Rjwilmsi, Bob-
byAFC, Missmarple, OneWeirdDude, EatAlbertaBeef, Strait, Quiddity, Wikirao, TheRingess, Feydey, Salix alba, Mike s, Vegaswikian,
Nneonneo, Bubba73, AndyKali, Roeheat, Maurog, Gavinatkinson, Yamamoto Ichiro, FlaBot, Mathbot, Nihiltres, EnDumEn, Wars,
Str1977, Vilcxjo, Alphachimp, Zayani, Jefu, CJLL Wright, Chobot, DVdm, Algebraist, EamonnPKeane, Siddhant, YurikBot, TexasAn-
droid, Angus Lepper, Cjdyer, Split, JoeMystical, Hairy Dude, Deeptrivia, Xcrivener, Retodon8, Wolfmankurd, RussBot, John Quincy
Adding Machine, Jengelh, NawlinWiki, Magicmonster, Trovatore, Muwaaq, Yoninah, Nick, John H. Victor, Yun, Hyperqube, Moe Ep-
silon, Bucketsofg, Syrthiss, BOT-Superzerocool, DeadEyeArrow, Hosterweis, TheNepnoc, Mgnbar, Deepak~enwiki, Martinwilke1980,
21655, Zzuuzz, Malaiya, Arthur Rubin, TomJF, Reyk, Roundobi, Pasitbank, Alasdair, HereToHelp, JLaTondre, Leeannedy, Xil, Mad
Cat, Darren Lee, James Hannam, LakeHMM, Paul Erik, Ghazer~enwiki, DVD R W, Finell, CIreland, Arindam Biswas, Luk, Vanka5,
Havocrazy, SmackBot, RDBury, James Arboghast, Narson, Hftf, KnowledgeOfSelf, Melchoir, C.Fred, Jagged 85, TArsenal, DTM,
Koorogi, Vanished user mdkmweir234k56us3, Onebravemonkey, Edgar181, HeartofaDog, Bromskloss, Saros136, Chris the speller,
Bluebot, Keegan, Roberto.zanasi, Quinsareth, Oli Filth, MalafayaBot, SchftyThree, Liebeskind, Akanemoto, Hmich176, Octahedron80,
CMacMillan, DHN-bot~enwiki, Fromgermany, Colonies Chris, Hongooi, Darth Panda, Gee Eight, Mikker, Scwlong, Audriusa, Can't
sleep, clown will eat me, Onorem, JDiPierro, Rrburke, Computerman45, Addshore, UU, Madman2001, 1diot, Aldaron, Cybercobra,
Keivspare, Daqu, Aeln, Andrew c, Ruwanraj, The PIPE, Bailbeedu, DMacks, Yom, AverageAmerican, Richard0612, Ohconfucius,
SashatoBot, Lambiam, Shields020, Derek farn, Sajman12, BrownHairedGirl, Kuru, DavidCooke, Johanna-Hypatia, FrozenMan, Cron-
holm144, Simongraham, Linnell, Antonielly, Number36, Nichenbach, Jim.belk, Mr. Lefty, Joshua Scott, 041744, Pudgenet, J Crow,
Loadmaster, Hvn0413, MarcAurel, Boomshadow, Fedallah, Macellarius, Waggers, Mets501, Synergism, Groovybill, Dr.K., Dl2000,
Andreworkney, Yuide, Iridescent, Yodin, Kaarel, Skalman, Joseph Solis in Australia, Shoeofdeath, Ljlego, Casull, Nfutvol, Cityside Ser-
aph, Blehfu, Happy-melon, Bharatveer, Chovain, Chris55, JasonWoof, JForget, Ganeshbot, CRGreathouse, Ale jrb, KaroH, Agathman,
Comrade42, Smiloid, DSachan, Jeremiad, R9tgokunks, Fork me, Smoove Z, Mitsubishievo 6, Omglazers, Myasuda, AndrewHowse,
Cydebot, A.j.roberts, Mike65535, Mansikka, Coolmate abhay, Vanished user vjhsduheuiui4t5hjri, Arthurian Legend, Porsche997SBS,
Simenheg, Shirulashem, Sharonlees, Abtract, Omicronpersei8, Garg.pankaj, Raoul NK, Tyman 101, Epbr123, Sputnikpanicpuppet,
HappyInGeneral, Sagaciousuk, Timo3, Berria, Headbomb, NorwegianBlue, Mafmafmaf, JustAGal, Kostis.gr, Dfrg.msc, AgentPepper-
mint, EdJohnston, Dezidor, Tylop~enwiki, Dawnseeker2000, RoboServien, Escarbot, Stannered, AntiVandalBot, Gioto, Luna Santin,
WikiWebbie, Seaphoto, Sion8, Paul from Michigan, Linguistus~enwiki, Edokter, GreyKnight, RedCoat10, Trakesht, Myanw, Lklundin,
Dhrm77, MikeLynch, Rbb l181, JAnDbot, Deective, Vanya, Barek, MER-C, Coreydragon, Belg4mit, Hut 8.5, TAnthony, Twospoon-
fuls, .anacondabot, Repku, Io Katai, Magioladitis, Pedro, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, CiteCop, Wikidudeman, AtticusX, Skatelikekemp,
JamesBWatson, Talroth, Kajasudhakarababu, Peregrin Took, Sikory, Radiosonde, Jim Douglas, Nyttend, Homunq, Bangabalunga, Catgut,
Animum, User86654, Allstarecho, David Eppstein, Pkrecker, Scot.parker, DerHexer, JaGa, Nevit, Mdsats, Excesses, Tuckerma, Gw-
ern, Varadarajan.narayanan, Gjd001, B9 hummingbird hovering, Mjbyars1, MartinBot, Pupster21, Anaxial, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker,
AlexiusHoratius, Qrystal, RockMFR, J.delanoy, Mange01, Acumensch, Rgoodermote, Thr4wn, Bogey97, Singularitarian, Maurice Car-
bonaro, Gkc, Dave Dial, Ian.thomson, Acalamari, Globbet, Eivindgh, Gman124, Austin512, Indeed123, Cognita, Greengooglymonster,
Plasticup, Chiswick Chap, Loohcsnuf, SJP, Thegraciousfew, FJPB, Milogardner, DorganBot, Lord Jubjub, OsirisV, JavierMC, Salte45,
Voxish, Squids and Chips, CardinalDan, Idioma-bot, Funandtrvl, Spellcast, Speciate, Zakuragi, Deor, VolkovBot, EEye, CWii, Dejan Jo-
vanovi, Kevinkor2, AlnoktaBOT, Adambrower, TOLCIN, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Vipinhari, Hqb, Cobylub, S4mme, Ann Stouter,
Anonymous Dissident, Funnycricket, Broadbot, LeaveSleaves, Cremepu222, Nateisga, Madhero88, Peace keeper II, Lamro, Eskovan,
Synthebot, Joseph A. Spadaro, Jediknil, Enviroboy, Sesshomaru, Insanity Incarnate, Dmcq, Life, Liberty, Property, Arcfrk, Symmm,
Angelastic, Portia327, Tvinh, Raee, PericlesofAthens, Professionalmoron, Wpchen, Radagast3, Billytrousers, TheStarman, S.rvarr.S,
Murkee, Demmy, Obaidz96, Regregex, GoonerDP, SieBot, Alessgrimal, Lanaface34, BotMultichill, Winchelsea, Gerakibot, Dawn Bard,
Caltas, TacticalBread, Srushe, Toddst1, BTH, Oxymoron83, Byrialbot, 0rrAvenger, Avnjay, Steven Crossin, Kfgauss, SimonTrew, Macy,
Kudret abi, Thewalkingcrow, Nusumareta, Dodger67, Anchor Link Bot, ChemicalDeathMan, Nn123645, Nothinfukenwerks, Rdhet-
tinger, Frapoz, Francvs, Tuntable, Velvetron, Troy 07, Loren.wilton, Martarius, Toliar, ClueBot, Bob1960evens, Iluvmesodou, PipepBot,
Laurensmells, The Thing That Should Not Be, Cli, SerduchkaFan, Techdawg667, Jagun, Wysprgr2005, Garyzx, Drmies, Mild Bill
Hiccup, TheOldJacobite, Eclectic hippie, Yixuan05, Rhubbarb, CounterVandalismBot, Niceguyedc, Jalanpalmer, Xinjao, Aua, Drag-
onBot, Wrsh11, Excirial, Alexbot, Jusdafax, CrazyChemGuy, Three-quarter-ten, Monobi, Lartoven, Jotterbot, 7&6=thirteen, Basket-
ball110, IXella007, Real Deuce, Thingg, Nikki Plikki Sikki, Jonverve, DerBorg, Certes, Versus22, SoxBot III, Ostinato2, Bcherwrm-
lein, Theking2, DumZiBoT, Makotoy, ZALASTA111, G20071221, BarretB, AmeliaElizabeth, Tarheel95, Spitre, Gnowor, Franjosp,
44.6. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 251
Duncan, Kalupinka, Lily W, Denyontheworld, Dthomsen8, Ost316, AndreNatas, SilvonenBot, Coasterror, Dnvrfantj, RyanCross, Kb-
dankbot, Phantom321, Bloodbath 87, Halosean, Jojhutton, Betterusername, DougsTech, Metagraph, Fieldday-sunday, TonyTeacher,
WFPM, Download, CarsracBot, Redheylin, Z. Patterson, Glass Sword, Surfcar, SpBot, AtheWeatherman, Quercus solaris, Blaylock-
jam10, Ledzeppelinfan4, TangLab, Danith123horn, Jasontz, Chair5, Bigzteve, Tide rolls, Vikasthakurno1, HerculeBot, Mps, JSR,
Mr1744, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Digital fuel, Senator Palpatine, TaBOT-zerem, HIVE MIND!1!1, KamikazeBot, Ali 786 52, South Bay,
Synchronism, AnomieBOT, Arjun G. Menon, Sagaci, Master of Pies, Royote, JackieBot, Da man times 2, AdjustShift, LlywelynII,
Mahmudmasri, The High Fin Sperm Whale, Citation bot, Fleaman5000, Kalamkaar, Empro2, Bob Burkhardt, GB fan, DirlBot, Xqbot,
Jayarathina, ManningBartlett, TinucherianBot II, Jerey Mall, Timmyshin, Gilo1969, Joey Skywalker, BotPuppet, Wyklety, Nasa-verve,
Abce2, Tdjewell, Mario777Zelda, Shirik, RibotBOT, Kyng, SCRECROW, Yohannesb, Shadowjams, WebCiteBOT, Aaron Kauppi,
AJCham, Hueykablooie, Cgersten, Untangledystopia, Thejadefalcon, Captain-n00dle, GliderMaven, FrescoBot, Jc3s5h, Michael93555,
Maverick9711, Tlork Thunderhead, Pxos, Robo37, Citation bot 1, Pshent, LetsPlayMBP, 06jcoxon, Winabet, Kkonnorr, Pinethicket, I
dream of horses, Phil1881, LittleWink, 10metreh, Jonesey95, Tinton5, Phearson, Wikiain, , Meaghan, Fizzle1, Ptarjan, Mikespedia,
Jujutacular, Speedy bell, Reconsider the static, Arjrs123, Double sharp, TobeBot, Trappist the monk, Superawesome 9001, Zanhe, Car-
olgregor, Tofutwitch11, Amiodarone, , Fallenangel2009, Eciencyjacky154, Jimmy416, No One of Consequence, Stephen
MUFC, Thecoolduke2008, Robixen, H.ehsaan, American Hindu, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DoctorJeriactrick, Whisky drinker, Flying dust-
man, Agent Smith (The Matrix), NerdyScienceDude, Salvio giuliano, Grondemar, EmausBot, Aqwhuzaifa, WikitanvirBot, Gfoley4, Dee
Fraser, Shhhnotsoloud, Rarevogel, Ut mehrotra, ZxxZxxZ, Wham Bam Rock II, The Mysterious El Willstro, Tommy2010, Wikipelli,
TeleComNasSprVen, ZroBot, Hudee, PBS-AWB, Akshatme, F, Traxs7, Michealt, Azuris, 1234r00t, TheodoreNg, Kyucasio, Wayne
Slam, Ocaasi, SillyLorenzo, Milind 220696, Th3rokkcc3r, Cookiefonster, L Kensington, Jsanthara, Vash10, ChuispastonBot, Sun-
shine4921, Broderick 0, AMD, Thebobo, Xanchester, Mikhail Ryazanov, ClueBot NG, Ezekiel63745, Ronakshah1990, LutherVinci,
Ypnypn, Winston786, DanTrent, Frietjes, Primergrey, Rurik the Varangian, North Atlanticist Usonian, MerlIwBot, Helpful Pixie Bot,
Curb Chain, Wbm1058, Jeraphine Gryphon, Andersw2, Vagobot, Zyxwv99, Solomon7968, Drift chambers, Gorthian, Sbblr geervaanee,
Minsbot, Achowat, Pendragon5, WOWIndian, Toploftical, Serchia, Dkyguy1995, Aditya Mahar, Everything Is Numbers, RMCD bot,
Wario-Man, Me, Myself, and I are Here, Rupert loup, Donfbreed2, Melonkelon, Ratha K, Mutley1989, Wamiq, Evensteven, Grfr12345,
Epitectus, JCMPC, Ms Sarah Welch, Beren Dersi, , , Tarpuq, Tigercompanion25, Melbinsuresh, SheriIsInTown,
P.O IX, Maths314, BlueworldSpeccie, AlphaBetaGamma01, SoSivr, JulMian22=4, KasparBot, RedPanda25, JJMC89, Equinox, Jack
Mullin, Entro3.14, Sdp Knu, *Castle&Gardens*, Arepunjabi, Maczkopeti, InternetArchiveBot, Deyaaanog, GreenC bot, Robot psychia-
trist, Chrissymad, Manishkrisna108, Bender the Bot, Sephistication, Deacon Vorbis, KAP03, Chill--, Beneyal, Yin69yang, Inner Focus,
Rollback Jack, Atmnn and Anonymous: 1030
Alligation Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alligation?oldid=797898129 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Fredrik, Chowbok, Brian0918,
Johnkarp, Kappa, Alansohn, Keenan Pepper, Mathbot, Gurubrahma, X42bn6, Robosh, Filter1987, Skittleys, ClueBot, Alexbot, Addbot,
Andrewdwaynedavismay, I dream of horses, Jschnur, Waynemarsh, Vagobot, Nojoking, Bender the Bot, KolbertBot and Anonymous: 14
Arithmetic for Parents Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic_for_Parents?oldid=782500541 Contributors: Michael Hardy,
Canterbury Tail, C S, Orimosenzon, Whpq, DGtal, J Milburn, Hebrides, David Eppstein, Kope, Haim Berman, Mild Bill Hiccup, Addbot,
Yobot, AnomieBOT, Xqbot, Sreifa, Khazar2, OccultZone and Magic links bot
Binary number Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_number?oldid=801047210 Contributors: Zundark, MarXidad, Charleschuck,
Ed Poor, Christian List, SimonP, Valhalla, Karl Palmen, Edward, Michael Hardy, Pit~enwiki, Sorw, Nixdorf, Wapcaplet, Dcljr, Takuya-
Murata, Delirium, Ahoerstemeier, Haakon, Snoyes, Suisui, Poor Yorick, Evercat, Rl, Rob Hooft, Jonik, GRAHAMUK, Speuler, Charles
Matthews, Dcoetzee, Dysprosia, Daniel Quinlan, Patrick0Moran, AndrewKepert, SEWilco, Omegatron, Wernher, Robbot, Fredrik, Chris
73, Jmabel, Gandalf61, Rorro, Mendalus~enwiki, JesseW, Wikibot, Mushroom, Lupo, Mattaschen, Tea2min, Jimpaz, Giftlite, Gwalla,
DavidCary, Kim Bruning, Tom harrison, LLarson, Luigi30, Jaan513, SWAdair, Vadmium, Utcursch, Alexf, CryptoDerk, LiDaobing,
Noe, Antandrus, ALE!, Supaari, Quarl, R-Joe, Wzwz, SimonArlott, Jacob grace, CaribDigita, Yayay, Amesville, Mschlindwein, Adashiel,
Mike Rosoft, The demiurge, R, Poccil, DanielCD, Discospinster, NrDg, Rama, Florian Blaschke, Smyth, Dbachmann, Paul August,
Bender235, ESkog, ZeroOne, Andrejj, Martinman11, Kbh3rd, Violetriga, El C, Kwamikagami, Shanes, RoyBoy, Causa sui, Bobo192,
Iamunknown, Jonatan Lindstrom, Marco Polo, Smalljim, Shenme, R. S. Shaw, Spug, Dungodung, Kappa, Giraedata, Samadam, He-
lix84, Haham hanuka, Nsaa, Jumbuck, Alansohn, Interiot, Spangineer, Scottcraig, Malo, Bart133, Wtmitchell, Amorymeltzer, Sciurin,
Mikeo, Bookandcoee, Dryman, Oleg Alexandrov, Linas, RHaworth, TigerShark, Camw, Yansa, Jonathan de Boyne Pollard, Robert K
S, WadeSimMiser, I64s, Noetica, Wayward, Gimboid13, Yegorm, Marudubshinki, Dysepsion, MassGalactusUniversum, Magister Math-
ematicae, Kbdank71, Dkleeman, Jshadias, Josh Parris, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Mr.Unknown, Peter 2005, Daganboy, GregAsche, Sango123,
Platypus222, Titoxd, MatthewMastracci, RobertG, Mathbot, JiFish, Lost~enwiki, Nivix, Krackpipe, RexNL, Gurch, Fresheneesz, Viznut,
Chobot, DVdm, Gwernol, The Rambling Man, Siddhant, Wavelength, Deeptrivia, Jimp, Blackworm, Phantomsteve, RussBot, Anonymous
editor, SpuriousQ, Kirill Lokshin, Stephenb, Anomie, Mipadi, Astral, Grafen, Arichnad, Trovatore, Keka, SCZenz, Dogcow, Retired user-
name, D. F. Schmidt, Daniel Mietchen, Ruhrsch, Superiority, Ninly, Closedmouth, Arthur Rubin, 6a4fe8aa039615ebd9ddb83d6acf9a1dc1b684f7,
Jogers, MathsIsFun, CWenger, GinaDana, Junglecat, MarkKB, Innity0, Auroranorth, Capitalist, SmackBot, Adam majewski, Incnis
Mrsi, Honza Zruba, InverseHypercube, KnowledgeOfSelf, Bigbluesh, Blue520, Jagged 85, Chairman S., David n m bond, Half-
Shadow, Yamaguchi , Peace keeper, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Kevinalewis, Psiphiorg, Zinc2005, Kurykh, Da nuke, EncMstr, Miquon-
ranger03, MalafayaBot, Baa, DHN-bot~enwiki, Darth Panda, Rlevse, Jereyarcand, Kotra, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Pooresd,
Rsm99833, Addshore, Iridescence, Kleuske, Jon Awbrey, AlexJ, The PIPE, Sigma 7, Kukini, Ohconfucius, The undertow, SashatoBot,
Lambiam, Doug Bell, Mouse Nightshirt, Kuru, CharlesDexterWard, General Ization, Vgy7ujm, Cronholm144, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-
Porpington, Bjankuloski06en~enwiki, Jim.belk, Ben Kidwell, Zippokovich, Slakr, Stwalkerster, Tasc, Dante Shamest, Beetstra, SQGib-
bon, Mr Stephen, Dicklyon, Mhdc2003~enwiki, Meco, Waggers, Mets501, Ravi12346, EdC~enwiki, Avant Guard, Dodo bird, Gorillaz-
FanAdam, BranStark, Aursani, HallwayGiant, Iridescent, UncleDouggie, SohanDsouza, Courcelles, Tawkerbot2, Gav89, Gco, Andy120,
Jafet, Psychotic Midget, JForget, Insanephantom, Maniaque27, Scohoust, Dodgerdave, Arabic Pilot, Baiji, MaxEnt, Gregbard, HexenX,
Sopoforic, Mblumber, Johnsmitzerhoven, Meno25, Gogo Dodo, Vwollan, Travelbird, Tawkerbot4, DumbBOT, Chrislk02, FastLizard4,
LinkWalker, Edmarriner, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, N5iln, Mojo Hand, Headbomb, Newton2, Asdfg1234, Escarbot, AntiVandalBot, Majorly,
Abu-Fool Danyal ibn Amir al-Makhiri, Seaphoto, Opelio, SummerPhD, Prolog, Farosdaughter, Fritz Jrn, Gdo01, Derouch, Fireice,
AubreyEllenShomo, Myanw, JAnDbot, MER-C, PhilKnight, .Absolution., Michaeldadmum, Snehalbhai, VoABot II, AtticusX, JNW,
JamesBWatson, Swpb, Aerographer1981, Twsx, WODUP, Catgut, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, David Eppstein, Wikipop~enwiki, DerHexer,
JaGa, Ishan.beckham, Patstuart, Wyzzard~enwiki, Violinbecky76543, Naohiro19, Keith D, Jorgepblank, Zouavman Le Zouave, Zack-
fox, Linuxwikiuser, EdBever, Erkan Yilmaz, Shellwood, J.delanoy, Naki, Trusilver, Numbo3, Jstew87, OKeh~enwiki, Bot-Schafter,
Katalaveno, Hakufu Sonsaku, AntiSpamBot, Midnight Madness, Belovedfreak, NewEnglandYankee, Xander756, Kraftlos, Milogard-
ner, Juliancolton, Cometstyles, STBotD, Nitomatik, Gwen Gale, VoidLurker, Pedalist, Nedge123, RJASE1, Idioma-bot, CWii, Dejan
Jovanovi, JohnBlackburne, LokiClock, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Waterbender kara, GroveGuy, Vipinhari, Anonymous
Dissident, Crohnie, Someguy1221, Oxfordwang, Mckoch, PaulTanenbaum, Brusinsky, Jackfork, Wiae, Bcharles, Billinghurst, Ran-
domXYZb, Andy Dingley, Synthebot, Falcon8765, Purgatory Fubar, TrippingTroubadour, Spinningspark, DeniabilityPlausible, Wa-
termelonPotion, Dmcq, Mike4ty4, Monty845, Sue Rangell, AlleborgoBot, Sorisos, Logan, Scottywong, EmxBot, Kbrose, Arjun024,
Legalboard~enwiki, SieBot, Tiddly Tom, Scarian, Citizen, Euryalus, ToePeu.bot, Winchelsea, Caltas, Shanken, RJaguar3, Vanished
User 8a9b4725f8376, Fabio479, Ham Pastrami, Renato91~enwiki, Chromaticity, Aztects, Antonio Lopez, Tombomp, IdreamofJeanie,
Anchor Link Bot, Dorkenhavvon, Jacob.jose, Mr. Stradivarius, WikiLaurent, WimdeValk, VanishedUser sdu9aya9fs787sads, R00m c,
Velvetron, The sunder king, Polpolpol4, Lochlomond, Loren.wilton, Martarius, ClueBot, Cutiepie17881, Justin W Smith, The Thing That
Should Not Be, Wolfch, Meisterkoch, Rjd0060, Supertouch, Poopship75, Martinap98, Meekywiki, Drmies, Mild Bill Hiccup, Raf1qu3,
, LizardJr8, Liempt, Arunsingh16, Quatrinauta~enwiki, Infaredz, Netralized, Kingo1234, Excirial, Jusdafax, Watchduck,
Zac439, Carsrac, Brews ohare, Jotterbot, Jarek Duda, Hans Adler, Acabashi, BlaenkDenum, Aitias, Buzzlite101, SoxBot III, Egmontaz,
LightAnkh, SpacePirate59, Deggert, C. A. Russell, SilvonenBot, Airplaneman, EEng, Elegost5555, Addbot, Blanche of King's Lynn,
Willking1979, Twaz, Thelazyleo, Azreal Umbra, Pikujs, CanadianLinuxUser, MrOllie, Glane23, Avazelda13, Debresser, Favonian,
LinkFA-Bot, Jasper Deng, Tide rolls, Apteva, MuZemike, Z1nk666, JSR, Margin1522, Yobot, WikiDan61, 2D, Ptbotgourou, Senator
Palpatine, TaBOT-zerem, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, MetroMan4, Azcolvin429, AnomieBOT, Vanished user
x10, Rubinbot, 1exec1, A.kamburov, Rjanag, Jim1138, Piano non troppo, Hatredto, AdjustShift, Grolltech, Kingpin13, Ubergeekguy,
Flewis, Bluerasberry, Materialscientist, ArthurBot, Cureden, Capricorn42, Drilnoth, 4twenty42o, TheWeakWilled, RJGray, FlightTime,
Gap9551, Reno171, Trurle, RibotBOT, PoojanWagh, Controls.freq, Superfrowny, Adavis444, Shadowjams, E0steven, Techbeats123,
Jugdev, Dan6hell66, Queen Spiral, Frozenevolution, Rohanpol, Krishnaupas, Tobby72, SpAwNaGeZ, 999retard, Michael93555, Tomis-
lavlac, Macjohn2, Majopius, Machine Elf 1735, Aleniko17, Citation bot 1, Amplitude101, Tintenschlein, Pinethicket, I dream of
horses, HRoestBot, Tanweer Morshed, Calmer Waters, Nerd272, Bulletd, Includeiostream, JoeliusCeasar, Serols, ContinueWithCau-
tion, Full-date unlinking bot, Shanmugamp7, Qwerty112233, Abc518, WoollyMind, FoxBot, Double sharp, , Sweet xx,
HelenOnline, Catinator, Zvn, 4, Math MisterY, Tbhotch, Reach Out to the Truth, Onel5969, Mean as custard, TjBot, Regancy42,
Dstone66, Castedo, DASHBot, Sandor rawks, EmausBot, NoobTheShow24, N, Heymid, Britannic124, Winner 42, Soupystar, K6ka,
Thecheesykid, John Cline, F, Josve05a, 2andrewknyazev, Tuminure, Wayne Slam, Donner60, Orange Suede Sofa, RockMagnetist,
TYelliot, Bbourne20, Mannix Chan, Assassin15, ClueBot NG, Proz, Matthiaspaul, MelbourneStar, Baseball Watcher, Snotbot, Delu-
sion23, Jiri 1984, Smith14333, Joel B. Lewis, Widr, Rurik the Varangian, Wipeoutman, , Helpful Pixie Bot, West-
nest, Virnuls, Ephert, Gurt Posh, CityOfSilver, MusikAnimal, GKFX, Tomtad, Cncmaster, Jdk42, David McIlvenna, Justincheng12345-
bot, David.moreno72, Cimorcus, Toploftical, The Illusive Man, Dustin Dewynne, Dexbot, FoCuSandLeArN, Peri eljko, Uquiqui,
Webclient101, Darcourse, PeacefulPlanet3, Fuebar, Sandeep Kalshaniya, Frosty, Graphium, Jochen Burghardt, Hrishikesh0111, Andy-
pandyjay, The Anonymouse, The Mol Man, Technical math, Ssassddd, Orienomesh-w, Faizan, FallingGravity, Ruby Murray, Aceto-
tyce, JPaestpreornJeolhlna, Eyesnore, Jaq2013, WIKIWIZDOM, Syntaxerrorz, LieutenantLatvia, Jupitus Smart, Jianhui67, Jajahada,
Monkbot, Jose2027, Joeleoj123, Abc 123 def 456, Trax support, Lich counter, Soa Koutsouveli, Kd5gua, Sam-walker1999, Joe-
Hebda, Hamlet33111, Jthistle38, Zunarshh, KH-1, Zppix, Hayman30, Orduin, Hunty101, NekoKatsun, Minecraftwizard, Benji877,
BoxOfChickens, A normal guy who goes to wiki, Rainierroitayam, Ezracollier7, Yagki, KasparBot, Sweepy, Arrakis, Akresben2016 4,
Patrickomeara, Twiceyoucoont, BU Rob13, CAPTAIN RAJU, Aaditya Mohanty, Seminyoon2, Luis150902, Scott12344444, CLCStu-
dent, Idliekde, Notfruit, Gabuab, InternetArchiveBot, Captchadener, Omni Flames, Tranngocnhatminh, P3truss, Jjetgaming, Anon6022,
011010010110010001101001011011110111010001110011a, SrikanthPs6, KarinePaegon, SeniorStar, Yinf, Deacon Vorbis, Proesor
Chinky, 0000, Zrod, AstaRasta01, Stupidwikipediass, Wmdly, NsTaGaTr, MR. HOPEING, ChampAkashGupta, Magic links bot and
Anonymous: 1279
Calculation Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculation?oldid=789932888 Contributors: Olivier, Michael Hardy, EdH, Dysprosia,
David Shay, Giftlite, Christopher Parham, Curps, Dmmaus, Histrion, Cacycle, Brian0918, Msh210, Sciurin, Lemmie~enwiki, Oleg
Alexandrov, Alkarex, David Haslam, Ruud Koot, Mathbot, Sanbeg, Lmatt, Chobot, Michael Slone, PeepP, Luk, SmackBot, Yuyudevil,
JAn Dudk, Keegan, Addshore, Kukini, Nishkid64, Goodnightmush, 16@r, Neelix, Letranova, Ante Aikio, Missvain, Transhumanist,
Good Vibrations, Escarbot, WinBot, QuiteUnusual, JAnDbot, Olaf, Allstarecho, Insides, Smeira, Gombang, , Smellypooface,
Mossgiantkiller, Synthebot, SieBot, Daniarmo, Denisarona, Fox, The Thing That Should Not Be, Suegerman, DragonBot, Mitch Ames,
Addbot, LaaknorBot, Estudiarme, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Erik9bot, Pinethicket, HRoestBot, RedBot, Tobe-
Bot, 123Mike456Winston789, EmausBot, ZroBot, PS., Cogiati, JanAson, ChuispastonBot, ClueBot NG, Wcherowi, Cataria, Frietjes,
Borkicator, Marcocapelle, Brad7777, , Electricmun11, Leahstanton, Jakec, Yoga Conagration, KasparBot, Silas Mayes
and Anonymous: 51
Carry (arithmetic) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carry_(arithmetic)?oldid=779536303 Contributors: SimonP, Graue, Smjg,
Abdull, JYolkowski, Anthony Appleyard, Qsebas, Zsero, Rick Sidwell, Gmaxwell, SDC, Qwertyus, Salix alba, RobertG, Chobot, Smack-
Bot, RDBury, Jeppesn, Melchoir, Octahedron80, StephenMacmanus, 16@r, Aeluwas, Wwaat, Hannes Eder, R'n'B, Philip Trueman, Sroc,
Namazu-tron, Addbot, Tpjarman, AkhtaBot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Eric Rowland, Xqbot, WikitanvirBot, ZroBot, SZJX,
Asadsindher, ChuispastonBot, Bilorv and Anonymous: 12
Chunking (division) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chunking_(division)?oldid=784486549 Contributors: Beland, Jheald, Adrian
Robson, Jimp, Tim bates, Cydebot, Wahrmund, Mild Bill Hiccup, Yobot, Dingle117, Helpful Pixie Bot, ZARguy, Saqerw5, Nas.okonnikova,
Bender the Bot, Magic links bot and Anonymous: 5
Cube (algebra) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cube_(algebra)?oldid=800676159 Contributors: Karl Palmen, Haakon, Charles
Matthews, Altenmann, Gandalf61, Henrygb, PrimeFan, Mattaschen, Giftlite, DocWatson42, Wellparp, Revth, Matt Crypto, Discospin-
ster, Crislax, Mikoangelo, Riana, Skatebiker, KTC, Oleg Alexandrov, Linas, Shreevatsa, Mendaliv, Koavf, SMC, Chobot, YurikBot,
Ugha, Michael Slone, Pokemon Fan, Arthur Rubin, HereToHelp, Poulpy, Cmglee, Robertd, Incnis Mrsi, GraemeMcRae, PrimeHunter,
Cheerfully, Tanyakh, Titus III, Quantum Burrito, JoeBot, MikeJohnJames9456, Bharatveer, CRGreathouse, Wafulz, AlexandrosM, Mya-
suda, Thijs!bot, Marek69, CharlotteWebb, Chubbles, Mhaitham.shammaa, Magioladitis, Autkm, TehBrandon, Maurice Carbonaro, WJB-
scribe, DavidCBryant, Gtg204y, JohnBlackburne, Rozek19, Slysplace, Dmcq, Dogah, Marcfalkner, ClueBot, Eiland, Thingg, Avoided,
Virginia-American, Addbot, Basilicofresco, Willking1979, Ronhjones, Download, Zorrobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, DisillusionedBitterAnd-
Knackered, Gtz, Wizardist, Doulos Christos, Raulshc, Aaron Kauppi, Mathwiz656, Robo37, Citation bot 1, Duoduoduo, FKLS, Emaus-
Bot, Klbrain, D.Lazard, Toshio Yamaguchi, L Kensington, Donner60, ClueBot NG, Millermk, Rurik the Varangian, Helpful Pixie Bot,
Dhaval01, Wikih101, CitationCleanerBot, Jfd34, WOLfan112, Webclient101, Hans T.M, MRD2014, Loraof, Julietdeltalima, Vomit-
Spewer, Dario A. Gutierrez, Jakejake1234, Bender the Bot, Deacon Vorbis, Rahulrokade, Tompop888, Magic links bot and Anonymous:
97
Decimal Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decimal?oldid=801047871 Contributors: Tobias Hoevekamp, Derek Ross, Brion VIB-
BER, Drj, Andre Engels, Karl E. V. Palmen, Rgamble, William Avery, Karl Palmen, Montrealais, Robertolyra, Patrick, Michael Hardy,
Dominus, Egil, Ahoerstemeier, Mac, Andrewa, Ciphergoth, Iseeaboar, Charles Matthews, G Prime, Dysprosia, Jitse Niesen, Hyacinth,
Morwen, AndrewKepert, Stormie, AnonMoos, Pakaran, Francs2000, PuzzletChung, Robbot, Fredrik, Altenmann, Henrygb, Rorro, Jack-
ofOz, Aetheling, Mfc, Psb777, Giftlite, DocWatson42, Christopher Parham, DavidCary, Sj, Nichalp, Everyking, Guanaco, Mbover-
load, Proslaes, Richard cocks, Utcursch, Fuzzy Logic, Slowking Man, Quadell, Noe, Quarl, Tsemii, Joyous!, Mschlindwein, Quota,
Trevor MacInnis, Drbalaji md, Shiftchange, Poccil, Rich Farmbrough, Tostadora, NrDg, ArnoldReinhold, Will2k, Triskaideka, Dbach-
mann, Paul August, BBB~enwiki, Bender235, Andrejj, Ben Standeven, Neko-chan, Kwamikagami, Erath, Rpresser, Bobo192, R. S.
Shaw, Elipongo, Kevin Lamoreau, Polylerus, Jcrocker, Jumbuck, ZmiLa, ABCD, Riana, Hoary, Sligocki, Stephan Leeds, Zereshk, Ling
Kah Jai, Oleg Alexandrov, Roylee, Linas, Shreevatsa, Ruud Koot, MFH, Prashanthns, Shanedidona, Gisling, Mandarax, TAKASUGI
Shinji, Pranathi, Dpr, Josh Parris, Nanami Kamimura, Arisa, Titoxd, FlaBot, Xmoogle, Mathbot, Nihiltres, RexNL, M7bot, Glenn L,
Jefu, CiaPan, CJLL Wright, Chobot, Benlisquare, Roboto de Ajvol, The Rambling Man, Wavelength, Khisanth, Deeptrivia, Mserror,
Hede2000, Stephenb, Gaius Cornelius, Rsrikanth05, Aeusoes1, Welsh, Trovatore, Keka, Zzuuzz, Arthur Rubin, MathsIsFun, Mikus,
AGToth, Palapa, A bit iy, SmackBot, Au And Cs, Reedy, Hydrogen Iodide, Melchoir, McGeddon, Jagged 85, Gilliam, Skizzik, Chris
the speller, Kurykh, MalafayaBot, Domthedude001, Greatgavini, SchftyThree, DHN-bot~enwiki, Colonies Chris, Addshore, Flyguy649,
Ianmacm, Nakon, Jiddisch~enwiki, Dreadstar, SashatoBot, Lambiam, Metric, Javit, Bjankuloski06en~enwiki, IronGargoyle, George The
Dragon, Meco, Nageeb, Jose-Santana, WAREL, The editor1, Lenoxus, Tawkerbot2, CRGreathouse, CmdrObot, Arkiedragon, CBM,
Xanthoxyl, Chmee2, Casper2k3, Nauticashades, FilipeS, Sopoforic, Cydebot, JFreeman, PKT, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Tonybam, Raymond
Feilner, Oliver202, Headbomb, Najro, Marek69, AntiVandalBot, Abu-Fool Danyal ibn Amir al-Makhiri, Luna Santin, Turlo Lomon,
Mhaitham.shammaa, AstroLynx, LibLord, Silver seren, Dhrm77, Ingolfson, JAnDbot, Kaobear, MER-C, CosineKitty, Fetchcomms,
Thenub314, TAnthony, PhilKnight, Magioladitis, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Nikevich, WhatamIdoing, David Eppstein, Rajpaj, JaGa, Gun
Powder Ma, Jtir, MartinBot, Mike6271, David J Wilson, Kostisl, Pbroks13, J.delanoy, Silverxxx, Terrek, OKeh~enwiki, Alexwright, Cpi-
ral, Johnhardcastle, NewEnglandYankee, Robertgreer, Hanacy, Jamesontai, Alzuz, RJASE1, Funandtrvl, VolkovBot, Dejan Jovanovi,
Fbifriday, TobyDZ, Philip Trueman, Varttik, Oshwah, Davehi1, Gentlemath, Larspedia, Dendodge, Don4of4, LeaveSleaves, Bcharles,
Mwilso24, JCOwens, InternetHero, Zachull, Meters, TrippingTroubadour, Anti wikipedia association(5J NYPS), Nagy, LuigiManiac,
PericlesofAthens, Katzmik, Radagast3, K. Annoyomous, VVVBot, Triwbe, Yintan, Arda Xi, Flyer22 Reborn, Masgatotkaca, Dodo48,
Kudret abi, Gauravchauhan4, ClueBot, Cli, Say-whaaahhh, Timaru, Taroaldo, Wendy.krieger, Sevilledade, Blanchardb, Xtrapwr, Ne-
tralized, Tgeik, Excirial, Jusdafax, CrazyChemGuy, Kanguole, SchreiberBike, BOTarate, Aitias, Versus22, Erodium, DumZiBoT, Pich-
pich, WikHead, Boboxing666, PL290, Marcopolo112233, Addbot, Bobtastic13, CanadianLinuxUser, Download, Glane23, Favonian,
Jasper Deng, VASANTH S.N., Tide rolls, OC Ripper, JSR, LuK3, Jackelve, Ben Ben, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Worldbruce,
OrgasGirl, Majestic-chimp, Tempodivalse, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Henry Godric, Johnny9i6, Materialscientist, Nanino~enwiki, Ci-
tation bot, Whaoshgh, Dewan357, Jchthys, Xqbot, SamNYK, Drilnoth, Jerey Mall, Timmyshin, Jsharpminor, The Evil IP address,
Gap9551, AbigailAbernathy, Coretheapple, Almabot, Haxor9, RadiX, GrouchoBot, Alan.A.Mick, Mathonius, Shadowjams, Thehelpful-
bot, Tobby72, MathGemstone, SpaceRocket, Sekkk, Pinky34567, Majopius, Finalius, Robo37, DivineAlpha, Citation bot 1, Tkuvho,
JIK1975, Maher27777, MacMed, Pinethicket, BRUTE, Double sharp, Pasha408, Lotje, Vrenator, , Duoduoduo, Reaper
Eternal, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Mean as custard, Becritical, EmausBot, Charliebrown928, WikitanvirBot, N, Syncategoremata, RA0808,
Alexsis97, Dcirovic, K6ka, Gzuufy, Michaelgaul96, Matthewcgirling, Dondervogel 2, H3llBot, D.Lazard, Wayne Slam, IGeMiNix, Loz-
zowilko, L Kensington, Donner60, Evanseabrook63, ResearchRave, Mikhail Ryazanov, ClueBot NG, Wcherowi, Matthiaspaul, Irisrune,
Vacation9, Kasirbot, Widr, Rurik the Varangian, Robert s denton, Be..anyone, Helpful Pixie Bot, Calabe1992, BG19bot, John Cummings,
Thumani Mabwe, IacobusUrokh, Eman2129, MThekkumthala, Chasmorox, EdwardH, Fylbecatulous, Miszatomic, Ditditdahditditditdit-
dahditdit, Cyberbot II, ChrisGualtieri, Electricmun11, Dexbot, Deltahedron, Natuur12, Mogism, Lugia2453, Patrick87, Sanghvis-
hanay1, Hermann Dppes, Blythwood, DavidLeighEllis, Noneyak, Jan Kaninchen, Hd n3h, Drriudhvhfvh, Zenibus, Dunkinator, Jian-
hui67, Abhishek goyal3000, Bairuilong, Teddyktchan, Bigbenny1821, MusikVarmint, Purgy Purgatorio, Lumenf, Loraof, Mediavalia,
Wavewhirler, KasparBot, Ernietrevino, Janinewestawayqqq, Ira Leviton, Adlamcody, CAPTAIN RAJU, Filpro, VannilaWolf, Dwlogan,
Qzd, InternetArchiveBot, GreenC bot, FNAS, JORDANFARRIS5, Ldcaneld, 72, Alexia200510, MrHumanPersonGuy, Hyperbolick,
Toreightyone, Dairy501, KolbertBot, Agborsen and Anonymous: 457
Division (mathematics) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division_(mathematics)?oldid=800890570 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Mav,
Bryan Derksen, The Anome, Hajhouse, Christian List, Toby Bartels, Ortolan88, Mjb, Heron, Patrick, Michael Hardy, Eric119, Ahoer-
stemeier, Andres, Emperorbma, Charles Matthews, Dcoetzee, Jitse Niesen, Furrykef, Hyacinth, Saltine, .mau., Jusjih, Robbot, Choco-
lateboy, ZimZalaBim, Gandalf61, Henrygb, SvavarL, Moink, Wikibot, Ruakh, Lzur, Tea2min, ManuelGR, Giftlite, Webheadmdw, Her-
bee, Nayuki, CryptoDerk, LiDaobing, Antandrus, Beland, Gauss, Flex, Kate, Gazpacho, PhotoBox, Paul August, Andrejj, Jnestorius,
Gauge, MBisanz, Stesmo, Longhair, Robotje, R. S. Shaw, Helopticor, Nk, Zaraki~enwiki, Oolong, Jumbuck, Frodet, Alansohn, Gary,
Keenan Pepper, BaF, Olegalexandrov, Wtmitchell, Jheald, Oleg Alexandrov, Nuno Tavares, Linas, TigerShark, LOL, Ae-a, Chad1m,
Gisling, Sukolsak, Jshadias, Josh Parris, Coemgenus, Salix alba, HappyCamper, MarnetteD, Chobot, YurikBot, Wavelength, Hairy Dude,
Jengelh, SpuriousQ, Wimt, Welsh, Apokryltaros, Brian Crawford, Muu-karhu, Bota47, Brisvegas, Arthur Rubin, MathsIsFun, Kosza,
Netch, SmackBot, Haymaker, KnowledgeOfSelf, Melchoir, GraemeMcRae, Skizzik, Oli Filth, PrimeHunter, MalafayaBot, Con, Pur-
eRED, Octahedron80, MaxSem, Rkinch, Georg-Johann, VMS Mosaic, Jpape, SundarBot, UU, DaniLoveSky, BIL, Mwtoews, Vina-
iwbot~enwiki, SashatoBot, Butko, Bjankuloski06en~enwiki, IronGargoyle, Frokor, Mets501, JMK, Quantum7, CRGreathouse, Mudd1,
Cydebot, Chuck Marean, KnightMove, Omicronpersei8, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Oerjan, Dfrg.msc, Mentisto, JEBrown87544, .alyn.post.,
JAnDbot, TAnthony, Hroulf, VoABot II, Acertain, Ryeterrell, Animum, David Eppstein, Martynas Patasius, Gwern, MartinBot, Ar-
jun01, J.delanoy, Numbo3, Laurusnobilis, SparsityProblem, TomasBat, Joshua Issac, Juliancolton, RJASE1, Idioma-bot, R00723r0,
Hellno2, VolkovBot, Am Fiosaigear~enwiki, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Nono le petit robot~enwiki, Anonymous Dissident, Slysplace,
Onore Baka Sama, Houtlijm~enwiki, Jesin, Happy5214, Falcon8765, Chaers, AlleborgoBot, Symane, SieBot, ToePeu.bot, Paolo.dL,
OKBot, Stephen Shaw, Silvergoat, Gamall Wednesday Ida, Nn123645, Wahrmund, Denisarona, Into The Fray, Atif.t2, ClueBot, Justin
W Smith, Jan1nad, Wysprgr2005, UKoch, Blanchardb, Hardcore Hak, H.Marxen, ProfOak, Thingg, Carltonengesia, Plasmic Physics,
Iranway, Addbot, Some jerk on the Internet, Fgnievinski, Jncraton, Leszek Jaczuk, Mrchapel0203, Favonian, Tassedethe, Numbo3-
bot, VASANTH S.N., Tide rolls, PV=nRT, Jarble, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, 2D, Ptbotgourou, Mauler90, Mathtchr, ,
AnomieBOT, Erel Segal, Jim1138, IRP, Materialscientist, Galt57, Benhen1997, MauritsBot, Xqbot, TinucherianBot II, XZeroBot, Sakaa,
FlightTime, Isheden, GrouchoBot, Aaron Kauppi, FrescoBot, LucienBOT, Rotideypoc41352, Michael93555, Jmealy718, Majopius,
WikiMichel, MacMed, Rameshngbot, EliseVanLooij, Jschnur, Petitvie, Beao, TobeBot, Skakkle, Suusion of Yellow, DARTH SIDIOUS
2, DASHBot, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, GoingBatty, Wham Bam Rock II, Tommy2010, Dcirovic, AvicBot, Alpha Quadrant (alt), Quon-
dum, D.Lazard, Paulmiko, Donner60, ChuispastonBot, ,28bot, Xanchester, ClueBot NG, Aspen1995, Wcherowi, CocuBot, FLH-
erne, Spel-Punc-Gram, Stapler9124, Helpful Pixie Bot, Calabe1992, BG19bot, John Cummings, Wiki13, ElphiBot, Yukterez, Thumani
Mabwe, Hillcrest98, Chmarkine, Glacialfox, The1337gamer, Dysrhythmia, Bombaysippin, William.stoner, Max Buskirk, Manjit2012,
Mov0021, Frosty, Mmitchell10, Fumiko Take, AntiCompositeNumber, Samsher joon, HMSLavender, M.f.ashraf, SuryawanshiAkash,
AHusain3141, Loraof, Thallior, Esquivalience, Manunited 26, KnowAndGrow, KasparBot, Idkmankind123, Trymankind, Snowweatyh,
CaptainATW, Marvellous Spider-Man, Tompop888 and Anonymous: 284
Division by two Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division_by_two?oldid=646695547 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Toby Bartels,
Michael Hardy, Charles Matthews, Dcoetzee, Robbot, Vadmium, Oleg Alexandrov, Philthecow, Linas, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Seidenstud,
Laur, Melchoir, BiT, Sopoforic, Cydebot, JustAGal, David Eppstein, Fullobeans, MystBot, Addbot, Scientus, , PV=nRT, Luckas-
bot, Amirobot, ArthurBot, Big butt bob, Miym, Erik9bot, A.amitkumar, LucienBOT, RedBot, ZroBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Citation-
CleanerBot and Anonymous: 9
Elementary arithmetic Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_arithmetic?oldid=797631592 Contributors: The Anome, Danny,
SebastianHelm, AugPi, Charles Matthews, Power~enwiki, Gandalf61, Andycjp, Noe, Beland, JimWae, Oknazevad, Perey, Paul August,
Mykhal, Bennylin, Spoon!, La goutte de pluie, Kbolino, Oleg Alexandrov, Hoziron, Linas, Mindmatrix, KKramer~enwiki, Jshadias, Josh
Parris, Rjwilmsi, Salix alba, MZMcBride, MarnetteD, Fred Bradstadt, SchuminWeb, Michael Slone, KSmrq, Rick Norwood, Jemebius,
SFGiants, Arthur Rubin, Ebengeer, SmackBot, Reedy, Melchoir, Gilliam, Oli Filth, Octahedron80, Nbarth, StephenMacmanus, InfoDav,
A.Z., DragoonWraith, Ozga, Chrisahn, FilipeS, LinkWalker, JamesAM, Smoo22, Missvain, Nick Number, Escarbot, Knotwork, Magiola-
ditis, Redaktor, Ryeterrell, Seberle, David Eppstein, Surcer, Maurice Carbonaro, Reedy Bot, Merceris, TomasBat, TWCarlson, RJASE1,
Idioma-bot, JohnBlackburne, MaCRoEco, Dusti, Bachcell, Realchallange, Mild Bill Hiccup, Jonverve, Addbot, Mpz, Luckas-bot, Yobot,
AnomieBOT, Dany 123, LoKiLeCh, J04n, Omnipaedista, Aaron Kauppi, Thehelpfulbot, Dhtwiki, MacMed, SchreyP, Zachchee, Nihola,
EmausBot, John of Reading, WeijiBaikeBianji, Pun, ClueBot NG, Wcherowi, Baseball Watcher, Rezabot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Queen
of Awesome, Brad7777, Conifer, Schildkrte89, Dexbot, Ginsuloft, Qwertyxp2000, Deacon Vorbis and Anonymous: 43
Elementary denition Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_definition?oldid=327373287 Contributors: Michael Hardy,
AshtonBenson, Durova, Classicalecon, Hans Adler, Pcap and Erik9bot
Elementary sentence Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_sentence?oldid=316831275 Contributors: Michael Hardy and
AshtonBenson
Elementary theory Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_theory?oldid=415833358 Contributors: AshtonBenson and Tku-
vho
Equality (mathematics) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equality_(mathematics)?oldid=794455436 Contributors: Toby Bartels,
Patrick, Michael Hardy, TakuyaMurata, Looxix~enwiki, Pizza Puzzle, Charles Matthews, Dysprosia, WhisperToMe, Banno, Robbot,
RedWolf, Lowellian, Tea2min, Alan Liefting, Giftlite, Christopher Parham, Recentchanges, Michael Devore, Jabowery, DefLog~enwiki,
Chowbok, Smiller933, Shahab, AlexG, Wrp103, Plugwash, Rgdboer, Spoon!, Iltseng, PWilkinson, MPerel, Jumbuck, Msh210, Hu,
Japanese Searobin, Simetrical, Linas, MattGiuca, Isnow, Wbeek, Qwertyus, Island, Scottkeir, Jshadias, Pasky, FlaBot, VKokielov, Mar-
gosbot~enwiki, Fresheneesz, Chobot, DVdm, Gwernol, Laurentius, Hairy Dude, Pi Delport, Pnrj, TransUtopian, Reyk, Tinlv7, SmackBot,
RDBury, Incnis Mrsi, Melchoir, Blue520, Josephprymak, BiT, Gilliam, Bluebot, Nbarth, Jdthood, Jon Awbrey, Lambiam, Attys, Load-
master, Mets501, Tauolunga, CBM, Sdorrance, Simeon, Gregbard, Cydebot, Benzi455, Blaisorblade, Xantharius, Uv~enwiki, Marek69,
Cj67, Dugwiki, AntiVandalBot, Widefox, Malcolm, JAnDbot, Thenub314, Edward321, R'n'B, Policron, Alan U. Kennington, Anony-
mous Dissident, PaulTanenbaum, UnitedStatesian, Enigmaman, Vikrant42, Tachikoma's All Memory, Flyer22 Reborn, Ctxppc, Clue-
Bot, BodhisattvaBot, SilvonenBot, Addbot, Debresser, Numbo3-bot, Apteva, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, TaBOT-zerem, Amirobot,
Pcap, KamikazeBot, Ningauble, Bryan.burgers, MassimoAr, AnomieBOT, Kingpin13, Citation bot, Capricorn42, Kevfest08, NOrbeck,
VladimirReshetnikov, Der Falke, FrescoBot, Tkuvho, AmphBot, RedBot, Jauhienij, TobeBot, Belovedeagle, Vrenator, CobraBot, Duo-
duoduo, Ebe123, ZroBot, Sungzungkim, D.Lazard, ClueBot NG, Iiii I I I, Wcherowi, Faus, Titodutta, ChrisGualtieri, Jochen Burghardt,
Brirush, DialaceStarvy, Monkbot, Sunmist, Lizard Pancakes123456789012345678901234567890, Gmalaven, This is a mobile phone,
Deacon Vorbis and Anonymous: 84
Fifth power (algebra) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fifth_power_(algebra)?oldid=798752270 Contributors: Bearcat, David
Eppstein, Biscuittin, Certes, Double sharp, Toshio Yamaguchi, ClueBot NG, Hillcrest98, The Mol Man, Loraof, Eliseo 3.14, Bender
the Bot and Anonymous: 3
Finger binary Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finger_binary?oldid=760013309 Contributors: Error, Ilyanep, Zoicon5, Denel-
son83, Smjg, Noe, Quota, Chairboy, Reinyday, Pharos, Alansohn, Sligocki, Recury, Dryman, Dtobias, TAKASUGI Shinji, JoshuacUK,
RussBot, RadioFan2 (usurped), Gaius Cornelius, Gogodidi, Veinor, A bit iy, SmackBot, TheBilly, Deon Steyn, Ohnoitsjamie, TECan-
non, Bluebot, Max David, OrphanBot, CatsWhiskers, Cybercobra, B jonas, Sopoforic, Cydebot, Mtijn, Briham, MarshBot, Joachim
Michaelis, Father Goose, N8lewis, Kal Turak, Atucovic, Davidimai, 04jessops, ClueBot, Bemanixraver, IXella007, The Baroness of
Morden, XLinkBot, Addbot, AkhtaBot, GrouchoBot, Braneof, Double sharp, ShawnMcGraw, Onel5969, Bomazi, HandsomeFella, Mi-
rAliBlog, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, Dmjones500, Curb Chain, BurritoBazooka, C4121490, Deotaxis, Kvantikos afros, Xxpro
gamerxx37, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 59
Fourth power Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth_power?oldid=791371383 Contributors: Karl Palmen, Charles Matthews,
Gandalf61, MathMartin, Hooperbloob, Georgia guy, Mendaliv, Chobot, Michael Slone, Yuyudevil, Neo-Jay, Xman256, CBM, Chikin-
potato11, Email4mobile, David Eppstein, Penpen~enwiki, R'n'B, Nitrolicious, Ste900R, Addbot, Yobot, Double sharp, Skamecrazy123,
Quondum, Toshio Yamaguchi, Anita5192, ClueBot NG, Lanthanum-138, Pacerier, Hillcrest98, NitPicker769, MileLongRiver, AHu-
sain314, Sunny AY, Loraof and Anonymous: 21
Fraction (mathematics) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fraction_(mathematics)?oldid=800900614 Contributors: The Anome,
Fubar Obfusco, Heron, Stevertigo, Michael Hardy, JakeVortex, Ixfd64, Axlrosen, TakuyaMurata, Kingturtle, Darkwind, Glenn, Cipher-
goth, Revolver, Charles Matthews, Janko, Jitse Niesen, Hyacinth, Omegatron, EikwaR, .mau., Robbot, Fredrik, Academic Challenger,
Tea2min, Giftlite, Tom harrison, NeoJustin, Guanaco, Andycjp, CryptoDerk, Slowking Man, Noe, JimWae, Histrion, B.d.mills, Iantres-
man, PhotoBox, Mike Rosoft, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Pavel Vozenilek, Paul August, Bender235, El C, Rgdboer, Edward Z.
Yang, EmilJ, Mairi, Bobo192, AmosWolfe, Shenme, R. S. Shaw, Sam Korn, Haham hanuka, Alansohn, Eric Kvaalen, Keenan Pep-
per, Wtmitchell, Velella, Sleigh, Ling Kah Jai, Oleg Alexandrov, Linas, Georgia guy, Pol098, WadeSimMiser, Jleon, MFH, Dysepsion,
Mandarax, Raguks, Graham87, TAKASUGI Shinji, Demonuk, Jshadias, Josh Parris, Sj, Jorunn, Rjwilmsi, Nanami Kamimura, Coem-
genus, Markkawika, Bertik, Salix alba, George de Moraes~enwiki, Mathbot, Gurch, Tardis, Kri, Chobot, VolatileChemical, Bgwhite,
PointedEars, Borgx, Deeptrivia, Jimp, RussBot, KSmrq, Stephenb, Rsrikanth05, Anomalocaris, NawlinWiki, Rick Norwood, Msikma,
Dialectric, NickBush24, Wknight94, Pooryorick~enwiki, Super Rad!, Ninly, Arthur Rubin, Josh3580, Dspradau, Gesslein, Nsevs, Allens,
NeilN, Bo Jacoby, Jbalint, SmackBot, Slashme, Melchoir, VarunRajendran, Jagged 85, Delldot, Mdd4696, Canthusus, Yamaguchi ,
Gilliam, Persian Poet Gal, CrookedAsterisk, Green meklar, MalafayaBot, Silly rabbit, SchftyThree, Octahedron80, Nbarth, Dtm142,
Darth Panda, Gracenotes, NYKevin, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Nick Levine, Littlechamp, Yidisheryid, Rrburke, Ianmacm, Cyberco-
bra, Saturn07, RolandR, NickPenguin, Acdx, Ronaz, Kkailas, Spiritia, Michael J, T3hZ10n, Shlomke, Tktktk, Bjankuloski06en~enwiki,
Loadmaster, MarkSutton, RyJones, Mets501, Doczilla, Jgrahn, Ryulong, EdC~enwiki, KJS77, BranStark, Dragliker, Iridescent, Majora4,
Courcelles, Slobot, Exachix Zephyr, Funnyfarmofdoom, FilipeS, Cydebot, Gogo Dodo, Chrislk02, , JamesAM, Epbr123, Mojo
Hand, Jojan, Sobreira, Marek69, A3RO, E. Ripley, Uruiamme, Sherbrooke, Escarbot, Hmrox, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, RapidR,
Danger, Storkk, JAnDbot, Deective, Kaobear, MER-C, Instinct, Acroterion, Magioladitis, Hroulf, Jhansonxi, Bongwarrior, VoABot
II, Sodabottle, Dragalis, Seberle, The2nicks, David Eppstein, Poing137, DerHexer, MartinBot, Kjhf, MoA)gnome, Dogma100, Keith D,
R'n'B, Deagro, Slash, J.delanoy, Captain panda, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Wideshanks, Bogey97, Shimaspawn, Glenspendlove, Ginseng-
bomb, Laurusnobilis, Cpiral, Katalaveno, (jarbarf), Nwbeeson, SmilesALot, Benthompson, MKoltnow, Marfalump, Hanacy, Digitalmind,
Vanished user 39948282, Treisijs, Ross Fraser, Visible Fred, RJASE1, Idioma-bot, Timbabwe, VolkovBot, Pleasantville, Je G., Loki-
Clock, AlnoktaBOT, Soliloquial, Am Fiosaigear~enwiki, Larry R. Holmgren, Ktalon, Barneca, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Wisdcom,
Oshwah, Technopat, Anonymous Dissident, Metaed, Corvus cornix, Martin451, Broadbot, Raymondwinn, Saturn star, Meters, Wolfrock,
Falcon8765, Lolmanstrikesback, Ginger Warrior, Monty845, Petowl, Anti wikipedia association(5J NYPS), Blob 007, AlleborgoBot,
Symane, Logan, SieBot, PeterCanthropus, Tiddly Tom, Steorra, BotMultichill, Bachcell, LungZeno, Gerakibot, Caltas, Matthew Yeager,
RJaguar3, S711, Keilana, Bentogoa, Happysailor, KPH2293, Nskillen, IdreamofJeanie, OKBot, Skeptical scientist, Randomblue, Super-
man125, Sfan00 IMG, ClueBot, Justin W Smith, The Thing That Should Not Be, Cli, Abhinav, Jan1nad, Wendy.krieger, Uncle Milty,
AirdishStraus, Mazrit, Niceguyedc, Blanchardb, WestwoodMatt, Excirial, Jusdafax, Salochin92, Vivio Testarossa, Sun Creator, Beaversd,
Tnxman307, Razorame, Dlewis3, TalulahRobinS., ChrisHamburg, La Pianista, Saralonde, Tired time, SoxBot III, DumZiBoT, Darkice-
bot, Jmanigold, XLinkBot, Aaron north, Pichpich, Rror, Ost316, Skarebo, SilvonenBot, NellieBly, Ianbecerro, WikiDao, EEng, Y2008sw,
Addbot, Xp54321, EdgeNavidad, Hirschtick3, Ronhjones, Fluernutter, Mrchapel0203, ProperFraction, Download, 5 albert square,
TippTopp, AgadaUrbanit, Driveanddrinkv8, Tide rolls, Emovampireprincess, , PV=nRT, Jarble, Arbitrarily0, Quantumobserver,
Genius101, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Guocuozuoduo, Daren1997, LNchic, Eric-Wester, SirHippo, Tempodivalse, Backslash Forwardslash,
AnomieBOT, Kristen Eriksen, Rubinbot, Jim1138, JackieBot, LlywelynII, Henry Godric, Flewis, Bluerasberry, Johnny9i6, Materialsci-
entist, Gaedheal, Danno uk, Halo13teen, GB fan, WaeMaster44, The Firewall, Obersachsebot, Xqbot, Capricorn42, Matttoothman,
Fountain Lake, Denidowi, RedKiteUK, Isheden, Gap9551, Omnipaedista, Shirik, Bellerophon, Mathonius, Amaury, Doulos Christos,
Srr712, Aaron Kauppi, Samwb123, A.amitkumar, Dougofborg, FrescoBot, Yssha, Duncan.beavers, Tobby72, Tiheem, SelfHalt, VS6507,
Thisisatestpick, Orhanghazi, D'ohBot, Finalius, Ad43-409, T3h 1337 b0y, MacMed, Pinethicket, A412, Serols, Fixer88, Mightygreenm,
Full-date unlinking bot, Dude1818, FoxBot, Duoduoduo, Thelema418, Mean as custard, TjBot, NerdyScienceDude, Jowa fan, Slon02,
EmausBot, Whateve101, Acather96, Kpuersh, WikitanvirBot, Jael525, Britannic124, Wham Bam Rock II, TuHan-Bot, Dcirovic, Mz7,
Damotheomen, John Cline, F, Aughost, Wayne Slam, Regent of the Seatopians, Tolly4bolly, Rcsprinter123, L Kensington, Donner60,
Chewings72, Orange Suede Sofa, RockMagnetist, Sven Manguard, DASHBotAV, Xanchester, Velvasi, ClueBot NG, NobuTamura, Lau-
rence Cue, Gareth Grith-Jones, Wcherowi, Matthiaspaul, Shanadonohue, Nikoschance, O.Koslowski, RainCoaster, Widr, Antiqueight,
Die demand1, MerlIwBot, Billabott, Learath2, Helpful Pixie Bot, Titodutta, Calabe1992, ZVdP, BG19bot, John Cummings, Nen,
Wiki13, Thumani Mabwe, Kendall-K1, Mark Arsten, Thekillerpenguin, TRLIJC19, Hillcrest98, JMtB03, Cece0344jones, Redsquir-
rel118, Obliviongame78, Giavoline, DXproton, BattyBot, Eugenecheung, Mcontreras720372, Locharado, Dexbot, FoCuSandLeArN,
Manjit2012, YasBot, Lugia2453, Isarra (HG), Frosty, SFK2, Hair, Irbananaking, Telfordbuck, 069952497a, Maniesansdelire, Nataeva,
Will85237, AptitudeDesign, Ffhhhh, Ugog Nizdast, Ollama, , Manul, Pratisinha, SJ Defender, Meteor sandwich yum, Court-
cat, Mahusha, Kyky20021004, Monkbot, Joeleoj123, Hetparekh, Coreyglynn, LayGiri, Yoannes, Dayaan ameen, MRD2014, KH-1,
PotatoNinja, Purgy Purgatorio, Crystallizedcarbon, Loraof, Travailen, PiotrGrochowski000, Lilyisthebest, Kepaige03, Poopsteven420,
Matthewtylerblank, Xandawesome, Sueydoosnowake, Jdcomix, KasparBot, KaungHtet105, Anr, Equinox, PappuKaMitr, Apoorva Goel,
StarmanW, Hewwassuphello, But31397, InternetArchiveBot, CRITICALNINJA, Runpu, Mikehawk223, Amjjajtjj, Rrcherrypie, KGirl-
Trucker81, GreenC bot, Naren0202, Gabi343, RainFall, GamerAlex, OPNVP, PrimeBOT, Justeditingtoday, Ihaveahugebrain, Cyrine
jane, T-Wong and Anonymous: 929
Grid method multiplication Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grid_method_multiplication?oldid=789522340 Contributors: Jheald,
DVdm, Mais oui!, SmackBot, Racklever, Tim bates, Itullis, Claret, OrenBochman, Hobartimus, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist,
LilHelpa, Krj373, I dream of horses, , Sideways713, Mocha2007, ClueBot NG, O.Koslowski, Helpful Pixie Bot, MusikAnimal,
The1337gamer, SJ Defender, LIONZ1234, Magic links bot and Anonymous: 27
Irreducible fraction Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irreducible_fraction?oldid=765016886 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Michael
Hardy, Stevenj, Charles Matthews, Hyacinth, Henrygb, Giftlite, Tom harrison, Jason Quinn, Histrion, R. S. Shaw, HasharBot~enwiki,
Here, Oleg Alexandrov, Linas, Josh Parris, YurikBot, Darker Dreams, SmackBot, BiT, Octahedron80, Nbarth, Cydebot, WinBot, Ricardo
sandoval, David Eppstein, VolkovBot, Oshwah, Gentlemath, Nxavar, Tamorlan, Alexbot, Egmontaz, DumZiBoT, Marc van Leeuwen, Fg-
nievinski, AkhtaBot, West.andrew.g, Legobot, Xqbot, Erik9bot, I dream of horses, RedBot, Fixer88, Duoduoduo, D.Lazard, ClueBot NG,
Loraof and Anonymous: 19
Least common multiple Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Least_common_multiple?oldid=800630793 Contributors: AxelBoldt,
Tobias Hoevekamp, Zundark, Koyaanis Qatsi, Mark Ryan, Michael Hardy, Delirium, Theresa knott, Andres, Ideyal, Dcoetzee, Be-
moeial, Harris7, Dysprosia, Hyacinth, Morn, JorgeGG, Robbot, Fredrik, Henrygb, Giftlite, Tom harrison, Herbee, Rjyanco, Vadmium,
Antandrus, Histrion, Ukexpat, Azuredu, Imroy, ESkog, Sleske, Alansohn, Kbolino, Oleg Alexandrov, Linas, Ruud Koot, Graham87,
Grammarbot, Josh Parris, Sjakkalle, Jake Wartenberg, The wub, Bhadani, Bgura, SLi, FlaBot, Alexb@cut-the-knot.com, Mathbot,
Ichudov, Glenn L, Chobot, Borgx, RobotE, Boticario, Jengelh, Dantheox, Trovatore, Philpem, Maddog Battie, Cedar101, KGasso,
Gesslein, Bo Jacoby, Cmglee, Zvi Alon, SmackBot, McGeddon, Sct72, Mhym, KerathFreeman, Addshore, Ianmacm, Cybercobra, Jid-
disch~enwiki, Dreadstar, Henning Makholm, Black Carrot, Kalathalan, Kuru, MvH, IronGargoyle, Beoknoc, Drae, Hu12, Skalman,
CRGreathouse, Eltimbo, ShelfSkewed, Buttonius, Sopoforic, Pascal.Tesson, Tawkerbot4, Andri Egilsson, Schneau, Marek69, Chig00,
Grogdorf 25680, Mentisto, BokicaK, Mhaitham.shammaa, JAnDbot, Leuko, MER-C, Connormah, VoABot II, JamesBWatson, River-
torch, Ridhi bookworm, Sir Intellegence, J.delanoy, Spnashville, Icseaturtles, Barts1a, McSly, Bailo26, Daniel5Ko, Skaushik92, Mati-
asholte, Pdcook, RoseTech, Je G., Jacroe, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Charlesriver, Corvus cornix, BotKung, Falcon8765, Ricegator, Finnrind,
SieBot, Yintan, Flyer22 Reborn, RobertMel, Alex.muller, OKBot, Denator, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Jan1nad, Oazes,
Mspraveen, DragonBot, Jusdafax, Suejvm, IQ Sayed, Burner0718, Nooodl, Rror, Ost316, Virginia-American, Shijitht, Addbot, Some
jerk on the Internet, Fieldday-sunday, NjardarBot, LaaknorBot, AwOc, Zorrobot, Frogger3140, Swarm, Legobot, Luckas-bot, ZX81,
Yobot, Telltree, Nghtwlkr, Ptbotgourou, , Jim1138, Piano non troppo, Materialscientist, E235, Jxramos, Obersachsebot, Xqbot,
Sionus, Jewang, Isheden, Samwb123, Lunae, Sawomir Biay, HJ Mitchell, Cannolis, MacMed, Pinethicket, Mytimepass2002, Jschnur,
RedBot, Serols, Meaghan, Toolnut, Kesvas, Lotje, January, , Diannaa, Onel5969, Alph Bot, Slon02, John of Reading, Or-
phan Wiki, Ebe123, TuHan-Bot, Wikipelli, Slawekb, Carilyn2476552, Bollyje, Quondum, Morgankevinj, Kranix, TYelliot, 28bot,
Anita5192, ClueBot NG, Wcherowi, Satellizer, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, Porcusbr, Vagobot, Mark Arsten, MC-CPO, Scottdude10,
Lukas, Mrt3366, EuroCarGT, Ducknish, Webclient101, Lugia2453, Isarra (HG), Telfordbuck, The Mol Man, Essa75, Vasu357 wiki,
George8211, Kitkat1234567880, Mr.Genius.Guy, GeoreyT2000, Loraof, Dmitrygusev, Umair444, Rajanraz, Zppix, Gladamas, Or-
bitHawk, OblivionOcial, CAPTAIN RAJU, Bernswiki, NicoScribe, DatGuy, Eliana Quartell, KGirlTrucker81, Bender the Bot, Deacon
Vorbis, Libertarious and Anonymous: 346
Lowest common denominator Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lowest_common_denominator?oldid=799481788 Contributors:
Maury Markowitz, Michael Hardy, BenKovitz, Kaihsu, Nohat, Bemoeial, Harris7, Hyacinth, Bearcat, Henrygb, Btljs, Cyrius, Giftlite,
Tom harrison, Perey, Rich Farmbrough, Dungodung, Acjelen, Lysdexia, Frodet, Anthony Appleyard, Oleg Alexandrov, Linas, Ruud
Koot, Macaddct1984, Poshua, Nihiltres, Fresheneesz, Glenn L, Doctor Whom, Moe Epsilon, Mgnbar, Arthur Rubin, MathsIsFun, Jah-
Jah, Cjwright79, Zvika, SmackBot, Prodego, Mscuthbert, BiT, Ga, Gilliam, Thumperward, Sadads, Yidisheryid, Flyguy649, Cyberco-
bra, Jiddisch~enwiki, Markhobley, Deepred6502, Michael Bednarek, Bjankuloski06en~enwiki, Slakr, Feureau, Michael Greiner, Vagary,
Skalman, Tanthalas39, CBM, Timtrent, Cydebot, Bellerophon5685, GangstaEB, Kablammo, Llloic, AubreyEllenShomo, Dan D. Ric,
GromXXVII, Nthep, Magioladitis, Karlhahn, Kevinmon, David Eppstein, Cailil, Rettetast, InnocuousPseudonym, Garnett F, Laurusno-
bilis, Vinsfan368, RJASE1, DoorsAjar, KevinTR, PaulTanenbaum, Mattbash, TheRevolutionisHere, Bachcell, Triwbe, Vanished user
kijsdion3i4jf, PabloStraub, ClueBot, Rumping, The Thing That Should Not Be, Drmies, Dekisugi, Professor T, Versus22, Mrshepherd-
maths, Dragonsrok09, Jimmy the cool12345, Tandy212, Suckmyt**s, Tandy121, Nathan Johnson, Ost316, Addbot, Tide rolls, OlEnglish,
Jarble, Fraggle81, TaBOT-zerem, AnomieBOT, Piano non troppo, SnorlaxMonster, TheTruth-2009, Imperators II, Erik9bot, FrescoBot,
MacMed, Taransingh63, Aquatiger1987, Belowenter, Clarkcj12, Ef80, Kipitis, Tbhotch, Tommy2010, Mullachv, Mikhail Ryazanov,
ClueBot NG, Rickyman 200, Wcherowi, Frietjes, Widr, BeatlesLover, DingoBob, Titodutta, Dan653, Mklawson, BattyBot, Mogism,
Tommy Pinball, Kotz, Mark viking, Theo's Little Bot, Shatterman 19, Jamesmcmahon0, AmaryllisGardener, DavidLeighEllis, YiFeiBot,
Mhancock2735, Loraof, Tdts5, Fmadd, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 129
Mediant (mathematics) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediant_(mathematics)?oldid=695271503 Contributors: Michael Hardy,
Dominus, Jitse Niesen, Hyacinth, Gandalf61, Giftlite, Tagishsimon, Icairns, Qutezuce, Linas, Mathbot, Melchoir, Nbarth, RyanEberhart,
Yms, Beetstra, Stephen B Streater, Cydebot, ThisIsAce, David Eppstein, Arithmonic, TXiKiBoT, Bender2k14, Addbot, MrOllie, Luckas-
bot, Yobot, Rothgo, Uncopy, Miricium, BG19bot, Maimonid, Didime99 and Anonymous: 12
Multiplication Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplication?oldid=801106819 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Bryan Derksen, Zun-
dark, XJaM, Christian List, Ortolan88, N8chz, Patrick, Michael Hardy, David Martland, Dominus, Liftarn, Dcljr, TakuyaMurata, Delir-
ium, Eric119, Ahoerstemeier, Cyp, Pizza Puzzle, Charles Matthews, Dcoetzee, Jitse Niesen, Furrykef, Hyacinth, Zero0000, EikwaR,
.mau., Jusjih, ThereIsNoSteve, Chuunen Baka, AlexPlank, Robbot, Fredrik, ZimZalaBim, SvavarL, Wikibot, Isopropyl, ManuelGR,
Giftlite, Laudaka, Gil Dawson, BenFrantzDale, Herbee, Bkonrad, Nayuki, Brockert, DemonThing, CryptoDerk, LucasVB, Joyous!,
Bluemask, Discospinster, Guanabot, Kdammers, ArnoldReinhold, Paul August, Bender235, Neko-chan, Hapsiainen, Bennylin, Shanes,
Smalljim, SpeedyGonsales, Jumbuck, Sligocki, Wtmitchell, ClockworkSoul, Stephan Leeds, Oleg Alexandrov, Linas, Miaow Miaow,
John Cardinal, Lensovet, Schzmo, Waldir, Gisling, DePiep, Jshadias, Josh Parris, Rjwilmsi, GlenPeterson, Pavel N. Krivitsky, Salix alba,
Zelos, MarnetteD, Cassowary, -lulu-, FlaBot, Mathbot, Margosbot~enwiki, Nihiltres, RexNL, Gurch, Czar, Kolbasz, Fresheneesz, Par-
erga, Kri, Chobot, Jersey Devil, DVdm, Roboto de Ajvol, NTBot~enwiki, Jimp, Poslt, Trainthh, Michael Slone, Pi Delport, Rodasmith,
RadioFan, Wimt, Gareth Jones, Aaron Schulz, Phgao, Arthur Rubin, MathsIsFun, Willtron, Azrael81, Kosza, Sethie, Paul Erik, Bo Ja-
coby, SkerHawx, SmackBot, Unschool, Thierry Caro, Adam majewski, Meshach, Incnis Mrsi, KnowledgeOfSelf, Melchoir, Hotdebater,
Jagged 85, Vixus, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Oli Filth, Leisme, Fluri, Silly rabbit, Neo-Jay, Octahedron80,
Langbein Rise, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Berland, Worrydream, Mr.Z-man, Cybercobra, Jiddisch~enwiki, Hoof Hearted, Ruwanraj,
Bidabadi~enwiki, Lambiam, MvH, Aharter, Bjankuloski06en~enwiki, Jim.belk, IronGargoyle, Loadmaster, TooMuchMath, Dicklyon,
Xiaphias, EdC~enwiki, Silverpie, Sm18, HongQiGong, N1ugl, Tawkerbot2, Jgjournalist, DAMurphy, Lbr123, CRGreathouse, Irwan-
gatot, Olaf Davis, Mudd1, Moreschi, AndrewHowse, Sopoforic, Cydebot, Chuck Marean, Lugnuts, Ff, DumbBOT,
LinkWalker, Omicronpersei8, Thijs!bot, Barticus88, Daniel, GentlemanGhost, Dfrg.msc, Escarbot, Pie Man 360, Mentisto, AntiVan-
dalBot, Prolog, Lovibond, Zidane tribal, Roice3, JAnDbot, Leuko, Smiddle, Kirrages, Burga, Magioladitis, Bongwarrior, VoABot II,
JamesBWatson, PeterStJohn, Ryeterrell, Seberle, David Eppstein, Martynas Patasius, Bugtrio, Esanchez7587, J0equ1nn, AlexiusHor-
atius, J.delanoy, McDoobAU93, Edhwiki, Nemo bis, Indeed123, TomasBat, Bonadea, TheNewPhobia, RJASE1, Alan U. Kennington,
Whatfg, AlnoktaBOT, Am Fiosaigear~enwiki, Ryan032, TXiKiBoT, Anonymous Dissident, Qxz, WikiWonki222, Noformation, Meters,
Brianga, Dmcq, Symane, Jzimba, Demmy, SieBot, Gerakibot, DanEdmonds, Hiddenfromview, Oxymoron83, Djmips, Stephen Shaw,
Svick, Gamall Wednesday Ida, Anchor Link Bot, Mygerardromance, Randomblue, Pikamander2, VanishedUser sdu9aya9fs787sads,
Elassint, ClueBot, Magicmaths, Uncle Milty, Auntof6, DragonBot, Tythomas26, SpikeToronto, Cenarium, Jotterbot, Computer97, So-
Home, Aitias, LieAfterLie, RebelzGang, SoxBot III, DumZiBoT, Kiwehtin, InternetMeme, Fastily, WikHead, SilvonenBot, JinJian,
Addbot, Twaz, Yoenit, Betterusername, Jsk8111, Innv, Ronhjones, KorinoChikara, Fluernutter, MrOllie, Glane23, Favonian, Numbo3-
bot, Ehrenkater, VASANTH S.N., Tide rolls, Bgura's puppy, Lightbot, PV=nRT, Angrysockhop, Luckas-bot, OrgasGirl, Daren1997,
TaBOT-zerem, Mmxx, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, QueenCake, KamikazeBot, Reindra, , Ciphers, Rubinbot, 9258fahs-
kh917fas, Markr9, Materialscientist, Jimpendo, XjuliaXcrazya, Frankenpuppy, Quebec99, Xqbot, Lwilliams79, Timmyshin, Chris.liberatore,
GrouchoBot, Georg Stillfried, Kyng, Shadowjams, Aaron Kauppi, Thehelpfulbot, 101nater, Cavosk, Prari, Lonaowna, Uncopy, Majopius,
Xhaoz, DivineAlpha, HamburgerRadio, Nightgamer360, Pinethicket, Yahia.barie, RedBot, Steve2011, GregKaye, Hornlitz, Jowa fan,
Jarhead422, Dixtosa, Titin P, Dewritech, GoingBatty, Solarra, HellShadowKing, Dcirovic, Jasonanaggie, ZroBot, Bollyje, D.Lazard,
Wayne Slam, Xerone55555, SirSirrrr, Maschen, Donner60, WaterCrane, GeorgePauley, Forever Dusk, Papa Roach 619, John Hancock
9796, DASHBotAV, Punkrocker459, ClueBot NG, Wcherowi, Matthiaspaul, Baseball Watcher, Millermk, Widr, Karl 334, ,
Martin of Sheeld, Calabe1992, Naliboki, BG19bot, Corey Green, Author, Je243, John Cummings, Wiki13, Thumani Mabwe, Hill-
crest98, Sumitgargwiki, Ploppery555, Shubhamkar, Tonyxc600, Darcourse, Stephan Kulla, Eptied, Numbermaniac, Ram2003, Faizan,
I am One of Many, JPaestpreornJeolhlna, PhantomTech, Tentinator, Welcome to wiki123456789, NYBrook098, Essybaby02, Pe-
ter13542, Bluecew, Rafaella14462, Jackmcbarn, Francois-Pier, Lakun.patra, JayDB 5, Pat power11, Thompsonswiki, Charlotte567,
Ehku, MRD2014, Mario Casteln Castro, Rileyandangandelle, Loraof, ZachoRockz, ScrapIronIV, Jennyhathaway, Deividas.grigas, Kas-
parBot, WILLMAN47, Tropicalkitty, IM271246, Murph9000, Keylasoza100, Lexi sioz, MB, Hewwassuphello, Snowweatyh, DatGuy,
Allthefoxes, Gulumeemee, Crazydad1, SwagBucks101101, Yay Good Tacos Are so good, Luke Kern Choi 5 and Anonymous: 387
Negative number Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_number?oldid=801027582 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Zundark, Tar-
quin, Ed Poor, XJaM, Toby Bartels, Shii, Dwheeler, JohnOwens, Michael Hardy, Voidvector, Dominus, Wapcaplet, TakuyaMurata,
GTBacchus, Minesweeper, Ahoerstemeier, Cyp, Evercat, Pizza Puzzle, Charles Matthews, Dysprosia, Fibonacci, Pakaran, Robbot,
Sharkey, Jmabel, Gandalf61, Chris Roy, Henrygb, Wikibot, Giftlite, Mintleaf~enwiki, BenFrantzDale, Dissident, Bnn, Wwoods, Ee-
quor, Doshell, Foof~enwiki, Chappell, ELApro, Brianjd, Poccil, Discospinster, Cacycle, Cfailde, Dbachmann, Paul August, Zaslav,
Spoon!, Bobo192, R. S. Shaw, Jrme, Sciurin, Falcorian, Oleg Alexandrov, OwenX, Linas, Georgia guy, LOL, StradivariusTV,
Jonathan de Boyne Pollard, Pol098, Wikiklrsc, Isnow, , TAKASUGI Shinji, Pranathi, Mendaliv, Jshadias, Josh Par-
ris, Rjwilmsi, Strait, Bob A, Carbonite, Kazrak, Mathbot, Mskadu, Chobot, Sbrools, DVdm, Gwernol, Algebraist, Roboto de Ajvol,
YurikBot, Deeptrivia, Phantomsteve, RadioFan, Rick Norwood, Vanished user 1029384756, Arima, Retired username, Dhollm, Tony1,
Wiqi55, Closedmouth, Arthur Rubin, Mad Cat, Tiger888, Amalthea, SmackBot, Selfworm, Melchoir, KocjoBot~enwiki, Jagged 85,
KennethJ, Hmains, Skizzik, Carl.bunderson, Andy M. Wang, NCurse, Oli Filth, Raja Hussain, Akanemoto, Octahedron80, DHN-
bot~enwiki, GVnayR, Cybercobra, Bombshell, The PIPE, Sigma 7, BrianH123, Khazar, Minna Sora no Shita, Jim.belk, Ben Moore,
Loadmaster, Hu12, Courcelles, CRGreathouse, CBM, Jaxad0127, DanielRigal, Shandris, Ezrakilty, SuperMidget, Peripitus, WillowW,
Fl, ST47, Farzaneh, Zian, Koeplinger, HappyInGeneral, Jack Frost, Mentisto, Seaphoto, JAnDbot, Kaobear, Olaf, Thenub314, Magi-
oladitis, VoABot II, JamesBWatson, Albmont, Faizhaider, Usien6, Edmundwoods, David Eppstein, DinoBot, AVRS, Slash, Peskydan,
Hut 6.5, NewEnglandYankee, Ohms law, SJP, CompuChip, Cometstyles, Brilliant Black, Idioma-bot, Am Fiosaigear~enwiki, TXiKi-
BoT, Rei-bot, Qxz, PaulTanenbaum, Jackfork, Falcon8765, Dmcq, AlleborgoBot, PericlesofAthens, Katzmik, Demmy, SieBot, Coee,
PlanetStar, ToePeu.bot, Connell66, Flyer22 Reborn, Daniil Maslyuk, MiNombreDeGuerra, SimonTrew, StaticGull, Anchor Link Bot,
Wahrmund, Denisarona, Explicit, ImageRemovalBot, Khirurg, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Cli, Metaprimer, Wesley-
neo, DragonBot, Excirial, Alexbot, La Pianista, Thingg, Eebster the Great, Certes, Marc van Leeuwen, Avoided, WikHead, SilvonenBot,
Alexius08, Noctibus, HarlandQPitt, Osarius, Addbot, Some jerk on the Internet, AkhtaBot, Fieldday-sunday, Dokee, CanadianLinuxUser,
Numbo3-bot, Ehrenkater, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Zorrobot, JSR, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Batza, Senator Palpatine, Legobot II, Magog
the Ogre, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Shuozi, M00npirate, Materialscientist, Andrewmc123, Xqbot, The sock that should not be, Capri-
corn42, DSisyphBot, Vnusplanet, Gap9551, Rustin Zalman, Point-set topologist, Bellerophon, Jvr725, FrescoBot, Tobby72, Majopius,
Jamesooders, XeBot, LetsPlayMBP, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, RedBot, Serols, Meaghan, Trn V Tun, Double sharp, Alphanis,
Lotje, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Logical Fuzz, Jowa fan, Tommy2010, F, Bahudhara, Zitterbewejung, Stringybark, Cybergothiche, Mltinus,
Damirgrati, Ego White Tray, Cabyd, ClueBot NG, Raiden10, Weeviator123, Wcherowi, Frietjes, O.Koslowski, Rurik the Varangian,
Theopolisme, Helpful Pixie Bot, Topsy turvy, Krenair, John Cummings, Cold Season, TBrandley, Fylbecatulous, Tutelary, ChrisGualtieri,
Iamsmart1223344446, Dhruv99, The Anonymouse, Mmitchell10, Cadillac000, Razibot, JPaestpreornJeolhlna, CodySoulTrainCruise,
Ginsuloft, I:00110000110101100100, Monkbot, Vieque, Novanijntje, Ehb5643, Loraof, The Quixotic Potato, Yagyagan30, Simplex-
ity22, Joshualouie711, Qzd, GreenC bot, Miniaturekiller2, Bender the Bot, Stabens, Rodolfoaoviedoh, KolbertBot, Arcade 123 and
Anonymous: 319
Number bond Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number_bond?oldid=796611007 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Rchandra, Dis-
cospinster, Jheald, Mais oui!, SmackBot, CBM, DumbBOT, It Is Me Here, Marfalump, KylieTastic, Shaded0, AnomieBOT, Alboran,
K6ka, ClueBot NG, This lousy T-shirt, Helpful Pixie Bot, Ajpasty, Klg12345, BurritoBazooka, Pinkepbj, HArveyHert, CLCStudent,
Bender the Bot, Deacon Vorbis and Anonymous: 12
Parity (mathematics) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parity_(mathematics)?oldid=796726880 Contributors: AxelBoldt, The Anome,
Toby Bartels, PierreAbbat, Michael Hardy, Oliver Pereira, Ixfd64, TakuyaMurata, Minesweeper, Ellywa, Ahoerstemeier, Angela, Poor
Yorick, Iseeaboar, Charles Matthews, Markhurd, Hyacinth, Robbot, Romanm, Henrygb, Mfc, Marc Venot, Giftlite, Snowdog, Mellum,
Thetorpedodog, PhotoBox, Mormegil, HeikoEvermann, Zaslav, Rpresser, Afed, .:Ajvol:., Blotwell, HasharBot~enwiki, Jumbuck, Oleg
Alexandrov, Nuno Tavares, Angr, Linas, Georgia guy, Justinlebar, Kelisi, Marudubshinki, LimoWreck, Magister Mathematicae, Jshadias,
Chenxlee, Josh Parris, Rjwilmsi, Salix alba, Vegaswikian, Maxal, Chobot, DVdm, YurikBot, Wavelength, Lucinos~enwiki, Jonathan We-
bley, Rhythm, Zwobot, Cheeser1, Bota47, Jhinman, Kewp, Arthur Rubin, Gesslein, GrinBot~enwiki, ChemGardener, IslandHopper973,
SmackBot, Melchoir, Brick Thrower, BiT, Colonel Tom, Jpvinall, Skizzik, Andy M. Wang, MK8, Tripledot, MDCollins, Cybercobra,
DRLB, Gregwmay, Stwalkerster, Mets501, Ryulong, MTSbot~enwiki, GeordieMcBain, Xcentaur, JForget, CRGreathouse, N2e, Wegge-
Bot, Gregbard, Cydebot, DGMorales, Thijs!bot, Lotans, Paquitotrek, TXiKi, Oddity-, VictorAnyakin, Falsedef, JAnDbot, MER-C, Ma-
gioladitis, Usien6, David Eppstein, Connor Behan, Beowulf7120, Thaurisil, NewEnglandYankee, Potatoswatter, Michael Angelkovich,
The enemies of god, Bm128, TXiKiBoT, JhsBot, Natg 19, Wbrenna36, Rhopkins8, AlleborgoBot, Logan, Trainman jaime, Demmy,
SieBot, Mcqxx, Oxymoron83, Nuttycoconut, Fishnet37222, ClueBot, Justin W Smith, Alexbot, NuclearWarfare, Addbot, AkhtaBot,
Rodriguesds, Xario, Yobot, Synchronism, AnomieBOT, Hunnjazal, Twri, Kokcharov, Smallman12q, Shadowjams, Erik9bot, FrescoBot,
Erik Wannee, MacMed, Littledogboy, Double sharp, Lotje, Thelema418, Onel5969, Calcyman, EmausBot, Kpuersh, Quondum, Chuis-
pastonBot, ClueBot NG, Wcherowi, Preon, Yourmomblah, Frietjes, MerlIwBot, Alishahss75ali, Polyergic, Divvyjha, Jochen Burghardt,
Beatlespersianfans, Redd Foxx 1991, SBS6679D, Niaaaaadadadadwe1, Monkbot, GeoreyT2000, Sro23, Bender the Bot, HBLovecraft,
Volunteer1234 and Anonymous: 183
Parity of zero Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parity_of_zero?oldid=786378624 Contributors: Zundark, Michael Hardy, Dcoet-
zee, Bkell, Joseph Myers, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Brutannica, Bender235, Circeus, Anthony Appleyard, Lectonar, Velella,
Woohookitty, Chris Mason, SP-KP, BD2412, Dwaipayanc, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Alexkillby, Dcsutherland, Vegaswikian, Boccobrock, Matt
Deres, Ucucha, DVdm, Cheeser1, Katieh5584, Incnis Mrsi, Melchoir, Smeggysmeg, Colonies Chris, Modest Genius, Rrburke, Dread-
star, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, BrownHairedGirl, Cdills, Mgiganteus1, Jim.belk, IronGargoyle, Humunculus, David Souther, Cydebot,
Ntsimp, Mike Christie, Gogo Dodo, Epbr123, Headbomb, , Bencherlite, Bongwarrior, Hamiltonstone, David
Eppstein, Connor Behan, Gwern, Duncan7670, Rettetast, J.delanoy, AltiusBimm, Maproom, VolkovBot, Anonymous Dissident, Sanfran-
man59, PaulTanenbaum, Keepssouth, Ceranthor, Resurgent insurgent, WereSpielChequers, DBishop1984, Arbor to SJ, JSpung, Antonio
Lopez, JMOprof, Vituzzu, Dabomb87, Loren.wilton, ClueBot, Moronical, Adrianwn, Drmies, P. S. Burton, Piledhigheranddeeper, Ex-
cirial, Sun Creator, P1415926535, Thingg, HumphreyW, Addbot, AVand, DOI bot, Tonkie67, CanadianLinuxUser, Lightbot, ,
Yobot, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist, Citation bot, LilHelpa, JimVC3, Miym, Alan1000, Samwb123, Tkuvho, Ebony Jackson, RobinK,
Double sharp, Trappist the monk, Vrenator, Dmcginn, Thelema418, Tbhotch, The Utahraptor, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, Wham Bam
Rock II, Solomonfromnland, Daonguyen95, H3llBot, Petrb, ClueBot NG, Wcherowi, Helpful Pixie Bot, Ramaksoud2000, Lowercase
sigmabot, Leonxlin, SodaAnt, RainerZufall, Cyberbot II, ChrisGualtieri, Avengingbandit, Frosty, Jochen Burghardt, Ginsuloft, Epitectus,
Marywalker123, Ksapiratheepan, Harsha90P, Jonjonjonjonx, Ephemerance, Feminist, Hondacity1234, Chandramisra, Bender the Bot,
0istransnumeral and Anonymous: 140
Partial products algorithm Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grid_method_multiplication?oldid=789522340 Contributors: Jheald,
DVdm, Mais oui!, SmackBot, Racklever, Tim bates, Itullis, Claret, OrenBochman, Hobartimus, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist,
LilHelpa, Krj373, I dream of horses, , Sideways713, Mocha2007, ClueBot NG, O.Koslowski, Helpful Pixie Bot, MusikAnimal,
The1337gamer, SJ Defender, LIONZ1234, Magic links bot and Anonymous: 27
Percentage Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percentage?oldid=799798216 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Brion VIBBER, Tarquin, XJaM,

Enchanter, Abraham~enwiki, Patrick, Oliver Pereira, Menchi, Ixfd64, Dcljr, Delirium, Cyp, Angela, Kingturtle, Glenn, Mxn, Jitse
Niesen, Furrykef, Hyacinth, Omegatron, Sabbut, Robbot, Wtanaka, The Phoenix, Gandalf61, Paul G, Wereon, GreatWhiteNortherner,
Dina, Kevin Sa, Giftlite, Bogdanb, Ptk~enwiki, Matt Crypto, Bobblewik, Fishal, Louis Labrche, Andycjp, Plutor, Maximaximax,
Abdull, Mormegil, Ultratomio, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Pmsyyz, Nard the Bard, Paul August, Goochelaar, MisterSheik, Canis-
Rufus, PhilHibbs, Feitclub, Ziggurat, Nk, SecretAgentMan00, Espoo, Jumbuck, Alansohn, Zippanova, Wtmitchell, Suruena, Vuo, Oleg
Alexandrov, Ron Ritzman, Mindmatrix, TigerShark, Justinlebar, BillC, GregorB, Zzyzx11, Jon Harald Sby, Josh Parris, Millueradfa,
Strait, Salix alba, SpNeo, The wub, Bhadani, George de Moraes~enwiki, Ravidreams, Alexb@cut-the-knot.com, RexNL, Gurch, Ichudov,
Intgr, Cmadler, Alphachimp, Nezu Chiza, Chobot, Zath42, DVdm, Samwaltz, YurikBot, Wavelength, Borgx, RussBot, Bhny, KSmrq,
Stephenb, Rsrikanth05, Wimt, Bruguiea, Brandon, Deckiller, DeadEyeArrow, Lt-wiki-bot, Closedmouth, Arthur Rubin, MathsIsFun,
Archer7, Katieh5584, KNHaw, Cmglee, DVD R W, Bravado01, That Guy, From That Show!, Crystallina, SmackBot, RDBury, Malk-
inann, Slashme, KnowledgeOfSelf, Cavenba, Jab843, BiT, HalfShadow, Yamaguchi , Gilliam, Skizzik, Oli Filth, SchftyThree,
Octahedron80, TobleRone, Yidisheryid, Rrburke, KerathFreeman, Sspecter, Ianmacm, Nakon, Cordless Larry, Clean Copy, Mwtoews,
DMacks, Kukini, Lambiam, Kuru, JorisvS, Accurizer, Bjankuloski06en~enwiki, IronGargoyle, 16@r, Abolen, Hvn0413, Noah Salzman,
Peter Horn, Sonic3KMaster, O1ive, Happy-melon, Buckyboy314, Courcelles, Dan1679, InvisibleK, CmdrObot, Blue-Haired Lawyer,
Rwammang, Freakoclark, Sopoforic, Cydebot, Michapma, Gogo Dodo, Nndnbdddd, LinkWalker, Jerichi, Tunheim, SeanJJordan,
Corlen, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Daa89563, Ultimus, Faigl.ladislav, RolfSander, Marek69, DmitTrix, Tapir Terric, TXiKi, Jackftwist, Anti-
VandalBot, Abu-Fool Danyal ibn Amir al-Makhiri, Seaphoto, MER-C, Nthep, Nicholas Tan, Burga, Bongwarrior, Nyttend, Edward321,
Jackson Peebles, MartinBot, BurmaJones, PhuryPrime, Kateshortforbob, J.delanoy, Trusilver, Mimlandry, Bot-Schafter, Katalaveno,
AntiSpamBot, Richard D. LeCour, Cometstyles, RB972, Treisijs, RJASE1, Odexios, Subfader~enwiki, VolkovBot, Adba, Philip True-
man, TXiKiBoT, Philaweb, Anonymous Dissident, Abdullais4u, Jackfork, Philip1234567, Billinghurst, Why Not A Duck, Spitre8520,
Symane, Logan, Zingeser, SieBot, Ygramul, Srushe, Flyer22 Reborn, Eclindholm, Miguel.mateo, Dear Reader, Disneycat, Escape Or-
bit, Vohveli, Big samma, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Drmies, Blanchardb, PMDrive1061, DragonBot, Excirial, Alexbot,
Gwguey, Lartoven, Lasta, Thuja, Livius3, Wtfblogger, Sampsonite5, Tired time, Ddr masta, Versus22, Seantellis, Xxgriingadxx,
PL290, Padfoot79, Mm40, Airplaneman, Cunard, Addbot, Xp54321, Some jerk on the Internet, Landon1980, Friginator, Daughterof-
Sun, Fgnievinski, AkhtaBot, TutterMouse, SpillingBot, Jtswi, Alexrakia, SamatBot, Numbo3-bot, Ehrenkater, Lightbot, , Zorrobot,
Weasal guy, Luckas-bot, Yobot, DisillusionedBitterAndKnackered, MassimoAr, Imransarwar, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, 1exec1, Inciden-
talPoint, Jim1138, Aerodude, Commander Shepard, Piano non troppo, Johnny9i6, Materialscientist, Srinivas, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Mytes-
tuser, Grim23, Anna Frodesiak, Isheden, 94knux, Abce2, JhanCRUSH, Amaury, PeaceLoveHarmony, Dudeman0114, Dan6hell66, Fin-
gerz, FrescoBot, Recognizance, Doremo, Pinethicket, LittleWink, Jonesey95, CHAUDHARY IMRAN SARWAR, ChaudharyImranSar-
war, Calmer Waters, Pmokeefe, Moonraker, Jschnur, Wikitanvir, Percentage101, Eeepy14, Kilbredian, ManagingDirector, Callanecc,
Oslo007, Abcdcvthm,k;.,mnbmnbfh, Reach Out to the Truth, Mean as custard, RjwilmsiBot, Bento00, M.aadil.rehman, Particle25, Rjizz-
zle345, DASHBot, EmausBot, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, Immunize, Super48paul, GoingBatty, RA0808, Adorno rocks, K6ka,
AsceticRose, Gzuufy, Number473, Alpha Quadrant (alt), Tashuhka, Makecat, FinalRapture, Wayne Slam, Tolly4bolly, TyA, Donner60,
Rchebee, ClueBot NG, SunHwaKwonh, Wcherowi, Piast93, Widr, Gavin.perch, Helpful Pixie Bot, Wbm1058, BG19bot, John Cum-
mings, Leonxlin, Hallows AG, Pardalote12, Amp71, Joo Seelig, Zyxwv99, Mark Arsten, Snow Blizzard, MrBill3, JZCL, Glacialfox,
Johnnyfun21, Ws4u, The1337gamer, Dysrhythmia, Samwalton9, Ajaxore, DarafshBot, Colamonkeyperson, Davidwhite18, Mediran,
Cbyzhs, TwoTwoHello, Lugia2453, Sanghvishanay, Brirush, Waveclaira, Coginsys, Voxfax, Coolguyicecrea, I am One of Many, Nforys-
tek, Howicus, QuantiedElf, Christopher budiharto, Stefmanxx1, Montyman21, Quenhitran, Estaling, JaconaFrere, Ved Sadani, KDTW
Flyer, Kjerish, Crystallizedcarbon, Tymon.r, Ptpradeep, Chiefblairadderley, Tron Pro of the Universe, ToonLucas22, SoSivr, Tejakon-
duri, Deadmama87, The Quixotic Potato, Tanskinlowercase, Gabrielcampos78, Im why wiki is fake, Qzd, The Voidwalker, U.s.turtles,
Bear-rings, Yjmkl, Naren0202, Sciencewinner11, Luke Kern Choi 5, Caxaria, Ashantikerr13 and Anonymous: 485
Plus and minus signs Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plus_and_minus_signs?oldid=793898259 Contributors: Eloquence, The
Anome, XJaM, Heron, Quercusrobur, Patrick, Michael Hardy, Wshun, Oliver Pereira, Dominus, Fantasy, Ahoerstemeier, Cyp, Notheruser,
Angela, LittleDan, Marteau, Cherkash, Mxn, Charles Matthews, Timwi, Dandrake, Andrewman327, Hyacinth, Zero0000, Omegatron,
TowerDragon, Phil Boswell, Fredrik, Sverdrup, Wereon, Lupo, Giftlite, DocWatson42, Fennec, BenFrantzDale, Monedula, Fropu,
Moyogo, Gdr, Noe, Oneiros, Spottedowl, Jbinder, Cwoyte, Abdull, Mike Rosoft, Perey, Discospinster, Topynate, Paul August, Ben-
der235, ESkog, Brian0918, Kwamikagami, Heian-794, Army1987, Jrme, Musiphil, Ashley Pomeroy, Zippanova, April Arcus, Oleg
Alexandrov, CONFIQ, Linas, JarlaxleArtemis, LOL, GregorB, Frungi, Obersachse, DePiep, Scottkeir, Phoenix-forgotten, Yamamoto
Ichiro, FayssalF, SiGarb, TheDJ, BradBeattie, Chobot, SirGrant, Bgwhite, EamonnPKeane, YurikBot, FlareNUKE, Christian Kaese,
Rick Norwood, Dureo, Cleared as led, Matticus78, Moe Epsilon, Bota47, Wknight94, Ninly, Edouard-lopez, Closedmouth, Reyk, Al-
lens, Katieh5584, TLSuda, Attilios, SmackBot, RDBury, KnowledgeOfSelf, Melchoir, McGeddon, KocjoBot~enwiki, Rojomoke, Cap-
italSasha, The Ronin, W!B:, Armeria, Chris the speller, Hibbleton, Wikibarista, Hgrosser, Westius, NYKevin, Can't sleep, clown will
eat me, Yidisheryid, BIL, Ron3090, RandomP, Marosszk, Mwtoews, Jim.belk, IronGargoyle, 16@r, Stwalkerster, Dicklyon, BranStark,
Poolkris, MightyWarrior, Amniarix, CRGreathouse, Tanthalas39, Erzbischof, NickW557, Sopoforic, Satty, MC10, Thijs!bot, Rees11,
AntiVandalBot, WinBot, Mhaitham.shammaa, Huttarl, Brianary, JAnDbot, Leuko, The Transhumanist, Je560, Smiddle, Bongwarrior,
JNW, Swpb, Soulbot, David Eppstein, DerHexer, JaGa, Infovarius, MartinBot, Crisneda2000, JadeNB, J.delanoy, Macserv, Student7,
Juliancolton, Steel1943, BarroColorado, AlnoktaBOT, Epson291, Philip Trueman, Seanmcox, A4bot, Jobu0101, Anonymous Dissi-
dent, Wiikipedian, McM.bot, Mannafredo, Gavin.collins, Dmcq, AlleborgoBot, Dogah, SieBot, TJRC, Dawn Bard, LealandA, Caltas,
Matthew Yeager, Hac13, Pxma, Flyer22 Reborn, Karaskeetskeet, MiNombreDeGuerra, KathrynLybarger, Callidior, Gunmetal Angel,
Ink Runner, Escape Orbit, Emk, ClueBot, Vrmlguy, Mild Bill Hiccup, Silent Key, Zubaloo, SoHome, Aitias, Markwoolley, SilvonenBot,
Thegman12321, Addbot, Snuib, Chamal N, Favonian, Lightbot, Zorrobot, Quantumobserver, Extvia, Luckas-bot, Fraggle81, WrzBoard
11, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz, Joule36e5, LlywelynII, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Maxis ftw, Lele giannoni, Mr.Bigmember123,
Rainald62, Cyberstrike3000X, FrescoBot, Posey98, TMg, Pinethicket, 10metreh, Jonesey95, RedBot, Serols, Mortgagemeister, Vrena-
tor, Alfakol, Daemonrex231, Qzgao, WikitanvirBot, Aleks Andre, Dcirovic, K6ka, Daonguyen95, Nomen4Omen, Thargor Orlando,
Dgd, Zezen, Alpha Quadrant (alt), Wayne Slam, TyA, RedSoxFan274, Junip~enwiki, Chewings72, Uziel302, N8er568, ClueBot NG,
Wcherowi, Satellizer, Loginnigol, Frietjes, Parcly Taxel, Helpful Pixie Bot, Amitsche, Strike Eagle, Wbm1058, DBigXray, BG19bot,
Eeglis, CitationCleanerBot, Ansar zafar, Klilidiplomus, Wannabemodel, SimmeD, Jackson251111, Kanghuitari, Kieranandersn, JPaest-
preornJeolhlna, Ugog Nizdast, Danwich4350495024, Sam Sailor, Bryanrutherford0, Opencooper, PiotrGrochowski000, Chancedubuc,
Da mjolniir, Mark Recio, Love spell caster mama moosa +27783880298, CLCStudent, InternetArchiveBot, Marianna251, Gulumeemee,
Prahlad balaji, Bender the Bot, Quasar G. and Anonymous: 217
Plus-minus sign Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plus-minus_sign?oldid=785616600 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, Bryan Derk-
sen, Michael Hardy, Menchi, Darrell Greenwood, Julesd, Charles Matthews, Prumpf, Fibonacci, Denelson83, Ke4roh, BenFrantzDale,
Monedula, Finlay, Gareth Wyn, DemonThing, Noe, Mzajac, Neutrality, Perey, AlexG, Rich Farmbrough, Paul August, Plugwash, Bil-
llion, Kwamikagami, Jonah.ru, Blotwell, RussBlau, HasharBot~enwiki, Jrme, Musiphil, Mickeyreiss, Jezmck, Sl, Burn, Avenue, Su-
ruena, Linas, Elvarg, DePiep, Mathbot, Fresheneesz, Goudzovski, CiaPan, Vyroglyph, YurikBot, Rick Norwood, RL0919, Ms2ger,
BazookaJoe, Teaboy, Closedmouth, Tyomitch, A bit iy, SmackBot, Slashme, Melchoir, Eskimbot, Zephyris, Adrigon, Lambiam,
Stwalkerster, DefaultWiki, Mathfan, AGK, Conrad.Irwin, Altales Teriadem, Sopoforic, Thijs!bot, Headbomb, Jojan, Salgueiro~enwiki,
Rbb l181, Iamtherealman, Narssarssuaq, Asmeurer, Gavia immer, CheMechanical, David Eppstein, Peterhi, MartinBot, Thirdright,
Igno2, NewEnglandYankee, Bse3, Anonymous Dissident, Aaron Rotenberg, Omcnew, Scarian, AlphaPyro, BotMultichill, Dawn Bard,
Wampler6, Dave Barnett, Mr. Stradivarius, Emk, Slightlymighty, ClueBot, Julianhall, Computer97, Dekisugi, Deanpoop, GFHandel,
Acabashi, C. A. Russell, Wyatt915, Addbot, Nician, Ehrenkater, OlEnglish, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, AnomieBOT, EryZ, Mah-
mudmasri, Materialscientist, Akilaa, Xqbot, Aandroyd, Doulos Christos, EonMinator, Erik9bot, FrescoBot, LucienBOT, &*iskeyed,
Yehoshua2, Pinethicket, StrawberryPink, RedBot, Double sharp, Vrenator, Duoduoduo, Unbitwise, Ripchip Bot, EmausBot, Wikitanvir-
Bot, RA0808, Not Accessible, Fintelia, ClueBot NG, Wcherowi, J824h, Tschneeberger, FranklyMyDear..., Meby500, Kanghuitari, ,
Stedwell, Orctorus, Wikivator, Bobshaget, Snapesnapeserveroussnape, Bhietbrink, Zamaster4536, ThePlatypusofDoom, Bender the Bot,
7, Deacon Vorbis and Anonymous: 91
Repeating decimal Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repeating_decimal?oldid=800789717 Contributors: Derek Ross, XJaM, William
Avery, Bdesham, Patrick, Michael Hardy, Dominus, Kku, GTBacchus, Eric119, Charles Matthews, Jitse Niesen, Hyacinth, Omegatron,
Altenmann, Gandalf61, Henrygb, Ojigiri~enwiki, Jleedev, Psb777, Giftlite, Fennec, Jao, Frencheigh, Mboverload, Nayuki, JimWae,
Pmanderson, Shen, Gazpacho, CALR, Discospinster, Antaeus Feldspar, Dbachmann, Paul August, Brian0918, Mr. Billion, Art LaPella,
EmilJ, Bobo192, Reinyday, Blotwell, Haham hanuka, Anthony Appleyard, Arthena, Zurtex, Diego Moya, Snowolf, Trylks, Skatebiker,
Ling Kah Jai, Galaxiaad, Oleg Alexandrov, Linas, Isnow, Gerbrant, Graham87, Sj, Salix alba, SchuminWeb, RexNL, BradBeattie, Glenn
L, Chobot, Jersey Devil, Bgwhite, YurikBot, RobotE, CambridgeBayWeather, Cryptic, NawlinWiki, HeroicJay, Lomn, Zwobot, Haihe,
Tetracube, Arthur Rubin, Cedar101, Allens, DVD R W, SmackBot, Adam majewski, Bazza 7, Jab843, Gilliam, Ppntori, Psiphiorg,
Karatedog, Octahedron80, WikiPedant, Calbaer, Daqu, Bowlhover, The undertow, Lambiam, Jim.belk, Loadmaster, Waggers, Xionbox,
JoeBot, Casull, Tawkerbot2, JRSpriggs, Bill K, FilipeS, Cydebot, Ash73, Msouth@gmail.com, Marek69, RobHar, Dawnseeker2000,
Corinroyal, AntiVandalBot, Salgueiro~enwiki, JAnDbot, Thenub314, Efedula, VoABot II, Sodabottle, David Eppstein, Just James,
Esanchez7587, Jtir, R'n'B, Kevin Carmody, Leon math, He is a shithead, Philip Trueman, Emschorsch, Enviroboy, Sauronjim, Katzmik,
Dogah, Happysailor, IdreamofJeanie, Anchor Link Bot, ClueBot, Wildie, Dardasavta, WDavis1911, Bruin54625, Leonard^Bloom, Com-
puter97, Rylann, SchreiberBike, ChrisHodgesUK, Versus22, Marc van Leeuwen, Jed 20012, Addbot, Favonian, Prim Ethics, Ehrenkater,
Tide rolls, Yobot, Guocuozuoduo, TaBOT-zerem, AnomieBOT, LlywelynII, Materialscientist, Mr Sketchy, Two2Naach, FrescoBot, Ma-
jopius, Kwiki, Tkuvho, Pinethicket, Serols, Double sharp, Leyth, ItsZippy, Duoduoduo, Reaper Eternal, Aperisic, Brambleclawx, Mean
as custard, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, Britannic124, GoingBatty, Dcirovic, ZroBot, L Kensington, Orange Suede Sofa, ClueBot NG,
Wcherowi, Echertkov, Widr, BG19bot, Weehugh, IveGoneAway, MusikAnimal, M elmounajjed, Manilovepasd, Makecat-bot, Ranze,
Ethan Lestat, Fox2k11, SteenthIWbot, Mjs1138, DavidLeighEllis, Byjinglemen, Physikerwelt, Jackmcbarn, SJ Defender, Arlene47,
Vieque, Iaalir5, Pisay, Prodx3, Graboy, , , H7opolo, Chrissymad, Mindotaur, Deacon Vorbis, LOLHI, HiBobby,
JoeWallery and Anonymous: 223
Seventh power Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seventh_power?oldid=791840751 Contributors: David Eppstein, MrX, Jo-Jo Eu-
merus, Loraof, XOR'easter and Galactikapedia
Sign (mathematics) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign_(mathematics)?oldid=797132108 Contributors: Zundark, Michael Hardy,
Robbot, Gandalf61, Giftlite, DragonySixtyseven, Discospinster, Zaslav, Waldir, Incnis Mrsi, Jim.belk, Maolmhuire, Altamel, Magio-
laditis, Peskydan, Ohms law, Jdaloner, Cli, Plastikspork, Drmies, Addbot, LaaknorBot, Sandrarossi, HerculeBot, Reinraum, Materi-
alscientist, Xqbot, Jewang, Alphanis, Quondum, SporkBot, ClueBot NG, Wcherowi, Widr, Justincheng12345-bot, SteenthIWbot, The
Anonymouse, Eyesnore, Yardimsever, YiFeiBot, Joeleoj123, Loraof, CheChe, Deacon Vorbis and Anonymous: 21
Signicance arithmetic Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Significance_arithmetic?oldid=797443735 Contributors: William Avery,
Michael Hardy, Kku, Charles Matthews, Markhurd, Pakaran, Bkalafut, Mfc, Clementi, Wgmccallum, Eequor, Beland, Quota, Yinon,
Jon the Geek, Cretog8, Musiphil, Gene Nygaard, Linas, Je3000, Tejastheory, NeonMerlin, Jettabebetta, Mathbot, Glenn L, The Ram-
bling Man, Geologician, Chris Capoccia, Rodasmith, Scs, Slashme, InverseHypercube, Bluebot, Nbarth, Cybercobra, Ourai, Hu12, Jsd,
Linkato1, Sopoforic, Pjvpjv, R'n'B, Rlsheehan, Spinningspark, Geoclock, Redhookesb, Ham Pastrami, Melcombe, WikipedianMarlith,
Brianbjparker, Out of Phase User, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Gap9551, Train2104, RjwilmsiBot, Dcirovic, Tommo56789, ClueBot NG, Fri-
etjes, BG19bot, TheRedKiller, Jacksonag899 and Anonymous: 33
Sixth power Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sixth_power?oldid=791840697 Contributors: Robert McClenon, David Eppstein,
MrX, Jo-Jo Eumerus, Loraof and Galactikapedia
Square (algebra) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square_(algebra)?oldid=795648905 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Dominus,
Ronz, Conti, Robbot, Henrygb, Mattaschen, Tea2min, Giftlite, Terrible Tim, Vanished user 1234567890, Heryu~enwiki, Rich Farm-
brough, Andrejj, Rgdboer, Svdmolen, Sam Korn, Alansohn, Neonumbers, Caesura, GregorB, Mendaliv, Staecker, AdnanSa, Russ-
Bot, Zwobot, Googl, CWenger, HereToHelp, SmackBot, Incnis Mrsi, Melchoir, Folajimi, PrimeHunter, Octahedron80, Cybercobra,
Chopin1810, Rigadoun, Bjankuloski06en~enwiki, Iridescent, CBM, Neelix, Dcorrect, Murtazanisar, Christian75, Escarbot, Widefox,
Edokter, Modernist, JAnDbot, Magioladitis, David Eppstein, Ghostwo, Allstonhomebrew, Textangel, Nemo bis, Chiswick Chap, ARTE,
Cometstyles, HELLIONONE, VolkovBot, Rozek19, TXiKiBoT, Zimbardo Cookie Experiment, BigDunc, Meters, Endo999, Falcon8765,
Iturtleman, Why Not A Duck, Dogah, SieBot, Paolo.dL, Jruderman, Fratrep, Fabio.Firmo, ClueBot, Sisenu, Unknown-xyz, Eiland,
Obelix83, Excirial, Jotterbot, WikHead, Khunglongcon, Virginia-American, Winkelwagen~enwiki, Paradocks17, Addbot, Guoguo12,
AkhtaBot, Tide rolls, Loupeter, Zorrobot, Ptbotgourou, Tempodivalse, Rubinbot, Materialscientist, Xqbot, Sdrak, Superyetkin, H454N
4L1, Robo37, Kiefer.Wolfowitz, ProjectSHiNKiROU, Onel5969, John of Reading, ZroBot, D.Lazard, Maschen, Pun, Qt-Q!U,
Bta32699, ClueBot NG, Wcherowi, Physics is all gnomes, Joel B. Lewis, Widr, Thegreatestmath, Garygoh884, Om Pandey of SKD,
786b6364, Eyesnore, Jackmcbarn, Loraof, HannuMannu, Jassiba, Jshbrdall, Tompop888 and Anonymous: 87
Square number Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square_number?oldid=800413481 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Tarquin, XJaM, Karl
Palmen, Patrick, Michael Hardy, Dominus, TakuyaMurata, AugPi, Jacquerie27, Lee M, Charles Matthews, Timwi, Fredrik, Pingveno,
PrimeFan, Tea2min, Giftlite, Beefman, Anton Mravcek, Christofurio, Tomruen, Pmanderson, Histrion, Wroscel, Mike Rosoft, Ma'ame
Michu, Yuval madar, Paul August, Bender235, Lankiveil, RoyBoy, Pearle, Alansohn, Sligocki, Snowolf, RainbowOfLight, Sciurin, Gene
Nygaard, OwenX, Linas, Georgia guy, Jclemens, Jshadias, Rjwilmsi, Matt.whitby, Sango123, Doc glasgow, ChongDae, Wolfmankurd,
Hede2000, Pi Delport, Wimt, Nutiketaiel, DYLAN LENNON~enwiki, Mikeblas, Zwobot, DomenicDenicola, Alpha 4615, Arthur Ru-
bin, CWenger, Whouk, SpLoT, True Pagan Warrior, SmackBot, Incnis Mrsi, Hydrogen Iodide, Melchoir, Delldot, Gilliam, Kmari-
nas86, PrimeHunter, JONJONAUG, Ioscius, Vanished User 0001, Mr.Z-man, School3, Clean Copy, Tanyakh, DMacks, Meni Rosenfeld,
Lambiam, Soulkeeper, Loadmaster, Werdan7, Spiel496, Iridescent, Madmath789, Newone, Captainj, Courcelles, Tawkerbot2, Oleg-
Marchuk, Bemasher, Markjoseph125, CRGreathouse, CBM, Rawling, NickW557, Oo7565, Fairsing, Cahk, Peripitus, Andrewmullins,
Xantharius, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Marek69, John254, Escarbot, AntiVandalBot, Shirt58, Mhaitham.shammaa, Jj137, Spencer, JAnD-
bot, D99gge, Husond, MER-C, PhilKnight, Coee2theorems, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Redaktor, Soulbot, WODUP, DerHexer, Joe-
abauer, WATARU, Anaxial, Manticore, DogNewTricks, Paranomia, J.delanoy, Trusilver, Fruits Monster, Uncle Dick, Katalaveno, Mc-
Sly, Sallen2006, AntiSpamBot, Goingstuckey, ARTE, TWCarlson, GrahamHardy, Wikieditor06, VolkovBot, Thedjatclubrock, Barneca,
Oshwah, Anonymous Dissident, DennyColt, Maxim, Madhero88, Romanows, Serprex, Glst2, Dogah, Laoris, Oda Mari, Oxymoron83,
Antonio Lopez, Moletrouser, Anchor Link Bot, Arcticcoconut, Mwn3d, Vanished User 8902317830, Nic bor, Denisarona, Loren.wilton,
ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Drmies, CounterVandalismBot, Niceguyedc, Mjchacko, Excirial, KClick91, Lartoven, Ar-
jayay, Lwyx, SchreiberBike, Aitias, Versus22, Marc van Leeuwen, WikHead, MystBot, Addbot, Some jerk on the Internet, Ronhjones,
MrOllie, LaaknorBot, CarsracBot, LAAFan, SamatBot, Emdrgreg, Tide rolls, First Light, MuZemike, Luckas-bot, Juliancolton Alter-
native, AnomieBOT, Archon 2488, 90, Kingpin13, Materialscientist, Belkovich, Ahmadabdolkader, Bobby big breifs, Xqbot, Master-
gandhi, Isheden, Gap9551, Armbrust, Riotrocket8676, H454N 4L1, Freakinacount, JMCC1, FrescoBot, Mathwiz656, Robo37, JIK1975,
DrilBot, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Kgilligan9, RedBot, Cleon7177, Serols, Carel.jonkhout, WoollyMind, Double sharp, Reach Out
to the Truth, Bento00, EmausBot, RA0808, Wham Bam Rock II, Isliphighschoolstudent, Slightsmile, Wikipelli, K6ka, Lamb99, Neeme
Vaino, Derekleungtszhei, Babahadi, D.Lazard, Wayne Slam, IGeMiNix, Cyberdog958, Toshio Yamaguchi, Quantumor, Maschen, Don-
ner60, Chewings72, DASHBotAV, Anita5192, ClueBot NG, Gareth Grith-Jones, A520, Joel B. Lewis, Widr, Vibhijain, Sashazi,
WNYY98, Langing, Metricopolus, Tutelary, ChrisGualtieri, Nikhilkrishna1234, Sashley1995, Ugog Nizdast, Horseless Headman, Geof-
freyT2000, Coolperson5, Venu29543, AnonymousUser52, The Quixotic Potato, Dansan1234567890, Cubersk, Niceguy149, Nihal Takar,
Grumpypoo, El cid, el campeador, Anshul kumar sagar, Deacon Vorbis, Peripatetic12, Pi Logarithm, Stonesquote and Anonymous: 458
Trailing zero Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trailing_zero?oldid=768712502 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Dcoetzee, Fredrik,
Mfc, Bobo192, Mpatel, SmackBot, Melchoir, Octahedron80, Lambiam, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, BrownHairedGirl, Happy-melon, CR-
Greathouse, Cydebot, JamesAM, Adw2000, Tradernet, VoABot II, David Eppstein, Insanity Incarnate, Coee, Quercus solaris, ClueBot
NG, Viktor.fonic and Anonymous: 11
Unit fraction Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_fraction?oldid=795604196 Contributors: Zundark, XJaM, Zoe, Michael Hardy,
Charles Matthews, Hyacinth, Sabbut, Henrygb, Carnildo, Giftlite, Discospinster, El C, Nobi, HasharBot~enwiki, Gene Nygaard, Ling Kah
Jai, Linas, Marudubshinki, Magister Mathematicae, Josh Parris, Titoxd, Mathbot, Chobot, Rktect, Wknight94, Arthur Rubin, Gesslein,
Melchoir, BiT, Yamaguchi , Jbergquist, Spiritia, CRGreathouse, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, Headbomb, Picus viridis, Nick Number, Win-
Bot, David Eppstein, VolkovBot, Ocolon, Broadbot, SieBot, IdreamofJeanie, ClueBot, Justin W Smith, Palnot, Addbot, AkhtaBot, Tide
rolls, Zorrobot, Luckas-bot, Citation bot, 777sms, ClueBot NG, Wcherowi, Matthiaspaul, Xavier10xavier, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot,
MusikAnimal, Cmckain14, Teddyktchan, Loraof, Johanna, Dggtrcee and Anonymous: 37
User:Earthkingfather/sandbox Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User%3AEarthkingfather/sandbox?oldid=789293480 Contrib-
utors: Earthkingfather
44.6.2 Images
File:012345Pairs.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/012345Pairs.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Con-
tributors: Own work. This is an original work by Melchoir (<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Melchoir' title='User
talk:Melchoir'>talk</a>), which is similar to Fig. 1 of Lichtenberg, Betty Plunkett (November 1972). Zero is an even number. The
Arithmetic Teacher 19 (7): 535538. Original artist: Melchoir
File:AdditionRules.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/AdditionRules.svg License: GFDL Contribu-
tors: Own work Original artist: Ezra Katz
File:Altplus.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/Altplus.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Trans-
ferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Yarnalgo using CommonsHelper. Original artist: Zippanova at English Wikipedia
File:Ambox_globe_content.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg License: Pub-
lic domain Contributors: Own work, using File:Information icon3.svg and File:Earth clip art.svg Original artist: penubag
File:Ambox_important.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Own work based on: Ambox scales.svg Original artist: Dsmurat, penubag
File:Angles_on_the_unit_circle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/Angles_on_the_unit_circle.svg Li-
cense: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: This le was derived from Angles on the unit circle.png: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Angles_on_the_unit_circle.png' class='image'><img alt='Angles on the unit circle.png' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/thumb/3/3f/Angles_on_the_unit_circle.png/50px-Angles_on_the_unit_circle.png' width='50' height='44' srcset='https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Angles_on_the_unit_circle.png/75px-Angles_on_the_unit_circle.png 1.5x, https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Angles_on_the_unit_circle.png/100px-Angles_on_the_unit_circle.png 2x' data-le-width='220'
data-le-height='192' /></a>
Original artist: CheCheDaWa
File:Arithmetic_symbols.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/Arithmetic_symbols.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: This vector image was created with Inkscape by Elembis, and then manually replaced.
File:Aspect-ratio-4x3.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Aspect-ratio-4x3.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: own work, manual SVG coding Original artist: Tanya sanderson
File:Bagua-name-earlier.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Bagua-name-earlier.svg License: CC-
BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
Pakua_with_name.svg Original artist: Pakua_with_name.svg: 2006-09-23T21:16:47Z BenduKiwi 547x547 (101558 Bytes)
File:Binary_clock.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Binary_clock.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Con-
tributors: Own work, based on Wapcaplet's Binary clock.png on the English Wikipedia Original artist: Alexander Jones & Eric Pierce
File:Binary_counter.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/Binary_counter.gif License: CC BY-SA 4.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ephert
File:Cake_fractions.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Cake_fractions.svg License: Public domain

Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-
readable author provided. Acdx assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:Cake_quarters.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/Cake_quarters.svg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: Own work Original artist: Acdx, R. S. Shaw
File:CardContin.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/CardContin.svg License: Public domain Contrib-
utors: en:Image:CardContin.png Original artist: en:User:Trovatore, recreated by User:Stannered
File:Chess_blt45.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/Chess_blt45.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Con-
tributors: This vector image was created with Inkscape. Original artist: en:User:Cburnett
File:Chess_ndt45.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/Chess_ndt45.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Con-
tributors: This vector image was created with Inkscape. Original artist: en:User:Cburnett
File:Chess_xxt45.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Chess_xxt45.svg License: Public domain Con-
tributors:
Chess_xxl45.svg Original artist: Chess_xxl45.svg: en:User:Cburnett
File:Chessboard480.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/Chessboard480.svg License: CC0 Contribu-
tors: Own work Original artist:
File:Chinesische.Zahl.Acht.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/Chinesische.Zahl.Acht.jpg License: CC-
BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ningling
File:Chinesische.Zahl.Drei.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Chinesische.Zahl.Drei.jpg License: CC-
File:Chinesische.Zahl.Eins.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Chinesische.Zahl.Eins.jpg License: CC-
File:Chinesische.Zahl.Fuenf.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/Chinesische.Zahl.Fuenf.jpg License:
CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ningling
File:Chinesische.Zahl.Sechs.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/Chinesische.Zahl.Sechs.jpg License:
CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ningling
File:Chinesische.Zahl.Vier.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Chinesische.Zahl.Vier.jpg License: CC-
File:Chounumerals.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Chounumerals.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Con-
tributors: Own work Original artist: Gisling
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Orig-
inal artist: ?
File:Counting_rod_0.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Counting_rod_0.png License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Takasugi Shinji
File:Counting_rod_h4.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Counting_rod_h4.png License: Public do-
main Contributors: Own work Original artist: Takasugi Shinji
File:Counting_rod_h6.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Counting_rod_h6.png License: Public do-
File:Counting_rod_h9_num.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Counting_rod_h9_num.png License:
Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Takasugi Shinji
File:Counting_rod_v4.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/Counting_rod_v4.png License: Public do-
File:Counting_rod_v6.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Counting_rod_v6.png License: Public do-
File:CubeChart.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/CubeChart.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contribu-
tors: Own work, using Image:Numbers_and_their_cubes.png as model Original artist: Matthew Flaschen ((User:Superm401), based on
work by User:HereToHelp
File:Decimal_multiplication_table.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Decimal_multiplication_table.
JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Gisling
File:Decimal_to_Binary_Conversion.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Decimal_to_Binary_Conversion.
gif License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: SrikanthPs6
File:Desktop_computer_clipart_-_Yellow_theme.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/Desktop_computer_
clipart_-_Yellow_theme.svg License: CC0 Contributors: https://openclipart.org/detail/17924/computer Original artist: AJ from openclipart.org
File:Divide20by4.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Divide20by4.svg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: Own work Original artist: Amirki
File:Edit-clear.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The
Tango! Desktop Project. Original artist:
The people from the Tango! project. And according to the meta-data in the le, specically: Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner
(although minimally).
File:Essay.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/Essay.svg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Image:

Edit-find-replace.svg minus the magnifying glass. Original artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:
Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.
svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.
svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-
width='1050' data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Estela_C_de_Tres_Zapotes.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/Estela_C_de_Tres_Zapotes.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: Japanese wikipedia: w:ja: :Tres Zapotes Stela.C.back.Pt1.JPG Original artist: Sorry, I dont
understand the original text in japanse
File:EvenIntegersSubgroup.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/EvenIntegersSubgroup.svg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work This image is an original creative work with no known graphical inspiration or antecedent.
Original artist: Melchoir
File:EvenOddNumberLine.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/EvenOddNumberLine.svg License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Melchoir
File:Fibonacci_spiral_34.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Fibonacci_spiral_34.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Own work using: Inkscape Original artist: User:Dicklyon
File:Five_Squared.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/Five_Squared.svg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: Indolences Original artist: Indolences
File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-
by-sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:FrobisherZeroParity.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/FrobisherZeroParity.svg License: GFDL
Contributors: Graphics self-made; data from Table 3.3 on page 41 of Frobisher, Len (1999). Primary School Children's Knowledge of
Odd and Even Numbers. in Anthony Orton (ed.). Pattern in the Teaching and Learning of Mathematics. London: Cassell. pp. 3148.
Original artist: Melchoir
File:Gelosia_multiplication_45_256.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/Gelosia_multiplication_45_
256.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Silly rabbit at English
Wikipedia
File:George_Boole_color.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/George_Boole_color.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: http://schools.keldysh.ru/sch444/museum/1_17-19.htm Original artist: Unknown<a href='https://www.wikidata.
org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.
svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Gottfried_Wilhelm_von_Leibniz.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Gottfried_Wilhelm_von_
Leibniz.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: /gbrown/philosophers/leibniz/BritannicaPages/Leibniz/LeibnizGif.html Original artist:
Christoph Bernhard Francke
File:Half_Adder.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Half_Adder.svg License: Public domain Contrib-
utors: Own work Original artist: inductiveload
File:I_love_you_in_Sign_Language_or_the_number_19_in_Finger_Binary.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
2/25/I_love_you_in_Sign_Language_or_the_number_19_in_Finger_Binary.jpg License: CC0 Contributors: Picture Taken
Previously published: None Original artist: [[User:|User:]]
File:Index_finger_2.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Index_finger_2.JPG License: Public domain
Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Than217 at English Wikipedia
File:Khmer_Numerals_-_605_from_the_Sambor_inscriptions.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/
Khmer_Numerals_-_605_from_the_Sambor_inscriptions.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Paxse
File:LSQ_4.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/LSQ_4.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: No
machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided.
Dcbelanger assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:LSQ_5.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/LSQ_5.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own
work Original artist: Dcbelanger
File:LSQ_6.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/LSQ_6.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: No
File:LSQ_8.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/LSQ_8.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: No
File:LSQ_9.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/LSQ_9.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: No
File:LSQ_a.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/LSQ_a.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: No
File:LSQ_i.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/LSQ_i.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: No
machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author pro-
vided. Dcbelanger assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:LSQ_v.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/LSQ_v.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ?

Original artist: ?
File:Least_common_multiple.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/Least_common_multiple.svg License:
GFDL Contributors: en wiki Original artist: Morn
File:Least_common_multiple_chart.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Least_common_multiple_
chart.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Created by Hyacinth (talk) 07:30, 25 March 2013 (UTC) using Sibelius 5. Original
artist: Hyacinth at English Wikipedia
File:Lock-green.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg License: CC0 Contributors: en:
File:Free-to-read_lock_75.svg Original artist: User:Trappist the monk
File:MAYA-g-num-0-inc-v1.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/MAYA-g-num-0-inc-v1.svg License:
CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: own work; based on similar glyph representations in inscriptions & derived font. Original artist: CJLL
Wright
File:Multiplication_Sign.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Multiplication_Sign.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jim.belk
File:Multiplication_algorithm.GIF Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Multiplication_algorithm.GIF Li-
cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Gisling
File:Multiplication_as_scaling_integers.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/Multiplication_as_scaling_
integers.gif License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Kie
File:Multiplication_chart.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/Multiplication_chart.svg License: CC0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Krishnavedala
File:Multiplication_scheme_4_by_5.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/Multiplication_scheme_4_
by_5.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by glavkos. Original artist: Majopius at
English Wikipedia
File:Multiply_4_bags_3_marbles.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Multiply_4_bags_3_marbles.svg
License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dmcq
File:Multiply_field_fract.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Multiply_field_fract.svg License: CC BY-
SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dmcq
File:Multiply_scaling.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Multiply_scaling.svg License: CC BY-SA
4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dmcq
File:Nicolas_P._Rougier'{}s_rendering_of_the_human_brain.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/
Nicolas_P._Rougier%27s_rendering_of_the_human_brain.png License: GPL Contributors: http://www.loria.fr/~{}rougier Original artist:
Nicolas Rougier
File:Nicomachus_theorem_3D.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Nicomachus_theorem_3D.svg Li-
cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Cmglee
File:Nuerk_figure_4_bare.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Nuerk_figure_4_bare.svg License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Melchoir
File:Number-line.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Number-line.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Own
work Original artist: Hakunamenta
File:Numeral_Systems_of_the_World.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Numeral_Systems_of_the_
World.svg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Psiedelisto
File:Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Nuvola_apps_edu_
mathematics_blue-p.svg License: GPL Contributors: Derivative work from Image:Nuvola apps edu mathematics.png and Image:Nuvola
apps edu mathematics-p.svg Original artist: David Vignoni (original icon); Flamurai (SVG convertion); bayo (color)
File:Oudjat.SVG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/Oudjat.SVG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:P._Lund,_Inv._35a.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/P._Lund%2C_Inv._35a.jpg License: Pub-
lic domain Contributors: Scanned from The Exact Sciences in Antiquity by O. Neugenbauer Original artist: Original author unknown
File:Parabola2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Parabola2.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
Own work Original artist: LennyWikidata
File:Parity_of_5_and_6_Cuisenaire_rods.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Parity_of_5_and_6_
Cuisenaire_rods.png License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Hyacinth
File:Percent_18e.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Percent_18e.svg License: Public domain Contrib-
utors: Created with the DejaVu Sans font and Inkscape. Original artist: Farmer Jan and bdesham
File:PlusMinus.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/PlusMinus.svg License: Public domain Contribu-
tors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author
provided. MarianSigler assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:Plus_Minus_Hyphen-minus.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/Plus_Minus_Hyphen-minus.svg
License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: GJo
File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
? Original artist: ?
File:Qinghuajian,_Suan_Biao.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Qinghuajian%2C_Suan_Biao.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: http://news.xinhuanet.com/tech/2014-01/08/c_125970946.htm Original artist: People from War-
ring States Period (476-221 BC)
File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0

Contributors:
Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist:
Tkgd2007
File:RecursiveEven.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/RecursiveEven.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Melchoir
File:RecursiveEvenBipartite.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/RecursiveEvenBipartite.svg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work The construction is described in the proof Theorem 3.5, A connected graph is bipartite if and
only if it contains no cycle of odd length., on pages 53-54 of Anderson, Ian (2001). A First Course in Discrete Mathematics. London:
Springer. p. 53. ISBN 1-85233-236-0. Figure 3.9 on page 53 depicts some bipartite graphs. This image, RecursiveEvenBipartite.svg,
diers from Anderson in that it uses a dierent graph, it uses colors instead of the letters B/W, and it labels the vertices by distance as in
the algorithm. Original artist: Melchoir
File:RecursiveEvenPolygon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/RecursiveEvenPolygon.svg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work. The algorithm is described at Wise, Stephen (2002). GIS Basics. CRC Press. pp. 6667. ISBN
0415246512. That source depicts the algorithm in Figure 4.6 on page 67, which is similar in spirit but does not use color or numerical
labels. Original artist: Melchoir
File:Rod_fraction.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Rod_fraction.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contrib-
utors: Own work Original artist: Gisling
File:Rubik'{}s_cube_v3.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Rubik%27s_cube_v3.svg License: CC-
BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Image:Rubik'{}s cube v2.svg Original artist: User:Booyabazooka, User:Meph666 modied by User:Niabot
File:Rubiks_revenge_solved.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Rubiks_revenge_solved.jpg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Work by Mike Gonzalez (TheCoee) Original artist: Mike Gonzalez (TheCoee)
File:Scale_of_justice_2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/Scale_of_justice_2.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Own work Original artist: DTR
File:Signum_function.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Signum_function.svg License: CC-BY-SA-
3.0 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-
readable author provided. Cronholm144 assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:Sound-icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Sound-icon.svg License: LGPL Contributors: Deriva-
tive work from Silsor's versio Original artist: Crystal SVG icon set
File:Square_number_1.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Square_number_1.png License: Public do-
main Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Square_number_16.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Square_number_16.png License: Public
domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Square_number_25.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Square_number_25.png License: Public
domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Square_number_4.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Square_number_4.png License: Public do-
File:Square_number_9.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Square_number_9.png License: Public do-
File:Stevin-decimal_notation.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Stevin-decimal_notation.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Patrick87
File:Sum_of_cubes2.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/Sum_of_cubes2.png License: CC-BY-SA-
3.0 Contributors: Own work (Original text: self-made) Original artist: Gandalf61 15:36, 27 April 2007 (UTC)
File:Symbol_book_class2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Symbol_book_class2.svg License: CC
BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Mad by Lokal_Prol by combining: Original artist: Lokal_Prol
File:Symbol_divide_vote.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Symbol_divide_vote.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-
readable author provided. Bastique assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:Symbol_multiplication_vote.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/Symbol_multiplication_vote.svg
License: Public domain Contributors: File:Symbol support2 vote.svg Original artist: TomasBat, Rogilbert, Zscout370
File:Symbol_oppose_vote.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/Symbol_oppose_vote.svg License: Pub-
lic domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Symbol_support_vote.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg License: Public do-
File:Symmetrical_5-set_Venn_diagram_LCM_2_3_4_5_7.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Symmetrical_
5-set_Venn_diagram_LCM_2_3_4_5_7.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Cmglee
File:Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Text_document_
with_red_question_mark.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Created by bdesham with Inkscape; based upon Text-x-generic.svg
from the Tango project. Original artist: Benjamin D. Esham (bdesham)
File:Text_figures_036.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Text_figures_036.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Skalman
File:Thumbs_up.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Thumbs_up.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Con-
tributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable
author provided. Dbenbenn assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:Tri_prsta.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Tri_prsta.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:

Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Smooth_O using CommonsHelper. Original artist: The original uploader was Zscout370
at English Wikipedia
File:Two_hand,_ten_fingers.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Two_hand%2C_ten_fingers.jpg Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Maher27777
File:US_Navy_070317-N-3642E-379_During_the_warmest_part_of_the_day,_a_thermometer_outside_of_the_Applied_Physics_
Laboratory_Ice_Station'{}s_(APLIS)_mess_tent_still_does_not_break_out_of_the_sub-freezing_temperatures.jpg Source: https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/US_Navy_070317-N-3642E-379_During_the_warmest_part_of_the_day%2C_a_thermometer_
outside_of_the_Applied_Physics_Laboratory_Ice_Station%27s_%28APLIS%29_mess_tent_still_does_not_break_out_of_the_sub-freezing_
temperatures.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
This Image was released by the United States Navy with the ID 070317-N-3642E-379 <a class='external text' href='//commons.wikimedia.
org/w/index.php?title=Category:Files_created_by_the_United_States_Navy_with_known_IDs,<span>,&,</span>,lefrom=070317-N-3642E-
379#mw-category-media'>(next)</a>.
This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.
Original artist: U.S. Navy photo by Chief Mass Communication Specialist Shawn P. Eklund
File:Urdu_numeral_zero.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/Urdu_numeral_zero.svg License: CC BY-
SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Syed Wamiq Ahmed Hashmi
File:VFPt_dipole_electric.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/VFPt_dipole_electric.svg License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Geek3
File:Visualisation_parts_per.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/Visualisation_parts_per.svg License:
CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Cmglee
File:Web-browser_usage_on_Wikimedia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/Web-browser_usage_
on_Wikimedia.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Joliv
File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg License:
CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: This le was derived from Wiki letter w.svg: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w.
svg' class='image'><img alt='Wiki letter w.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/
50px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png' width='50' height='50' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_
w.svg/75px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/100px-Wiki_
letter_w.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='44' data-le-height='44' /></a>
Original artist: Derivative work by Thumperward
File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rei-artur
File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg License:
CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:X_cubed_plot.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/X_cubed_plot.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Con-
tributors: Original version self-made using gnuplot. Present version HandSVG Original artist: Qualc1
File:Zero_in_Rod_Calculus.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Zero_in_Rod_Calculus.png License:
Public domain Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No
machine-readable author provided. Ninthabout assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:Zonenplatte_Cosinus.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/Zonenplatte_Cosinus.png License: CC-
BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Home brewed picture Original artist: Georg Wiora (Dr. Schorsch)
44.6.3 Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0

Critical Point (Set Theory)

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Critical Point (Set Theory)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Elementary arithmetic

1.1.1 Modern usage

1.2.1 Ancient Near East

1.2.2 Pre-Columbian Americas

1.2.3 Classical antiquity

1.2.5 India and Southeast Asia

1.2.6 Middle Ages

Transmission to Islamic culture

See also: History of the HinduArabic numeral system

1.3.1 Elementary algebra

1.3.2 Other branches of mathematics

In propositional logic, 0 may be used to denote the truth value false.

In lattice theory, 0 may denote the bottom element of a bounded lattice.

In category theory, 0 is sometimes used to denote an initial object of a category.

1.3.3 Related mathematical terms

1.6 Computer science

1.7 Other elds

1.8 Symbols and representations

1.9 Year label

1.10 See also

Zeroth (zero as an ordinal number)

[5] aught at etymonline.com

[8] Zero, Merriam Webster online Dictionary

[10] 'Aught' denition, Dictionary.com Retrieved April 2013.

[11] 'Aught' synonyms, Thesaurus.com Retrieved April 2013.

[14] Diehl, p. 186

[26] Math for Poets and Drummers (pdf). people.sju.edu.

[28] Ifrah, Georges (2000), p. 416.

[30] Aryabhatiya of Aryabhata, translated by Walter Eugene Clark.

[37] Ifrah, Georges (2000), p. 400.

[49] Chris Woodford 2006, p. 9.

Barrow, John D. (2001) The Book of Nothing, Vintage. ISBN 0-09-928845-1.

Chris Woodford (2006), Digital Technology, Evans Brothers, ISBN 978-02-3752-725-9

1.14 External links

The History of Algebra

Zero on In Our Time at the BBC.

Weisstein, Eric W. 0. MathWorld.

Not to be confused with allegation.

2.1.1 Alligation medial

2.1.2 Alligation alternate

2.3 External links

Arithmetic for Parents

[2] Bogomolny, Alexander, Review of Arithmetic for Parents", Cut-the-Knot.

See also: Ancient Egyptian mathematics

Arithmetic values represented by parts of the Eye of Horus

4.1.4 Other cultures

4.1.5 Western predecessors to Leibniz

4.1.6 Leibniz and the I Ching

4.1.7 Later developments

100101 binary (explicit statement of format)

100101B (a sux indicating binary format)

bin 100101 (a prex indicating binary format)

1001012 (a subscript indicating base-2 (binary) notation)

0b100101 (a prex indicating binary format, common in programming languages)

4.3 Counting in binary

4.3.1 Decimal counting

010, 011, 012, ...

100, 101, 102, ...

4.3.2 Binary counting

4.5 Binary arithmetic

Main article: binary adder

using a form of carrying:

5 + 5 0, carry 1 (since 5 + 5 = 10 = 0 + (1 101 ) )

Long carry method